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Understanding International Diplomacy
This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the study of international

diplomacy, covering both theory and practice. This second edition has been revised
and updated, with new material on such key contemporary issues as Syria, Ukraine,
migration and the South China Sea.
The text summarizes and discusses the major trends in the field of diplomacy,
providing an innovative theoretical approach to understanding diplomacy not as a
collection of practices or a set of historical traditions, but as a form of institutional-
ized communication through which authorized representatives produce, manage and
distribute public goods. The book:
•• Traces the evolution of diplomacy from its beginnings in ancient Egypt, Greece
and China to our current age of global diplomacy.
•• Examines theoretical explanations about how diplomats take decisions, make
relations and shape the world.
•• Discusses normative approaches to how diplomacy ought to adapt itself to the
twenty-first century, help re-make states and assist the peaceful evolution of inter-
national order.
In sum, Understanding International Diplomacy provides an up-to-date, accessible and

authoritative overview of how diplomacy works and, indeed, ought to work in a glo-
balized world.
This textbook will be essential reading for students of international diplomacy, and
is highly recommended for students of crisis negotiation, international organizations,
foreign policy and IR in general.
Corneliu Bjola is Associate Professor in Diplomatic Studies at the University of

Oxford, UK. He has authored or edited six books, including the recent co-edited
volumes Countering Online Propaganda and Violent Extremism (with James Pamment,
2018), Secret Diplomacy (with Stuart Murray, 2016) and Digital Diplomacy (with Marcus
Holmes, 2015).
Markus Kornprobst is Professor of International Relations at the Diplomatic Academy

of Vienna, Austria. He is author of Irredentism in International Politics (2008) and
co-editor of Metaphors of Globalization (with Vincent Pouliot and Nisha Shah, 2008),
Arguing Global Governance (with Corneliu Bjola, 2010) and Communication, Legitimation
and Morality in Modern Politics (with Uriel Abulof, 2017).
‘Writing with clarity, authority and insight, Bjola and Kornprobst deliver the
essential introduction to the study and practice of diplomacy. The welcome sec-
ond edition includes new scholarship and tackles the emerging issues that are
defining our time including migration and the crises in Syria and Ukraine. No
less significantly, the volume also considers new techniques of diplomacy from
social media to the emergence of cities as foreign policy actors. This book is an
invaluable guide to a vital field.’
Nicholas J. Cull, Professor of Public Diplomacy,
University of Southern California, USA
‘In many ways superior to the original, the revised edition updates the evolution
and transformation of diplomacy, more balanced in theory and practice, wide in
scope and succinct in narration, a rich menu for both students and practitioners
of diplomacy.’
Zhang Qingmin, Professor and Chair,
Department of Diplomacy, Peking University, China
‘Adopting a broad understanding of diplomacy and taking us on an exciting tour –

from foreign policy implementation to ethics, from bilateral engagements to plurilat-
eral and paradiplomatic ones, from traditional channels to new forms of diplomatic
communication – Understanding International Diplomacy is a welcome and valuable
addition to the expanding field of diplomatic studies. It provides an excellent intro-
duction and essential textbook for both the reflexive practitioner and the intellectu-
ally curious student of diplomacy.’
Costas M. Constantinou, Professor of International Relations,
University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Understanding International
Diplomacy
Theory, Practice and Ethics
Second Edition
Corneliu Bjola and

Markus Kornprobst
Second edition published 2018
by Routledge
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 2018 Corneliu Bjola and Markus Kornprobst
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First edition published by Routledge 2013.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Bjola, Corneliu, author. | Kornprobst, Markus, author.
Title: Understanding international diplomacy : theory, practice and
ethics / Corneliu Bjola, Markus Kornprobst.
Description: Second Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017047134| ISBN 9781138717305 (Hardback) |
ISBN 9781138717343 (Paperback) | ISBN 9781315196367
(eBook)
Subjects: LCSH: International cooperation. | International relations.
Classification: LCC JZ1308 .B58 2018 | DDC 327.2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017047134
ISBN: 978-1-138-71730-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-71734-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-19636-7 (ebk)
Typeset in Baskerville
by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
Contents
List of illustrations x
Acknowledgements xii
Abbreviations xiii
Preface xv
PART I
Introduction 1
1 Why and how to study diplomacy 3

Why study diplomacy? 3
Does diplomacy (still) matter? 4
Actors 4
Issue areas 5
Methods 5
How to define diplomacy 6
Broadening horizons for studying diplomacy 7
Overview 8
PART II
Tracing diplomacy 11
2 Historical evolution 13
Introduction 13
Ancient diplomacy 14
Representation procedures 15
Communication methods 16
Conflict management 18
Medieval diplomacy 20
vi Contents
Modern diplomacy 24
Summary 32
Study questions 34
Recommended further reading 34
3 Woodrow Wilson and the new diplomacy after World War I 36

