Man is a social individual.

This brings group’s or a community’s code of behavior or system of values by which

the members are supposed to act, treat themselves, and relate to one another.
This system of values: GROUP MORALITY OR ETHICS

Hedonism (Gk.hedone “pleasure”&heady “sweet”)

Pleasure is the norm of morality.
Ang kasiyahan ay siyang sukatan ng moralidad.
Pleasure is the satisfaction of desire; the greater the pleasure, the better.
Desire can be: 1. intellectual (discovery of truth, solution to problems)
2. aesthetic (art appreciation, feeling of awe)
3. physical (sensuous, wish or urge to own or possesses)
Aristippus (c. 400BC)
Pleasure is the only good: the basis of moral judgment.
When an act gives pleasure, it is good.
Hedonist Philosophy of Life: Achieve happiness by satisfying all of man’s desire. Man
is a bundle of desire. If an individual ceases to desire, he ceases to live.If we suppress
our desire we will experience pain. So, satisfy desire, experience pleasure, and attain
happiness.
Hedonist’s Formulas for a happy life: “Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow you will
die”
Kumain, uminom, at magpakasaya ka, pagkat bukas ay mamamatay ka.

Stoicism
This is an ethical doctrine that considers apathy or indifference to pleasure as the
moral norm, and advocated by Stoics known for their exemplary patience, self-
sacrifice perseverance, forbearance, and long-suffering attitude.

Highest Virtue: Peace of mind

(from among mental tranquility, temperance, contentment, serenity, composure)
Stoics do not believe that pleasure brings lasting happiness.
Pleasure leads to endless cycle of pleasures and pain.
To attain lasting happiness, minimize desires and passions and this leads to virtues of
self-discipline, self-control, self-conquest, and self-mastery.
Accordingly, a person who can control himself can control all. Thus complete
control of mind and body leads to mental peace. A person at peace with oneself
and with others attains mental serenity.

Epictetus (50-130 AD), former Roman slave

He taught Philosophy of mental detachment. Do not allow others to disturb our
peace of mind so that we will not be enslaved by them: No to sensuous pleasure, No
to unbridled passions, No to material possessions
Objects which we desire intensely enslave us.
To set ourselves free, we must do away with the intense desire to possess something
that is impossible to get. Learn to be contended with conditions and possessions
which are within our means to procure. Preserve serenity by understanding the true
nature of things.
We should accept things that cannot be changed.
Most misery of life comes from within; it comes from our refusal to accept
We should embrace difficult problems in life. Don’t run away from problems for these
are desirable spiritual exercises.
The secret of dying in peace: Develop the idea that when you die, you are only
giving up what belongs to another.
Epictetus reminder:
“To accuse others of one’s misfortunes is a sign of lack of education; to accuse
one’s own self of one’s misfortunes is a beginning of education; and to accuse
neither self no others for one’s misfortunes is complete education”

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (1 –65 AD) Spanish (Cordoba, Spain)

Main philosophical aim: Lead men toward virtue especially moral courage and
fortitude.
Philosophical convictions: No evil or misfortune can defeat and discourage the spirit
of a stalwart man. Adversity (virtue’s opportunity) gives an individual a good chance
to prove his strength and courage. “Gold is tested by fire, brave men by misfortune”.

As a tribute to strong-willed individuals:

“ Scorn poverty: no one is as poor as he was at birth.
Scorn pain: either it will go away or you will.
Scorn death: either it finishes you or it transforms you.
Scorn fortune: I have given her no weapon with which to strike you soul.”

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180AD)

Emperor of Rome, described as “by nature a saint and a sage, by profession a
warrior and a ruler”
His teachings on Mental tranquility, mental state consists in good ordering of the
mind and the place to look for it is in your soul.
Live simply and naturally harmonize yourself with nature.
Live with kindness for kindliness is invincible. Kindness can only be conquered by
kindness.
So, live life fruitfully, do good to others.

Epicureanism
This is an intermediate pleasure doctrine between hedonism and stoicism.
Moral norm: moderate pleasure that is consonant with reason

2 kinds of Pleasure
1. Dynamic pleasure which are accompanied by pain (gluttony, fame…)
2. Passive pleasure which is not accompanied by pain (friendship, playing with
kids…)
3 Kinds of desire
1. Natural and necessary (meeting man’s needs)
2. Natural but unnecessary (needs for sex and marriage)
3. Unnatural and unnecessary (need for power, wealth, fame)
Noblest aim of Philosophy: Peaceful and tranquil life (ataraxia)

Situationism (Joseph Fletcher), American protestant medical doctor

This is also known as Contextualism or situation ethics.
3 Approaches to morality
1. Legalism (moral prescriptions, laws, or norms)
2. Antinomianism (frees Christians from obligations)
3. Situationism (moral norms depends upon a given situation) BUT one must
always act in the name of Christian love
Situation – human condition or any state of affairs and issues that demands a moral
judgment or action.

3 types of love
1. Eros (sexual love between man and woman)
2. Philia (refers to affection bet. parents and children, among siblings)
3. Agape ( one’s care, concern and kindness towards others characterized by
charity, respect and responsibility)
6 Propositions fundamental of Christian conscience
1. Only one thing is intrinsically good, namely love: nothing else.
2. The ultimate norm of Christian decision is love: nothing else.
3. Love and justice are the same, for justice is love distributed.
4. Love wills the neighbor’s good whether we like him or not.
5. Only the end justifies the means: nothing else.
6. Decisions ought to be made situationally, not prescriptively.

