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Some Topological Applications on Graph Theory and Information Systems
Thesis · January 2018

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M ENOUFIA U NIVERSITY
M ASTER T HESIS
Some Topological Applications on Graph Theory and
Information Systems
A Thesis
Submitted to Department of Mathematics
Faculty of Science-Menoufia University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
M.Sc. in Pure Mathematics
Author:
Mohamed Atef Fetouh Soliman
Demonstrator, Mathematics Department-Faculty of Science
Menoufia University
Supervisors :
Prof. Dr. Abdoulmonem Mohamed Kozea
Professor of Pure Mathematics-Faculty of Science
Tanta University
Prof. Dr. Shokry Ibrahim Nada
Professor of Pure Mathematics-Faculty of Science
Menoufia University
Dr. Ashraf Ibrahim Hefnawy
Lecturer of Pure Mathematics-Faculty of Science
Menoufia University
EGYPT
(2018)
Faculty of Science
Mathematics Department
Student: Mohamed Atef Fetouh Soliman
Thesis Title: Some Topological Applications on Graph Theory and

Information Systems
Degree: Master of Science in Pure Mathematics
Supervisors:
No. Name Profession Signature
1. Prof. Dr. Abdoulmonen Mohamed Kozae Professor of Pure Mathematics,

Mathematics Department,
Faculty of Science,
Tanta University.
2. Prof. Dr. Shokry Ibrahim Nada Professor of Pure Mathematics,

Faculty of Science,
Menoufia University.
3. Dr. Ashraf Ibrahim Hefnawy Lecturer of Pure Mathematics,

Faculty of Science,
Menoufia University.
Head of Mathematics Department

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Amin Abd El Wahed
Declaration of Authorship
I, Mohamed Atef Fetouh Soliman, declares that this thesis titled, "Some Topo-
logical Applications on Graph Theory and Information Systems" and the work
presented in it are my own. I confirm that:
• This work is done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a M.Sc degree
at Menoufia University.
• Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or
any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has
been clearly stated.
• Where I have consulted any published work of others, this is always clearly
attributed.
• Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given.
With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work.
• I have acknowledged all main sources of help.
• Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have
made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed
myself.
Signed:
Date: November 20, 2018
ii
List of Publicaltions
1. S. Nada, A. A. El Atik and M. Atef, New types of topological structures via

graphs, Mathematical methods in the applied science, (2018), 1-10.
2. A. A. El Atik and M. Atef, New types of separation axioms on Graphs, In-

ternational Conference on Mathematics, Trends and Development ICMTD17.
Dar al-Diyafa, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, (December 28-30, 2017).
3. A. M. Kozae, A. A. El Atik, A. Elrokh and M. Atef, New types of graphs

induced by topological spaces, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems.
[Under Review]
4. A. A. El Atik and M. Atef, New Types of Separation Axioms on Topologi-

cal Graphs, Ars Combinatoria. [Under Review]
iii
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this thesis to my loving parents my mother and my fa-
ther both of whom gave me the foundation of something they had never enjoyed
education. Ever since then, I have been able to appreciate the value of reading
and lifelong learning.
iv
Acknowledgment
First of all, I would like to thank ALLAH, Then I would like to ex-
press my gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. Dr. Abdoulmonem Mo-
hamed Kozae, Prof. Dr. Shokry Nada and Dr. Ashraf Hefnawy for
many hours of constructive discussions, sincere supervision, help,
and encouragement. I was pleased to know Dr. Abdel Fattah El-
Atik and work with him and would like to thank him very much
for everything he did. I would also like to express my deep grati-
tude and respect to him for his encouragement all the time. Without
his encouragement, advice and many great ideas, this thesis would
never have been completed.
I am much obliged to my mother, father, grandmother, grandfather,
sister, and brother they are always with me, give beautiful meaning
to my life, and support me. They provided me all their resources.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife Dr. Asmaa Youssef for her
encouragement.
Mohamed Atef Fetouh Soliman
(2018)
v
Contents
Declaration of Authorship ii
List of Publications iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgment v
Contents vii
Abstract viii
List of Figures x
List of Tables xi
List of Symbols xii
1 Introduction and Preliminaries 1

1.1 Graph Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Topological space Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Relation Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.1 Some Properties of Relations . . . . . . . . . . 17
vi
1.4 Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 New types of topological structures via graphs 21

2.1 Relations on graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Topological structure on graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Algorithm and some applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3 New types of graphs induced by topological spaces 45

3.1 The graphics class of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2 Some operations on topological graph . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Topological graph algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4 Isomorphism between Two topological graph . . . . . 59
4 New types of separation axioms on topological graphs 63

4.1 Graph separation axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2 Results and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5 Conclusions 86
References 88
vii
Abstract
The linking between graph theory and topology by relations is

existed and used many times before to deduce a topology from the
given graph. Some researcher makes the relation on the vertices of
the graph only and others made it on the edges but the topologi-
cal space on it is huge such as Topological Properties on Graph VS
Medical Application in Human Heart. But the process to establish a
graph from a given topology is not interested before. Therefore we
present a relation on graphs that induces new types of topological
structures to the graph and then study some of the properties of this
graph. Also, we investigate an algorithm to generate the topologi-
cal structures from different graphs. Some applications in medicine
and geography will be given and we verify our results in the real
life. Some new forms of graphs from its topological structures will
be established. We study the homeomorphic between topological
spaces through a new sort of isomorphic graphs. A definition of
a topological graph with different examples and study some of its
topological and algebraic properties will be introduced. The num-
ber of edges for some types of topological graphs will be calculated
and some examples will be illustrated. Also, the given algorithm
investigates the degree of each vertex of a graph from its topolog-
viii
ical space. We give a new style of isomorphic between topological
graphs. Using the definition of topological graph which introduced
and studied later, we introduce new separation axioms on graphs
called graph separation axioms say gT0 , gT1 , gT2 , gT3 and gT4 , in-
vestigate some properties on it. Finally, we give a comparison with
some examples of these graph separation axioms.
ix
List of Figures
1.1 Seven Konigsberg Bridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 A Directed Graph G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 An Un Directed Graph G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 A Complete Graph G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 A Bipartite Graph G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 A Complete Bipartite Graph G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Represent relation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.8 An Example of Julia Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1 A pesudograph G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 A multigraph G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 A simple graph G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 A graph G with no multiple edges . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 A simple graph G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6 The blood circulation of human body. . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7 A graph representing a street system. . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 A graph of different classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.2 Two isomorphic graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 Disjoint graph sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4 Inclusion in graph sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
x
3.5 Intersection in graph sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6 The relation between sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7 A topological graph for three points. . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.8 A topological graph for four points. . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.9 A graph which is a topological graph. . . . . . . . . . 57
3.10 A graph which is not topological graph. . . . . . . . . 57
3.11 A graph G1 and G2 which are isomorphic. . . . . . . . 60
3.12 A graph G1 and G2 which are isomorphic. . . . . . . . 61
4.1 A complete graph G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.2 A topological graph structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3 A gT3 topological graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.4 A graph G is gT2 but not gT3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5 A graph G is gT0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.6 A connected graph G with only one cycle. . . . . . . . 74
4.7 A graph G which is not gT0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.8 A subgraph H which is not gT0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.9 Airways in the lungs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.10 A graph that represents apart of Airways in the lungs. 84
xi
List of Tables
3.1 The step of the graph G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3.3 The isomorphic between two graphs G1 and G2 . . . . 61
3.6 The isomorphic between two graphs G1 and G2 . . . . 62
xii
List of Symbols
Symbol Meaning
G Graph
R Relation
τG Topology on Graph
V Vertex Set
E Edge Set
degG Degree on Graph
SG Subbase on Graph
βG Basis on Graph
ClG Closure on Graph
IntG Iterior on Graph
∼ Parallel
N Neighborhood
E p (G) Edges for Pseudo Graph
Ed ( G ) Edges for Discrete Graph
Es ( G ) Edges for Simple Graph
C Complement
xiii
Chapter 1
Introduction and Preliminaries
It is possible to say that the topics of mathematics in general arose

and developed for the need for applications. For example, geome-
try originated on the banks of the Nile to measure the land, regu-
late agriculture, and algebra arose to regulate transactions, inheri-
tance, and topology arose to address the problems of geometry and
mathematical analysis which does not depend on distances. Many
people think the topology is a far cry from applications but at the
end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century many
trends were added to the previous trends in which topology was
used such as artificial intelligent, modern physics, economics, The
topology was used in the fourth decade of the nineteenth century
and the greatest evidence of the importance of topology. The No-
bel Prize in Physics in 2016 [1] was awarded because of topological
uses in the theory of the transformation of the material in addition
to international schools in Germany and America are using topolog-
ical applications in science and engineering. The topic of topology
is the approach to the study of different branches of mathematics.
1
1.1 2
Therefore, we chose the subject of the thesis to link the theory of

topological spaces and the graph theory. We chose the title "Some
topological applications on graph theory and information systems"
and study topological characteristics using diagrams and vice versa.
In this chapter, we give a survey on graph theory, general topologi-
cal space, relations on sets and basic definition on fractals.
1.1 Graph Terminology
Graph theory ([2]-[20]) may be said to have its beginning in 1736

when Euler considered the (general case of the) Konigsberg bridge
problem: Does there exist a walk crossing each of the seven bridges
of Konigsberg exactly once? [21].
Figure 1.1 Seven Konigsberg Bridge.
Definition 1.1.1. A graph G is a pair (V, E) or (V ( G ), E( G )), where
V is a non-empty set called vertices or nodes and E is 2-element
subsets of V called edges or links.
Definition 1.1.2. A directed graph (or digraph) D is a finite nonempty
set of objects called vertices together with a (possibly empty) set of

1.1 3
ordered pairs of distinct vertices of D called arcs or directed edges.
For vertices u and v in D, an arc (u, v) is sometimes denoted by
writing u → v (or v ← u). An undirected graph is a graph which
can not contain directed edge.
Example 1.1.3. Let G=(V, E) be a directed graph as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 A Directed Graph G.
Example 1.1.4. Let G=(V, E) be an un directed graph as shown in
Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 An Un Directed Graph G.
Definition 1.1.5. If uv is an edge of G, then u and v are adjacent
vertices. Two adjacent vertices are referred to as neighbors of each
other. If uv and vw are distinct edges in G, then uv and vw are

1.1 4
adjacent edges. The vertex u and the edge uv are said to be incident
with each other.
Definition 1.1.6. The number of vertices in a graph G is the order
(degree) of G and the number of edges is the size of G. The degree
of a vertex v in a graph G is the number of vertices in G that are
adjacent to v, denoted by degG (v).
Definition 1.1.7. A graph of order 1 is called a trivial graph. A non-
trivial graph therefore has two or more vertices. A vertex of degree
0 is referred to as an isolated vertex. A vertex of degree 1 is an end-
vertex or a leaf. A graph of size 0 is called an empty graph or null
graph. A nonempty graph then has one or more edges.
Definition 1.1.8. An edge incident with an end-vertex is called a
pendant edge. An edge joining a vertex to itself is called a loop.
Two or more edges that join the same pair of distinct vertices are
called parallel edges.
Definition 1.1.9. A walk in a graph G is a finite sequence of edges
of the form v0 v1 , v1 v2 , · · · , vn−1 vn . We call v0 the initial vertex and
vn the final vertex of the walk. A walk in which all the edges are
distinct is a trial. A path Pn is a graph of order n and size n − 1
whose vertices can be labeled by v1 , v2 , ...., vn and whose edges are

1.1 5
vi vi+1 for i = 1, 2, ...., n − 1. A path or trial is closed if v0 = vn ) and
a closed path containing at least one edge is a cycle.
Definition 1.1.10. A multigraph is a nonempty set of vertices, every
two of which are joined by a finite number of edges. Structures that
permit both parallel edges and loops are called pseudographs. A
graph is simple if it has no loops or parallel edges.
Definition 1.1.11. Let G = (V ( G ), E( G )) be a graph, we call H a
subgraph of G if V ( H ) ⊆ V ( G ) and E( H ) ⊆ E( G ), in which case
we write H ⊆ G. A spanning subgraph of a graph G is a subgraph
obtained by edge deletions only. An induced subgraph of a graph
G is a subgraph obtained by vertex deletions together with the inci-
dent edges.
Definition 1.1.12. A simple graph is called complete graph, if any
two distinct vertices are joined by an edge. A graph G is regular if
the vertices of G have the same degree. Two vertices u and v in a
graph G are connected if G contains a u − v path. The graph G itself
is connected if every two vertices of G are connected.
Example 1.1.13. Let G=(V, E) be a complete graph as shown in
Figure 1.4.
1.1 6
Figure 1.4 A Complete Graph G.
Definition 1.1.14. If the vertex set of a graph G can be split into
two disjoint sets A and B, so that each edge of a graph G joins a
vertex of A and a vertex of B, then a graph G is a bipartite graph. A
complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph in which each vertex
in A is joined to each vertex in B by just one edge.
Example 1.1.15. Let G=(V, E) be a bipartite graph as shown in
Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 A Bipartite Graph G.
Example 1.1.16. Let G=(V, E) be a complete bipartite graph as shown in
Figure 1.6.
1.1 7
Figure 1.6 A Complete Bipartite Graph G.
Definition 1.1.17. If the two graphs are G1 =(V ( G1 ), E( G1 )) and
G2 =(V ( G2 ), E( G2 )), where V ( G1 ) and V ( G2 ) are disjoint, then their
union G1 ∪ G2 is the graph with the vertex set V ( G1 ) ∪ V ( G2 ) and
edge family E( G1 ) ∪ E( G2 ).
Definition 1.1.18. The eccentricity e(v) of a vertex v in a connected
graph G is the distance between v and a vertex farthest from v in
G, while the radius rad( G ) is the smallest eccentricity among the
vertices of G.
Definition 1.1.19. The adjacency matrix of G=(V ( G ), E( G )) is the
nxn zero-one matrix A( G ) = [ aij ], or simply A = [ aij ], where