Introduction 36
Open covenants of peace: accountable diplomacy 38
The case for accountability 38
Parliamentary oversight 41
Self-determination: equality and democracy 43
The case for self-determination 43
Legal formulations 45
Conference diplomacy 46
Collective security: the power of law and deliberation 49
The case for collective security 49
Diplomatic challenges 51
Summary 53
Study questions 53
4 Multiplicities of global diplomacy 55

Introduction 55
War and peace 56
Economics 60
Development 63
Environment 66
Health 69
Migration 70
Summary 73
Study questions 73
PART III
Mapping the diplomatic field 75
5 Contexts of global diplomacy 77

Introduction 77
The making of the Vienna Convention 78
Four major provisions 79
Contents vii
Updating the Vienna Convention? 84
Deeper backgrounds 85
Three schools of thought on deeper backgrounds 87
Illustrations of deeper backgrounds 88
Summary 91
Study questions 91
6 Tasks of global diplomacy 93

Introduction 93
Messaging 94
Negotiation 97
Mediation 101
Talk 106
Summary 110
Study questions 110
PART IV
Explaining diplomacy 113
7 The making of decisions 115

Introduction 115
Rational choice 116
Cuba, 1962 117
Psychological approaches 120
Iraq, 2003 121
Logic of appropriateness 123
Germany, diplomacy and intervention, 1949– 125
Logic of argumentation 126
Soviet Union, 1990 127
Logic of practice 128
France and Africa, 1960s– 129
Summary 131
Study questions 131
8 The making of relations 133

Introduction 133
Balancing: from outlaw to ally (and vice versa) 134
Relations between North Korea and the United States, 1993–2016 136
Interests: cooperative relations beyond alliance 138
EU foreign policy, 1957–2016 140
viii Contents
Identities: from enmity to friendship and beyond 144
From enmity to friendship to enmity: Eritrea and Ethiopia 148
Summary 150
Study questions 150
9 The making of the world 152

Introduction 152
Diplomats as makers of geopolitical architectures 153
Geopolitical architectures 156
Case study: the Ukraine crisis 157
Diplomats as makers of anarchic cultures 158
Case study: the ‘bad apple’ diplomacy of the Third Reich 162
Diplomats as makers of international deontologies 164
Case study: the deontology of climate change diplomacy 169
Summary 171
Study questions 172
PART V
Discussing normative approaches 173
10 Re-making the diplomat 175

Introduction 175
Diplomatic representation 176
The raison de système 176
Paradiplomacy 178
Diplomacy and power 180
Diplomatic recruitment and training 185
Digital diplomacy 188
Summary 191
Study questions 192
11 Re-making domestic institutions 194

Introduction 194
Diplomacy and peacebuilding 196
The fundamental question: to intervene or not to intervene? 198
What ought to be the end of peacebuilding? 200
What ought to be the means to this end? 202
Summary 207
Study questions 207
Contents ix
12 The peaceful re-making of the world 209
Introduction 209
Preventive diplomacy 210
The UN context 210
Regional preventive diplomacy 217
International criminal justice 220
The International Criminal Court 220
Hybrid courts 225
Summary 227
Study questions 228
PART VI
Conclusion 231
13 Quo Vadis diplomacy? 233

