1

CHAPTER I:

“History provides us with the lens and even a template

for looking at what has worked (and failed) in the world.
The expansion of knowledge and progress – what we call
civilization – is in fact built on previous knowledge and
history.”

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, PhilSCAns will be able to:

1. Describe and debate over the nature of history and its role to mankind as a discipline;
2. Recognize and define the role of historians in studying and writing history;
3. Distinguish between primary and secondary sources;
4. Apply external and internal criticisms to certain historical sources;
5. Acquaint with different primary sources in studying and writing history;
6. Familiarize various repositories of primary sources in studying and writing history; and
7. Internalize the relevance of studying and writing history to the lives of Filipinos.

The Nature of History

and the Historian

History, as one of the oldest disciplines in the world,

is often dreaded by students for its reputation of inherently
having dates, places, and names to memorize. This stigma,
probably, is rooted from the system’s shallow
understanding of its relevance to the society. As the system
requires and expects education to serve useful purposes,
history seems harder to define. In fact, though history
produces less tangible and sometimes less immediate Herodotus, the father of History, was born in
outcomes, it is actually very useful and vital than those that Halicarnassus in the Persian, and lived in the 5th
century B.C.
stem from other disciplines such as the medicine and
engineering. History came from the Latin word
“historia” which means “knowledge
This course, Readings in Philippines History, will take acquired through inquiry or
investigation.”
students to a dimension of historical research; a realm where
they can have the opportunity to develop the skills and
powers historians have. These competencies often direct The past and history, as popular
knowledge suggests, are not
individuals to be critical, in its highest sense, with the interchangeable. The former is
historical and contemporary data available around them – merely what happened before, while
elements essential for in the 21st century Philippines. the latter is the historians’
interpretation of the past.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 2

The Nature of History

History is a discipline that can be defined and viewed in various ways. If taken in the context
of the states of matter, History is liquid. It takes the shape of the minds where it is poured. Existing
for thousands of years, the meaning and purpose of this discipline has been continuously evolving
satisfying the demands of the ever-changing society.

a. Enables individuals to understand the contemporary world since the present is the
manifested outcomes of the past events.
b. Deals with the narratives of human civilizations, but is not static. It reveals various social
context and ideas of each period.
c. Assesses the interaction between human civilizations and the forces that led to its
sudden development.
d. Values the process of human development in time, thus focuses on human civilizations
and their time.
e. The historian’s careful analysis, not just narration, of the past’s crucial events and
phenomena.
f. Discussed only events which have relevance and purpose for the contemporary times.
g. Considers continuity and coherences as essential elements in studying the narratives of
human civilizations.
h. Characterized by a dialogue between the past and emerging future.
i. Tackles every aspect of human life, thus has the quality of being comprehensive
j. Multisided in nature which means the discipline should be viewed using different lenses
of the societal forces.

“History is a people's memory, and without a memory,

man is demoted to the lower animals.”

A painting by Vicente San Pablo de Pio, UP alumni, entitled “Filipino Response to Spanish Colonization.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 3

History: Art, Social Science, or Science?

History has a relatively significant feature: the
potentiality of being an art or science. Emphasizing on its
ability to take the form as science is somehow problematic.
Although its inquiries focus on extricating the truth, its
pieces on evidence are based on the narrative accounts of
the past. In addition is the fact that historians deciphering
the past sometimes fail to administer absolute
impartiality on given primary sources.

The scientific and technological advances of 18th

History is like Janus, a Roman deity who had two faces
in a single body.
century trickled historians’ minds to question whether
scientific methods are applicable to better understand the human past or not. They began to
assert the discipline’s scientific status, stimulating the heated debate about the discipline’s nature.
Today, although historians employ scientific methods of inquiry which are systematic, sequential,
logical, and progressive in nature before they interpret, construct, or reconstruct the past, scholars
are still very much divided in considering the discipline a branch of science.