 1 i f vi v j ∈ E ( G )

aij = (1.1)
 0 i f vi v j ∈

/ E( G )
Definition 1.1.20. Two graphs G and H are isomorphic if there exists
a bijective function F : V ( G ) → V ( H ) such that two vertices u

1.1 8
and v are adjacent in G if and only if F (u) and F (v) are adjacent
in H. The function F is called an isomorphism from G to H. If
F : V ( G ) → V ( H ) is an isomorphism, then the inverse function
F −1 : V ( H ) → V ( G ) is an isomorphism from H to G. If G and H
are isomorphic, we write G ∼

= H. If there is no such function F as
described above, then G and H are non-isomorphic graphs.
Any two vertices are connected by a path is a connected graph,

and disconnected otherwise. Clearly any disconnected graph G can
be expressed as the union of connected graphs, each of which is a
component of G. In many applications, it is necessary to associate
with each edge of a graph an orientation or direction. In some situa-
tions, the orientation of the edges is a "true" orientation in the sense
that the system represented by the graph exhibits some unilateral
property. For example, the direction of the non-way streets of a city
and the orientations representing the unilateral property of a com-
munication network are true orientation of the physical system. In
other situations, the orientations used a "pseudo"-orientation used
in lieu of an elaborate reference system. For example, in electrical
network theory the edges of a graph are assigned arbitrary orien-
tations to represent the references of the branch currents and volt-
ages. The study of directed graphs arises from making the roads
into one way streets. A well-known theorem in graph theory deal-
ing with the sum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph was ob-
served (indirectly) by Leonhard Euler in a 1736 paper [21] of his that
is now considered the first paper ever written on graph theory-even
1.2 9
though graphs were never mentioned in a paper. This observation

is often referred to as the First Theorem of Graph Theory. Some
have called Theorem 1.1.21 the Handshaking Lemma, although Eu-
ler never used this name.
Proposition 1.1.21. If G is a graph of size m (the number of edges), then
∑v∈V (G) deg(v)=2m.
Corollary 1.1.22. Every graph has an even number of odd degree.
Theorem 1.1.23. If two graphs G and H are isomorphic, then they have
the same order and the same size, and the degrees of the vertices of G are
the same as the degrees of the vertices of H.
It is therefore a consequence of Theorem 1.1.23 that if G and H are

two graphs such that
(1) the orders of G and H are different, or
(2) the sizes of G and H are different or
(3) the degrees of the vertices of G and those of the vertices of H are
different, then G and H are not isomorphic denoted by G H.
1.2 Topological space Terminology
Topology ([22]-[32]) is an important and interesting area of math-

ematics, the study of which will not only introduce you to new
concepts and theorems but also put into context old ones like con-
tinuous functions. However, to say just this is to understate the
significance of topology. It is so fundamental that its influence is
1.2 10
evident in almost every other branch of mathematics. This makes

the study of topology relevant to all who aspire to be mathemati-
cians whether their first love is (or will be) algebra, analysis, cat-
egory theory, chaos, continuum mechanics, dynamics, geometry,
industrial mathematics, mathematical biology, mathematical eco-
nomics, mathematical finance, mathematical modeling, mathemat-
ical physics, mathematics of communication, number theory, nu-
merical mathematics, operation research or statistics. Topological
notions like compactness, connectedness and denseness are as ba-
sic to mathematicians of today as sets and functions were to those of
last century. Topology has several different branches general topol-
ogy (also known as point set topology), algebraic topology, differ-
ential topology and geometric topology. In this thesis, we study a
general topology. Topology is a branch of geometry called rubber
sheet geometry. it is the science that deals with the properties of
things that does not depend on the dimension, which means that it
allows increases and decreases, but without cutting on things. The
notions of closure operator is very useful tool in several sections
of mathematics, as an example, in algebra ([33],[34]), topology, and
computer science theory [35]. The connection between graph the-
ory and different subjects. For example, in the structural analysis
[36] in medicine [37], and in physics [38].
Definition 1.2.1. If X is a non-empty set, a collection τ ⊆ P( X ) is
said to be a topology on X if the following condition holds:
(1) X and φ belongs to τ.

1.2 11
(2) The intersection of a finite numbers of elements in τ, is in τ.
(3) The union of any number of sets in τ belongs to τ.
Then ( X, τ ) is called a topological space.
Definition 1.2.2. If X is a set, a basis for a topology on X is a collec-
tion β of subsets of X such that
(1) For each x ∈ X there is at least one basis element B containing x.
(2) If x belongs to the intersection of two basis elements B1 and B2
then there is a basis element B3 containing x such that B3 ⊆ B1 ∩ B2 .
Definition 1.2.3. A subbase S for a topology on X is a collection
of subsets of X whose union equals X. The topology generated by
the subbasis S is defined to be the collection of all unions of finite
intersections of elements of S.
Definition 1.2.4. Let X be a non-empty set and let τ be the collec-
tion of all subsets of X. Then τ is called the discrete topology on
the set X. The topological space ( X, τ ) is called a discrete space. If
τ={ X, φ}. Then τ is called the indiscrete topology and the topolog-
ical space ( X, τ ) is said to be an indiscrete space.
Definition 1.2.5. Let ( X, τ ) be any topological space. Then the mem-
bers of τ are said to be open sets.

1.2 12
Proposition 1.2.6. If ( X, τ ) is any topological space, then
(1) X and φ are open sets,
(2) the union of any (finite or infinite) number of open sets is an open set,
and
(3) the intersection of any finite number of open sets is an open set.
Definition 1.2.7. Let ( X, τ ) be a topological space. A subset S of X
is said to be a closed set in ( X, τ ) if its complement in X, namely Sc ,
is open in ( X, τ ).
Proposition 1.2.8. If ( X, τ ) is any topological space, then
(1) X and φ are closed sets,
(2) the intersection of any (finite or infinite) number of closed sets is a closed
set, and
(3) the union of any finite number of closed sets is a closed set.
Definition 1.2.9. Let ( X, τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X. The
closure of A denoted by Cl ( A) is defined as the smallest closed set
that contains A. It is thus the intersection of all closed sets that
contain A.
interior of A denoted by Int( A) is defined as the largest open set

1.2 13
contained in A. It is thus the union of all open sets contained in A.
boundary of A is defined as the set b( A)=Cl ( A) − Int( A).
Definition 1.2.12. Let ( X, τ ) be a topological space and x ∈ X be
an arbitrary point. A neighborhood of x is simply an open set that
contains x.
Remark 1.2.13. Obviously, Int( A) be an open set and Cl ( A) is a
closed set, furthermore Int( A) ⊆ A ⊆ Cl ( A) for any subset A of
a topological space X.
Theorem 1.2.14. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then
(i) x ∈ Cl ( A) if and only if every open set U containing x intersects A.
(ii) Supposing the topology of X is given by a basis β , then x ∈ Cl ( A) if
and only if every basis element B containing x intersects A.
Definition 1.2.15. Let X be a non-empty set and a closure operator
Cl : P( X ) → P( X ) such that:
(i) I f A ⊆ B, then Cl ( A) ⊆ Cl ( B).
(ii) A ⊆ Cl ( A).
(iii) Cl ( A ∪ B)=Cl ( A) ∪ Cl ( B).

1.2 14
(iv) Cl (Cl ( A))=Cl ( A).
Definition 1.2.16. Let X be a non-empty set and an interior operator
Int : P( X ) → P( X ) such that:
(i) Int( A) ⊆ A for any set A.
(ii) I f A ⊆ B, then Int( A) ⊆ Int( B).
(iii) Int( A ∩ B)=Int( A) ∩ Int( B).
(iv) Int( Int( A))=Int( A).
Theorem 1.2.17. Let ( X, τ ) be a topological space, if L and K are two
subsets of X then :
(i) b( L)=Cl ( L) − Int( L).
(ii) b( L) ∩ Int( L)=φ.
(iii) b( L) ∪ Int( L)=Cl ( L).
(iv) B( B( L)) ⊆ B( L).
(v) b( L ∪ K ) ⊆ b( L) ∪ b(K ).
(vi) b( L ∩ K ) ⊆ b( L) ∪ b(K ).
In general topology, most of separation axioms and its applica-

tions are studied by many authors as ([39]-[43]).
1.2 15
Definition 1.2.18. A topological space ( X, τ ) is said to be a T0 -space
if for any pair of distinct points of X, there exist at least one open
set which contains one of them but not the other.
Definition 1.2.19. A topological space ( X, τ ) is said to be a T1 -space
if for any pair of distinct points of X, there exist two open sets
U, V ∈ τ such that x ∈ U, y ∈
/ U and x ∈
/ V, y ∈ V.
Definition 1.2.20. A topological space ( X, τ ) is said to be a Haus-
dorff space or T2 -space if for each pair of distinct points can be sep-
arated by disjoint open set.
Definition 1.2.21. A topological space ( X, τ ) is said to be a regular
space if for every non-empty closed set F and a point x which does
not belongs to F, there exist open sets U and V, such that x ∈ U,
F ⊆ Uand U ∩ V = φ.
If a space is regular and T1 -space, then it is called T3 -space.
Definition 1.2.22. A topological space ( X, τ ) is said to be a normal
space if and only if for each pair A, B of disjoint closed subsets of X,
there is a pair U, V of disjoint open subsets of X such that A ⊆ U,
B ⊆ V and U ∩ V = φ.
A normal T1 -space is called a T4 -space.

1.3 16
Proposition 1.2.23. If G=(V, E) is a connected graph with a topological
space (V ( G ), τ ). If P1 and P2 are paths, then :
(1) V ( P1 ) ⊆ Cl (V ( P1 ))
(2) If P1 ⊆ P2 , then Cl (V ( P1 )) ⊆ Cl (V ( P2 ))
1.3 Relation Terminology
The concept of relations ([44]-[51]) is very useful not only in the-

oretical studies but also, on a great wide, in practical applications.
It represents a key for bridging from real-life data to mathematical
models such as Graph theory and Topological structures. More-
over, these nations will affect the process of represents topologies
or topological concepts via relations.
Definition 1.3.1. The binary relation R from the set A to the set B is
a subset from A × B, i.e, R ⊆ A × B. So R is a set of ordered pairs.
We often write aRb to mean that( a, b) ∈ R and ( a, b) ∈

/ R to denote
a is not related to b, where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
Example 1.3.2. Let A= cities of the world, B= countries of the world and
R={( a, b) : a is the capital city of b }. Thus aRb denotes (a is the capi-
tal city of b). For example ( Paris) R( France), ( Moscow) R( Russia) and
( Tirana) R( Albania).
1.3 17
1.3.1 Some Properties of Relations
Once we have model something abstractly as a relation, we can

talk about its properties without referring to the original problem
domain. For a relation on a set A there are several standard prop-
erties of relations that occur commonly. Later on, we will use these
properties to classify different types of relations.
Definition 1.3.3. A binary relation R on A is called :
(1) Reflexive if aRa, for every a ∈ A.
(2) Symmetric if aRb → bRa, for every a, b ∈ A.
(3) Antisymmetric if aRb and bRa → a = b, for every a, b ∈ A.
(4) Asymmetric if aRb → bR/a, for every a, b ∈ A.
(5) Transitive if aRb and bRc → aRc, for a, b, c ∈ A.
The difference between antisymmetric and asymmetric relations

is that antisymmetric relations may contain pairs ( a, a), i.e., ele-
ments can be in relations with themselves. While in an asymmetric
relation this is not allowed. Clearly, any asymmetric relation is also
antisymmetric, but not vice versa.
There are many different ways of representing relations. We usu-
ally use graphs to illustrate it. We can draw a picture of a relation
R ⊆ A × B by drawing a dot (or a vertex) for every element of A, a
dot (or a vertex) for every element of B, and an arrow (or an edge)
from a ∈ A to b ∈ B if and only if aRb. Such a picture is called a
graph. The graph may contain loops, i.e., arrows (or edges) from a
1.3 18
dot (or a vertex) to itself, associated to the elements a such that ( a, a)

is in the relation.
Example 1.3.4. Let X={ a, b, c, d} and the relation is
R={( a, b), (b, a), ( a, c), (c, a), (b, c), (c, b), (c, d), (d, c)}. These relation
R represented by the graph in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 Represent relation.
We now consider how we can recognize whether a relation sat-

isfies any of these properties of its graph. Firstly, if R is a reflexive
relation on a finite set A then aRa for every a ∈ A. This means
that, in the graph of R, there is an edge from every vertex to itself
(i.e, loop). If R is symmetric then every edge connecting different
points in its directed graph (or undirected graph). This is because
an edge from a to b means that aRb, but if R is symmetric this im-
plies that bRa as well so that, the edge must also go from b to a. For
an antisymmetric relation, the directed graph is such that there are
no bidirectional edges connecting different points. This is because
for distinct elements a and b of A we cannot have both aRb and bRa
but it does not allow in undirected graph. The properties satisfied
by the directed graph (or undirected graph) of a transitive relation
1.4 19
are less obvious still. We can describe the property reasonably eas-
ily. If three points are such that there are edges from the first to the
second and from the second to the third, then there must also be an
edge from the first to the third.
Example 1.3.5. From Example 1.3.4, we conclude that:
(1) R is not reflexive, since there is no loops.
(2) R is symmetric, but not antisymmetric, since every edge connecting
distinct vertices is bidirectional.
(3) R is not transitive.
One of the most important types of relation is an equivalence re-

lation on a set.
Definition 1.3.6. A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation
if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Definition 1.3.7 ([52]). Let X = {1, 2, 3, ..., n} be a set, a transforma-
tion Sn on X can be defined as a bijective function from X to X i.e,
f : X → X, the number of transformation of Sn =n!.
1.4 Fractals
Fractals ([53],[54]) are all around us, in the shape of mountain

range or the windings of a coast line. Like cloud formations and
flickering fires some fractals undergo never ending changes while
1.4 20
others, like trees retain the structure they acquired in their devel-
opment. The mathematical concept of a fractal characterizes objects
with structures on various scales, large as well as small. There are
one important idealization involved: fractal objects are self-similar,
i.e, they do not change their appearance significantly when viewed
under a microscope of arbitrary magnifying power. Also, fractals
are geometric figures, just like rectangles, circles and squares, but
fractals have special properties that those figures do not have. The
concept of fractal was in the description of nature. A fractal is an
object that displays self-similarity at various scales.
Figure 1.8 An Example of Julia Set

