UNIT -1

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK

Communication :- the act or process of using words, sounds, signs, or behaviors to express or exchange
information, message, instructions or to express your ideas, thoughts.

Data communications:- refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers and
a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange
data. The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable
media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Communications device: - is any machine that assists data transmission. For example, modems, cables,
and ports are all communications devices.

Communications software:- Communication software is an application or program designed to pass

information from one system to another. Such software provides remote access to systems and transmits
files in a multitude of formats between computers. Communication software forms a part of
communication systems with software components.

Types of Computer Communication

There are many methods of communication available to those on modern computers, given a connection to
the Internet. Most common is email, short for "electronic mail," but there are also SMS chat, IRC chat,
video chat, VoIP phones, social networks, discussion forums and newsgroups. All are ways people
communicate with one another using a computer.

Signals

In the fields of communications and signal processing more generally, a signal is any time-varying or spatial-
varying quantity. In a communication system, a transmitter encodes a message into a signal, which is
carried to a receiver by the communications channel. For example, the words "Hello Everybody" might be
the message spoken into a telephone. The telephone transmitter converts the sounds into an electrical
voltage signal. The signal is transmitted to the receiving telephone by wires; and at the receiver it is
reconverted into sounds.
Data :-Computer data is information processed or stored by a computer. This information may be in the
form of text documents, images, audio clips, software programs, or other types of data. Computer data
may be processed by the computer's CPU and is stored in files and folders on the computer's disk. At its
most rudimentary level, computer data is a bunch of ones and zeros, known as binary data. Because all
computer data is in binary format, it can be created, processed, saved, and stored digitally.

Difference between Data and Signal

Data:- usually refers to raw data, or unprocessed data. It is the basic form of data, data that hasn’t been
analyzed or processed in any manner. Once the data is analyzed, it is considered as information.
Signal:-In order for data to be transferred electronically, it must first be converted into electromagnetic
signals. The signal can then be used to transfer data from one device to another device. The signal can be
either analog or digital in nature.

Data transmission:-is the process of sending digital or analog data over a communication medium to one or
more computing, network, communication or electronic devices. It enables the transfer and
communication of devices in a point-to-point, point-to-multipoint and multipoint-to-multipoint
environment.

Data transmission is also known as digital transmission or digital communications.

Modes of data transmission

There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according to the direction of the exchanges:
 A simplex connection is a connection in which the data flows in only one direction, from the transmitter to the
receiver. This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to flow in both directions (for example, from
your computer to the printer or from the mouse to your computer...).

 A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating connection or semi-duplex) is a connection in which

the data flows in one direction or the other, but not both at the same time. With this type of connection, each end
of the connection transmits in turn. This type of connection makes it possible to have bidirectional
communications using the full capacity of the line.

 A full-duplex connection is a connection in which the data flow in both directions simultaneously. Each end of the
line can thus transmit and receive at the same time, which means that the bandwidth is divided in two for each
direction of data transmission if the same transmission medium is used for both directions of transmission.
 Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving data.

Serial and parallel transmission

The transmission mode refers to the number of elementary units of information (bits) that can be simultaneously
translated by the communications channel. In fact, processors (and therefore computers in general) never process (in
the case of recent processors) a single bit at a time; generally they are able to process several (most of the time it is 8:
one byte), and for this reason the basic connections on a computer are parallel connections.

Parallel connection

Parallel connection means simultaneous transmission of N bits. These bits are sent simultaneously over N different
channels (a channel being, for example, a wire, a cable or any other physical medium). The parallel connection on
PC-type computers generally requires 10 wires.
These channels may be:
 N physical lines: in which case each bit is sent on a physical line (which is why parallel cables are made up of
several wires in a ribbon cable)
 one physical line divided into several sub-channels by dividing up the bandwidth. In this case, each bit is sent at a
different frequency...

Since the conductive wires are close to each other in the ribbon cable, interference can occur (particularly at high
speeds) and degrade the signal quality...

Serial connection

In a serial connection, the data are sent one bit at a time over the transmission channel. However, since most
processors process data in parallel, the transmitter needs to transform incoming parallel data into serial data and the
receiver needs to do the opposite.

These operations are performed by a communications controller (normally a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver
Transmitter) chip). The communications controller works in the following manner:
 The parallel-serial transformation is performed using a shift register. The shift register, working together with a
clock, will shift the register (containing all of the data presented in parallel) by one position to the left, and then
transmit the most significant bit (the leftmost one) and so on:
 The serial-parallel transformation is done in almost the same way using a shift register. The shift register shifts
the register by one position to the left each time a bit is received, and then transmits the entire register in parallel
when it is full:

Synchronous and asynchronous transmission

Given the problems that arise with a parallel-type connection, serial connections are normally used. However, since a
single wire transports the information, the problem is how to synchronize the transmitter and receiver, in other
words, the receiver can not necessarily distinguish the characters (or more generally the bit sequences) because the
bits are sent one after the other. There are two types of transmission that address this problem:
 An asynchronous connection, in which each character is sent at irregular intervals in time (for example a user
sending characters entered at the keyboard in real time). So, for example, imagine that a single bit is transmitted
during a long period of silence... the receiver will not be able to know if this is 00010000, 10000000 or 00000100...

To remedy this problem, each character is preceded by some information indicating the start of character
transmission (the transmission start information is called a START bit) and ends by sending end-of-transmission
information (called STOP bit, there may even be several STOP bits).

 In a synchronous connection, the transmitter and receiver are paced by the same clock. The receiver continuously
receives (even when no bits are transmitted) the information at the same rate the transmitter send it. This is why
the transmitter and receiver are paced at the same speed. In addition, supplementary information is inserted to
guarantee that there are no errors during transmission.

During synchronous transmission, the bits are sent successively with no separation between each
character, so it is necessary to insert synchronization elements; this is called character-level
synchronization.
The main disadvantage of synchronous transmission is recognising the data at the receiver, as there may be
differences between the transmitter and receiver clocks. That is why each data transmission must be
sustained long enough for the receiver to distinguish it. As a result, the transmission speed can not be very
high in a synchronous link.
Circuit

A circuit is a path between two or more points along which an electrical current flows. In data
communication, we may consider a circuit as a specific path between two or more points along which
signals can be carried. The signals may be analog, binary or digital. The circuit may be a physical path
consisting of one or more wires. It may also be wireless. A network which may be wired or wifeless is an
arrangement of circuits consisting of a number of intermediate switches. A circuit maybe classified based
upon its uses.

channel
channel is a communication medium, the path that data takes from source to destination. A channel can be
comprised of so many different things: wires, free space, and entire networks. Signals can be routed from one type of
network to another network with completely different characteristics

In information technology, the term channel is used in a number of ways.

1) In telecommunications in general, a channel is a separate path through which signals can flow.

2) In the public switched telephone network (PSTN), a channel is one of multiple transmission paths within a single
link between network points.

3) In radio and television, a channel is a separate incoming signal or program source that a user can select.

4) In optical fiber transmission using dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM), a channel is a separate
wavelength of light within a combined, multiplexed light stream.

5) On the World Wide Web, a channel is a preselected Web site that can automatically send updated information for
immediate display or viewing on request. See push technology.

6) In computer and Internet marketing, a channel is a "middleman" between a product creator and the marketplace.
Value-added resellers (VAR) and retail store chains are examples of channels in this context.

7) Using Internet Relay Chat, a channel is a specific chat group.