Studying diplomacy as communication 233
Adding to our understanding 235
Gender and diplomacy 237
Anti-diplomacy 238
A glimpse into the future: the new diplomacies 240
City diplomacy 240
Disaster diplomacy 242
Glossary 245
References 260
Index 283
Illustrations
Figures
6.1 Interplay of diplomatic contexts and diplomatic tasks 94
9.1 Deontologies of climate governance 169
12.1 Life-history of conﬂicts and phases of diplomatic engagement 215
Tables
2.1 Chinese strategic culture 20
2.2 Evolution of diplomacy 33
3.1 Number of international conferences by decade, 1840–1939 47
6.1 Explaining success and failure of mediation 104
12.1 Shortcomings and successes of the ECCC 226
Boxes
2.1 Greek diplomatic missions 17
2.2 Medieval diplomats 21
2.3 The rise of resident ambassadors in Italy 25
2.4 The policy of diplomatic prestige 28
2.5 Diplomatic ranking 30
2.6 The Concert of Europe in action 31
2.7 Colonial partition of Africa 32
3.1 The Wilsonian concept of self-determination 44
3.2 The Abyssinia crisis 50
3.3 Recommendations of the UN High Level Panel on Threats,
Challenges, and Change for authorizing the use of force 52
4.1 2005 World Summit Outcome: responsibility to protect 59
4.2 Agenda 2063 65
4.3 Disaster relief 70
4.4 Human trafficking 72
5.1 Persona non grata 81
5.2 2012 attacks on U.S. diplomats 83
5.3 Diplomatic asylum and Julian Assange 85
Illustrations xi
5.4 Applying for NGO accreditation 89
5.5 The Idea of Europe 90
6.1 Limitations of scholarly perspectives on negotiation 99
6.2 The Humanitarian Initiative 101
6.3 Former heads of state as mediators 105
6.4 Sports and music diplomacy 108
6.5 Techniques for learning from one another 110
7.1 Two-level games 116
7.2 Appeasement 121
7.3 Security Council Resolution 1973 124
7.4 Diplomacy and communicative action 127
7.5 The underlying rules of the diplomatic game 130
8.1 Kissinger, China and the United States 135
8.2 Iranian nuclear deal 137
8.3 Jean Monnet 139
8.4 Dag Hammerskjöld on the international civil servant 145
9.1 Symbolic interactionism 160
9.2 Deontology 165
10.1 The raison de système 177
10.2 Determinants of success of coercive diplomacy 181
10.3 Sources of soft power 182
10.4 U.S. public diplomacy in the Arab world 183
10.5 U.S. smart power as investment in five global public goods 184
10.6 Five principles of impactful digital diplomacy 189
11.1 ONUC and learning by doing 195
11.2 The UN Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) 197
11.3 Reconciliation vs justice? 206
12.1 Origins of the concept of preventive diplomacy 211
12.2 UN cases of preventive diplomacy 212
12.3 UN Early Warning systems 213
12.4 Examples of NGO conflict prevention initiatives 217
12.5 The negotiation process of Rome Statute establishing the
International Criminal Court (ICC) 222
Acknowledgements
We would like to extend our thanks to Andrew Humphrys and Hannah Ferguson who
have been tremendously helpful in assisting us with the publication of the second edi-
tion as well as to the blind peer reviewers for their valuable and constructive criticism.
We would also like to express our gratitude to Lise H. Andersen and Corina Traistaru
for their superb research assistance as well as the Oxford Department of International
Development and the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna for partially funding this pro-
ject. In writing this book, we took quite a lot of inspiration from our students. It is very
much with them and their contributions to our class discussions in mind that we have
written this book. We therefore dedicate this book to them.
Abbreviations
ANC African National Congress