Power Ethics (Mightism)

Whenever an act enhances one’s strength or capacity to rule, it is good or morally
legitimate; whereas if it causes one’s ineffectiveness, weakness, and feebleness, it is
regarded as wrong.
This legitimizes the exercise of power, the use of force and violence insofar that these
promote one’s capacity to control or influence others.
Might : force, strength, capacity to rule, power, influence, control and dominion.
Takes Darwinian principle of nature – “survival of the fittest”
Thrasymachus,a sophist during the time of Plato. What is right or just is nothing but
the interest of the stronger. The rulers and strong ones dictate what is just and right.
Rulers authority absolute
Acts of disobedience, resistance, revolt and disloyalty are morally wrong.
Might is right

Friedrich Nietzche (1844 – 1900), German philosopher

Inherent in every individual regardless of race is the will to power or the will to
dominate
Any act that will enhance and develop his will to power is good.
This is a cosmic law essential to evolutionary development of the human race.
State of superhuman or Overmen: culmination of man’s will to power
Norm of morality: Will to power
Religion becomes an obstacle in the development and maturation of man’s will to
power.
Religion then must be abolish and destroyed
Nietzche dared man to get rid of Christianity.
He was known as God’s murderer or the philosopher who killed God.
2 Types of morality
1. Master morality (ruling class, the strong, superhuman)
2. Slave morality (exemplified by Christianity)
 Power Ethics

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), Italian politician famous for his doctrine on power
and government.
Machiavellian principle – perpetuation of oneself to power
Rulers or persons in authority may use every means- fair or foul, law or force to
implement government policies and to govern the people

3 Possible ways to gain political power

1. Being born into it
2. Being a child of fortune
3. By acquiring it through deceit and conquest
 Power Ethics

On ruler’s relationship with it subjects and subordinates should be limited to the

extent that is necessary to maintain full personal power. He can pretend to be good
but act otherwise.
In the process of governance, ruler should be as sly as a fox and as ferocious as a
lion

Humanistic Ethics
Knows as eudemonism, perfectionism, self-realization or self-actualization
This claims that self-realization is the true ultimate standard of morality.
Self-realization: self-fulfillment, fullness of life and full development of all the functions
of an individual
Humanistic Ethics is life-affirming and death-denying.
One must seek self-fulfilling acts and avoid self-destroying ones
Man is a social being and personality is a social product.
This ethical view is both individual and social in its emphasis and outlook. No man is
an island
Self-realization has a dimension of reciprocity, for the meaning of our lives is related
to the presence of others.
Personal development involves social development, hence virtues such
cooperation, unity, solidarity, harmony, mutual helpfulness, brotherhood and
universalism are important

Aristotle (384-322BC)
Foremost proponent of self-realization ethical school of thought.(found in
Nicomachean Ethics named after his son Nichomachus)
Highest good attainable by man: Self-realization
Full exercise of functions results in individual’s self-realization. These exercises refers to
fulfilling, realizing, actualizing and developing one’s nature with all its potentialities
Man’s Threefold nature
1. Vegetative (physical body)
2. Sentient (sensual feelings and emotions)
3. Rational (man’s highest nature – pursuit of scientific knowledge, philosophical
truth, political activity, religious commitment, creative, artistic endeavor
The doctrine of the Golden Mean or moderation is central in this ethical school.
Reason seeks balance course between too much and too little.

Thomistic Ethics
St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) 13thC Italian philosopher
This is also known as Scholastic ethics, Christian and/or Roman Catholic ethics,
Natural law ethics.
The source of moral law is reason itself, that directs us towards the good as the goal
of our action and that good is discoverable within our nature.
Reason recognizes the basic principle: Do good, avoid evil
Synderesis – inherent capacity of individual, lettered or unlettered to distinguish the
good from the bad.
This is the basis of St. Thomas’ argument that certain moral principles are objective
and can be found in the nature of things through reason and reflection.
Moral Norm: Right reason or voice of reason the voice of conscience (immediate
judgment of practical reason applying the general principle of morality to individual
concrete actions or decisions)
What is the good? That which is suitable to and proper for human nature.
Good is built into human nature.

3 Natural inclinations
1. Self-preservation
2. Treating other with dignity and respect that we accord ourselves
3. Perpetuating our species
Moral principles
1. Double effect principle
2. The principle of totality
3. The principle of stewardship
4. The principle of inviolability of life
5. The principle of sexuality and procreation

Filipino Centripetal Ethics

Filipino thought (diwang Filipino) is generally ethical or moralistic. It pertains to
human relationships and moral actions than to metaphysical speculations or
abstractions. This is so precisely because it is more of a philosophy of life than a
philosophy of being.
Filipinos are primarily interested in how to live and get along well with others
(pakipagkapwa-tao)
This refers to the people’s using self as the center, basis or gauge of moral judgment
Centripetal (Latin: centrum, a center and peto or petere , to seek
Centripetal : tending toward self
Filipinos consider self as the standard by which one’s relationship with others ought
to be regulated and ordered
In its Golden rule, typically oriental in nature: One should do to his fellow only that
which one would like to be done to oneself
We can readily see the mutual sanction present in the golden rule element.
It demands reciprocal obligation between men

Centripetal ethics: The nonjudgmental precept

This teaches that every individual has his own weaknesses. Nobody is perfect; man is
without blemish.
If individual undergoes moral lapses, people should be human enough to be
considerate and thoughtful
Finally, for Filipino centripetal thoughts, self-understanding, self-conquest, and self-
mastery are the keys to the understanding, conquest and mastery of others and the
whole world.