Multichannel communications
It is all about using available technology to ensure your target audience is presented with information or the ability to
react to information across multiple channels. Customers expect to receive personalized, relevant communications
that capture their attention despite their busy schedule. And, they are more likely to react to your message if it is
delivered via their preferred media. In practice this involves sending the right message, at the right time, via the right
channel.
Multichannel communications is more of an operational approach, and enables customers to complete transactions
using different channels. Omni channel communications however, views the experience through the customers’ eyes
and manages the customer experience across all channels so that it is seamless, integrated and consistent. This
synchronized approach presents a single face to the customer and a consistent way of communicating. In other words
Omni channel is Multichannel done professionally.

Signaling
Signaling is the use of signals for controlling communications or process of sending of a signal from the transmitting
end of a telecommunication circuit to inform a user at the receiving end that a message is to be sent.

Signaling systems may be classified based on several principal characteristics.

Types of signaling

1. In-band and out-of-band signaling

2. Line versus register signaling
3. Channel-associated versus common-channel signaling
4. Compelled signaling
5. Subscriber versus trunk signaling

Encoding &Decoding

The communication process is basically depends on the following

1. Encoding &
2. Decoding

Encoding
Encoding is the process of converting data into a format required for a number of information processing
needs, including:

 Program compiling and execution

 Data transmission, storage and compression/decompression
 Application data processing, such as file conversion

Encoding involves the use of a code to change original data into a form that can be used by an external
process.

The type of code used for converting characters is known as American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII), the most commonly used encoding scheme for files that contain text. ASCII contains
printable and nonprintable characters that represent uppercase and lowercase letters, symbols,
punctuation marks and numbers. A unique number is assigned to some characters. Meaning.

Decoding
Decoding is the process of converting code into plain text or any format that is useful for subsequent
processes. Decoding is the reverse of encoding. It converts encoded data communication transmissions and
files to their original states.

Difference between Encoding and Decoding

Encoding means the creation of a messages (which you want to communicate with other person). On the
other hand decoding means listener or audience of encoded message. So decoding means interpreting the
meaning of the message. For example a breakfast cereal company want to convey their message to you to
buy its product. They will create an ad for the purposes and you will see or hear it on tv, radio or other
social media. You will interpret and understand the message, what just been said.

Error Detection and correction

What is Error?
Error is a condition when the output information does not match with the input information. During
transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors in the binary bits travelling
from one system to other. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.

Error-Detecting codes
Whenever a message is transmitted, it may get scrambled by noise or data may get corrupted. To
avoid this, we use error-detecting codes which are additional data added to a given digital message to
help us detect if an error occurred during transmission of the message. A simple example of error-
detecting code is parity check.

Error-Correcting codes
Along with error-detecting code, we can also pass some data to figure out the original message from
the corrupt message that we received. This type of code is called an error-correcting code. Error-
correcting codes also deploy the same strategy as error-detecting codes but additionally, such codes
also detect the exact location of the corrupt bit.

In error-correcting codes, parity check has a simple way to detect errors along with a sophisticated
mechanism to determine the corrupt bit location. Once the corrupt bit is located, its value is reverted
(from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0) to get the original message.

How to Detect and Correct Errors?

To detect and correct the errors, additional bits are added to the data bits at the time of transmission.

 The additional bits are called parity bits. They allow detection or correction of the errors.

 The data bits along with the parity bits form a code word.

Parity Checking of Error Detection

It is the simplest technique for detecting and correcting errors. The MSB of an 8-bits word is used as
the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as data or message bits. The parity of 8-bits
transmitted word can be either even parity or odd parity.

Even parity -- Even parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit should be
even (2,4,6,....).

Odd parity -- Odd parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit should be
odd (1,3,5,....).

Use of Parity Bit

The parity bit can be set to 0 and 1 depending on the type of the parity required.
  For even parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is even. Shown in fig.
(a).

 For odd parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is odd. Shown in fig. (b).

How Does Error Detection Take Place?

Parity checking at the receiver can detect the presence of an error if the parity of the receiver signal is
different from the expected parity. That means, if it is known that the parity of the transmitted signal
is always going to be "even" and if the received signal has an odd parity, then the receiver can
conclude that the received signal is not correct. If an error is detected, then the receiver will ignore
the received byte and request for retransmission of the same byte to the transmitter.

Flow Control
Flow Control is one important design issue for the Data Link Layer that controls the flow of data
between sender and receiver.
In Communication, there is communication medium between sender and receiver. When Sender
sends data to receiver than there can be problem in below case :
1) Sender sends data at higher rate and receive is too sluggish to support that data rate.
To solve the above problem, FLOW CONTROL is introduced in Data Link Layer. It also works on
several higher layers. The main concept of Flow Control is to introduce EFFICIENCY in Computer
Networks.
Approaches of Flow Control
a. Feed back based Flow Control
 b. Rate based Flow Control
Feed back based Flow Control
Feed back based Flow Control is used in Data Link Layer and Rate based Flow Control is used in
Network Layer.
In Feed back based Flow Control, Until sender receives feedback from the receiver, it will not send
next data.
Types of Feedback based Flow Control
A. Stop-and-Wait Protocol
B. Sliding Window Protocol
1) A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol
2) A Protocol Using Go Back N
3) A Protocol Using Selective Repeat
A. Stop-and-Wait Protocol(Simplex)
In this Protocol we have taken the following assumptions:
1) It provides unidirectional flow of data from sender to receiver.
2) The Communication channel is assumed to be error free.
In this Protocol the Sender simply sends data and waits for the acknowledgment from Receiver. That's
why it is called Stop-and-Wait Protocol.
This type is not so much efficient, but it is simplest way of Flow Control.
In this scheme we take Communication Channel error free, but if the Channel has some errors than
receiver is not able to get the correct data from sender so it will not possible for sender to send the
next data (because it will not get acknowledge from receiver). So it will end the communication, to
solve this problem there are two new concepts were introduced.
TIMER, if sender was not able to get acknowledgment in the particular time than, it sends the buffered data once
again to receiver. When sender starts to send the data, it starts timer.

SEQUENCE NUMBER, from this the sender sends the data with the specific sequence number so after
receiving the data, receiver sends the data with that sequence number, and here at sender side it also
expect the acknowledgment of the same sequence number.
This type of scheme is called Positive Acknowledgment with Retransmission (PAR).
B. Sliding Window Protocol
In sliding window method, multiple frames are sent by sender at a time before needing an
acknowledgment.
• Multiple frames sent by source are acknowledged by receiver using a single ACK frame.
Sliding Window
• Sliding window refers to an imaginary boxes that hold the frames on both sender and receiver side.
• It provides the upper limit on the number of frames that can be transmitted before requiring an
acknowledgment.
• Frames may be acknowledged by receiver at any point even when window is not full on receiver
side.
• Frames may be transmitted by source even when window is not yet full on sender side.
• The windows have a specific size in which the frames are numbered modulo- n, which means they
are numbered from 0 to n-l. For e.g. if n = 8, the frames are numbered 0, 1,2,3,4,5,6, 7, 0, 1,2,3,4,5,6,
7, 0, 1, ....
• The size of window is n-1. For e.g. In this case it is 7. Therefore, a maximum of n-l frames may be
sent before an acknowledgment.
• When the receiver sends an ACK, it includes the number of next frame it expects to receive. For
example in order to acknowledge the group of frames ending in frame 4, the receiver sends an ACK
containing the number 5. When sender sees an ACK with number 5, it comes to know that all the
frames up to number 4 have been received.