“History is not a unitary discipline; however, an inquiry of this kind

assumes a special character.”
In view social scientific history, elements such as the changing character of historical
evidence, breakthrough in techniques and concepts in related disciplines, and the broadening of
research methods oblige historians, as researchers, to remodel their skills in constructing or
reconstructing the past – making it interdisciplinary. With this, if the discipline is considered a
social science, its contribution is perspective. It means that the study of the past deals with fact that
narratives from across societies varies.

Historians can analyse

No the present through
Forecasting! history but never predict
the future.

History as result is Pieces of historical

seldom repeated in a evidence have broad
“real sense of term.” Complex! Varied! scopes or layers,
hence results vary.
History: Not
a Science!

Historical data cannot be Data are products of men

No
tested under laboratory No observation and subjected to societal changes,
experimentation! dependable
observation and data! thus result fail to generate
experimentation. general principles and laws.

A radial cluster displaying the arguments against the discipline’s assertion of being a science.

For the sake of the argument, History is both an art and science, as it employs scientific
methods in data gathering and analysis and is literary and artistic in presentation. Nevertheless,

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 4

whether the discipline is an art, social science, or science, what matters is that it seeks to supply
knowledge gaps. The debate of the discipline’s nature should not be placed at the core of any
academic enterprise. In this regard, what is essential is the ultimate goal of research – how to
commensurate human knowledge from different fields of learning to combat societal problems and
create a peaceful, just, and progressive world.

History in the Contemporary Times

In persistent unfolding of time, studies dealing
with the past to explain the present continue to prove that
History already departed from its traditional purpose;
serve as witness to the greatness of monarchies, their
battles and wars. Today the discipline sought to take
mankind in the discourse where they can best comprehend
the totality of their respective civilizations. Here,
historians dive deeper to the very fabric of their daily lives
– from their social, political, and economic to the smallest
details that reveal their aspirations and failures. Thus, it The cases of proliferation of political dynasties can be
has become “present-oriented” as it assumes the role of best address in determining why and how it penetrated
the Filipino social fabric.
determining the potentialities and limitation of the present
times.

Historiography
In studying and writing history, it is crucial to emphasize that
there is no single historical narrative in the same way that such task
entails the development of a critical historical inquiry. In that sense,
recognizing various approaches in answering historical questions is but
necessary.

When historians discuss methodological issues in their research

they more commonly refer to historiography. In its most general sense,
the term refers to the study of historians' methods and practices in writing
history. Naturally, historians present truth claims before the public. In this
process, they ask the society to accept their findings based on the
interpretation they presented. This is when historiography swoops in the Fernand Braudel, a French
scene – it defined the ideas of presented evidence, the rigor and standards historian and leader of post-war
Annales School.
of reasoning for historical inquiry.

Some Schools of Meaning and Grounds

Historical Thought
Positivism Dictates that without documents, there is no history.
Annales School Known for using geography for setting historical scene.
Marxist History Often focuses on the clash between classes.
The New Social History Dives into history from below everyday life.
Post-Colonialism Manifests how the colonized fought the colonizers.
Cultural History Incorporates anthropology and linguistics to enter the minds of the past.
Intellectual History Discussed the history of ideas and other methods of writing history.
Political History Concentrates on great events and people of the political landscape.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 5

Pantayong Pananaw

This historiography, is introduced by Dr. Zeus

Salazar, aims to be a guiding philosophy for writing
and teaching history in the country. In context, this
follows the notion of “for us – from us” perspective as it
highlights the crucial role of language, that is
understood by everyone, in facilitating an internal
conversation and discourse regarding Philippine
history.

Zeus Salazar, father of Pantayong

Pananaw.

Historical Awareness versus Social Memory

In the Philippines, social memory is a very powerful The popular knowledge of a particular
force that shapes the Filipino society. As defined, it is how a society of the past is called social
memory. It continues to be an
society remembers its past. Nevertheless, being well-versed essential means of sustaining
with this type of knowledge is never tantamount to collective identity.
historical awareness. The formation of popular historical
knowledge necessitates bias treatment of the remains of the past. For, social memory is a
distorted historical narrative established to uphold and strengthen societies.