APEC Asia-Pacific Cooperation
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
AU African Union
AU PSC Peace and Security Council (Africa Union)
CCP Common Commercial Policy
CD Conference for Disarmament
CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy
CPCC Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability
CSDP Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP)
CTBTO Preparatory Commission for a Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
Organization
DDR Demobilization, Disarmament and Reintegration
ECCC The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
EEAS European External Action Service
EFSF European Financial Stability Facility
EFSM European Financial Stabilisation Mechanism
EPC European Political Co-operation
EPLF Eritrean People’s Liberation Front
EU European Union
EUMC European Union Military Committee
EUMS European Union Military Staff
EU PSC Political and Security Committee (European Union)
ExComm Executive Committee
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FPA Foreign Policy Analysis
Frelimo Frente de Libertaçao de Moçambique
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GMG Global Migration Group
HR High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICBL International Campaign to Ban Landmines
ICEM Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFP Inkatha Freedom Party
ILC International Law Commission
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
xiv Abbreviations
IOM International Organization for Migration
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IR International Relations
IRO International Refugee Organization
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertaçao de Angola
NATO North-Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO Nongovernmental organization
NP National Party
NPT Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
OAS Organization of American States
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
ONUC United Nations Operation in the Congo
OPCW Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
OSS Sahara and Sahel Observatory
PBSO Peacebuilding Support Office
PFDJ People’s Front for Democracy and Justice
Renamo Resisténcia Nacional Mocambicana
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SSR Security Sector Reform
SU Soviet Union
SWAC Sahel and West Africa Club
TEC Treaty establishing the European Community
TPLF Tigray People’s Liberation Front
TPP Trans-Pacific Partnership
UN United Nations
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNCCD Permanent Secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification
UNCTAD UN Conference on Trade and Development
UNDESA UN Department of Economic and Social
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNITA Uniao Nacional para Independência Total de Angola
UNITAR United Nations Institute for Training and Research
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
UNPBC United Nations Peacebuilding Commission
UNRRA UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
UNSC United Nations Security Council
U.S. United States
WFP World Food Programme
WHO World Health Organization
WTO World Trade Organization
Preface
Diplomacy is a centuries-old institution, and the first edition of this book was
published only five years ago. Nevertheless, this is a thoroughly revised second edi-
tion. Why did we embark on this endeavour? Why a second edition now?
There are three reasons for writing this second edition. First, the world does not
stand still. Territorial disputes such as the Russo-Ukrainian Conflict or the South
China Sea tensions, civil wars such as in Syria, international terrorism, economic
sanctions exchanged between the European Union and Russia, increasing numbers
of migrants to the European Union and the United States, combating Ebola and
Zika in West Africa and Latin America, respectively, and many other issues added to
the agenda to be dealt with by diplomats. Alerted by the rise of populist leaders, par-
ties and movements in various parts of the world, there have been more and more
scholarly workshops and conferences questioning whether diplomatic encounters
will succeed in preserving our current world order and regional orders. Despite
this scepticism, we should not forget that there were a number of diplomatic break-
throughs, ranging from the Paris Agreement to counter climate change to the
Iranian nuclear deal, and from the Sustainable Development Goals to the New York
Declaration on migrants. When we worked in failures and successes of diplomacy to
rise up to global and regional challenges in the last five years, we paid close atten-
tion to novel modes of diplomatic communication. Digital diplomacy will never be
able to replace face-to-face diplomacy. But digital communication channels do re-
configure the institution of diplomacy to a considerable extent. Diplomacy adapts
to the digital age.
Second, the study of diplomacy continues to experience a great renaissance. Gone
are the days in which the predominance of heavily structural and material accounts
on international relations belittled the agency of diplomatic actors. Research on
diplomacy gained further momentum. In the discipline of International Relations,
insights into diplomatic interactions have found their way into International Relations
Theory. Geopolitics and the practice turn, for example, are closely linked to studies
on diplomacy. Likewise, inquiries into diplomacy have refined prevailing understand-
ings of communication in International Relations. In other disciplines, too, research
on diplomacy has had a broader impact. Research on public diplomacy, for example,
has found its way into more generic theories in the field of Communications. Changes
in the publication landscape are telling when it comes to this increasing interest in
studying diplomacy. Since we published the first edition, numerous new publishing
outlets have been created such as the Routledge New Diplomacy Studies Series, the
Brill Research Perspectives in Diplomacy and Foreign Policy and Global Affairs. This
new edition provides an overview of these new research developments.
xvi Preface
Third, we made our own new experiences while dealing with diplomacy. In the last
five years, we were engaged in research projects on secret diplomacy, digital diplo-
macy, nuclear diplomacy and crisis diplomacy. We taught students, trained diplomats
and advised foreign ministries in several countries in Africa, Asia and Europe. This
was always a two-way communication process. We learnt a lot from our encounters
with colleagues, students and diplomats. These experiences, we hope, make this sec-
ond edition somewhat more ‘global’ in outlook. For this reason, we are delighted that
Peking University Press took the initiative to publish the previous edition in Mandarin.
Our overriding aim, however, remained the same. This book, no matter which
edition, is supposed to provide a broad introduction to (the study of) diplomacy. It
is supposed to deliver the nuts and bolts of diplomacy, for instance by identifying key
provisions in diplomatic law. It is to discuss contending ways of making sense of what
diplomats do. It is to address the ethics involved in doing diplomacy. And, most of all,
we hope that this book helps readers to arrive at novel insights into the workings of
this ancient and utterly important institution.
Corneliu Bjola and Markus Kornprobst