Sliding Window on Sender Side

• At the beginning of a transmission, the sender's window contains n-l frames.
• As the frames are sent by source, the left boundary of the window moves inward, shrinking the size
of window. This means if window size is w, if four frames are sent by source after the last
acknowledgment, then the number of frames left in window is w-4.
• When the receiver sends an ACK, the source's window expand i.e. (right boundary moves outward)
to allow in a number of new frames equal to the number of frames acknowledged by that ACK.
• For example, Let the window size is 7 (see diagram (a)), if frames 0 through 3 have been sent and no
acknowledgment has been received, then the sender's window contains three frames - 4,5,6.
• Now, if an ACK numbered 3 is received by source, it means three frames (0, 1, 2) have been received
by receiver and are undamaged.
• The sender's window will now expand to include the next three frames in its buffer. At this point the
sender's window will contain six frames (4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1). (See diagram (b)).
Sliding Window on Receiver Side
• At the beginning of transmission, the receiver's window contains n-1 spaces for frame but not the
frames.
• As the new frames come in, the size of window shrinks.
• Therefore the receiver window represents not the number of frames received but the number of
frames that may still be received without an acknowledgment ACK must be sent.
• Given a window of size w, if three frames are received without an ACK being returned, the number
of spaces in a window is w-3.
• As soon as acknowledgment is sent, window expands to include the number of frames equal to the
number of frames acknowledged.
• For example, let the size of receiver's window is 7 as shown in diagram. It means window contains
spaces for 7 frames.
• With the arrival of the first frame, the receiving window shrinks, moving the boundary from space 0
to 1. Now, window has shrunk by one, so the receiver may accept six more frame before it is required
to send an ACK.
• If frames 0 through 3 have arrived but have DOC been acknowledged, the window will contain three
frame spaces.
• As receiver sends an ACK, the window of the receiver expands to include as many new placeholders
as newly acknowledged frames.
• The window expands to include a number of new frame spaces equal to the number of the most
recently acknowledged frame minus the number of previously acknowledged frame. For e.g., If
window size is 7 and if prior ACK was for frame 2 & the current ACK is for frame 5 the window expands
by three (5-2).

• Therefore, the sliding window of sender shrinks from left when frames of data are sending. The
sliding window of the sender expands to right when acknowledgments are received.
• The sliding window of the receiver shrinks from left when frames of data are received. The sliding
window of the receiver expands to the right when acknowledgement is sent.

Congestion Management

Congestion in a network may occur when users send data at a rate greater than that are acceptable by
network resources. For example, congestion may occur because the switches in a network have a
limited buffer size of memory to store packets for processing.
Congestion management is the process of controlling congestion by determining the order in which
packets are transmitted out, based on priorities assigned to those packets. Congestion management
deals with the creation of queues based on the packets classification, and scheduling of the packets in
the queue for transmission.
During periods with light traffic, that is, when no congestion exists, packets are transmitted out as
soon as they arrive. During periods of heavy traffic, packets arrive faster than the interface can
transmit them. If you use congestion management features, packets accumulating at the interface are
queued until the interface is free to transmit them; they are then scheduled for transmission
according to their assigned priority and the queuing mechanism configured for the interface. The
router determines the order of packet transmission by controlling which packets are placed in which
queue and how queues are serviced with respect to each other. There are four types of queuing
protocols. These are:
(a) First-In, First-Out Queuing (FIFOQ)
In FIFO queuing, there no concept of priority or classes of traffic. The transmitted of packets occurs in
the order the packets arrive.
(b) Priority Queuing (PQ)
With PQ, packets belonging to one priority class of traffic are transmitted before all lower priority
traffic. This ensures timely delivery of more important packets.
(c) Custom Queuing (CQ)
With CQ, bandwidth is allocated proportionally to each class of traffic. CQ allows you to specify the
number of bytes or packets to be drown from the queue, which is especially useful on slow interfaces.
(d) Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ)
WFQ offers dynamic, fair queuing that divides bandwidth across queues of traffic based on the
packet’s weights. Because of its fair handling of bandwidth, WFQ ensures satisfactory response time
to critical applications, such as interactive, transaction-based applications, that are intolerant of
performance degradation.
When no other queuing strategies are configured, interfaces use FIFO by default.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of transmission can be
simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing divides the high capacity medium into low
capacity logical medium which is then shared by different streams.

Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable), and light
(optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.

When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides the
physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other end of communication, a De-multiplexer
receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different receivers.

Types of Multiplexing

1. FDM
2. TDM
3. WDM
4. CDM

Frequency Division Multiplexing

When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology. FDM divides the spectrum
or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each channel. Each user can use the
channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All channels are divided in such a way
that they do not overlap with each other. Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard band is a
frequency which is not used by either channel.
Time Division Multiplexing
TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well. In TDM the shared
channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can transmit data within the provided time
slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be
transmitted in given time slot.

TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are timely synchronized and
both switch to next channel simultaneously.

When channel A transmits its frame at one end,the De-multiplexer provides media to channel A on the other
end.As soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel B. On the other end, the De-
multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides media to channel B. Signals from different channels
travel the path in interleaved manner.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are multiplexed into
an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog multiplexing technique and is done
conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as signals.
Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be incorporated to accommodate more
data signals.

Code Division Multiplexing

Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency by using Code Division Multiplexing. FDM
divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows its users to full bandwidth and transmit signals all the
time using a unique code. CDM uses orthogonal codes to spread signals.

Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals travel with these codes independently, inside
the whole bandwidth. The receiver knows in advance the chip code signal it has to receive.

Modulation
Modulation is a process through which audio, video, image or text information is added to an electrical or
optical carrier signal to be transmitted over a telecommunication or electronic medium. Modulation enables
the transfer of information on an electrical signal to a receiving device that demodulates the signal to extract
the blended information.

Modulation is primarily used in telecommunication technologies that require the transmission of data via
electrical signals. Modulation is achieved by altering the periodic waveform or the carrier.

Spread Spectrum Modulation

A collective class of signaling techniques are employed before transmitting a signal to provide a secure
communication, known as the Spread Spectrum Modulation. The main advantage of spread spectrum
communication technique is to prevent “interference” whether it is intentional or unintentional.

The signals modulated with these techniques are hard to interfere and cannot be jammed. An intruder with no
official access is never allowed to crack them. Hence, these techniques are used for military purposes. These
spread spectrum signals transmit at low power density and has a wide spread of signals.

Pseudo-Noise Sequence
A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with certain auto-correlation properties, called as Pseudo-Noise coding
sequence is used in spread spectrum techniques. It is a maximum-length sequence, which is a type of cyclic
code.

Narrow-band and Spread-spectrum Signals

Both the Narrow band and Spread spectrum signals can be understood easily by observing their
frequency spectrum as shown in the following figures.

Narrow-band Signals
The Narrow-band signals have the signal strength concentrated as shown in the following frequency
spectrum figure.

Following are some of its features −

 Band of signals occupy a narrow range of frequencies.

 Power density is high.

 Spread of energy is low and concentrated.

Though the features are good, these signals are prone to interference.

Spread Spectrum Signals

The spread spectrum signals have the signal strength distributed as shown in the following frequency
spectrum figure.
Following are some of its features −

 Band of signals occupy a wide range of frequencies.

 Power density is very low.