Chapter 2
New types of topological structures
via graphs
The concept of graph theory is used widely in many aspects of

practical and theory and most of the studies related to the graph the-
ory are studying separately from the topological structure. There-
fore, this chapter aims to link the graph theory and topological struc-
ture by present a relation on graphs that induces new types of topo-
logical structures to the graph and then apply this structure to study
some of the properties of this graph. Also, we investigate an algo-
rithm to generate the topological structures from different graphs.
Some application in medicine and geography will be given and we
verify our results in the real life. In Section 2.1, we introduce new
types of relations on a given graph. The purpose of Section 2.2, is
to use a relation to introduce a topological structure on the graph.
Finally, the main goal of Section 2.3, is to give an algorithm to gen-
erate the topological structure and investigate some applications.
21
2.1 22
2.1 Relations on graphs
Relation represents a key for bridging from real-life data to math-

ematical models such as graph theory and topological structures. It
helps to simplify connection between real life problems and these
models.
Definition 2.1.1. Let x be a vertex in a graph G=(V, E) which con-
tains m loops and n multiple edges. Then the degree of a vertex x is
degG (V ( G ))={(degG ( x )) x : x ∈ V ( G )}, where
(degG ( x )) x =(2m x + n x ) x , where m x is the number of loops of a ver-

tex x, and n x is the number of multiple edges of a vertex x.
Definition 2.1.2. A relation R on a graph G=(V ( G ), E( G )) is a sub-
set from degG (V ( G )) × degG (V ( G )), i.e, R ⊆ degG (V ( G )) × degG (V ( G )).
So R is defined as R={((2m x + n x ) x , (2my + ny )y ) : x, y ∈ V ( G )},
where m x , my are the number of loops of vertices x and y, respec-
tively, and n x , ny are the number of multiple edges of vertices x and
y, respectively.
Remark 2.1.3. If G is a simple graph, then the relation R on G takes
the form R={((degG ( x )) x , (degG (y))y ) : x, y ∈ V ( G )}.
Remark 2.1.4. From Definition 2.1.2, we have
(i) If m=0 which means there is no loops in G, then the relation on G

2.1 23
can be written as R={((n x ) x , (ny )y ) : x, y ∈ V ( G )}, where n x , ny are
the number of multiple edges of vertices x and y, respectively.
(ii) If n=1 and m=0 means there is no multiple edges and no loops in
G, then the relation in G can be written as
R={(1x , 1y ) : x, y ∈ V ( G )}.
(iii) If G is directed and simple graph, then R={(1x , 1y )=( x, y) : x, y ∈
V ( G )}. If G is undirected graph, then the relation can be written as
R={(1x , 1y )=( x, y)or (y, x ) : x, y ∈ V ( G )}.
Example 2.1.5. Let G be a non simple and undirected graph as shown in
Figure 2.1. The relation R on G has the form
Figure 2.1 A pesudograph G
R={(7a , 6b ), (6b , 7a ), (7a , 6e ), (6e , 7a ), (6b , 10c ), (10c , 6b ), (10c , 6d ), (6d , 10c ),
(6d , 6b ), (6b , 6d ), (6d , 6e ), (6e , 6d ), (7a , 7a ), (6e , 6e ), (10c , 10c )}. We note that
the relation R on G is :
(i) R is not reflexive because (6b , 6b ) is not exist.

2.1 24
(ii) R is symmetric.
(iii) R is not antisymmetric because there exist aRb and bRa, but a 6= b.
(iv) R is not transitive.
Example 2.1.6. Let G be a non simple graph which has multiple edges
and no loops as shown in Figure 2.2. The relation R on G has the form
Figure 2.2 A multigraph G
R={(3a , 6b ), (6b , 3a ), (3a , 4e ), (4e , 3a ), (6b , 4c ), (4c , 6b ), (4c , 7d ), (7d , 4c ),
(6b , 7d ), (7d , 6b ), (7d , 4e )}. We note that the relation R on G is :
(i) R is not reflexive because there are no loops.
Example 2.1.7. Let G be a simple graph which has no loops and no mul-
tiple edges as shown in Figure 2.3. The relation R on G has the form
2.1 25
Figure 2.3 A simple graph G
R={( a, b), (b, a), ( a, e), (e, a), (b, c), (c, b), (c, d), (d, c), (d, b), (b, d),
(d, e), (e, d)}. We note that the relation R on G is :
(i) R is not reflexive because there are no loops.
Example 2.1.8. Let G be a graph which has loops and no multiple edges,
as shown in Figure 2.4. The relation R on G has the form
R={(4a , 4b ), (4b , 4a ), (4a , 5d ), (5d , 4a ), (4b , 5c ), (5c , 4b ), (5c , 5d ), (5d , 5c ),
(5c , 4e ), (4e , 5c ), (4e , 5d ), (5d , 4e ), (4a , 4a ), (4b , 4b ), (5c , 5c ), (5d , 5d ), (4c , 4c )}.
We note that the relation R on G is :
(i) R is reflexive.
2.2 26
Figure 2.4 A graph G with no multiple edges
Remark 2.1.9. The relation R in a simple graph as in Example 2.1.7
is a special case from the relation on a pesudograph as in Example
2.1.5 and the relation on multigraph as in Example 2.1.6. Also the
relation R on the multigraph in Example 2.1.6 and the relation on
simple graph as in Example 2.1.7 is a special case of the relation of
a pesudograph as in Example 2.1.5.
2.2 Topological structure on graphs
In this section, we use the relations in Section 2.1 to define some

topological structures which will be topological spaces. For this
purpose, we state some basic notions in general topology such as
subbases and bases in point set topology via our given relations.
2.2 27
Definition 2.2.1. Let G=(V ( G ), E( G )) be a graph and R be any re-
lation on G. Then for each vi ∈ V ( G ), where i ∈ I, we define the
post class for each vi which will be the open neighborhood of vi in
R and is denoted by vi R. We construct a subbase for a topology by
SG ={vi R : vi ∈ V ( G ), i ∈ I }. We define a base β G using the finite in-
tersection of members of SG . From the arbitrary union of members
of β G , we have the topological structure τG on G.
In the following theorem, we construct a topological graph from

a topological structure which given by Definition 2.2.1.
Theorem 2.2.2. Each topological structure τG on a graph G is topological
graph.
Proof. Let τG be a topological structure for a graph G. Now, we
prove that τG is a topological graph.
(i) Since X=∪i∈ I Bi , where Bi ∈ β G , then Bi =∩in=1 Si , where Si ∈ SG
and Si =vi R, v ∈ X. Then X=∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 vi R), and so X ∈ τG . Also, it
is clear that φ ∈ τG by complement of X.
(ii) Let Ai ∈ τG , Ai =∪i∈ I Bi , where Bi ∈ β G , Bi =∩in=1 Si , where Si ∈
SG , Si =vi R, v ∈ Ai , then Ai =∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 vi R), where vi R={degG ( ar ) ar ,
r ∈ I } and Ai =∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 degG ( ar ) ar ), then ∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 degG ( ar ) ar ) ∈ τG ,
where ar are all the adjacent vertices of vi and ∪i∈ I Ai ∈ τG .

2.2 28
(iii) Let Ai , Ci ∈ τG , Ai =∪i∈ I Bi , where Bi ∈ β G , Bi =∩in=1 Si , where Si ∈
SG , Si =vi R, v ∈ Ai , then Ai =∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 vi R). Then Ci =∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 vi R),
there are two cases :
Case I: If there are no elements in intersection, i.e, Ai ∩ Ci =φ, since
φ ∈ τG , then Ai ∩ Ci ∈ τG .
Case II: If there exist elements in intersection Ai ∩ Ci , then we denote
it {yn : n ∈ N }. So {yn } ∈ vi R, Ai =∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 vi R) and Ci =∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 vi R).
So {yn : n ∈ N } one of these classes.
Therefore {yn : n ∈ N } ∈ τG .
Let us give some examples to explain the above theorem.
Example 2.2.3. Let G1 be a graph as in Example 2.1.5. We construct a
topological space as follows :
The post classes of the vertices are the following:
(7a ) R={6b , 6e },
(6b ) R={7a , 10c , 7d },
(10c ) R={6b , 7d },
(7d ) R={6b , 10c , 6e },
(6e ) R={7a , 7d }. Then, a subbase of a topology is
SG1 ={{6b , 6e }, {7a , 10c , 7d }, {6b , 7d }, {6b , 10c , 6e }, {7a , 7d }}. The base is
β G1 ={ X, φ, {6b , 6e }, {7a , 10c , 7d }, {6b , 7d }, {6b , 10c , 6e }, {7a , 7d }, {6b },

2.2 29
{7d }, {10c }}. Therefore, the topological graph on G will be

τG1 ={ X, φ, {6b , 6e }, {7a , 10c , 7d }, {6b , 7d }, {6b , 10c , 6e }, {7a , 7d }, {6b },
{7d }, {10c }, {6b , 7d , 6e }, {7a , 10c , 6b , 7d }, {6b , 10c , 7d , 6e }, {6b , 10c },

{10c , 7d }, {7a , 6b , 7d , 6e }, {7a , 6b , 7d }, {6b , 10c , 7d }}.
The post classes of the vertices are the following :
(3a ) R={6b , 4e },
(6b ) R={3a , 4c , 7d },
(4c ) R={6b , 7d },
(7d ) R={6b , 4c , 4e },
(4e ) R={3a , 7d }.
Then, a subbase of a topology is SG2 ={ {6b , 4e },{3a , 4c , 7d },
{6b , 7d },{6b , 4c , 4e },{3a , 7d } }. The base is β G2 ={ X, φ, {6b , 4e }

, {3a , 4c , 7d }, {6b , 7d }, {6b , 4c , 4e }, {3a , 7d }, {6b }, {7d }, {4c }}.
Therefore, the topological graph on G will be
τG2 ={ X, φ, {6b , 4e }, {3a , 4c , 7d }, {6b , 7d }, {6b , 4c , 4e }, {3a , 7d }, {6b },
{ 7d } , { 4c } , { 6b , 7d , 4e } , { 3 a , 4c , 6b , 7d } , { 6b , 4c , 7d , 4e } , { 6b , 4c } , { 4c , 7d } ,
{3a , 6b , 7d , 4e }, {3a , 6b , 7d }, {6b , 4c , 7d }}.

2.2 30
The post classes of the vertices are the following :
aR={b, e},
bR={ a, c, d},
cR={b, d},
dR={b, c, e},
dR={b, c, e},
eR={ a, d}. Then, a subbase is
SG3 ={{b, e}, { a, c, d}, {b, d}, {b, c, e}, { a, d}}.
The base is β G3 ={ X, φ, {b, e}, { a, c, d}, {b, d}, {b, c, e}, { a, d},
{b}, {d}, {c}}. Therefore, the topological graph on G will be

τG3 ={ X, φ, {b, e}, { a, c, d}, {b, d}, {b, c, e}, { a, d}, {b}, {d}, {c},
{b, d, e}, { a, c, b, d}, {b, c, d, e}, {b, c}, {c, d}, { a, b, d, e}, { a, b, d},
{b, c, d}}.
Remark 2.2.6. In Example 2.2.3 (Example 2.2.4, Example 2.2.5), the
generated topology is a topological structure on a pseudograph G1
(a multigraph G2 , a simple graph G3 ).

In the following, every element in the class τG is called open set
and its complement is said to be closed set. In this case each Ai ∈ τG
has the form : {Ai ∈ τG : Ai =∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 vi R)=∪i∈ I (∩nj=1 (degG ( ar )) ar ))}
for all r ∈ I, where ar are all the adjacent vertices of vi and its com-
plement has the form : Fi =∩i∈ I (∪nj=1 vi R)=∩i∈ I (∪nj=1 (degG ( ar )) ar )).
2.2 31
The following example shows the closed sets of τG .
Example 2.2.7. From Example 2.2.5, the closed sets of the topology τG is
F={φ, X, { a, c, d}, {b, e}, { a, c, e}, { a, d}, {b, c, e}, { a, c, d, e},
{ a, b, c, e}, { a, b, d, e}, { a, c}, {e}, { a}, { a, d, e}, { a, b, e}, {c}}.
In the following, we define the form of topological operators for

τG such as closure and interior.
Definition 2.2.8. Let G=(V, E) be a graph and H be a subgraph of
G. Then the closure of V ( H ) has the form
ClG (V ( H ))= V ( H ) ∪ { x ∈ V ( G ) : xR ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ}.
Definition 2.2.9. Let G=(V, E) be a graph and H be a subgraph of
G. Then the interior of V ( H ) has the form
IntG (V ( H ))={ x ∈ V ( G ) : xR ⊆ V ( H )}.
Example 2.2.10. From Example 2.2.3, let H be a subgraph of G with
vertices V ( H )={7a , 6e }. Then (6b ) R={7a , 10c , 7d }, (10c ) R={6b , 7d } and
(7d ) R={6e , 6b , 10c }. So (6b ) R ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ, (10c ) R ∩ V ( H )=φ and

(7d ) R ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ. Then ClG (V ( H ))=V ( H ) ∪ {6b , 7d }={7a , 6b , 7d , 6e }
and IntG (V ( H ))=φ.
vertices V ( H )={3a , 4e }. Then (6b ) R={3a , 4c , 7d }, (4c ) R={6b , 7d } and
(7d ) R={4e , 6b , 4c }. So (6b ) R ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ, (4c ) R ∩ V ( H )=φ and

2.2 32
(7d ) R ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ. Then ClG (V ( H ))=V ( H ) ∪ {6b , 7d }={3a , 6b , 7d , 4e }

and IntG (V ( H ))=φ.
vertices V ( H )={ a, e}. Then bR={ a, c, d}, cR={b, d} and dR={e, b, c}.
So bR ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ, cR ∩ V ( H )=φ and dR ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ.
Then ClG (V ( H ))=V ( H ) ∪ {b, d}={ a, b, d, e} and IntG (V ( H ))=φ.
Proposition 2.2.13. Let G=(V, E) be a graph with a topological graph
(V ( G ), τG ). If H and K are subgraphs of G, then :
(1) V ( H ) ⊆ ClG (V ( H )).
(2) If H ⊆ K, then ClG (V ( H )) ⊆ ClG (V (K )).
Proof. (1) Let v ∈ V ( H ), By Definition 2.2.8
ClG (V ( H ))= V ( H ) ∪ { x ∈ V ( G ) : xR ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ}.
Then V ( H ) ∈ ClG (V ( H )).
(2) From (1), V ( H ) ⊆ ClG (V ( H )) and V (K ) ⊆ ClG (V (K )). Since
H ⊆ K, then V ( H ) ⊆ V (K ). Therefore ClG (V ( H )) ⊆ ClG (V (K )).
Example 2.2.14. From Example 2.2.5, if H and K are subgraphs of G.
V ( H )={ a, e}, V (K )={ a, b, d, e}, H ⊆ K, ClG (V ( H ))={ a, b, d, e},
ClG (V (K ))={ a, b, d, e, c}. Then the Proposition 2.2.13 is satisfied.