31 July 2017
Part I
Introduction
1 Why and how to study diplomacy
Why study diplomacy?

There are many very good reasons to study diplomacy right now. The outstanding
economic progress of China, increasingly also India, in recent decades makes scholars
and policy makers alike investigate the question whether the potential redistribution
of power from the West to the East would lead to regional and global stability or insta-
bility. Diplomacy will have a lot to do with the trajectory of these changes. The Middle
East is in turmoil. The breakdown of state authority in Libya, the fragile statehood in
Iraq, regional rivalries such as the one between Iran and Saudi Arabia, civil wars in
Syria and Yemen, and the long-standing Israeli-Palestinian Conflict pose serious chal-
lenges. Coping with these challenges requires skilful diplomacy. The Paris Agreement
remains a landmark agreement for countering climate change. Yet Washington’s
announcement to opt out of the agreement as well as a plethora of implementation
issues will keep diplomats busy for some time to come. In the wake of the process
that led to the Sustainable Development Goals, African states have agreed to spec-
ify their developmental goals in the Agenda 2063. Making progress towards these
goals requires, among other things, negotiation and renegotiation – in other words,
diplomacy. This list could be extended almost indefinitely. There are innumerous
challenges, pertaining to conflict and peace, economics and development, health,
migration, disaster relief and many others, that states cannot address appropriately
without sending their representatives onto the diplomatic stage.
The forces of globalization, and with it the need to steer these forces into war-
ranted directions, underpin many of these challenges. We seem to be situated in an
‘in-between era’, where international politics – and with it diplomacy – needs fresh
ideas and new initiatives of diplomatic engagement to engage with a changing world.
The need for such a re-orientation is nothing particularly new. Diplomacy has a his-
tory of adapting and re-inventing itself to changing political conditions. However,
the challenge for diplomats has surprisingly remained similar throughout different
historical ages: how to properly recognize, interpret and project relevant forms of
power by communicating with one another? In other words, what exactly is there to
understand about diplomacy and how can we make sense of it? This book does not
aim to provide the answer to this question, but to explore how this question can be
addressed from a variety of perspectives: historical, legal, cognitive, social and ethical.
In so doing, we hope to convince the readers that diplomacy represents a unique,
multi-faceted, effective and highly relevant instrument for managing relationships of
estrangement between political communities, while retaining their institutional, ideo-
logical and social differences.
4 Introduction
As a way of unpacking these arguments, this chapter will proceed in four steps.
The first section will discuss the reasons for the continuing relevance of diplomacy
in the twenty-first century. The second part will explain the centrality of communica-
tion to the diplomatic practice. The third section will explain why and how we plan
to broaden the toolbox available for studying diplomacy by drawing on insights from
related disciplines. The chapter will conclude with an overview of the themes to be
covered in each chapter of the book.
Does diplomacy (still) matter?

“States receive so much benefit from uninterrupted foreign negotiations”, Cardinal
Richelieu, the founder of the first-ever professional diplomatic service, once argued,
but the nature of the much praised “benefit” has not always been clear.
As argued elsewhere (Bjola, 2013), diplomacy, at its core, is about relationship
management and maintaining international order. At the micro-level, this translates
into diplomats building and managing relations of friendship. At the macro-level,
diplomacy contributes through its core functions of representation, communication
and negotiation to producing and distributing global public goods (security, devel-
opment, sustainable environment, etc.). Diplomatic success is therefore arguably an
equal matter of maximizing the number of allies and friends and reducing that of
enemies and rivals on the one hand, and of creating a stable and self-sustainable inter-
national order, on the other. However, what is less clear is how diplomats can actually
accomplish these worthy undertakings. What exactly do they need to do in order to
live up to these expectations, especially since their profession is going through some
critical transformations with respect to the nature of the actors, issue areas, and meth-
ods of diplomatic engagement? Put differently, what is the value of diplomacy in the
twenty-first century?
Actors
We are witnessing a multiplication of diplomatic actors in Europe as well as world-
wide. The field of diplomacy is no longer populated just by representatives of foreign