 Energy is wide spread.

With these features, the spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to interference or jamming. Since multiple
users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering with one another, these can be
called as multiple access techniques.

FHSS and DSSS / CDMA

Spread spectrum multiple access techniques uses signals which have a transmission bandwidth of a magnitude
greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.

These are of two types.

 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the frequencies of usage, from one
to another in a specified time interval, hence calledas frequency hopping. For example, a frequency was
allotted to sender 1 for a particular period of time. Now, after a while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency
and sender 2 uses the first frequency, which was previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.

The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a secure transmission. The
amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called as Dwell time.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and every bit of the user data is multiplied
by a secret code, called as chipping code. This chipping code is nothing but the spreading code which is
multiplied with the original message and transmitted. The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original
message.

Comparison between FHSS and DSSS/CDMA

Both the spread spectrum techniques are popular for their characteristics. To have a clear
understanding, let us take a look at their comparisons.

FHSS DSSS / CDMA

Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user’s frequency at any instant of User frequency, once allotted is always the same
time

Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed

Sender need not wait Sender has to wait if the spectrum is busy

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low

Stronger and penetrates through the obstacles It is weaker compared to FHSS

It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference

It is cheaper It is expensive

This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used

Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Following are the advantages of spread spectrum −

 Cross-talk elimination0
 Better output with data integrity
 Reduced effect of multipath fading
 Better security
 Reduction in noise
 Co-existence with other systems
 Longer operative distances
 Hard to detect
  Not easy to demodulate/decode
 Difficult to jam the signals
Although spread spectrum techniques were originally designed for military uses, they are now being used
widely for commercial purpose.

a carrier signal that varies in accordance with the message signal. Modulation technique is used to
change the signal characteristics. Basically, the modulation is of following two types:

Modulation Techniques

 Analog Modulation
 Digital Modulation

Analog Modulation

In analog modulation, analog signal (sinusoidal signal) is used as a carrier signal that modulates the
message signal or data signal. The general function Sinusoidal wave’s is shown in the figure below, in
which, three parameters can be altered to get modulation – they are amplitude, frequency and phase;
so, the types of analog modulation are:

Analog Modulation

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

  Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM)

Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation was developed in the beginning of the 20th century. It was the earliest
modulation technique used to transmit voice by radio. This type of modulation technique is used in
electronic communication. In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance
with the message signal, and other factors like phase and frequency remain constant.

The modulated signal is shown in the below figure, and its spectrum consists of the lower frequency
band, upper frequency band and carrier frequency components. This type of modulation requires more
power and greater bandwidth; filtering is very difficult. Amplitude modulation is used in computer
modems, VHF aircraft radio, and in portable two-way radio

Frequency Modulation

In this type of modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the message
signal, and other parameters like amplitude and phase remain constant. Frequency modulation is used
in different applications like radar, radio and telemetry, seismic prospecting and monitoring newborns
for seizures via EEG, etc.

This type of modulation is commonly used for broadcasting music and speech, magnetic tape recording
systems, two way radio systems and video transmission systems. When noise occurs naturally in radio
systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling the
noise.

Phase Modulation

In this type of modulation, the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the message signal.
When the phase of the signal is changed, then it affects the frequency. So, for this reason, this
modulation is also comes under the frequency modulation.

Generally, phase modulation is used for transmitting waves. It is an essential part of many digital
transmission coding schemes that underlie a wide range of technologies like GSM, WiFi, and satellite
television. This type of modulation is used for signal generation in al synthesizers, such as the Yamaha
DX7 to implement FM synthesis.
 Types of Analog Modulation

Therefore, Analog modulation includes AM, FM and PM and these are more sensitive to noise. If noise
enters into a system, it persists and gets carried up to the end receiver. So, this drawback can be
overcome by the digital modulation technique.

Digital Modulation

For a better quality and efficient communication, digital modulation technique is employed. The main
advantages of the digital modulation over analog modulation include available bandwidth , high noise
immunity and permissible power. In digital modulation, a message signal is converted from analog to
digital message, and then modulated by using a carrier wave.

Digital Modulation

The carrier wave is switched on and off to create pulses such that the signal is modulated. Similar to
the analog, in this system, the type of the digital modulation is decided by the variation of the carrier
wave parameters like amplitude, phase and frequency.

The most important digital modulation techniques are based on keying such as
Amplitude Shift Keying, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying, Differential Phase Shift Keying,
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, Minimum Shift Keying, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying,
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, etc., as shown in the figure.

In an Amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier wave changes based on the message signal or
on the base-band signal, which is in digital format. It is sensitive to noise and used for low-band
requirements.

In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier wave is varied for each symbol in the digital data.
It needs larger bandwidths as shown in the figure. Similarly, the phase shift keying changes the phase
of the carrier for each symbol and it is less sensitive to noise.

Baseband and Broadband

 Baseband Broadband

Digital signals are used Analog signals are used

Entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed by a single The signals are sent on multiple frequencies and
signal in a baseband transmission allow all the multiple signals are sent simultaneously
in broadband transmission

Frequency division multiplexing is not possible Frequency division multiplexing is possible

Baseband is bi-directional transmission Transmission of data is unidirectional

Short distance signal travelling Signal travelling distance is long

Digital data to Analog signals

Shift Key-
It's called "shift keying" because during the course of transmission of digital data the values of the quantity that
is used for coding the data (e.g. amplitude, frequency, phase) shift between two (or more) discrete switching
(=keying) values.

Amplitude Shift Keying

The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input data whether it should be a zero level
or a variation of positive and negative, depending upon the carrier frequency.

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary data in
the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.

Following is the diagram for ASK modulated waveform along with its input.
Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when ASK is modulated, gives a
zero value for LOW input and gives the carrier output for HIGH input.

Frequency Shift Keying

The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low, depending upon the input data applied.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier
signal varies according to the discrete digital changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation.

Following is the diagram for FSK modulated waveform along with its input.
The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary HIGH input and is low in
frequency for a binary LOW input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies.

Phase Shift Keying

The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the input. These are mainly of two types,
namely BPSK and QPSK, according to the number of phase shifts. The other one is DPSK which
changes the phase according to the previous value.

Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier signal is
changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK technique is widely used for
wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth communications.

PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are −

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

This is also called as 2-phase PSK (or) Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave carrier
takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.

BPSK is basically a DSB-SC (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier) modulation scheme, for message
being the digital information.

Following is the image of BPSK Modulated output wave along with its input.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) is another modulation technique, and it’s a particularly
interesting one because it actually transmits two bits per symbol. In other words, a QPSK symbol
doesn’t represent 0 or 1—it represents 00, 01, 10, or 11.

This two-bits-per-symbol performance is possible because the carrier variations are not limited to two
states. In ASK, for example, the carrier amplitude is either amplitude option A (representing a 1) or
amplitude option B (representing a 0). In QPSK, the carrier varies in terms of phase, not frequency,
and there are four possible phase shifts.

We can intuitively determine what these four possible phase shifts should be: First we recall that
modulation is only the beginning of the communication process; the receiver needs to be able to
extract the original information from the modulated signal. Next, it makes sense to seek maximum
separation between the four phase options, so that the receiver has less difficulty distinguishing one
state from another. We have 360° of phase to work with and four phase states, and thus the
separation should be 360°/4 = 90°. So our four QPSK phase shifts are 45°, 135°, 225°, and 315°.