Historical awareness, on the other hand, requires an Recognizing the historical process
individual to judge and interpret the past based on its allows an individual to determine the
relationships between events over
respective standards; acquire strong sense of zeitgeist and time.
historical process recognition; avoid exercising
anachronism; and develop skill pertaining to contextual analysis.

In relevance, social memory can also be connected to elements that distort historical
knowledge: tradition, nostalgia, and progress.

Distorting Elements How?

An assumption that elements established in the past serve as
Tradition an authoritative guide for the present to follow.
A backward-looking treatment of historical change –
Nostalgia interpretation that history evolved negatively.
Fundamental to modernity, it treats the past as an inferior
Progress element to the present.

Some elders would tell stories that the EDSA Revolution did The belief that the ancient Filipinos’ society is inferior to the
nothing good for Filipinos, and that life is better during Martial present society is an example of progress
Law is a classic example of nostalgia.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 6

Propaganda and Historical Revisionism

There is a great difference between
propaganda and history. From being an honorable
word linked with religious activities, propaganda is
now associated with selfishness, dishonesty, and
subversiveness. Today, politics is a major driver of
propaganda as it is considered a crucial element in
any political campaigns. In the country, politicians
often resort to propaganda either to make uplift their
names before the public or end the career of their
opponents. In that sense, history takes a crucial role.

In context, in order
A classic social memory that distorts the past revolves around
the narrative that the Marcoses never inflicted great atrocities to
to justify and reinforce the
the Filipino society during Martial Law.

declaration of martial, Marcos exploited the myths of nationalism,

imperialism, betrayal, and historical fulfilment.

In relation, historical revisionism pertains to the manipulation

certain historical events mainly for political events. The revisionist
historiography is “immune to evidence.” It generally abandons the
application of scientific methods and confuses the borderline between
legitimate evidence and fiction in the process of interpreting history.

Problematically, the emergence of post-modernism supports the

legitimization of multiple truths. For an instance, when the issue of the sex
Maria Rosa Henson, first Filipina
slaves broke out in the global arena in 1991, Japan countered their claims comfort woman to share her brutal
stating that these comfort women were wartime prostitutes – giving rise experience under the Japanese.

for two conflicting views grounded on a single event.

Historical Objectivity
In the development of a historical research,
being qualitative in nature, impartiality is a crucial
element. This element compels historians to process
their central question without distorting its results.
Here surfaces the issue of objectivity. In its general
sense, the concept of objectivity guides historians to
treat and process their historical data in the highest
extent of impartiality. In doing do, historians depart
from treating historical data with bias; resorting to
omission and selection of details in attaining
desired outcome, and wrongful interpretation. In
that case, they will be able to channel the
Lady Justice, a possible symbol for historians in treating their
competence of their historical knowledge to
historical data with objectivty and impartiality. represent the past.

Interestingly, even though historians enforce a strong sense of objectivity, their conclusions
may change, just as in science, and may not be valid at all times. This is the reason why each
generation rewrite and reinterpret its history. Nevertheless, in reiteration, the primary concern of
historians is to provide an almost crystal understanding of the past disengaged from their biases
and prejudices.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 7

Branches of History
Every aspect of human civilization falls on the jurisdiction of historical study. Hence, to
effectively and critically analyse remnants of the past, historians have their respective area of focus.
Much of historical studies heavily focus on political events until such time historians reached the
domains of the economy, society, mentality, and culture.

Focus Scopes
Political History It studies aspects of the past that deal with organization and power.
Biography It pertains to the narratives of individuals.
Social History It revolves around the narratives of the society as a whole such as the
everyday life at home, workplace, and the community.
Economic History It deals with earthly necessities.
It tells about the rise of societies, emergence of nations, until the age of
World History globalization.
Transnational It narrates events beyond borders and political jurisdictions.
History
Local History It deals with the narratives of the common people from below.
Total History It is the interplay of all aspects of
Big History It suggests that historical events are following certain patterns – “chain of
events.”
Cultural History It deals with entering the minds of the populace in the creations of a
historical narrative.