2.2 33
(i) If H ⊆ G, then IntG (V ( H )) ⊆ V ( H )
(ii) If H ⊆ K, then IntG (V ( H )) ⊆ IntG (V (K )).
(iii) IntG (V ( H ) ∩ V (K ))=IntG (V ( H )) ∩ IntG (V (K )).
Proof. (i) Since V ( H ) ⊆ V ( G ), then by Definition 2.2.9,
IntG (V ( H ))={ x ∈ V ( G ) : xR ⊆ V ( H )}. This means that
IntG (V ( H )) ⊆ V ( H )
(ii) Since V ( H ) ⊆ V (K ), then by Definition 2.2.9,
IntG (V ( H ))= { x ∈ V ( G ) : xR ⊆ V ( H )}
⊆ {v ∈ V ( G ) : vR ⊆ V ( H ) ⊆ V (K )}
⊆ IntG V (K ).
Therefore IntG (V ( H )) ⊆ IntG (V (K )).
(iii) From (i), it is clear that Int(V ( H ) ∩ V (K ) ⊆ V ( H ) ∩ V (K ). Then
by Definition 2.2.9, if v ∈ IntG (V ( H ) ∩ V (K )), then v ∈ V ( G ), such
that vR ⊆ V ( H ) ∩ V (K ). Then vR ⊆ V ( H ) and vR ⊆ V (K ). There-
fore v ∈ IntG (V ( H )) and v ∈ IntG (V (K )). Then
v ∈ IntG (V ( H )) ∩ IntG (V (K )). On the other hand, we prove that
IntG (V ( H )) ∩ IntG (V (K )) ⊆ IntG (V ( H ) ∩ V (K ).
Let v ∈ IntG (V ( H )) ∩ IntG (V (K )). Then v ∈ IntG (V ( H )) and

2.2 34
v ∈ IntG (V (K )), by Definition 2.2.9, for all v ∈ V ( G ) such that
vR ⊆ V ( H ) and for all v ∈ V ( G ) such that vR ⊆ V (K ). Then for all
v ∈ V ( G ) such that vR ⊆ V ( H ) ∩ V (K ).
Therefore v ∈ IntG (V ( H ) ∩ V (K )). The proof is complete.
Example 2.2.16. In Example 2.2.5, if H and K are subgraphs of G. V ( H )={ a, e},
V (K )={ a, b, d, e}, H ⊆ K, IntG (V ( H ))={ a, e}, IntG (V (K ))={ a, b, d, e}.
Then the Proposition 2.2.15 is satisfied.
Remark 2.2.17. Let G=(V, E) be a graph with a topological graph
(V ( G ), τG ). If H is a subgraph of G, then ClG (ClG (V ( H ))) 6= ClG (V ( H )).

The following example shows this remark.
Example 2.2.18. From Example 2.2.5, let H be a subgraph of G. V ( H )={ a, e},
ClG (V ( H ))={ a, b, d, e} and ClG (ClG (V ( G )))={ a, b, c, d, e}.
Then ClG (ClG (V ( H ))) 6= ClG (V ( H )).
(V ( G ), τG ). If H and K are subgraphs of G, then

ClG (V ( H ) ∪ V (K ))=ClG (V ( H )) ∪ ClG (V (K )).
Proof. From Proposition 2.2.13, it is clear that
V ( H ) ∪ V (K ) ⊆ ClG (V ( H ) ∪ V (K )). If v ∈ ClG (V ( H ) ∪ V (K )), then
by Definition 2.2.8, v ∈ V ( H ) ∪ V (K ) or vR ∩ (V ( H ) ∪ V (K )) 6= φ.
Then v ∈ V ( H ) or v ∈ V (K ) or vR ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ or vR ∩ V (K ) 6= φ.
2.2 35
Thus (v ∈ V ( H )orvR ∩ V ( H ) 6= φ) or (v ∈ V (K ) or vR ∩ V (K ) 6=
φ). Then v ∈ ClG (V ( H )) or v ∈ ClG (V (K )).
Therefore v ∈ ClG (V ( H )) ∪ ClG (V (K )).
Hence, ClG (V ( H ) ∪ V (K )) ⊆ ClG (V ( H )) ∪ ClG (V (K )).
The other inclusion follows from Proposition 2.2.13.
The proof is complete.
We explain Proposition 2.2.19, from the following example.
Example 2.2.20. From Example 2.2.5, if H and K are subgraphs of G.
V ( H )={ a, e}, V (K )={ a, b, d, e}, V ( H ) ∪ V (K )={ a, b, d, e},
ClG (V ( H ∪ K ))={ a, b, c, d, e}, ClG (V ( H ))={ a, b, d, e},
ClG (V (K ))={ a, b, c, d, e}, ClG (V ( H )) ∪ ClG (V (K ))={ a, b, c, d, e}.
In the following, we state some properties of interior and closure

operators on graphs.
(1) ClG (V ( G ) − V ( H ))=V ( G ) − IntG (V ( H )).
(2) IntG (V ( G ) − V ( H ))=V ( G ) − ClG (V ( H )).
Proof. (1) Let v ∈ V ( G ) − V ( H ), then v ∈ V ( G ) and v ∈

/ V ( H ). Then
by Proposition 2.2.15, v ∈
/ IntG (V ( H )). So v ∈ V ( G ) − IntG (V ( H )).
On the other hand, let v ∈ V ( G ) − IntG (V ( H )), then v ∈ V ( G )

2.2 36
and by Definition 2.2.9, v ∈

/ IntG (V ( H )), then v ∈ V ( G ) and vR *
V ( H ), for all v ∈ V ( G ). So v ∈ V ( G ) and v ∈

/ V ( H ). This means
that v ∈ V ( G ) − V ( H ) and so V ( G ) − V ( H ) ⊆ ClG (V ( G ) − V ( H )).
Therefore V ( G ) − IntG (V ( H ))=ClG (V ( G ) − V ( H )).
(2) Let v ∈ IntG (V ( G ) − V ( H )). Then by Definition 2.2.9, for all
v ∈ V ( G ) such that vR ⊆ V ( G ) − V ( H ). Then vR ⊆ V ( G ) and vR *
V ( H ). This means that v ∈ IntG (V ( G )) and vR ∩ V ( H )=φ. Then
v ∈ V ( G ) and v ∈
/ ClG (V ( H )). Therefore v ∈ V ( G ) − ClG (V ( H )).
The proof is complete.
Example 2.2.22. From Example 2.2.5, if H is a subgraph of G and V ( H )={ a, e},
V ( G ) − V ( H )={b, c, d}, then ClG (V ( G ) − V ( H ))={ a, b, c, d, e}.
Remark 2.2.23. Let G=(V, E) be a graph with a topological graph
(V ( G ), τG ). If H is a subgraph of G, then
IntG ( IntG (V ( H ))) 6= IntG (V ( H )).
The following example show this result.
Example 2.2.24. Let G=(V, E) be a graph as shown in Figure 2.5. Let
V ( A) ⊆ V ( G ) and V ( A)={ a, b, c, d, g}, then IntG (V ( A))={b, c, g}.
IntG ( IntG (V ( A)))={ g}, then IntG (V ( A)) 6= IntG ( IntG (V ( A))).
Example 2.2.25. From Example 2.2.24, If H and K are subgraphs of
G. We construct its interior properties. Let V (K )={d, e, c, f , g} and

2.3 37
Figure 2.5 A simple graph G
V ( H )={d, c, e, g}.
(i) V ( H ) ⊆ V (K ), IntG (V ( H ))={d, g} and IntG (V (K ))= {d, f , g}, then
IntG (V ( H )) ⊆ IntG (V (K )).
(ii) V ( H ) ∩ V (K )={e, d, c, g} and IntG (V ( H ) ∩ V (K )={d, g}.
Since IntG (V ( H ))={d, g} and IntG (V (K ))={d, f , g}, then
IntG (V ( H )) ∩ IntG (V (K ))={d, g}.
Then IntG (V ( H ) ∩ V (K )) =IntG (V ( H )) ∩ IntG (V (K )).
Theorem 2.2.26. If G=(V, E) is a connected graph with a topological
graph (V ( G ), τG ). If P1 , P2 are paths in G=(V, E), then:
(1) V ( P1 ) ⊆ ClG (V ( P1 ))
(2) If P1 ⊆ P2 , then ClG (V ( P1 )) ⊆ ClG (V ( P2 ))
Proof. It is directly by Proposition2.2.19 and Proposition1.2.23.

2.3 38
2.3 Algorithm and some applications
In this section, we give an algorithm to evaluate the topological

structure from a graph based on the topological notions of subbase
and base. We represent a graph by its adjacency matrix in our algo-
rithm.
Algorithm
Input: A number of vertices of a graph G, Adjacency matrix of
V(G).
Output: A topology of G (τG ).
1.Insert a number of vertices of G.
2.for i ∈ n
Enter the name of vertices of a graph G.
end
3.for i ∈ n
for j ∈ n
Enter the of adjacency matrix of V ( G ).
end
end
4.for i ∈ n
for j ∈ n
Calculate a degree of V ( G ).
end
end
5.for i ∈ n
for j ∈ n
if(degree != 0)
2.3 39
class(i,j)=x(j).
R=(degree( x (i )) x(i) , degree( x ( j)) x( j) ).
end
end
end
6.for i ∈ n
for j ∈ n
if(class(i,j) != 0)
subbase=class(j).
end
end
end
7.for vi ∈ n
for v j ∈ n
base=subbase + intersection(vi , v j ).
end
end
8.for vi ∈ n
for v j ∈ n
if(union(vi , v j ) != (vi ||v j ))
vi , v j ∈ union.
union(vi , v j ) ∈ union.
end
topology = base + union(vi , v j ).
end
end
Now, we give two different examples. The first one shows the
2.3 40
blood circulation of a human body and the second shows the street
system of a community.
Example 2.3.1. We apply all the above results on a medical application.
We conclude that the graph must be connected for modifying the medical
state. Figure 2.6, shows a graph G, we can classify the heart into a set of
vertices and set of edges. So it’s easy to generate the topology τG on it.
Figure 2.6 The blood circulation of human body.
The post classes of the vertices are the following:
v1 R={v3 }, v2 R={v3 }, v3 R={v4 }, v4 R={v5 }, v5 R={v6 , v7 }, v6 R={v8 },
v7 R={v8 }, v8 R={v9 }, v9 R={v10 }. The subbase has a form
SG ={{v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 , v7 }, {v8 }, {v9 }, {v10 }}. The base has a form
β G ={V ( G ), φ, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 , v7 }, {v8 }, {v9 }, {v10 }}. Therefore
the topological graph in a graph G has a form
τG ={V ( G ), φ, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 , v7 }, {v8 }, {v9 }, {v10 }, {v3 , v4 }, {v3 , v5 },
2.3 41
{v3 , v6 , v7 }, {v3 , v8 }, {v3 , v9 }, {v3 , v10 }, {v4 , v5 }, {v4 , v6 , v7 }, {v4 , v8 },

{v4 , v9 }, {v4 , v10 }, {v5 , v6 , v7 }, {v5 , v8 }, {v5 , v9 }, {v5 , v10 }, {v6 , v7 , v8 },
{v6 , v7 , v9 }, {v6 , v7 , v10 }, {v8 , v9 }, {v8 , v10 }, {v9 , v10 }, {v3 , v4 , v5 },
{v3 , v4 , v6 , v7 }, {v3 , v4 , v8 }, {v3 , v4 , v9 }, {v3 , v4 , v10 }, {v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 },
{v3 , v4 , v5 , v8 }, {v3 , v4 , v5 , v9 }, {v3 , v4 , v5 , v10 }, {v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 },
{v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v9 }, {v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v10 }, {v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 , v9 },
{v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 , v10 }, {v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 , v9 , v10 },
{v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 }, {v4 , v5 , v8 }, {v4 , v5 , v9 }, {v4 , v5 , v10 },
{v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 }, {v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v9 }, {v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v10 },
{v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 , v9 }, {v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 , v10 },
{v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 , v9 , v10 }, {v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 }, {v5 , v6 , v7 , v9 },
{v5 , v6 , v7 , v10 }, {v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 , v9 }, {v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 , v10 },
{v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 , v9 , v10 }, {v6 , v7 , v8 , v9 }, {v6 , v7 , v8 , v10 },
{v6 , v7 , v8 , v9 , v10 }, {v8 , v9 , v10 }}.
Firstly, we can get the closure of the graph. If we assign a subgraph
H ={v1 , v2 , e1 , e2 }, which V ( H )={v1 , v2 }. We can conclude from the
definition of the closure that the resultant closure of the subgraph H is
ClG (V ( H ))={v1 , v2 , v3 }. Medically, when we apply this example in the
heart will find is true. Because the blood flow in a heart in a directed path
that’s mean that the blood must be pass through each successive point until
complete its cycle. But, if the blood stop. It will cause many problems as
2.3 42
heart failure that occurs if the heart can’t pump enough blood to the lungs
to pick up oxygen. Left-side heart failure occurs if the heart can’t pump
enough oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body.
Secondly, also we can get the interior of the graph by assigning subgraph
H={v4 , e4 , v5 , e6 , v6 , v7 }. We can conclude from the definition of the inte-
rior that the resultant interior of the subgraph H is the IntG (V ( H ))={v4 , v5 }.
In this case, we notice that the end point doesn’t exist. And this is a con-
tradiction for our medical application. But there is one part only we can
apply this example to it. This is the lung. Medically, some people have
medical problems in lungs like cancer, pulmonary edema, tuberculosis, etc.
So these people have to remove one of their lung surgically. This surgical
operation called a pneumonectomy obviously major lung surgery. Those
who don’t have heart/respiratory problems are candidates. It is a gift from
god to us that we can live with only one lung.
Example 2.3.2. We apply all the above results on a geographical appli-
cation. We conclude that the graph must be connected to modifying the
street state. Figure 2.7, shows a graph G that represents the street system
of a community, where the edges are streets and vertices are street inter-
sections. So it’s easy to generate the topology τG on it. The post classes of
the vertices are the following:

2.3 43
Figure 2.7 A graph representing a street system.
s1 R={s2 , s8 }, s2 R={s1 , s3 , s7 }, s3 R={s2 , s4 , s6 },
s4 R={s3 , s5 }, s5 R={s4 , s6 }, s6 R={s3 , s5 }, s7 R={s2 , s8 }, s8 R={s1 , s7 }. The
subbase has a form SG ={{s2 , s8 }, {s1 , s3 , s7 }, {s2 , s4 , s6 }, {s3 , s5 },
{s4 , s6 }, {s1 , s7 }}.