(Note: The phase-shift-to-digital-data correspondence shown above is a logical though arbitrary

choice; as long as the transmitter and receiver agree to interpret phase shifts in the same way,
different correspondence schemes can be used.)

QPSK is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a DSB-SC (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier) modulation
scheme, which send two bits of digital information at a time, called as bigits.

Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream, it converts them into bit-pairs.
This decreases the data bit rate to half, which allows space for the other users.
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

The DPSK modulation signal is not the binary code itself, but a code that records changes in the binary
stream. This way, the demodulator only needs to determine changes in the incoming signal phase.
The PSK signal is converted to a DPSK signal with two rules: a "1" in the PSK signal is denoted by no

change in the DPSK; a "0" in the PSK signal is denoted by a change in the DPSK signal.

In DPSK demodulation, phase of the received bit

is compared with phase of the previous bit.
The following figure represents the model waveform of DPSK.

It is seen from the above figure that, if the data bit is LOW i.e., 0, then the phase of the signal is not
reversed, but is continued as it was. If the data is HIGH i.e., 1, then the phase of the signal is reversed,
as with NRZI, invert on 1 (a form of differential encoding).

If we observe the above waveform, we can say that the HIGH state represents an M in the modulating
signal and the LOW state represents a W in the modulating signal.

Encoding Techniques
Encoding is the process of converting the data or a given sequence of characters, symbols, alphabets
etc., into a specified format, for the secured transmission of data. Decoding is the reverse process of
encoding which is to extract the information from the converted format.

Data Encoding
Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to represent 1s and 0s of
the digital signals on the transmission link.
 The common types of line encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and Manchester.

Encoding Techniques
The data encoding technique is divided into the following types, depending upon the type of data
conversion.

 Analog data to Analog signals − The modulation techniques such as Amplitude Modulation,
Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of analog signals, fall under this category.

 Analog data to Digital signals − this process can be termed as digitization, which is done by
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Hence, it is nothing but digital modulation. As we have already
discussed, sampling and quantization are the important factors in this. Delta Modulation gives
a better output than PCM. (sampling, quantization and encoding )

 Digital data to Analog signals − the modulation techniques such as Amplitude Shift Keying
(ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK), etc., fall under this category.
These will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

 Digital data to Digital signals –There are several ways to map digital data to digital
signals(Electric pulse). Some of them are –Line coding, Block coding and scrambling.

Digital-to-Digital Encoding(perform at physical layer)

Line Coding
Digital data can’t be transmit in digital form (0, 1), we have to convert it into electric pulse and this process of
conversion is called line coding.
Used to transfer maximum bits on minimum signal element .
Data element (smallest piece of information to be sent) - 0, 1
Signal element (Carrier) - shortest element of the signal (part of voltage level)
Data rate – data transfer in 1 second (bits per second)
Signal rate-no. of signal travel in 1 second (baud rate)

types of Line coding techniques:-

 Unipolar–NRZ, RZ
 Polar -NRZ, RZ
 Bipolar.
 Manchester
Unipolar
Unipolar encoding uses only one level of value 1 as a positive value and 0 remains Idle. Since unipolar
line encoding has one of its states at 0 Volts. unipolar line encoding is used in computers and digital
logic.

Unipolar encoding represents DC (Direct Current) component and therefore, cannot travel through
media such as microwaves or transformers. It has low noise margin and needs extra hardware for
synchronization purposes. It is well suited where the signal path is short. For long distances, it
produces stray capacitance in the transmission medium and therefore, it never returns to zero as
shown in Figure.
UNIPOLAR NRZ
Advantages

The advantages of Unipolar NRZ are −

 It is simple.
 A lesser bandwidth is required.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Unipolar NRZ are −

 No error correction done.
 Presence of low frequency components may cause the signal droop.
 No clock is present.
 Loss of synchronization is likely to occur (especially for long strings of 1s and 0s).

UNIPOLAR RZ
Advantages

 It is simple.
 The spectral line present at the symbol rate can be used as a clock.
Disadvantages

 No error correction.
 Occupies twice the bandwidth as unipolar NRZ.
 The signal droop is caused at the places where signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

Polar Signaling
Polar
Polar encoding uses two levels of voltages say positive and negative. For example, the RS:232D
interface uses Polar line encoding. The signal does not return to zero; it is either a positive voltage or a
negative voltage. Polar encoding may be classified as non·return to zero (NRZ), return to zero (RZ) and
biphase. NRZ may be further divided into NRZ·L and NRZ·I. Biphase has also two different categories as
Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding. Polar line encoding is the simplest pattern that
eliminates most of the residua! DC problem. Figure shows the Polar line encoding. It has the same
problem of synchronization as that of unipolar encoding. The added benefit of polar encoding is that it
reduces the power required to transmit the signal by one-half.
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)
In NRZ·L, the level of the signal is 1 if the amplitude is positive and 0 in case of negative amplitude.
In NRZ·I, whenever a positive amplitude or bit I appears in the signal, the signal gets inverted,
Figure explains the concepts of NRZ-L and NRZ·I more precisely.

NRZ-L -the voltage levels tells the bit information

NRZ-I - the change in pattern tells the bit information

Return to Zero (RZ)

RZ uses three values to represent the signal. These are positive, negative, and zero. Bit 1is represented
when signal changes from positive to zero. Bit 0 is represented when signal changes from negative to
zero. Figure explains the RZ concept.
Biphase
Biphase is implemented in two different ways as Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding.
In Manchester encoding, transition happens at the middle of each bit period. A low to high transition
represents a 1 and a high to low transition represents a 0.In case of Differential Manchester encoding,
transition occurs at the beginning of a bit time, which represents a zero.
These encoding can detect errors during transmission because of the transition during every bit period.
Therefore, the absence of a transition would indicate an error condition. They have no DC component
and there is always a transition available for synchronizing receives and transmits clocks.

Bipolar (Pseudoternary)
Bipolar uses three voltage levels. These are positive, negative, and zero. Bit 0 occurs at zero level of
amplitude. Bit 1 occurs alternatively when the voltage level is either positive or negative and therefore,
also called as Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI). There is no DC component because of the alternate
polarity of the pulses for Is. Figure describes bipolar encoding.
Codec’s (Coders and Decoders)
Codec stands for coders/decompression in data communication. The reverse conversion of analog to
digital is necessary in situations where it is advantageous to send analog information across a digital
circuit. Certainly, this is often the case in carrier networks, where huge volumes of analog voice are
digitized and sent across high capacity, digital circuits. The device that accomplishes the analog to
digital conversion is known as a codec. Codec’s code an analog input into a digital format on the
transmitting side of the connection, reversing the process, or decoding the information on the
receiving side, in order to reconstitute the analog signal. Codec’s are widely used to convert analog
voice and video to digital format, and to reverse the process on the receiving end.

Types of Modems
Key Difference: Modems are electronic devices which convert digital information of computers into
analog signals and are also capable of again converting the analog signals to the digital information at
the receiving end. Modems can be classified in various ways. Some of the common types include

1. – half-duplex modem

2. full-duplex modem

3. 2-wire modem.

4. 4-wire modem,

5. synchronous modem and

6. Asynchronous modems.

Modem stands for Modulator and Demodulator. This device assists computer in transferring
data and information over telephone lines. This is done by changing the digital data into analog
signal which can be transferred over the phone lines. In the receiver end, it again converts the
analog signal into the digital data. Therefore simply, it acts as a modulator when it converts
digital data into analog signal and it works as a demodulator when it converts analog signal to
digital data.