Uses of History
As established, studying the past provides students the fundamental and factual information
pertaining to the evolution of their society. Through the critical analysis of pieces of historical
evidence, historians substantiated the fact that it has the following uses to the students and their
respective societies:

1. Allows students to comprehend the factors that instigated change to the very institution
they live in.
2. Adds meaning on what it is really like to be a human being as it develops “beauty and
excitement,” and provides contexts of human societies in the past.
3. Develops the essence of moral understanding, as students are given the opportunity to test
their moral sense against the narratives of the past.
4. Provides identity as the discipline inculcates among the students the “distinctive features of
national experience” honing their understanding of national values and loyalty.
5. Lays the foundation of “genuine citizenship.”
6. Encourages, as previously discussed, the habits of mind.
7. Essentially, the discipline cultivates:
a. Skill to assess historical data and formulate arguments based on it.
b. Determine conflicting interpretations of historical data.
c. Identify the dramatic changes brought by the continuity of time.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 8

Notable Attributes of Historians

Generally, historians are equipped with the power to “conceptualize, describe, contextualize,
explain, and interpret events and circumstances of the past.” With such set of skills, they are
expected to crystalize the ambiguities of the past based from the historical data.

How can I conceptualize

Why and how did this event? What How can I explain and
this occurrence happened? What was interpret these historical data
happen? like to be there? to determine the social
causes and cultural meanings
of my study?
What theories can I use
to explain the causal
How can I relate the
mechanism of an event
human meanings and
and the human behavior?
intentions to the
historical narrative I want
to present?

How can I apply the

concept of
I should discover to make impartiality in
sense of the past even reconstructing or
more through digging in constructing the past?
the archives.

A dialogue manifesting one of the most crucial attributes of historians – the power to ask critical questions.

Distinction between Primary and

Secondary Historical Sources

In writing history, sources of data may be classified into two

main groups: primary sources, “which are the life-blood of historical
research,” and secondary sources, which are used in the absence of, or to
supplement, primary data.

The primary source is any materials or objects; photographed,

recorded, written, the object itself made or present during the exact
period of a historical event. In addition, the author or the source of the Marcos’ entry in his diary
defending himself against a
specific material is a primary witness to the event. In absence of tangible scandal he was involved with
– a primary source.
sources, historians tend to utilize a new trend of extracting information
from the elderlies or direct witnesses through an interview, the oral
history.

On the other hand, a secondary source is

any printed or motion picture materials that are
created using the primary sources. The
information is supplied by a person who is not a
direct observer or participant of the event, object,
or condition. In the context of historical research,
this source is generally scholarly books or
From left to right: Never Again by Raissa Robles tells about journal articles that analyze primary sources.
the atrocities of the Marcoses to the Filipinos, and a
fictional movie based on history about Gen. Luna - both
are secondary sources.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 9

External and Internal

Criticism

As a historian, or perhaps student of history, there are many questions to put in mind when
putting an historical account under rigorous criticism such. These questions always demand an
individual to possess a wealth of historical and general knowledge.

The terms external and internal criticism “refer to the purpose or objective of criticism and
not method or procedure in dealing with the sources.” Sometimes the terms are higher and lower
criticisms.

External criticism is the process of knowing the authenticity of the evidence by examining
its “physical characteristics, consistency with the historical characteristic of the time when it
was produced, and the materials used for evidence.” It aims to answer the some of the important
inquiries:

1. What caused the fabrication of the source?

2. Was the origin of the questionable?
3. Was the source created or written long after the event?
4. Are there consistencies in terms of time?
5. Were there pieces of evidence that points to the author’s manifested ignorance that he or
she should have known?
6. Were the pieces of evidences cited by the author derived from primary sources or not?
7. Were the pieces of evidences cited by the author derived from primary sources or not?
8. Did the author presented events, things, or places that are not existing during the period of
the study?
9. Who made the pieces of historical evidence that the author used in the source?
10. Is the source an original version, reproduced copy, or translated copy?
11. If undated source, are there significant pieces of evidence such as events, idea, theories,
fads and fashion, names of people and places, style of language and print, kind of ink and
paper used, that would lead when and where the source is produced?
12. Does the source exhibits the author’s heavy reliance on his or her personal observations?
13. Do the sources where the author gathered his or her pieces of evidence be verified by
simply looking at the coherence of the publication dates with the forms and contents?