services, but also by representatives of other ministries, multinational corporations,
civil society organizations, and even influential individuals who do not represent a
particular state, organization or corporation. As insightfully noted by the authors of
the Futures for Diplomacy report (Hocking et al., 2012), the nature of the national dip-
lomatic environment is changing from one which privileges the role of the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs (MFA) to one which places it within a broader construct – that of the
national diplomatic system (NDS), which covers the complex network of governmen-
tal and non-governmental institutions that inform and shape a country’s international
policy objectives. Assessing the value of diplomacy in this context is no longer an
issue of measuring solely MFA performance. It has to involve a more sophisticated
analysis of mapping and comparing NDS configurations that prove most conducive
to addressing and managing core files of foreign policy. The European refugee crisis
has shown, for instance, how important it is for MFAs to collaborate with local NGOs,
charities, international institutions (such as the UNHCR), aid agencies and industry
groups in order to make sure that countries’ immigration policies and their humani-
tarian commitments remain reasonably aligned with each other.
Why and how to study diplomacy 5
Issue areas
Diplomacy, on the one hand, and regional and global governance, on the other,
are inextricably intertwined. As a key mechanism of regional and global ordering,
diplomacy increasingly gets involved in issue areas that, until quite recently, had
been primarily dealt with at the domestic level (economics, environment, health,
migration). Most critically, many of these issue areas mutually influence each other,
and, consequently, they are often discussed in the same breath in international fora
(e.g. migration and security, environment and trade, economics and health, etc.).
What this means is that the value of diplomacy may not be properly captured by
sector-specific measures, but rather by compact-sensitive tools that take into account
the complementary and added value of integrated issues areas. For example, the
3D concept (Diplomacy, Development, and Defense) put forward by the U.S. State
Department in collaboration with USAID and the Department of Defense recog-
nizes the mutually reinforcing capacity of the three dimensions and seeks to leverage
their joint potential through combined strategic planning. One could probably add
“Digital” as the fourth logical extension of this approach (4D), as digital technologies
are becoming indispensable tools for conducting diplomacy, promoting develop-
ment and boosting defence.
What needs to change is our method of assessing the mechanisms by which these
objectives can be reached.
Methods
The multiplication of actors and issue areas also changes the ways diplomats do their
work. It changes both their daily practices and their methods for handling interna-
tional negotiations, public engagements and situations of international crisis. The
2015 Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review (QDDR) calls attention, for
instance, to the fact that the fluid nature of global events requires the U.S. State
Department to respond quickly and to deploy expertise whenever and wherever it
is needed (U.S. State Department, 2015: 68). The twentieth-century mantra of dip-
lomats being able to excel in their work as long as they had a strong sense of history
and a good grasp of general economic, political and international issues is no longer
sufficient. Rather, professional aspects of diplomacy can be found in a range of dif-
ferent occupational roles requiring multiple competences and trans-professional
skills (strong leadership qualities, good analytical intuitions in economics and data
science, proven negotiation abilities, deep know-how of organizational manage-
ment, etc.). Good diplomatic performance is therefore not only an issue of suitably
linking capacities to outcomes, but also of demonstrating the capacity and talent
to do this in a way that embraces multi-tasking, welcomes improvisation, controls
uncertainty and complexity, and maximizes real-time impact. In short, the method
of evaluating diplomatic performance must take note of the hybridity of professional
competences required to function efficiently in the diplomatic environment of the
twenty-first century.
To sum up, the core mission of diplomacy to manage relationships and maintain
international order has hardly changed in the twenty-first century. What needs to
change is our method of assessing the mechanisms by which these objectives can be
reached. A stronger focus on the strength and efficiency of national diplomatic sys-
tems, on the added value and degree of compactness of integrated issues areas, and
6 Introduction
on the level of hybridity of professional competences and skills required for delivering
results in a dynamic environment, could offer a more balanced perspective to under-
standing the value of contemporary diplomacy.
How to define diplomacy