The base has a form β G ={V ( G ), φ, {s2 }, {s2 , s8 }, {s1 , s3 , s7 }, {s2 , s4 , s6 },
{s3 , s5 }, {s4 , s6 }, {s1 , s7 }}. Therefore the topological graph in a graph G

has a form τG ={V ( G ), φ, {s2 }, {s2 , s8 }, {s1 , s3 , s7 }, {s2 , s4 , s6 }, {s3 , s5 },
{ s4 , s6 }, { s1 , s7 }, { s1 , s2 , s7 }, { s2 , s3 , s5 }, { s1 , s2 , s3 , s7 }, { s1 , s2 , s7 , s8 },
{ s2 , s3 , s5 , s8 }, { s2 , s4 , s6 , s8 }, { s1 , s2 , s3 , s7 , s8 }, { s1 , s3 , s5 , s7 },
{ s1 , s4 , s6 , s7 }, { s1 , s2 , s4 , s6 , s7 }, { s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 }, { s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 },
{ s1 , s3 , s4 , s6 , s7 }, { s1 , s2 , s3 , s5 , s7 }, { s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s6 , s7 },
{ s1 , s2 , s3 , s5 , s7 , s8 }, { s1 , s2 , s4 , s6 , s7 , s8 }, { s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 , s8 },
{ s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s6 , s7 , s8 }, { s1 , s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 , s7 }, { s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 , s7 }.
The community wants to build an emergency facility at one of the inter-
sections so that the number of blocks needed to drive from the facility to the
2.3 44
intersection farthest from it will be as small as possible. Firstly, we can get
the interior of the graph by assigning subgraph H={s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , , s6 , s7 }.
We can conclude from the definition of the interior that the resultant inte-
rior of the subgraph H is the IntG (V ( H ))={s2 , s3 }. When we apply this
example on graphs, we can get the suitable position of emergency facility
by calculating the minimum eccentricity (radius) of a graph G is s2 or s3 ,
that confirm our result.
Secondly, also we can get the closure of the graph by assigning subgraph
H={s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , , s6 , s7 }. We can conclude from the definition of the clo-
sure that the resultant closure of the subgraph H is the
ClG (V ( H ))={s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 , s7 , s8 }=V ( G ), which mean that the graph
is connected.
Chapter 3
New types of graphs induced by
topological spaces
The topological space is the improvement of the geometric form

and recently became the best for any group of objects that have a re-
lationship in which can define the neighborhood and communica-
tion, for each graph we can create a topological structure. The pro-
cess of creating graphs from the topological spaces did not get much
attention. Therefore, in this chapter, some new forms of graphs from
its topological space will be established. We study the homeomor-
phism between topological spaces through a new sort of isomor-
phism between its graphs. We introduce a concept of a topologi-
cal graph with different examples and study some of its topological
and algebraic properties. The number of edges for some types of
topological graphs will be calculated and some examples will be il-
lustrated. Also, the given algorithm will investigate the degree of
each vertex of a graph from its topological space. We give a new
style of isomorphic between topological graphs. In Section 3.1, we
45
3.1 46
represent every class of sets by a graph. The purpose of Section 3.2,

is to generate a topological structure from a graph and study some
operation on it. Section 3.3, is devoted to giving an algorithm to
evaluate the graph from a topological space. Finally, the main goal
of Section 3.4, is to introduce a new way to represent an isomor-
phism between graphs.
3.1 The graphics class of sets
In this section, we represent every class of sets by a graph using a

special type of relation between this classes.
Definition 3.1.1. Let C1 ⊆ P( X ), C2 ⊆ P(Y ), C1 is parallel to C2
(sayC1 ∼ C2 ), if there exists a bijective function F : X → Y such that

for each A ∈ C1 , there exist B ∈ C2 such that F ( A)=B. If X=Y, then
C1 and C2 are parallel if there exist a transformation F : X → X,
such that F (C1 )=C2 .
Example 3.1.2. Let X={1, 2, 3} be a set, and C1 ={{3}, {1, 2}, {3, 1}},
C2 ={{1}, {2, 3}, {1, 2}} are parallel there exist F, such that F {3}={1},
F {1, 2}={2, 3}, F {3, 1}={1, 2}.

In the following, every class of sets can be represented by a graph.
A graph G can be represented by a class { A, B}, where | A ∩ B| is
singleton. If the edge set E( G ) contains r-edges, then | A ∩ B|=r,
where | A ∩ B| refers to the number of edges between classes A and
B. In general, every graph can be represented with many classes.
3.1 47
Example 3.1.3. The classes C1 ={{1}, {2}, {1, 2}},
C2 ={{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5}, {3, 4}}, C3 ={{3, 7}, {8, 9, 10}, {3, 10, 12}} of a set
X={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, represent the same graph as shown
in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 A graph of different classes.
Definition 3.1.4. If C={Ci : i ∈ I } is the set of all classes of a set X,
then C can be represented by the same graph G. The graph number
of a graph G is min{| ∪ Ci | : i ∈ I }. In other words, if G is a graph,
then the graph number of G = m, that means there is no number
r < m such that, | ∪ C |=r.
Example 3.1.5. From Example 3.1.3, ∪C1 ={1, 2}, ∪C2 ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
∪C3 ={3, 7, 8, 9, 12}. Then | ∪ C1 |=2 therefore the number of graph of C1

are 2.
Definition 3.1.6. Let G be a graph and vi , v j ∈ V ( G ), if vi is repre-
sented by a set A and v j is represented by a set B in a set graph
G. Then the number of edges between vi and v j is denoted by

3.1 48
N (vi , v j ) which is equal to | A ∩ B|. It is clear that N (vi , U )=| A| and
N ( v j , U )=| B |.
Theorem 3.1.7. If G1 and G2 are two graphs which are represented by two
parallel classes C1 and C2 respectively, then G1 and G2 are isomorphic.
Proof. If C1 , C2 be parallel classes, then there exist a bijective function
F from C1 to C2 i.e, F : C1 → C2 , such that F (C1 )=C2 , where C1 ={ Ai :
i ∈ I } and C2 ={ F ( Ai ) : i ∈ I }. Then every vertex VAi in G1 have a
corresponding vertex VF( Ai ) in G2 . So N (VAi , VA j )=| Ai ∩ A j |
=| F ( Ai ∩ A j )|=| F ( Ai ) ∩ F ( A j )|=N (VF( Ai ) , VF( A j ) ).
The converse of Theorem 3.1.7 may not be true as in the following

example.
Example 3.1.8. Two graphs C1 and C2 are isomorphic but the set graphs
can not be represented by two parallel classes as shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 Two isomorphic graphs.
Definition 3.1.9. The empty vertex v0 is a vertex in a graph G which
represents by empty set φ.

3.1 49
Definition 3.1.10. The universal vertex U is a vertex in a graph G
represented by a natural number n ∈ N. The class of the universal
vertex U adjacent with any nonempty vertex in its set graph.
Now, we explain that a class of sets represent a graph. Let A , B

be nonempty sets and | A|=m, | B|=n. Then a graph represented by a
class { A, B, A ∩ B, A ∪ B} as in the following cases :
Case 1 : If A ∩ B=φ, as shown in Figure 3.3.
Case 2 : If A ⊆ B, then | A ∩ B|=| A| and | A ∪ B|=| B|, as shown in
Figure 3.3 Disjoint graph sets.
Figure 3.4.
Case 3 : If A ∩ B 6= φ, 6= | A| and 6= | B| and | A ∩ B|=r , where r ∈ I,
Figure 3.4 Inclusion in graph sets.
as shown in Figure 3.5.

3.2 50
Figure 3.5 Intersection in graph sets.
Remark 3.1.11. Every set graph G is a subgraph from the graph rep-
resented by the class P( N ). Also, in any graph G we find a class
C ⊆ P( N ) represent this graph.
3.2 Some operations on topological graph
In this section, the set graphs will be represented by P( N ). The

union, intersection and superset between vertices are defined by :
1) VA ∪ VB =VA∪ B .
2) VA ∩ VB =VA∩ B .
3) VA ⊆ VB if and only if A ⊆ B.
Definition 3.2.1. A graph G is called a topological graph if there
exist a topology τ represent this graph.
Definition 3.2.2. A pseudograph P with degree n is a graph can be
represented by a topology for a set X={1, 2, 3, ...., n}.
Remark 3.2.3. In discrete graphs D, we delete only the loops in P. In

3.2 51
simple graphs, we put only one edge between two adjacent vertices
in D.
Theorem 3.2.4.
(i) The number of edges | E p ( G )| of a pseudograph G of the set
X={1, 2, ...., n} is equal to n ∗ 2n−2 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) + n ∗ 2n−1 .
(ii) The number of edges | Ed ( G )| of a discrete graph arising from a pseu-
dograph, this means that, by deleting loops in the pseudograph is equal to
n ∗ 2n −2 ∗ ( 2n −1 − 1 ) .
(iii) The number of edges | Es ( G )| of a simple graph arising from the discrete
graph, this means that, by letting one edge only joining to adjacent vertices
in the discrete graph is equal to 21 ∗ (22n − 2n − 3n + 1).
Figure 3.6 The relation between sets.
Proof. (i) Let A ⊂ X, | A|=m and | Ac |=n − m. Then degG (VA )
=∑ R(VA , VB ) + ∑ R(VA , VE ) + ∑ R(VA , VL ) + ∑ R(VA , VK )
=∑ | A ∩ B| + ∑ | A ∩ E| + ∑ |( A ∩ L| + ∑ | A ∩ K |
3.2 52
=∑ | B | + ∑ | A | + ∑ | A ∩ L |.
m −1 m −1 m −1 m −1) !
∑ | B| = ∑i=1 i ∗m Ci =∑i=1 i ∗ i!(mm!−i)! =m ∗ ∑i=1 (i−1)!(m−i)!
=m ∗ ∑im=−11 m−1 Ci−1 =m ∗ ∑m −2 m −1
j =0 ( Cj )=m ∗ ∑m −1 m −1
j =0 ( C j − 1)
=m ∗ (2m−1 − 1), since B ⊂ A, then ∑ | A|
=m ∗ (2m−1 − 1).
But A ⊂ E, then by complement ∑ | A|=m ∗ (2n−m − 1) and

m −1
∑ | A ∩ L|=(2n−m − 1) ∑i=1 im Ci =m ∗ (2n−m − 1)(2m−1 − 1).
So degG (VA )=m ∗ (2n−1 − 1) + 2m. It follows that the number of
edges of a pseudograph G is equal to
| E p ( G )|= 21 ∑nm=1 n Cm ∗ degG (VA ) = 12 ∑nm=1 n Cm ∗ (m ∗ (2n−1 − 1) + 2m)

= 21 ∑nm=1 n Cm ∗ m ∗ (2n−1 − 1) + 12 ∑nm=1 n Cm ∗ 2m
=n ∗ 2n−2 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) + ∑nm=1 m∗n Cm
=n ∗ 2n−2 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) + n ∗ ∑nm=1 n−1 Cm−1
=n ∗ 2n−2 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) + n ∗ ∑nj=−01 n−1 Cj
=n ∗ 2n−2 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) + n ∗ 2n−1 .
(ii) degG (VA )=m ∗ (2n−1 − 1). It follows that the number of edges of
a discrete graph is equal to
| Ed ( G )|= 12 ∗ ∑ A degG (VA )= 12 ∗ ∑ A n Cm ∗m ∗ (2n−1 − 1)

= 21 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) ∗ ∑nm=1 m∗n Cm
= 12 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) ∗ ∑nm=1 m∗n Cm

3.2 53
= 12 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) ∗ ∑nm=1 m ∗ m!(nn!−m)!
= n2 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) ∑nm=1 (m−1()n!− 1) !