There are many different types of modems. They are also classified through numerous ways.
However, generally the classification is based on the basic function of a modem. Some of the common
types are –

On the basis of directional capability, modems are divided into half duplex and full duplex types
Half duplex Modem – The term half duplex means that signal can travel in either direction, but the
transmission will take place in only one direction at a time. These modems have only one carrier
frequency. This type of modem is required to send and receive signal alternately. This type of
arrangement uses more channel bandwidth and the data communication takes place at a very slow
rate.
Full Duplex Modem – These modems can transmit in both directions simultaneously. They also
make use of two carrier frequencies (one for each direction). Each carrier makes use of half of the
bandwidth which is available to it. The process of transmission and receiving of data by these modems
can take place at full speed.
On the basis of connection to the line they are classified into 2 wire and 4 wire modem types-

2 wire modem – These modems make use of the same pair of wires for outgoing and incoming
carriers. Due to the use of only one pair of wires which is extended into the subscriber’s location, this
type of leased 2 wire connection is less expensive than the 4 wire connection.
4 wire modem – In this type of connection, separate wires are used for incoming and outgaining
carrier. Data can be transmitted on half and full duplex mode through these settings. The same carrier
frequency can be used for transmission in both directions as the physical path is separate for each in
this case.
On the basis of transmission mode, modems are divided into asynchronous and synchronous types-

Synchronous Modem – Data is transmitted in frames along with synchronization bits which are
used for ensuring the timely transmission and reception of data. These modems are mainly employed
on dedicated leased lines.

Asynchronous Modem – In these types of modems, every byte is positioned between a stop and a
start bit. This lacks the timing signal or clock between modem and DTE(Data terminal equipment). It is
able to manage a continuous flow of data bits provided that a clock signal is used. Each modem must
operate at the same baud rate and have the same parity settings for the data checking in
order to communicate correctly. Define parity checking.

Standards and Protocols

Protocols - Network protocols are formal standards and policies comprised of rules, procedures and formats that
define communication between two or more devices over a network. Network protocols govern the end-to-end
processes of timely, secure and managed data or network communication.

Protocols are essential for communication, authentication and error detection. TCP/IP is the most common
protocol but in-fact is two distinct protocols combined together to preform different jobs. Protocols allows
computer to talk to each-other by setting ground rules, without these ground rules there would be no standard
on how to communicate. If you imagine a phone conversation, you pick up and say hello, the other persons
listens and replies back with hello while you listen, imagine that as a rule to listen while the other person is
talking, If the rule wasn’t there and you both speak at the same time then neither would be able to listen not
being able to communicate, that is just like a protocol having rules in order to communicate.
Internet Protocol - TCP, UDP, HTTP, FTP,ARP,ICMP.
Wireless Protocol - WiFi,Bluetooth,LTE

 ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)- converts an Internet Protocol (IP) address to its corresponding
physical network address. IP networks including those that run on Ethernet and Wi-Fi require ARP in
order to function.
 DNS - Domain Name System - translates network address (such as IP addresses) into terms understood
by humans (such as Domain Names) and vice-versa
 DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - is a protocol that automatically assigns a unique IP
address to each device that connects to a network. With DHCP, there is no need to manually assign IP
addresses to new devices. Therefore, no user configuration is necessary to connect to a DCHP-based
network. Because of its ease of use and widespread support, DHCP is the default protocol used by most
routers and networking equipment.FTP - File Transfer Protocol - a protocol that is used to transfer and
manipulate files on the Internet
 HTTP - HyperText Transfer Protocol - An Internet-based protocol for sending and receiving webpages.
 FTP- File Transfer Protocol - s FTP is a protocol designed for transferring files over the Internet. Files stored
on an FTP server can be accessed using an FTP client, such as a web browser, FTP software program, or a
command line interface.
 TFTP -Trivial File Transfer Protocol - It is associated with the Application layer and uses the connectionless UDP protocol.
TFTP is quite similar to FTP, as its task also involves the transfer and downloading of files over a network. However, the main
difference between these two is that TFTP does not allow you to search the directory to find the information. You need to know
the exact address of the place where the information is stored. Furthermore, you also need to know the exact destination
address where the data needs to be transferred. As it operates using UDP, this protocol is not secure enough for the transfer of
files.

 IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on the Internet
 IRC - Internet Relay Chat - a protocol used for Internet chat and other communications
 POP3 - Post Office protocol Version 3 - a protocol used by e-mail clients to retrieve messages from
remote servers
 ICMP-Internet Control Message Protocol- is a network layer protocol that reports errors and provides
information related to IP packet processing. ICMP is used by network devices to send error messages
indicating, for example, that a requested service is not available or that a host isn’t reachable.ICMP is
commonly used by network tools such as ping or traceroute.
 SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on the Internet
 UDP-User Datagram Protocol-it's an unreliable protocol when compared to TCP. While that is true,
since there isn't any error checking or correcting involved in data transmissions, it's also true that there
are definitely applications for this protocol that TCP can't match.
 SNMP-Simple Network Management Protocol: is used by network administrators as a method of
network management. SNMP has a number of different abilities including the ability to monitor,
configure and control network devices. SNMP traps can also be configured on network devices to notify
a central server when specific actions are occurring. Typically, these are configured to be used when an
alerting condition is happening. In this situation, the device will send a trap to network management
stating that an event has occurred and that the device should be looked at further for a source to the
event.
 TELNET- (Telecommunication Network)It is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area
networks to provide a bidirectional interactive communications facility. Typically, telnet provides access
to a command-line interface on a remote host via a virtual terminal connection which consists of an 8-
bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
  Gopher is a protocol system, which in advance of the World Wide Web, allowed server based text files to be
hierarchically organized.It requires that files be stored in a menu-style hierarchy on a Gopher server that is accessible
through a Gopher-enabledclient browser and/or directly.and easily viewed by end users who accessed the server using
Gopher applications on remote computers. Initially Gopher browsers could only display text-based files before
developments such as ‘HyperGopher’, which were able to handle simple graphic formats though they were never used
on a widespread basis as by this time the World Wide Web and its Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) were gaining in
popularity, and had similar and more extensive functions.

Network StandardsA definition or format that has been approved by a recognized standards organization or is accepted as
a de facto standard by the industry. Standards exist for programming languages, operating
systems, data formats, communications protocols, and electrical interfaces.

Network standards are also ground rules that are set by commissions so that hardware is compatible among similar
computers and assures interoperability. This is done to ensure that backwards compatibility and compatibility from vendor
to vendor. It is necessary to have standards because if each company had its own protocol standards and didn't allow it to
talk with other protocols there would be a lack of communication from different machines and would result in one
company being hugely successful and the other running out of business due to lack of being able to communicate with
other machines. So this is why its necessary to have network standards and protocols because they are what allow different
computers from different companies running different software to communicate with each-other making networking
possible.

The Importance of Standards

Standards are necessary in almost every business and public service entity. For example, before 1904, fire hose
couplings in the United States were not standard, which meant a fire department in one community could not
help in another community. The transmission of electric current was not standardized until the end of the
nineteenth century, so customers had to choose between Thomas Edison’s direct current (DC) and George
Westinghouse’s alternating current (AC).
The primary reason for standards is to ensure that hardware and software produced by different vendors can
work together. Without networking standards, it would be difficult—if not impossible—to develop networks
that easily share information. Standards also mean that customers are not locked into one vendor. They can buy
hardware and software from any vendor whose equipment meets the standard. In this way, standards help to
promote more competition and hold down prices.
The use of standards makes it much easier to develop software and hardware that link different networks
because software and hardware can be developed one layer at a time.