What distinct insights does diplomacy offer to us for understanding how the world
“hangs together”? What ontological boundaries (→ glossary: ontology) delineate the
field of diplomatic inquiry and how helpful are they in assisting scholars to theorize
about conditions of conflict and cooperation in world politics or about considera-
tions of power, authority and legitimacy as constitutive frameworks of international
conduct? In short, what turns diplomacy into a core analytical and practical method
of international engagement? The answer we provide in this book is that diplomacy
cannot be understood without taking seriously the role of communication as an onto-
logical anchor of diplomatic interaction.
Diplomacy is the institutionalized communication among internationally recog-

nized representatives of internationally recognized entities through which these
representatives produce, manage and distribute public goods.
This definition has three key features. First, diplomacy is, on its most fundamental
level, about communication. More precisely, it is about a peculiar form of communi-
cation that is highly institutionalized. There are a plethora of rules and norms that
diplomats become socialized into and these rules and norms govern the communica-
tion among diplomats. On the one hand, therefore, our definition is not far removed
from Adam Watson’s (1982) highly influential claim that diplomacy revolves around
dialogue. He, too, wrote about diplomacy as an institution and, choosing the term
‘dialogue’, he also put communication centre stage in his writings on diplomacy. On
the other hand, we use the term communication more broadly. There is a wide variety
of diplomatic communication, ranging from dialogue on the one hand to coercive
diplomacy (Schelling, 1966) on the other. Note also that we do not subscribe to a cel-
ebratory view of diplomatic communication. While diplomacy has plenty of potential
to resolve conflicts peacefully, it is not always innocent. Declaring war, for instance,
is as much a diplomatic act – very much an institutionalized communicative act – as
mediation and negotiation of peaceful resolution of conflicts. So are attempts to build
coalitions with other states to go to war.
Second, processes of double recognition make an individual an actor in the diplomatic
field. These processes are very straightforward when it comes to an ambassador repre-
senting a state. States are recognized as entities on the diplomatic stage, for instance
through the UN Charter and the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.
The latter also codifies the accreditation process (→ glossary) through which a host
state recognizes the ambassador of a sending state. Some books on diplomacy put this
much simpler. Watson, for instance, writes only about states (1982). Yet this is, in our
view, a bit too simple, especially in our global age. Of course, states are still key entities
in the diplomatic game. To this very day, diplomacy privileges states. It is, for example,
states that hold membership of the UN. But this does not mean that we can under-
stand today’s diplomacy by looking only at states. The UN Secretariat, for example, is
oftentimes recognized as a diplomatic player in its own right. Its representatives, above
all the Secretary-General but also his Under-Secretary Generals, are recognized to act
on behalf of this recognized international entity. In similar ways, the chairpersons and
other high-ranking representatives of, say, Amnesty International and Greenpeace, are
diplomatic actors (although they may not necessarily self-identify as such). Diplomacy,
in other words, has a lot to do with recognition. Who is recognized changes over time.
Thus, our definition stays open regarding who is recognized. This enables us to discuss
changes from, say, Richelieu’s times to our global age of diplomacy.
Third, diplomacy is about producing, managing and distributing public goods, that is,
goods that are important for the well-being of a community and where the use by some
members of the community does not reduce the availability of the public good to oth-
ers. Traditionally, diplomacy has been primarily about engaging in communication
for the purpose of achieving a particular type of public good: the protection of the
state against external interventions (i.e. security). In the twentieth century, diplomatic
communication has expanded to address a growing number of other public goods,
including economic welfare, development, environmental protection, health safety
and migration control. More recently, it has become increasingly evident that many
of these public goods are interrelated and hence diplomats need to be proficient in
how to juggle competing priorities of public goods. Equally important, globalization
is redefining some of these public goods into global public goods, that is, goods that
are important for the well-being of multiple political communities. Issues that have
traditionally been merely national are now global because they are beyond the grasp
of any single nation (e.g. environment, health, peace, justice). This transformation
introduces a new set of challenges for how diplomats manage public goods and may
even lead to the end of diplomacy as we know it today.
Broadening horizons for studying diplomacy