∗(n−m)!)
= n2 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) ∗ ∑nm=1 n−1 Cm−1
= n2 ∗ (2n−1 − 1) ∗ ∑nj=−01 n−1 Cj
= n2 ∗ (2( n − 1) − 1) ∗ 2n−1
=n ∗ 2n−2 ∗ (2n−1 − 1).
(iii) degG (VA )=2n − 2n−m − 1. It follows that the number of edges of
a simple graph G is equal to
| Es ( G )|= n2 ∗ ∑nm=1 n Cm ∗ degG (VA )

= 12 ∗ ∑nm=1 n Cm ∗ (2n − 2n−m − 1)
= 12 ∗ (2n − 1) ∗ ∑nm=1 n Cm − 12 ∗ 2n ∗ ∑nm=1 n Cm ∗ 2−m
= 21 ∗ (2n − 1) ∗ (2n−1 − 1) − 2n−1 ∗ ∑nm=1 ( 12 )m ∗n Cm
= 12 ∗ (22n − 2n+1 + 1) − 2n−1 ∗ ((1 + 12 )n − 1)
= 12 ∗ ((22n − 2 ∗ 2n + 1) − (3n − 2n ))
= 12 ∗ (22n − 2n − 3n + 1).
Example 3.2.5. The number of edges of a pseudograph G, a discrete graph
and a simple graph of the set X = {1, 2, 3}.
| E p ( G )|=3 ∗ 23−2 (23−1 − 1) + 3 ∗ 23−1 =3 ∗ 2 ∗ 3 + 16=18 + 12 = 30.

| Ed ( G )|=3 ∗ 23−2 (23−1 − 1)=3 ∗ 2 ∗ 3 = 18.
| Es ( G )|= 12 (26 − 23 − 33 + 1)=15.
3.2 54
Theorem 3.2.6. Let G be a graph with the following conditions :
(i) G contains only one isolated vertex v0 .
(ii) G contains vertex v adjacent with every vertex in G/v0 and
N (vi , v)=N (vi , U ) < N (v, U ), for every vi ∈ G/v0 .
(iii) For every two distinct vertices vi ,v j ∈ V ( G ), then vi ∪ v j ∈ V ( G )
and vi ∩ v j ∈ V ( G ).
Proof. Every graph can be represented by many different classes.
Suppose that its graph number is m, then there exists a class τ ⊂
2{1,2,3,...,m} represent this graph. Let Ai ∈ τ represent vi and X ∈
τ represent V. Then N (vi , V )=N (vi , U ). So | A ∩ X |=| A ∩ N |=| A|,
where N={1, 2, .., m} this means that A ⊆ X, since every vertex in
G is a graph subset of V, i.e, for every vi ∈ V ( G ), vi ⊆ V, every
member in τ is a subset from X ∈ τ, then X=1, 2, ..., m. Now, let
vi , v j be two different vertices in V ( G ) represented by Ai , A j , where
{ Ai , A j } ∈ G, since vi ∪ v j ∈ V ( G ). Then Ai ∪ A j ∈ τ and vi ∩ v j ∈

V ( G ), then Ai ∩ A j ∈ τ, since φ represented v0 i.e, φ ∈ τ. This leads
to τ is a topology represented G.
In Theorem 3.2.6, we call G is a topological graph.
Theorem 3.2.7. The number of edges of the topological graph represented
by a topology τ={φ, {1}, {1, 2}, .., {1, 2, .., n}} is equal to
3.2 55
1 2
6 n(n − 1).
Proof. Let Am ={1, 2, 3, ..., m} , 1 < m < n,
degVAm =m ∗ (n − m) + ∑rm=−11 r=m(n − m) + 12 m(m − 1)
=mn − m2 + 12 m2 − 12 m=m ∗ n − 21 m2 − 12 ∗ m.
Then the number of edges are
| Edges|= 21 ∑nm=1 degVAm = 12 ∑nm=1 (mn − 12 m2 − 12 m)

= 12 ∗ n ∗ ∑nm=1 m- 14 ∗ ∑nm=1 m2 − 14 ∗ ∑nm=1 m
1
= n2 ∗ (n + 1) − 24 ∗ n ∗ (n + 1) ∗ (2n + 1) − 81 ∗ n ∗ (n + 1)
1
= 24 ∗ n ∗ (n + 1) ∗ (6n − 3 − 2n − 1)
1
= 24 ∗ n ∗ (n + 1) ∗ (4n − 4)
= 16 ∗ n ∗ (n2 − 1)=n+1 C3 .
Example 3.2.8. Let X={1, 2, 3} with a topology on X is
τ={φ, {1}, {1, 2}, {1, 2, 3}}. Then the number of edges is equal to
| E|= 16 ∗ 3 ∗ (9 − 1)= 4 as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7 A topological graph for three points.

3.2 56
Example 3.2.9. Let X={1, 2, 3, 4} with a topology on X is
τ={φ, {1}, {1, 2}, {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3, 4}}. Then the number of edges is equal
to | E|= 16 ∗ 4 ∗ (16 − 1)=10 as shown in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8 A topological graph for four points.
Remark 3.2.10. Every topological graph can be illustrated by a graph,
but the converse may not true in general as in the following
examples.
Example 3.2.11. A graph G is a topological graph and construct the topol-
ogy represent this graph as shown in Figure 3.9. The vertex v f isolated
vertex represented by φ, the vertex v a and vb one of them can be consider
as a vertex adjacent with all vertices except v f . Take v a is a vertex v rep-
resented by a set X. N (ve , v)=1, then the vertex ve represented by {1}.
N (vd , v)=2, then the vertex vd represented by {1, 2}. N (vc , v)=2, then
the vertex vc represented by {1, 3}. The vertex vb represented by {1, 2, 3}
and the vertex v a =v represented by {1, 2, 3, 4} for N (vb , v) < N (v, U ),

3.3 57
then the class τ={φ, {1}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 3, 4}}
is a topology on X={1, 2, 3, 4} and represent the graph G.
Figure 3.9 A graph which is a topological graph.
Example 3.2.12. The graph G is not topological graph. degG v a =4,
degG vb =3=degG vc , then v a =V, N (vb , vc )=1, but there is no elements be-
tween b and c. Then G is not a topological graph as shown in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10 A graph which is not topological graph.

3.3 58
3.3 Topological graph algorithm
In this section, we give an algorithm to evaluate the graph from a

topological space. We use the dimension of the topology. Also, we
calculate the degree of any dimension to get the number of edges
for a graph. We refer to dimension of member in any topology with
d, | X |=n and | A|=m for any A ⊆ X.
Algorithm
Input: d, n and m.
Output: Degree of each vertex.
1. Insert n,m.
2. for i ∈ n
Ai =insert di .
end
3. for i ∈ n
topology +=Ai .
end
4. Function(For a discrete graph )
degG VA∩ B =m(2m−1 − 1).
degG VA∩E =m(2n−m − 1).
degG VA∩ L =m(2n−m − 1)(2m−1 − 1).
degG VA =m(2n−1 − 1).
| Edges|=n2n−2 (2n−1 − 1).
end
5. Function(For a pseudograph )
degG VA =m(2n−1 − 1) + 2m.
| Edges|=n2n−2 (2n−1 − 1) + n2n−1 .
3.4 59
end
6. Function(For a simple graph )
degG VA =2n − 2n−m − 1.
| Edges|= 12 (22n − 2n − 3n + 1).
end
end
7. for i ∈ 2n
degG Vi =i ∗ n.
end
end
3.4 Isomorphism between Two topological graph
In this section, the isomorphic between graphs will be studied by

using the members of its topological spaces.
Example 3.4.1. The Peterson graph is drawn in various ways. The iso-
morphic by a set graph as shown in Figure 3.11. By the following way
shown at Table 3.1, Table 3.2 and Table 3.3, we reach to a class
C={{1, 2, 3}, {1, 4, 5}, {4, 6, 7}, {6, 8, 9}, {3, 9, 10}, {2, 12, 13},
{5, 14, 15}, {7, 11, 12}, {8, 13, 14}, {10, 11, 15}}, which represents the graph
G1 , and we find the class C represents the graph G2 . Then G1 and G2 are
isomorphic.
Example 3.4.2. The isomorphic between the following Two graphs G1 and
G2 as shown in Figure 3.12. By the following way shown at Table 3.4, Ta-
3.4 60
Figure 3.11 A graph G1 and G2 which are isomorphic.
Table 3.1 The step of the graph G1
Step/Vertex 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
u1 {1, 2, 3}
u2 {1, {1, 4, 5}
u3 {4, {4, 6, 7}
u4 {6, {6, 8, 9}
u5 {3, {3, 9, {3, 9, 10}
u6 {2, {2, 12, 13}
u7 {5, {4, 14, 15}
u8 {7, {7, 12, {7, 11, 12}
u9 {8, {8, 13, {8, 13, 14}
u10 {10, {10, 15, {10, 11, 15}
Step/Vertex 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
v1 {1, 2, 3}
v2 {1, {1, 4, 5}
v3 {4, {4, 6, 7}
v4 {7, {7, 11, 12}
v5 {11, {10, 11, 15}
v6 {3, {3, 10 {3, 9, 10}
v7 {6, {6, 9, {6, 8, 9}
v8 {8, {8, 13, 14}
v9 {2, {2, 12, {2, 12, 13}
v10 {5, {5, 15 {5, 14, 15}
3.4 61
Table 3.3 The isomorphic between two graphs G1 and G2
Set G1 G2
{1, 2, 3} u1 v1
{1, 4, 5} u2 v2
{4, 6, 7} u3 v3
{6, 8, 9} u4 v7
{3, 9, 10} u5 v6
{2, 12, 13} u6 v9
{5, 14, 15} u7 v10
{7, 11, 12} u8 v4
{8, 13, 14} u9 v8
{10, 11, 15} u10 v5
ble 3.5 and Table 3.6, we reach to a topology
τ={φ, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}, which represents the
graph G1 , and we find that the topology τ represents the graph G2 . Then
G1 and G2 are isomorphic.
Figure 3.12 A graph G1 and G2 which are isomorphic.

3.4 62
Step/Vertex 1 2 3 4
u0 φ
u1 {1}
u2 {2}
u3 {3}
u4 {1, {1, 2}
u5 {1, {1, 3}
u6 {2, {2, 3}
u7 {1, {1, 2, {1, 2, 3}
Step/Vertex 1 2 3 4
v0 φ
v1 {1}
v2 {2}
v3 {3}
v4 {2, {2, 3}
v5 {1, {1, 3}
v6 {1, {1, 2}
v7 {1, {1, 2, {1, 2, 3}
Table 3.6 The isomorphic between two graphs G1 and G2
Set G1 G2
φ u0 v0
{1} u1 v1
{2} u2 v2
{3} u3 v3
{1, 2} u4 v6
{1, 3} u5 v5
{2, 3} u6 v4
{1, 2, 3} u7 v2
Chapter 4
New types of separation axioms on
topological graphs
The separation axioms in topological spaces have an important

role in the difference between the topological space points. There-
fore, this chapter aims to study new separation axioms concept on
the given graphs. Using the definition of topological graph which
based on the neighborhood of the choice of vertices and edges be-
tween vertices in the graph, we introduce new separation axioms
on graphs called graph separation axioms say gT0 , gT1 , gT2 , gT3 and
gT4 . Also, we investigate some properties on it. Finally, we give a
comparison with some examples of these graph separation axioms.
Section 4.1, is devoted to giving a definition for these graph separa-
tion axioms and Section 4.2, is reserved for study properties for the
axioms are defined later.
63
4.1 64
4.1 Graph separation axioms
In this section, we give some new definitions of separation axioms

depend on the topological graph. Let G be any graph with topolog-
ical graph (V ( G ), τG ). For all vi ∈ V ( G ) we can define N (vi ) is the
adjacent vertices to vi .
Definition 4.1.1. Let G be a graph with topological graph (V ( G ), τG ).
The post class of all vertices vi R for all vi ∈ V ( G ). The complement
of these post class is called closed post class and denoted by C (vi R).
Definition 4.1.2. A topological graph (V ( G ), τG ) is said to be a gT0
if for any pair of vertices of V ( G ), there exist at least one post class
of any vertex which contains one of them but not the other. In other
words, a topological graph (V ( G ), τG ) is said to be a gT0 if for any
v1 , v2 ∈ V ( G ), v1 6= v2 , there exist a post class of any vertex R such
that v1 ∈ R but v2 ∈
/ R.
We explain Definition 4.1.2, with the following examples.
Example 4.1.3. Let G=(V, E) be a graph as shown in Figure 4.1. We
construct its topology. The post classes of the vertices are the following :
aR={b, c, d}, bR={ a, c, d}, cR={ a, b, d}, dR={ a, b, c}. Then, a subbase
of a topology is SG ={{ a, b, c}, {b, c, d}, { a, c, d}, { a, b, d}}. The base is
β G ={V ( G ), φ, { a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, { a, b}, { a, c}, { a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d},
4.1 65
Figure 4.1 A complete graph G
{c, d}, { a, b, c}, { a, b, d}, { a, c, d}, {b, c, d}}. Therefore the topology in G
is τG ={V ( G ), φ, { a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, { a, b}, { a, c}, { a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d},
{c, d}, { a, b, c}, { a, b, d}, { a, c, d}, {b, c, d}}. This topology is called a
discrete topology and the graph G is called a complete graph. Its easy
to show that G is gT0 .
Example 4.1.4. Let G be a graph with a topological space (V ( G ), τG )
as shown in Figure 4.2. aR=φ, bR={e, f , h}, cR={e, f , g}, dR={ f , g, h},
Figure 4.2 A topological graph structure.