Open Systems Interconnection Model

The Open Systems Interconnection Reference model (usually called the OSI model for short) helped change the
face of network computing. Before the OSI model, most commercial networks used by businesses were built
using nonstandardized technologies developed by one vendor (remember that the Internet was in use at the
time but was not widespread and certainly was not commercial). During the late 1970s, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the Open System Interconnection Subcommittee, whose task was
to develop a framework of standards for computer-to-computer communications. In 1984, this effort produced
the OSI model.

The OSI model is the most talked about and most referred to network model. If you choose a career in
networking, questions about the OSI model will be on the network certification exams offered by Microsoft,
Cisco, and other vendors of network hardware and software. However, you will probably never use a network
based on the OSI model. Simply put, the OSI model never caught on commercially in North America, although
some European networks use it, and some network components developed for use in the United States arguably
use parts of it. Most networks today use the Internet model, which is discussed in the next section. However,
because there are many similarities between the OSI model and the Internet model, and because most people in
networking are expected to know the OSI model, we discuss it here. The OSI model has seven layers (see Figure
1.3).

Aggregate Server Access Protocol is used by

the Reliable server pooling (RSerPool) framework

WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for

Microwave Access)
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned primarily with transmitting data bits (zeros or ones) over a communication
circuit. This layer defines the rules by which ones and zeros are transmitted, such as voltages of electricity,
number of bits sent per second, and the physical format of the cables and connectors used.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
The data link layer manages the physical transmission circuit in layer 1 and transforms it into a circuit that is
free of transmission errors as far as layers above are concerned. Because layer 1 accepts and transmits only a
raw stream of bits without understanding their meaning or structure, the data link layer must create and
recognize message boundaries; that is, it must mark where a message starts and where it ends. Another major
task of layer 2 is to solve the problems caused by damaged, lost, or duplicate messages so the succeeding layers
are shielded from transmission errors. Thus, layer 2 performs error detection and correction. It also decides
when a device can transmit so that two computers do not try to transmit at the same time.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer performs routing. It determines the next computer the message should be sent to so it can
follow the best route through the network and finds the full address for that computer if needed.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer deals with end-to-end issues, such as procedures for entering and departing from the
network. It establishes, maintains, and terminates logical connections for the transfer of data between the
original sender and the final destination of the message. It is responsible for breaking a large data
transmission into smaller packets (if needed), ensuring that all the packets have been received, eliminating
duplicate packets, and performing flow control to ensure that no computer is overwhelmed by the number of
messages it receives. Although error control is performed by the data link layer, the transport layer can also
perform error checking.

Layer 5: Session Layer

The session layer is responsible for managing and structuring all sessions. Session initiation must arrange for all
the desired and required services between session participants, such as logging onto circuit equipment,
transferring files, using various terminal types, and performing security checks. Session termination provides an
orderly way to end the session, as well as a means to abort a session prematurely. It may have some redundancy
built in to recover from a broken transport (layer 4) connection in case of failure. The session layer also handles
session accounting so the correct party receives the bill.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer formats the data for presentation to the user. Its job is to accommodate different
interfaces on different terminals or computers so the application program need not worry about them. It is
concerned with displaying, formatting, and editing user inputs and outputs. For example, layer 6 might perform
data compression, translation between different data formats, and screen formatting. Any function (except
those in layers 1 through 5) that is requested sufficiently often to warrant finding a general solution is placed in
the presentation layer, although some of these functions can be performed by separate hardware and software
(e.g., encryption).

Layer 7: Application Layer

The application layer is the end user’s access to the network. The primary purpose is to provide a set of utilities
for application programs. Each user program determines the set of messages and any action it might take on
receipt of a message. Other network-specific applications at this layer include network monitoring and network
management.

OSI Model Internet Model Groups of Layers Examples

7. Application Layer

6. Presentation Layer 5. Application Layer Application Layer Internet Explorer and Web pages

5. Session Layer

4. Transport Layer 4. Transport Layer

Internetwork Layer TCP/IP Software
3. Network Layer 3. Network Layer

2. Data Link Layer 2. Data Link Layer Ethernet port, Ethernet cables,
Hardware Layer
1. Physical Layer 1. Physical Layer and Ethernet software drivers

Protocols used by modem to transfer files

Transmitting Data
 Your modem takes advantage of the Windows interface and the capabilities of your notebook to achieve faster
data transfers than a regular modem.
Terminal Emulation Protocols
user log on and get access to legacy program in mainframe os
Various computer systems use different types of terminal emulation, such as IBM 3270, TTY, DEC, or ANSI.
Contact the system operator of the host modem you are dialing into to determine the type of emulation to use
for that connection. If the system operator is unkown, try using the ANSI terminal emulation protocol.

File Transfer Protocols

File transfer is the ability to transport files between two computers using two modems. The modems must use
a file transfer protocol, which can correct errors in transmission and begin the file transfer process. Both
modems must use the same file transfer protocol.
At the time you set up a file transfer, your communications software will prompt you to designate a file
transfer protocol. The following table describes some of the most common protocols:

Protocol Description

ZMODEM Transfers files in a streaming protocol, making it very fast even with error correction. Also
provides an automatic receive function that saves you steps when receiving data.

YMODEM-G A variation of YMODEM designed for modems that support error control. Does not provide
error correction or recovery, but relies on the modem to provide it. If any block is
unsuccessfully transferred, the entire transfer is canceled.

YMODEM An error correcting file transfer data transmission protocol that sends information in 1024-
byte (1k) blocks. Checksums are done on each block and the result is sent along with the
block. If the result does not check out at the receiving end, a NAK (Negative
Acknowledgement) is sent to retransmit that block. If the block checks out, an ACK
(Acknowledgement) is sent.

XMODEM An error correcting file transfer protocol that sends information in 128-byte blocks.
Checksums are done on each block and the result is sent along with the block. If the result
does not check out at the receiving end, a NAK (Negative Acknowledgement) is sent to
retransmit that block. If the block checks out, an ACK (Acknowledgement) is sent.

KERMIT A very reliable asynchronous file transfer protocol that can communicate successfully with
virtually any system. Because of this portability, throughput is significantly reduced.

ASCII Sends TEXT ONLY files directly to the computer screen. Is very slow. Binary or graphics files
cannot be transferred using the ASCII protocol.

Rules for Using File Transfer Protocols

For the best results when sending or receiving a file, follow these basic rules:
 If both systems support ZMODEM, use it!
 Both the sending and receiving modem must use the same file transfer protocol. BBS or online services
usually inform you which protocols are available.
  Most communications software packages must be informed of the name of the sending (uploading) or
receiving (downloading) file before file transfer can begin, and when a file transfer is about to take
place. See your communications software manual for specific information.