The purpose of this book is not to argue for the one perspective or the other. It is
also not to arrive at a new one. Instead, it is to introduce the reader to different compart-
ments of the toolbox available for making sense of diplomacy. It is up to the reader to choose
from the material we provide and make sense of diplomacy, both in terms of how
diplomacy works and how it ought to work. Very much in the spirit of broadening the
toolbox available for studying diplomacy, we also encourage the reader to go beyond
the material we have selected for this book, for example by listing recommended
further readings.
Some of these compartments are taken from the literature on diplomacy. In this
way, this book bears resemblance with other textbooks on diplomacy. It summarizes
the state of the art. Yet most of these compartments are borrowed from literature
that does not deal with diplomacy in much depth or does not explicitly address the
phenomenon at all. Thus, we want to reach out further than existing books on diplo-
macy. Outside of the discipline of International Relations (IR), we borrow insights
from a number of disciplines, including Economics, History, Law, Philosophy (espe-
cially Political Theory), Psychology and Sociology. Many of the authors whose works
we discuss have never written anything on diplomacy. But their arguments help us
understand aspects of diplomacy that remain otherwise under-appreciated. Given the
multi-faceted nature of diplomacy, we seek to introduce the reader to a multi-faceted
way of studying diplomacy. Crossing disciplinary and sub-disciplinary boundaries is
our means for achieving this end.
8 Introduction
Our multi-perspectival Leitmotiv also finds expression in how we deal with research
that addresses fields of study that are often seen as competitors of research on diplo-
macy. We explore criss-crossings between the study of diplomacy on the one hand and
literature on global governance, foreign policy analysis (FPA) and IR theory, on the
other. Global governance is not the same as diplomacy. The manner in which com-
munication is institutionalized in the diplomatic field gives rise to distinct interaction
patterns. The recognition of actors, for instance, is much narrower in the field of
diplomacy than the literature on global governance conceives of actorness. But there
is a lot to be learnt from writings on global governance. In the age of global diplo-
macy, diplomats must stand their ground in processes of global governance. They
have to act in multiple policy fields and with multiple actors, some inside and some
outside the diplomatic realm. Thus, engaging with the literature on global govern-
ance helps us understand today’s diplomacy.
To some extent, we concur with attempts to delineate diplomacy studies from FPA.
Diplomacy and FPA are not the same. While the latter focuses on the making of for-
eign policy in a domestic setting, the former deals more with how political entities,
once they have formulated their foreign policies, pursue these policies on the inter-
national level. Yet these foci are a matter of degree. There is no absolute boundary.
Studies of diplomacy gain from an understanding of how policies are formulated, no
matter whether this formulation takes place on the domestic level only or whether
there is input from the international level as well. Hedley Bull had it exactly right
when he argued that the study of diplomacy should pay attention to policy formation
(Bull, 1995).
Finally, we also explore overlaps between IR, and especially International Relations
Theory, and diplomatic studies. It is especially approaches that take agency seriously
and explore the complex processes through which agents are shaped by structures
and, vice versa, agents shape structures, that are of major relevance for the study of
diplomacy. The latter, no question about it, are agency-focused. Studies of diplomacy
foreground the work of the diplomat. But diplomats are embedded in context, some
of which is very much their own making, and this context enables and constrains their
actions.
Overview
This book is organized as follows: Part I introduces the topic and explains the vol-
ume’s approach to the study of diplomacy. Part II traces the evolution of diplomacy
from its beginnings in ancient Egypt, Greece and China to our current age of global
diplomacy. Chapter 2 traces the institutionalization of diplomacy in the ancient
world and discusses the further evolution of this institutionalization up until World
War I. Starting with Wilson’s visions for a New Diplomacy and leading up to twenty-
first-century diplomacy, Chapter 3 addresses the addition of the multilateral layer
to diplomacy. Chapter 4 deals with today’s widening of the diplomatic field, i.e. the
multiplication of issue areas and actors.
Part III maps the diplomatic field. It identifies two building blocks for analysing
diplomacy: context and tasks. The context enables and constrains diplomacy to per-
form its tasks, and, vice versa, the performance of these tasks shapes the context that
constitutes diplomacy. Looking at diplomatic contexts in depth, Chapter 5 discusses
international public law (especially the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic
Relations) as well as deeper backgrounds, i.e. ideas constituting diplomacy that actors
take so much for granted that they do not reflect upon them anymore. Chapter 6
details the doings of the diplomat. It distinguishes four clusters of practices: messag-
ing, negotiation, mediation and talk.
Part IV builds on the previous part by discussing explanations of diplomatic out-
comes. Chapter 7 is concerned with the making of decisions: How do diplomats make
decisions? In our answer, we focus on four different logics of action: consequences,
appropriateness, argumentation and practice. Chapter 8 addresses the making of
relations: How do diplomats make relations among the entities they represent? We
offer different sets of prescriptions of relationship-making based on three compet-
ing schools of thought, Realism, Liberalism and Constructivism. Chapter 9, focusing
on the deeper background, asks an even more profound question: How do diplo-
mats make the world that we inhabit? The answer, we argue, lies with the role that
diplomats play as makers of geopolitical architectures, cultures of anarchy and inter-
national deontologies.
Part V switches from explanation to a normative mode. Striking a balance between
analytical and normative understandings of diplomacy is a delicate but critical endeav-
our. Diplomacy is full of normative problems and moral conundrums. We deal with
three of them, each located at a different level of analysis. Foregrounding the individ-
ual level, Chapter 10 examines how diplomatic representation should be conducted,
what forms of power are appropriate to use in diplomatic relations, and what forms
of diplomatic training and expertise are more suitable for the twenty-first-century dip-
lomat. Moving to the state level, Chapter 11 asks questions about diplomacy’s recent
involvements in re-making domestic institutions (especially peacebuilding). Should
diplomacy get involved in building peace in other states; if so, how? Chapter 12 is ded-
icated to re-making global institutions, more precisely the key puzzle of diplomacy:
How ought diplomacy to safeguard peaceful change in world politics? We investigate
the strengths and limitations of two important instruments, preventive diplomacy and
international criminal justice, that may assist diplomats in their mission to generate
peaceful change.
Finally, the conclusion in Part VI summarizes the main analytical and normative
contributions of the book to understanding how diplomacy works or ought to work,
examines the neglected relationship between gender and diplomacy, discusses the
usefulness of the concept of anti-diplomacy for grasping the limits of diplomatic con-
duct, and explains why and how new forms of diplomacies may assist diplomats in
coping with future challenges.
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Understanding International Diplomacy

This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the study of international

In sum, Understanding International Diplomacy provides an up-to-date, accessible and

Corneliu Bjola is Associate Professor in Diplomatic Studies at the University of

Markus Kornprobst is Professor of International Relations at the Diplomatic Academy

‘Adopting a broad understanding of diplomacy and taking us on an exciting tour –

Corneliu Bjola and

ISBN: 978-1-138-71730-5 (hbk)

1 Why and how to study diplomacy 3

3 Woodrow Wilson and the new diplomacy after World War I 36

4 Multiplicities of global diplomacy 55

5 Contexts of global diplomacy 77

6 Tasks of global diplomacy 93

7 The making of decisions 115

8 The making of relations 133

9 The making of the world 152

10 Re-making the diplomat 175

11 Re-making domestic institutions 194

13 Quo Vadis diplomacy? 233

ANC African National Congress

Corneliu Bjola and Markus Kornprobst

Why study diplomacy?

Does diplomacy (still) matter?

How to define diplomacy

Diplomacy is the institutionalized communication among internationally recog-

Broadening horizons for studying diplomacy

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