4.1 66
eR={b, c, f , h}, f R={b, d, e, g, h}, gR={c, d, e, f , h}, hR={b, c, d, e, f , g}.
(1) a, b ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ eR, but a ∈

/ eR.
(2) a, c ∈ V ( G ) and c ∈ eR, but a ∈

/ eR.
(3) a, d ∈ V ( G ) and d ∈ f R, but a ∈

/ f R.
(4) a, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ bR, but a ∈

/ bR.
(5) a, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ bR, but a ∈

/ bR.
(6) a, g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ cR, but a ∈

/ cR.
(7) a, h ∈ V ( G ) and h ∈ bR, but a ∈

/ bR.
(8) b, c ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ f R, but c ∈

/ f R.
(9) b, d ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ eR, but d ∈

/ eR.
(10) b, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ bR, but b ∈

/ bR.
(11) b, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ bR, but b ∈

/ bR.
(12) b, g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ cR, but b ∈

/ gR.
(13) b, h ∈ V ( G ) and h ∈ bR, but b ∈

/ bR.
(14) c, d ∈ V ( G ) and c ∈ eR, but d ∈

/ eR.
(15) c, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ bR, but c ∈

/ bR.
(16) c, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ bR, but c ∈

/ bR.
(17) c, g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ cR, but c ∈

/ cR.
4.1 67
(18) c, h ∈ V ( G ) and h ∈ bR, but c ∈

/ bR.
(19) d, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ bR, but d ∈

/ bR.
(20) d, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ bR, but d ∈

/ bR.
(21) d, g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ cR, but d ∈

/ cR.
(22) d, h ∈ V ( G ) and h ∈ bR, but d ∈

/ bR.
(23) e, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ dR, but e ∈

/ dR.
(24) e, g ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ bR, but g ∈

/ bR.
(25) e, h ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ cR, but h ∈

/ cR.
(26) f , g ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ bR, but g ∈

/ bR.
(27) f , h ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ cR, but h ∈

/ cR.
(28) g, h ∈ V ( G ) and h ∈ bR, but g ∈

/ bR. Then G is gT0 .
Remark 4.1.5. In an indiscrete topological graph (V ( G ), IG ) ={V ( G ), φ},
G is not gT0 .
Remark 4.1.6. In a discrete topological graph (V ( G ), DG ) =P(V ( G )),
G is gT0 .
if for any pair of distinct vertices of V ( G ), there exist two post class
of any vertex which contains one of them but not the other. In other
4.1 68
words, a topological graph (V ( G ), τG ) is said to be a gT1 if for any
v1 , v2 ∈ V ( G ), v1 6= v2 , there exist post classes of any vertices R and
W such that v1 ∈ R, v2 ∈
/ R and v2 ∈ W, v1 ∈
/ W.
Example 4.1.8. From Example 4.1.3, aR={b, c, d}, bR={ a, c, d} , cR={ a, b, d},
dR={ a, b, c}. Then G is gT1 .
Remark 4.1.9. By Definition 4.1.2 and Definition 4.1.7, it is clear that
each gT1 is gT0 . The converse is not true in general as shown in the
following example.
Example 4.1.10. From Example 4.1.4, aR=φ, bR={e, f , h},
cR={e, f , g}, dR={ f , g, h}, eR={b, c, f , h}, f R={b, d, e, g, h},
gR={c, d, e, f , h}, hR={b, c, d, e, f , g}. a, b ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ eR, but
there does not exist any post class which contain a vertex a but not contain
a vertex b. Then G is not gT1 .
if for any pair of distinct vertices of V ( G ) which can be separated by
disjoint post class. In other words, a topological graph (V ( G ), τG )
is said to be a gT2 if for any v1 , v2 ∈ V ( G ), v1 6= v2 , there exist
post classes of any vertices R and W such that v1 ∈ R, v2 ∈ W and
R ∩ W=φ.
4.1 69
Remark 4.1.12. By Definition 4.1.7 and 4.1.11, one can deduce that
each gT2 is gT1 . The reverse is not true in general as the following
example.
Example 4.1.13. From Example 4.1.3, aR={b, c, d}, bR= { a, c, d},
cR={ a, b, d}, dR={ a, b, c}. Then G is not gT2 .
gR={c, d, e, f , h},hR={b, c, d, e, f , g}. a, b ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ eR, but
there does not exist any post class which contain a vertex a such that the
intersection between it and eR equal to φ. Then G is not gT2 .
if it is gT1 and for every nonempty closed post class F (a comple-
ment of a post class of each vertices) and a vertex v1 which does not
belongs to F, there exist post classes of any vertices R and W, such
that v1 ∈ R, F ⊆ W and R ∩ W=φ.
Example 4.1.16. Let G be a graph with a topological space (V ( G ), τG ) as
shown in Figure 4.3. The post classes are aR={b} and bR={ a}.
The closed post classes are C ( aR)={ a} and C (bR)={b}.
Its easy to show that G is gT3 .

4.1 70
Figure 4.3 A gT3 topological graph.
Remark 4.1.17. Let G be a graph with a topological graph (V ( G ), τG ).
Then gT3 is gT2 .
Proof. Let G be gT3 . Then G is gT1 , by Definition 4.1.15, for any
v1 ∈ V ( G ), and any closed post class F of V ( G ), there exist post
classes of any vertices R and W such that v1 ∈ R, F ⊆ W and R ∩ W
= φ. Now, For all x, y ∈ V ( G ) and x 6= y. Then x ∈ V ( G ), {y} is
closed post class, {y} ⊆ C ({ x }). Since G is gT3 , then there exist two
post classes U and V such that x ∈ U, {y} ⊂ V and U ∩ V=φ.
So G is gT2 .
The converse of Remark 4.1.17, is not true in general as shown in

the following example.
Example 4.1.18. Let G be a graph with a topological graph (V ( G ), τG ) as
shown in Figure 4.4. The post classes are aR={b, e}, bR={ a, c}, cR={b, d},
dR={c, e} and eR={ a, d}. The closed post classes are C ( aR)={ a, c, d},
C (bR)={b, d, e}, C (cR)={ a, c, e}, C (dR)={ a, b, d} and C (eR)={b, c, e}.
Its easy to show that G is gT2 , but it is not gT3 .

4.1 71
Figure 4.4 A graph G is gT2 but not gT3 .
gR={c, d, e, f , h}, hR={b, c, d, e, f , g}. The Complement of these post
classes are C ( aR)={ a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h}, C (bR)={ a,b,c,d,g },
C (cR)={ a, b, c, d, h}, C (dR)={ a, b, c, d, e}, C (eR)={ a,d,e,g },
C ( f R)={ a, c, f }, C ( gR)={ a, b, g}, C (hR)={ a}.
(1) v1 ={b} and F={ a}, there exist open sets R={b, c, f , h} and W={ a}
such that R ∩ W=φ.
(2) v1 ={c} and F={ g}, there exist post classes R={b, c, f , h} and W={ a, b, g}
such that R ∩ W 6=φ. Then G is not gT3 .
if it is gT1 and for each pair A, B of disjoint closed subsets of V ( G ),
there is a pair U, V of disjoint post classes of V ( G ) so that A ⊆ U,
B ⊆ V and U ∩ V=φ.
Example 4.1.21. From Example 4.1.16, the post classes are aR={b, c, d},
bR={ a, c}, cR={ a, b} and dR={ a}. The closed post classes are C ( aR)={ a},
4.1 72
C (bR)={b, d}, C (cR)={c, d} and C (dR)={b, c, d}. Its easy to show that
G is gT3 .
Remark 4.1.22. One can deduce that each gT4 is gT3 . The converse is
not true in general as in the following example.
as shown in Figure 4.5. The post classes of all vertices are aR={e, f , g},
Figure 4.5 A graph G is gT0 .
bR={ f , g}, cR={d, e, g}, dR={c, e, f , g}, eR={ a, c, d, f , g},
f R={ a, b, d, e}, gR={ a, b, c, d, e, f }.
(1) a, b ∈ V ( G ) and a ∈ eR, but b ∈

/ eR.
(2) a, c ∈ V ( G ) and c ∈ dR, but a ∈

/ dR.
(3) a, d ∈ V ( G ) and d ∈ cR, but a ∈

/ cR.
(4) a, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ aR, but a ∈

/ aR.
(5) a, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ aR, but a ∈

/ aR.
4.1 73
(6) a, g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ aR, but a ∈

/ aR.
(7) b, c ∈ V ( G ) and c ∈ dR, but b ∈

/ dR.
(8) b, d ∈ V ( G ) and d ∈ cR, but b ∈

/ cR.
(9) b, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ aR, but b ∈

/ aR.
(10) b, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ aR, but b ∈

/ aR.
(11) b, g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ aR, but b ∈

/ aR.
(12) c, d ∈ V ( G ) and d ∈ cR, but c ∈

/ cR.
(13) c, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ aR, but c ∈

/ aR.
(14) c, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ aR, but c ∈

/ aR.
(15) c, g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ aR, but c ∈

/ aR.
(16) d, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ aR, but d ∈

/ aR.
(17) d, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ aR, but d ∈

/ aR.
(18) d, g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ aR, but d ∈

/ aR.
(19) e, f ∈ V ( G ) and f ∈ bR, but e ∈

/ bR.
(20) e, g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ bR, but e ∈

/ bR.
(21) f , g ∈ V ( G ) and g ∈ cR, but f ∈

/ cR.
Then G is gT0 .
4.1 74
(i) a, b ∈ V ( G ) and a ∈ eR but there does not exist any post set which
contain a vertex b but do not contain a vertex a.
Then G is not gT1 and so is not gT2 .
The complement of the post classes are C ( aR)={ a, b, c, d},
C (bR)={ a, b, c, d, e}, C (cR)={ a, b, c, f }, C (dR)={ a, b, d}, C (eR)={b, e},
C ( f R)={c, f , g}, C ( gR)={ g}.
(1) v1 = a and F = {b}, there exist post classes R=eR and W= f R such
that v1 ∈ R,F ⊆ W but R ∩ W 6=φ.
Then G is not gT3 .
as shown in Figure 4.6. The post classes of all vertices are aR={b, e},
Figure 4.6 A connected graph G with only one cycle.
bR={ a, c}, cR={b, d}, dR={c, e}, eR={ a, d}.
(1) a, b ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ aR, but a ∈

/ aR.
(2) a, c ∈ V ( G ) and c ∈ dR, but a ∈

/ dR.
4.1 75
(3) a, d ∈ V ( G ) and a ∈ bR, but d ∈

/ bR.
(4) a, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ aR, but a ∈

/ aR.
(4) b, c ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ aR, but c ∈

/ aR.
(5) b, d ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ aR, but d ∈

/ aR.
(6) b, e ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ cR, but e ∈

/ cR.
(7) c, d ∈ V ( G ) and c ∈ bR, but d ∈

/ bR.
(8) c, e ∈ V ( G ) and c ∈ bR, but e ∈

/ bR.
(9) d, e ∈ V ( G ) and e ∈ aR, but d ∈

/ aR.
Then G is gT0 .
(i) a, b ∈ V ( G ) and a ∈ eR, but b ∈ cR.
(ii) a, c ∈ V ( G ) and a ∈ eR, but c ∈ dR.
(iii) a, d ∈ V ( G ) and a ∈ bR, but d ∈ cR.
(iv) a, e ∈ V ( G ) and a ∈ eR, but e ∈ dR.
(v) b, c ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ aR, but c ∈ dR.
(vi) b, d ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ aR, but d ∈ eR.
(vii) b, e ∈ V ( G ) and b ∈ cR, but e ∈ dR.
(viii) c, d ∈ V ( G ) and c ∈ bR, but d ∈ cR.
(ix) c, e ∈ V ( G ) and c ∈ bR, but e ∈ aR.

4.2 76
(x) d, e ∈ V ( G ) and d ∈ cR, but e ∈ aR.
Then G is gT1 .
(i) a, b ∈ V ( G ), a ∈ bR, b ∈ aR and aR ∩ bR=φ.
(ii) a, c ∈ V ( G ), a ∈ eR, c ∈ dR and dR ∩ eR=φ.
(iii) a, d ∈ V ( G ), a ∈ bR, d ∈ cR and bR ∩ cR=φ.
(iv) a, e ∈ V ( G ), a ∈ bR, e ∈ aR and aR ∩ bR=φ.
(v) b, c ∈ V ( G ), b ∈ aR, c ∈ bR and aR ∩ bR=φ.
(vi) b, d ∈ V ( G ), b ∈ aR, d ∈ eR and aR ∩ eR=φ.
(vii) b, e ∈ V ( G ), b ∈ cR, e ∈ dR and cR ∩ dR=φ.
(viii) c, d ∈ V ( G ), c ∈ bR, d ∈ cR and bR ∩ cR=φ.
(ix) c, e ∈ V ( G ), c ∈ bR, e ∈ aR and aR ∩ bR=φ.
(x) d, e ∈ V ( G ), d ∈ eR, e ∈ dR and dR ∩ eR=φ.
Then G is gT2 .
4.2 Results and Applications
Proposition 4.2.1. Let G be a connected graph contains only one cycle
with a topological graph (V ( G ), τG ). If the number of vertices is equal to
the number of edges, then G is gT0 .