Dialing
All communications software allows for automatic dialing.
To manually dial another modem, go into Terminal mode in your communications software and
enter ATDT followed by a space and the telephone number.
When dialing, enter the same information you would if you were calling someone on the phone. For example,
when dialing long distance, prefix the phone number with a 1 and the area code. If you are dialing from a
telephone system that requires a 9 for an outside line, insert a 9 before the telephone number. You will
probably need to place a comma or two after the 9 (9,,) to allow enough pause time to access the outside line
(each comma designates a two-second delay.
Receiving a Data Transmission
A modem can answer a call in one of three ways: Host, auto-answer, or manual answer.
Host mode is a feature of the software, although it is not available in all communications software packages.
Host mode allows the modem to answer the phone and place the caller into a "host" mode, allowing callers to
download files, upload files, and chat with you while their modem is connected. Refer to your software
documentation for instructions on how to use this feature.
Auto-answer is used to answer an incoming call without user intervention. The AT command for auto-answer is
ATS=n, where n is the number of rings before the incoming call is answered. For example, ATS=2 tells the
modem to answer after the second ring.
Manual answer : - tells the receiving modem not to answer when the phone rings. ATS must be set to 0
(ATS=0) when you are using manual answer. When the phone rings while you are in terminal mode in your
communications software, the word RING will appear on the computer screen. You must then type ATA to tell
the modem to answer. If the phone rings when you are not in terminal mode, you will neither hear nor see any
indication that a call is coming in. If ATS= anything except 0, the Auto-Answer feature will be activated after the
number of rings you specify.

Establishing a connection ( internet connectivity)

The two ingredients for connecting to the internet

Connecting to the internet requires two key ingredients:

 A device capable of connecting to the internet.
 Access to an internet service that will allow that device to get connected.
Basically, there are many types of both of the above things.

In other words, it’s possible to connect to the internet on an ever-increasing range of devices. Plus, there’s also
quite a few different types of services that allow these devices to get online.
 People’s choice over the various devices and means of getting online varies according to many factors, including
lifestyle (whether they’re at home or out and about), how frequently they need to access the internet (everyday
for a number of hours or just occasional use), the types of things they want to use the internet to do (catch up
with email or download and watch films and tvprogrammes), and budget (internet access companies usually
charge to use their services).

Devices that can connect to the internet

The most common devices people use today to get online, include:
 Desktop computers
 Laptop computers
 Mobile phones
 Tablets
 E-readers
However, the range of devices capable of connecting to the internet is ever-expanding and shifting our
understanding of what “being online” means.

In recent years, we’ve seen the emergence of smart watches, central heating systems, and even refrigerators,
which by connecting to the internet can perform all sorts of enhanced and useful functions.

Still, the most “traditional” devices used for accessing and browsing the internet today are desktop computers,
laptop computers, tablets and smartphones.

Two types of internet connection services

There are two key types of service that can provide you with internet access. They are:
 Fixed internet
 Mobile internet
Let's take a look at each, in turn...
Fixed internet
As the name suggests, this is an internet connection that is fixed to a specific location (such as a home, office or
shop) — meaning that the internet connection is unique to that property, and as such you can only access it
when you’re physically situated there.

Today, the three most common types of fixed internet connection are:
ADSL broadband (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)

Faster over copper wire

The most widely used form of internet connection, ADSL uses a property’s existing phoneline to get online.

This form of broadband has been available for a while, making it often the most cost-effective way of getting
online — yet not the fastest (average download speeds of 8.4 Mb) compared to the two other available forms of
internet connection now available in the UK, cable and fibre broadband.
Cable broadband

Instead of using a phone line as ADSL does, cable broadband establishes an internet connection via a specialised
cable that shares the same line as your TV service.

Cable broadband generally offers higher speeds than ADSL connections (average download speeds of 50.5 mb),
but as a cable broadband connection is often shared with many other users, speeds can suffer from time to time
due to congestion during peak times.
Fibre broadband

The most recently rolled out form of internet connection in the UK (and therefore, still not that widely available)
is fibre broadband.

Fibre broadband claims to offer more consistent and reliable speeds than cable and ADSL (average download
speeds of 59.4mb) — allowing multiple devices to be performing high-capacity tasks, simultaneously, without
any slow downs or breakages in the connection, making it an attractive proposition for busy family homes or
office environments.
Choosing a fixed internet service provider

Many companies provide installation of one of the above types of fixed internet connection, with ongoing access
to the connection at an agreed speed and data usage offered, mostly on a contract basis.
Some companies are more specialised in one type of connection than another. For instance, Virgin Media
specialises in cable broadband connections as it is also a TV service provider. Whilst BT, as the owner of the
majority of the UK’s telephone lines, is most well-known for providing ADSL broadband — though many third-
party companies are allowed access to BT’s network and offer their own ADSL broadband services. As the owner
of the new infrastructure that allows for latest fibre broadband, BT is also currently the sole provider of this
next-generation service.

Mobile internet
Mobile internet is a way of getting online anywhere without relying on a fixed-location connection — as the
name suggests, by using your mobile device.
Mobile phone operators provide access to this alternative method of internet usage. When you sign up to a
mobile phone operator’s services — either on a contract or pay-as-you-go basis — you can include access to a
certain amount of data (measured in megabytes), allowing you to use your mobile device to connect to the
internet within that capped usage limit.Mobile internet is currently offered at two different speeds and
capability levels:
3G mobile internet: has been around for many years and typically offers basic access and download speeds that
allow users to complete basic tasks such as load a web page or access an email. 3G mobile internet is gradually
being replaced by 4G services.
4G mobile internet: is the more recently available level of mobile internet available, offering much higher
speeds than 3G. In fact, due to excellent connection and download speeds, 4G might eventually replace fixed
internet connections in more rural parts of the country that may struggle to get access to quicker connections.
5G mobile internet: is the proposed next telecommunications standard beyond the current 4G advanced
standards.
DSL(Digital Subscriber Line)
It is a medium for transferring digital data over regular phone lines and can be used to connect to the Internet.
However, like a cable modem, a DSL circuit is much faster than a regular phone connection, even though the
wires it uses are copper like a typical phone line. This allows for file-sharing, and the transmission of pictures and
graphics, multimedia data, audio and video conferencing and much more. DSL uses the analog medium, which is
reliable and prevents interruptions and heavy packet loss. DSL is fast and provides low user subscription rates.
ADSL(Asymmetric DSL)
An asymmetric DSL (ADSL) connection allows download speeds of up to about 1.5 megabits per second, and
upload speeds of 128 kilobits per second. That is why it is called ADSL and not just DSL (because of the
asymmetric speeds). There is also a "Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line" (SDSL) which is similar to ADSL, but
allows data transfer speeds of 384 Kilobits per second in both directions. Theoretically, this type of connection
allows download speeds of up to 9 megabits per second and upload speeds of up to 640 kilobits per second. The
difficult part in establishing a DSL circuit is that it must be configured to connect two specific locations, unlike a
regular phone line or cable modem. DSL is often seen as the new, better alternative to the older ISDN standard.
ISDN (Integrated services digital network)
An international communications standard for sending voice, video, and data over digital telephone lines or
normal telephone wires. ISDN supportsdata transfer rates of 64 Kbps

DSL ADSL

Type of Network connection DSL Network connection

Stands for Digital Subscriber Line Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

Provides Internet connection Internet connection

Signal Sends signal over telephone wires Sends signal over telephone wires

Splitter or DSL filter to separate the data Splitter or DSL filter to separate the
part from the telephony part. data part from the telephony part.
Devices needed
DSL modem to convert the signal into a data DSL modem to convert the signal into
signal a data signal

Network Speed 256 kbit/s to over 100 Mbit/s 256 kbit/s to over 100 Mbit/s

Download speed Both are usually the same Both are different. Down speed is
and Upload speed much faster than Up speed.