If the source already passed the external criticism, we can now proceed with internal
criticism. This process focuses on the truthfulness of the pieces of evidence as written on a specific
historical account: “looking at the source of the author, its context, the agenda behind its creation,
the knowledge which informed it, and its intended purpose.” In doing so, the following principles are
being utilized:

1. Judging a historian of being ignorant of certain events at points inadmissible.

2. Reading and looking historical evidence in contemporary conceptions is erroneous.
3. Identical errors in various pieces of historical evidence signify the dependence on a
common source.
4. Underestimating historical evidence is tantamount to overestimating it.
5. Historical evidence may establish the existence of an idea, but should be subjected to
independent witnesses to prove its reality.
6. Comparing the official and unofficial versions of testimonies is of essence for neither one
nor the other alone is sufficient.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 10

7. If primary witnesses contradict at certain points, one of them may be credible, but both are
in error.
8. Central historical evidence, with different points of view, sourced from various primary
witnesses is admissible.
9. A historical document may be credible evidence, yet has no weight to others it mentions.

Types of
Primary Sources
Historical sources can be classified according to how data was
recorded: deliberate or inadvertent. The former are sources that are
intentionally preserve or recorded for the sake of the future
generation. It includes the memoirs and epitaphs on tombstones. In
contrary, the latter are sources that are unintentionally left by the
possessor but are helpful for historians. An ancient ornament from a
pre-colonial Filipino can be an example of this. However, even though
it is an objective piece of evidence, inadvertent sources put great task
on the shoulders of the historian.

There are two broad divisions of historical sources: documents

and relics. The first division includes the reports of the past events as
perceived by the human brain. It aims to transmit information. On the
The Manunggul Jar which signifies the other hand, the second division includes physical objects and written
belief of early Filipinos in life after death
is a primary source – inadvertent and materials of historical value that were produced without the aim to
relic in nature.
impart information.

In studying and writing history, collection of the primary sources is a central task. This type of
source has crucial a role as it is contains the fist-hand knowledge or essence of events and people
being studied. This type of historical evidence, all created by a witness or actor of the event, ranges
from documents or artifacts; first-hand testimonies; government documents; diaries, journals, and
letters; interviews; newspaper articles; and even poems, novels, plays, and music.

Repositories of Primary
Sources

Since primary sources are not available everywhere, one of the questions historians and
students ask is where can they acquire data about their historical research. With efforts to preserve
first-hand sources, there are various government and private institutions, locally and abroad, that
researchers of history can visit:

The National Library of the Philippines

established the Filipiniana Division as the country’s
official repository of printed and recorded intellectual
and cultural heritage. It has respective sections:
General Books, Rare Books and Manuscripts, Serials,
Special Collections, Government Publications,
Multimedia, and Conservation. Its collection activities
began in 1903 in accordance to Act No. 688 of the
Philippine Commission initiating the acquisition and
conservation of materials and resources regarding the
country’s culture, history, literature, and linguistics.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 11

The National Archives of the Philippines is tasked to

preserve all the primary sources of information (documents
and records) related on the history of our country, basic
components of cultural heritage, and collective history.
These documents and records define the wholeness of the
Filipino nation as well as the testaments of national
experiences. It is home to about sixty million documents
from the centuries of Spanish colonization, the American
and Japanese occupations, as well as the years of our
republic. Lastly, the voluminous notarized documents of the
country are likewise put under their supervision.