4.2 77
Proof. Let G be a graph with a topological graph (V ( G ), τG ) and G is
connected with one cycle and number of vertices is equal the num-
ber of edges. Then any vertex in V ( G ) has two others vertices in his
neighborhoods. So for all vertices the post classes are intersected in
one vertex. Therefore G is gT0 .
Remark 4.2.2. The result of Proposition 4.2.1 can not satisfied when
V ( G )=E( G )=4.
Example 4.2.3. Let G be a connected graph contains only one cycle with
a topological space (V ( G ), τG ) as shown in Figure 4.7. The post class for
Figure 4.7 A graph G which is not gT0 .
every vertices are aR={b, c}, bR={ a, d}, cR={ a, d} and dR={b, c}. Then
its easy to show that a graph G is not gT0 .
Remark 4.2.4. In general topology, every subspace of a T0 -space is T0 -
space. This can not verified in topological graph as in the following

4.2 78
example. This means it is not necessary that every subgraph of a
gT0 is also gT0 .
Example 4.2.5. Let H be a graph with a topological space (V ( H ), τH ) as
shown in Figure 4.8 is a subgraph of a graph G on Example 4.1.3. The post
Figure 4.8 A subgraph H which is not gT0 .
class for every vertices are aR={b, c, d}, bR={ a}, cR={ a} and dR={ a}.
Then its easy to show that a graph H is not gT0 .
Theorem 4.2.6. Let G = (V, E) be a graph with a topological graph
(V ( G ), τG ). Then the following statements are equivalents :
(i) G is a gT0 .
(ii) For every x, y ∈ V ( G ) and x 6= y then ClG ( x ) 6= ClG (y).
(iii) For every x ∈ V ( G ), N ( x ) is subset or equal to a closed post class.
Proof. (i) =⇒ (ii) : If G is gT0 , then if x, y ∈ V ( G ) are not adjacent
vertices, x 6= y there exist a post class U such that x ∈ U,

4.2 79
y ∈ V ( G ) − U. Then x ∈
/ N (y) and x ∈
/ ClG (y).
Since ClG (y)={y} ∪ N (y) and ClG ( x )={ x } ∪ N ( x ). Also y ∈

/ ClG ( x ).
Then ClG ( x ) 6= ClG (y).
(ii) =⇒ (iii) : For any two distinct not adjacent vertices x, y ∈ V ( G )
and x 6= y. We have x ∈
/ ClG (y) and y ∈
/ ClG ( x ). For all x ∈ V ( G ),
x∈
/ N ( x ), then there exist a vertex z not adjacent to x, z 6= x and by
(ii), ClG (z) 6= ClG ( x ) and so x ∈

/ ClG (z), ClG (z) ∩ N ( x ) 6= φ. Hence
N ( x )=∪{ClG (z) : ClG (z) ∩ N ( x ) 6= φ}, i.e, N ( x ) is a subset or equal
to a closed post class.
(iii) =⇒ (i) For every x, y ∈ V ( G ) and x 6= y. Then y ∈

/ N ( x ) and
y∈
/ ClG ( x ). So y ∈ V ( G ) − ClG ( x ) which is a post class. Therefore
x∈
/ V ( G ) − ClG ( x ). Then G is gT0 .
Theorem 4.2.7. Let G=(V, E) be a graph with a topological graph (V ( G ), τG ).
Then the following statements are equivalents :
(i) G is a gT1 .
(ii) For every x ∈ V ( G ), then x ⊆ C (∪Uy ).
(iii) For every x ∈ V ( G ), N ( x )=φ.
Proof. (i) =⇒ (ii) : For all x ∈ V ( G ), y ∈ C ( x ) this means x ∈

/ C ( x ).
Since G is gT1 , then there exists a post class Uy such that x ∈

/ Uy .
4.2 80
Then C ( x )=∪{Uy : y ∈ C ( x )}. So C (C ( x )) ⊆ C (∪Uy ).
Therefore x ⊆ C (∪Uy ).
(ii) =⇒ (iii) : For all x ∈ V ( G ), by (ii), x=∩(∪Uy )=∩y C (Uy ). N ( x )=φ.
(iii) =⇒ (i) : For all x, y ∈ V ( G ), x 6= y, by (2), x = ∩C (Uy ) and
y = ∩C (Ux ). Then x ∈
/ Uy and y ∈
/ Ux . Therefore G is a gT1 .
Remark 4.2.8. In general topology, Theorem 4.2.7 is necessary to be
satisfied. But in topological graph the result is verified although
N ( x ) is not empty as in the following example.
Example 4.2.9. From Example 4.1.24, The latest remark is achieved.
Theorem 4.2.10. Let G be a graph with a topological graph (V ( G ), τG ).
Then the following statements are equivalents :
(i) G is a gT2 .
(ii) For every x, y ∈ V ( G ), x 6= y, there exists a post class U ⊂ V ( G )
such that x ∈ U, y ∈ C (ClG (U )).
(iii) For every x, y ∈ V ( G ), x 6= y, there exists a closed post class F such
that x ∈ F, y ∈ C ( F ).
Proof. (i) =⇒ (ii) : If G is a gT2 , then by Definition 4.1.11,
x, y ∈ V ( G ), x 6= y there exist two post classes U, R such that x ∈ U,

4.2 81
y ∈ R and U ∩ R=φ. Then x ∈ U and y ∈ C (ClG (U ))=W which is a
post class.
(ii) =⇒ (iii) : Since F is closed post class of x, then F is in the neigh-
borhood of x. So there exists a post class U such that x ∈ U ⊂ F.
Then ClG (U )=F. By (ii), x ∈ F and y ∈ C ( F ).
(iii) =⇒ (i) : Let for all x, y ∈ V ( G ), x 6= y and F is closed post class
of x. Then by (iii), x ∈ F and y ∈ C ( F ). So there exists a post class U
such that x ∈ U ⊆ F. So x ∈ U and y ∈ C (ClG (U )). C (ClG (U )) is a
post class say V, i.e, x ∈ U, y ∈ V and U ∩ V=φ. Then G is gT2 .
Then the following are equivalent :
(i) G is gT3 .
(ii) For every p ∈ V ( G ), F is closed post class and F ⊆ C ( p) there exists
a post class U such that p ∈ U ⊆ ClG (U ) ⊆ C ( F ).
Proof. (i) =⇒ (ii) : Let G be gT3 , F is closed post class and p ∈ C ( F ).
Then there exists a post class U such that p ∈ U ⊆ ClG (U ). Put
V=C (ClG (U )), then F ⊆ C (ClG (U )) and ClG (U ) ⊆ C ( F ). Therefore
p ∈ U ⊆ ClG (U ) ⊆ C ( F ).
(ii) =⇒ (i) : Let F be closed post class, p ∈ C ( F ), there exists a post
class U such that p ∈ U ⊆ ClG (U ) ⊂ C ( F ). Then p ∈ U, ClG (U ) ⊆

4.2 82
C ( F ). So F ⊆ C (ClG (U ))=V which is a post class and U ∩ V=φ.
Therefore G is gT3 .
Let G be a gT3 , x, y ∈ V ( G ) and x 6= y. Then either ClG ( x )=ClG (y) or
ClG ( x ) ∩ ClG (y) = φ.
Proof. Let G be gT3 and x, y ∈ V ( G ), x 6= y. Suppose that
ClG ( x ) 6= ClG (y). Then y ∈

/ ClG ( x ) and x ∈
/ ClG (y).
Since y ∈
/ ClG ( x ), then by Definition 4.1.15, there exists a post class
H such that ClG ( x ) ⊆ H. So y ∈ C (ClG ( x )) and y ∈ C ( H ) which is
a closed post class. So ClG (y) ⊆ C ( H ).
Therefore ClG ( x ) ∩ ClG (y) ⊆ H ∩ C ( H )=φ and so ClG ( x ) ∩ ClG (y)=φ.
In Theorem 4.2.12, ClG ( x ) ∩ ClG (y) may not equal to φ as in the

following example.
Example 4.2.13. From Example 4.1.16, ClG ( a)={ a, b, c, d},
ClG (b)={ a, b, c}, ClG (c)={ a, b, c} and ClG (d)={ a, d}.
Then the following are equivalents :
(i) G is gT4 .
4.2 83
(ii) For every pair of closed post classes F1 , F2 ⊆ V ( G ), there exists a post
class U such that F1 ⊆ U ⊆ ClG (U ) ⊆ C ( F2 ).
(iii) If F is a closed post set of V ( G ), U is a post class of V ( G ) and F ⊆ U,
then there exists a post class V such that F ⊆ V ⊆ ClG (V ) ⊆ U.
Proof. (i) =⇒ (ii) : Let G be gT4 , F1 , F2 closed post classes such that
F1 ∩ F2 =φ there exist post classes U, V such that F1 ⊆ U, F2 ⊆ V
and U ∩ V=φ. Also, since ClG (U ) − V=φ, ClG (U ) − F2 =φ, then F2 ⊆
V ( G ) − ClG (U ) so ClG (U ) ⊆ C ( F2 ). Then F1 ⊆ U ⊆ ClG (U ) ⊆
C ( F2 ).
(ii) =⇒ (i) : If F1 , F2 are disjoint closed post classes in V ( G ), there
exist a post class U such that F1 ⊂ U ⊆ ClG (U ) ⊆ C ( F2 ), i.e, F1 ⊆ U,
F2 ⊆ C (ClG (U ))=H which is a post class. Then U ∩ C (ClG (U ))=φ.
Therefore G is gT4 .
(i) =⇒ (iii) : Let F be a closed post class and U is a post class,
F ⊆ U, then C (U ) is a post closed. Since G is gT4 , then there exist
two post classes V, W such that F ⊆ V, C (U ) ⊆ W and V ∩ W=φ.
Then V ⊆ C (W ) is a post closed, ClG (V ) ⊆ C (W ). Since C (U ) ⊆ W,
then C (W ) ⊆ U. So F ⊆ V ⊆ ClG (V ) ⊆ C (W ) ⊆ U. Therefore
F ⊆ V ⊆ ClG (V ) ⊆ U.
(iii) =⇒ (i) : Obvious.

4.2 84
Then gT4 =⇒ gT3 =⇒ gT2 =⇒ gT1 =⇒ gT0 .
Proof. Obvious.
We display one type of a fractal called Julia set. Also, we graph

apart from it. Finally, we deduce the topology from it by the method
in Chapter 2. V ( G )={ a, b, c, d, e, f , g}. Firstly, the post classes of the
Figure 4.9 Airways in the lungs.
Figure 4.10 A graph that represents apart of Airways in the lungs.
vertices are the following: aR={b, c}, bR={ a, d, e}, cR={ a, g, f },

gR= f R = {c} and eR=dR = {b}. The subbase of a topology is
SR ={{b}, {c}, { a, g, f }, { a, d, e}, {b, c}}. The base is
β R ={V ( G ), φ, { a}, {b}, {c}, {b, c}, { a, g, f }, { a, d, e}}.
Then the topology is τ={V ( G ), φ, { a}, {b}, {c}, {b, c}, { a, g, f }, { a, d, e},
4.2 85
{ a, b}, { a, c}, { a, b, c}, { a, b, g, f }, { a, b, d, e}, { a, c, d, e}, { a, c, g, f },

{ a, b, c, d, e}, { a, b, c, g, f }, { a, d, e, g, f }, { a, b, d, e, f , g}, { a, c, d, e, f , g}}.
Remark 4.2.16. The Julia set that represents airways in lungs is not
gT0 because d, e ∈ V ( G ) but there does not exist a post class contains
d and not contains e and vice verse.

Chapter 5
Conclusions
In this thesis, the relationship between topology and graph the-

ory was studied and how to deduce each other in terms of the other
and study some topological characteristics on the resulting scheme
and also study the characteristics of the graph theory on topology.
In chapter one, we give a survey on graph theory, general topo-
logical space, relations on sets and basic definition on fractals.
In chapter two, we find out the topological structure from any
graph by using a relation defined above and from this relation, we
can know the type of a graph are used. We studied the connected-
ness in both general topology and topological graph and the rela-
tion between them. Also, from topological properties, we can de-
duce the solution of some problems in medicine and in geography.
In chapter three, we find out the topological graph from any
topological structure by using some algebraic properties of a set
which are defined and used above. From these properties, we cal-
culate the degree of a vertex and the number of edges of a graph
whatever the type of the graph are used. Additionally, we know
86
5.0 87
some types of topological graphs. We calculate the number of edges

for some types of topological graphs and some different types of ex-
amples will be studied. We give a new type of isomorphic between
topological graphs through tables.
In chapter four, the field of mathematical science which goes un-
der the names of topology and graph theory are concerned with all
questions directly or indirectly related to separation axioms. There-
fore, the theory of graph separation axioms is one of the most im-
portant subjects in topology and graph theory. On the other hand,
topology plays a significant rule in quantum physics, high energy
physics and superstring theory [55]. Thus we gave new types of
graph separation axioms via the concept of topological graph struc-
ture in chapter two, which may have possible applications in quan-
tum physics and superstring theory.
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Some Topological Applications on Graph Theory and Information Systems

Thesis · January 2018

New types of winning strategies via compact spaces View project

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Student: Mohamed Atef Fetouh Soliman

Thesis Title: Some Topological Applications on Graph Theory and

Degree: Master of Science in Pure Mathematics

No. Name Profession Signature

1. Prof. Dr. Abdoulmonen Mohamed Kozae Professor of Pure Mathematics,

2. Prof. Dr. Shokry Ibrahim Nada Professor of Pure Mathematics,

3. Dr. Ashraf Ibrahim Hefnawy Lecturer of Pure Mathematics,

Head of Mathematics Department

• I have acknowledged all main sources of help.

Date: November 20, 2018

1. S. Nada, A. A. El Atik and M. Atef, New types of topological structures via

2. A. A. El Atik and M. Atef, New types of separation axioms on Graphs, In-

3. A. M. Kozae, A. A. El Atik, A. Elrokh and M. Atef, New types of graphs

4. A. A. El Atik and M. Atef, New Types of Separation Axioms on Topologi-

List of Publications iii

List of Symbols xii

1 Introduction and Preliminaries 1

2 New types of topological structures via graphs 21

3 New types of graphs induced by topological spaces 45

4 New types of separation axioms on topological graphs 63

The linking between graph theory and topology by relations is

1.1 Seven Konigsberg Bridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3.1 A graph of different classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.1 A complete graph G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.1 The step of the graph G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Introduction and Preliminaries

It is possible to say that the topics of mathematics in general arose

Therefore, we chose the subject of the thesis to link the theory of

1.1 Graph Terminology

Graph theory ([2]-[20]) may be said to have its beginning in 1736

Figure 1.1 Seven Konigsberg Bridge.

Definition 1.1.1. A graph G is a pair (V, E) or (V ( G ), E( G )), where

V is a non-empty set called vertices or nodes and E is 2-element

subsets of V called edges or links.

Definition 1.1.2. A directed graph (or digraph) D is a finite nonempty

set of objects called vertices together with a (possibly empty) set of

ordered pairs of distinct vertices of D called arcs or directed edges.

For vertices u and v in D, an arc (u, v) is sometimes denoted by

writing u → v (or v ← u). An undirected graph is a graph which

can not contain directed edge.

Example 1.1.3. Let G=(V, E) be a directed graph as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 A Directed Graph G.

Example 1.1.4. Let G=(V, E) be an un directed graph as shown in

Figure 1.3 An Un Directed Graph G.

Definition 1.1.5. If uv is an edge of G, then u and v are adjacent

vertices. Two adjacent vertices are referred to as neighbors of each

other. If uv and vw are distinct edges in G, then uv and vw are

with each other.

Definition 1.1.6. The number of vertices in a graph G is the order

(degree) of G and the number of edges is the size of G. The degree

of a vertex v in a graph G is the number of vertices in G that are

adjacent to v, denoted by degG (v).

Definition 1.1.7. A graph of order 1 is called a trivial graph. A non-

trivial graph therefore has two or more vertices. A vertex of degree