The privately owned and managed Lopez Museum

and Library is the oldest in country specializing In
Philippine material – over 500 works and 30, 000 titles. It
is the home for rare books and maps of the 16th century;
the works of Juan Luna and Felix Resurrecion Hidalgo; and
the priceless “personal effects” of Jose Rizal. Moreover, the
museum is known to preserve and hold 600 years of
scholarship and artistry.

The American Historical Collection, established

in 1950 and located at the Rizal Library Special
Collections Building, Ateneo de Manila University, has
13, 518 books, 18, 674 photographs, and other
materials related to the Philippine-American
relationship and American experience in the country
such as maps and memorabilia. Significantly, this
establishment has the largest, most diverse and
complete collection of materials with said themes in
the world. In this regard, the collection is of great
importance in studying the Philippines under the
United States of America.

The University of the Philippines – Diliman

Main Library houses the Filipiniana Section, Serials,
and Special Collections which has voluminous
sources pertaining to literature, history, political
science, economics, and sociology. In particular, the
Filipiniana Section is consisting of periodicals
published by academic and research institutions,
government agencies, societies, commercial
publishers, as well as extensive sets of national and
regional newspaper, both contemporary and
retrospective.

Located at the Henry Sy, Sr. Hall, De La Salle

University, the Marcelino A. Foronda, Jr. Center for
Local and Oral History has largest collection of oral
history in the country with over 5,000 interviews.
Aimed to recognize the” inarticulate,” the
Department of History is currently taking steps to
make it accessible for the public in the coming days.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 12

In addition to these local repositories of historical sources, international libraries, in Spain,

United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the United States of America, also have records regarding the
Philippines:

Name of Library Location

Archivo General de Indias Seville, Spain
Archivo Historico Nacional
Archivo se Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores
Museo Naval de Ministerio de Marina Madrid, Spain
Real Academia de la Historia
Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid
Biblioteque Nacionale France
British Library United Kingdom
National Archives and Records Administration
Library of Congress
Ayer Collection of the Newberry Library
United States of America
Lilly Library
Libraries of Harvard University, Stanford University,
And University of Michigan
Boston and New York Public Libraries

Relevance of Studying
History to Filipinos
The past, considerably, is a laboratory of human
experience. This virtual facility provides the preconditions
of various aspects of human civilization that aids historians
to intelligently determine the context of the contemporary
times. In that case, historians deal with components greatly
different from the realm of the applied and natural sciences.
In order for these scholars to critically analyse and explain
the past, they need to gain access in said virtual laboratory.

Narrowing down, students will be given the Students engaging in studying the past develop a sense
opportunity to analyse and evaluate first-hand information of critical thinking, as the figure suggests.

to determine the forces that spurred development of various societies. In process, they develop
certain habits of the mind – persisting; thinking flexibility; striving for accuracy; questioning and
posing problems; applying past knowledge to new situations; gathering data through all senses;
creating, imagining, and innovating; taking responsible risks; thinking independently; and remaining
open to continuous learning.

Filipinos and History

The 21st century Philippines has experienced a grave decline in the population of Filipinos
who are capable of digesting their own historical narratives intelligently and critically. History has
been continuously revised and distorted for political ends, and Filipinos are not empowered to grasp
the difference between propaganda and legitimate narratives. Hence, an intensified campaign is
necessary to bring back the dignity of the narratives of the Filipino society. The realization of this
campaign commences when students begin to open not only their ears and eyes, but hearts and souls

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 13

during class discussions. The teachers in return should resort to activities which have the power to
instil the value of learning history among them.

In relevance, aside from the used dictum that history allows students to learn from its
lessons, develop a sense duty and service to the country, studying the past has a higher meaning. In
the context of the contemporary Filipino society, drowned in an ocean of endless conflicts and
controversies, history provides the answers. Some of this country’s contemporary problems are
either already solved in the past and reoccurred or rooted in the past and remained unsolved. What
students of history need to do is to deal with the complexities of history to arrive with the possible
answers that are not present today.

In the end, the discipline opens every Filipino’s soul and mind as it allows them to travel
beyond the horizons of their textbooks, see what the past has to offer in a new set of lenses. This
goes further than nationalistic and hagiographic narratives that they are exposed in their formative
years. Studying history in a manner of knowing how history is analysed, written, and presented
offers a viewpoint that a national narrative is not complete if its downsides are not exposed.
Philippine history is one of the most interesting human civilization narratives in the world, for it
provides a unique narrative of colonialism, revolution, and independence.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 14

References:
_______. (2016). “History as Social Science.” Social Science Research Council. Retrieved from
https://items.ssrc.org/from-our-archives/history-as-social-science/, 4 July 1018.

_______. (n.d.) “Filipiniana Division.” National Library of the Philippines. Retrieved from
http://web.nlp.gov.ph/nlp/?q=node/656, 4 July 2018.

_______. (n.d.). “Nature of History.” Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved from

https://archives.history.ac.uk/history-in-focus/Whatishistory/natureofhistory.pdf, 1 July
2018.

_______. (n.d.) “The Concept of Scientific History.” ___________________. Retrieved from

http://berlin.wolf.ox.ac.uk/published_works/cc/scihist.pdf, 3 July 2018.

Ajaegbo, D. (2013). The Unity of Knowledge: History as Science and Art. International Journal,.
Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijah/article/viewFile/106468/96420, 4 July
2018.

Little, D. (2013). “Philosophy of History.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from

https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/history/, 28 June 2018.

Candelaria & Alphora. (2018). Readings in Philippine History. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.

Casey, R. (1944). “The Story of Propaganda.” American Historical Association. Retrieved from
https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/gi-
roundtable-series/pamphlets/em-2-what-is-propaganda-(1944)/the-story-of-propaganda,
30 June, 2018.

Cattini, G. Historical Revisionism: The Reinterpretation of History in Contemporary Political Debate.

Retrieved from https://llull.cat/IMAGES_175/transfer06-essa03.pdf, 5 August 2018.

Carr, E. (1991). What is History? London, United Kingdom: Penguin.

Costa & Kallick. (2009). Habits of the Mind across the Curriculum: Practical and Creative Strategies
for Teachers. United States of America: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.

Hunt & Colander (1995). Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of the Society, Sixth Edition.
Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.

McCallus, J. (1989). The Myths of the New Filipino: Philippine Government Propaganda during the
Early Years of Martial Law. Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 17(2), 129-148.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/29791974, 5 July 2018.

Mukherjee, P. (n.d.) Historical Revisionism as a tool of Postcolonial Nationalism in Manohar

Malgonkar’s the Devil’s Wind, Bhagwan S. Gidwani’s the Sword of Tipu Sultan and Return
of the Aryans. ELK Asia Pacific Journals. Retrieved from
https://www.elkjournals.com/microadmin/UploadFolder/42321.HISTORICAL-
REVISIONISM-AS-A-TOOL.pdf, 7 August 2018.

Oyewale, Peter. (2014). Objectivity: A Subject of Discourse in Historical Writing. International Journal
of Arts and Humanities. 3 (1), 18 – 30. Retrieved from
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijah/article/view/103067, 4 July 2018.

Pallavi, T., et.al. (n.d.). “History.” __________________________. Retrieved from

http://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syllabus/MA_Education/Education_Paper_5_history.pdf, 28 June
2018.

Škorić & Bešlin (2017) Politics of Memory, Historical Revisionism, and Negationism in Postsocialist
Serbia. Philosophy and Society, 28. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2298/FID1703631S,
5 August 2018.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT
 15

Sterns, P. (1998). “Why Study History.” American Historical Association, retrieved from
https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/historical-
archives/why-study-history-(1998), 28 June, 2018.

Tosh, J. (2015). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern
th
History (Revised 6 Ed.). New York: Routledge.

Readings in Philippine History

Property of Mr. Jairo Hernandez Osorio, LPT