SIT Process Engineering

MODULE - I

Post Graduate Diploma In

“PROCESS ENGINEERING”

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PREFACE

SIT (Suvidya Institute of Technology) is a leading provider of industrial training to meet the requirements of
skilled manpower in the field of "OIL & GAS". Our aim is to develop skilled manpower in specialized field and
to provide expert engineers to the industry, who are not only confident about their subject but can also handle
their job activities independently & efficiently.

SIT is a team of young, efficient, qualified and hardcore professionals with broad spectrum of consultancy and
industrial background. Our industrial training programmes are based on sound engineering principles &
methodology, applicable code requirements and best industrial practices.

We are aware that, 'Engineer is the key person in the material progress of the world. It is his engineering that
converts the potential value of science into service by translating scientific knowledge into tools, resources
and energy. To make contributions of this kind the Engineer requires three things; the imagination to visualize
the needs of society, an eye to appreciate what is possible, last and most important is the technological and
broad social understanding to bring his vision into reality.

Swift changes in global scenario and market, have transformed the dimensions of professionals in every
industry. The specialist from any field of engineering has to focus more and more narrowly on his specialized
topics & work area rather than broad spectrum of faculty. This has heightened the challenges of young &
passionate Engineers.

By realizing, this great obligation to build Technocrat Engineers and well-grounded Indian Work force, to
compete global requirements of industry, young, energetic, qualified, top notch professionals from Software,
Consultancy & Industrial background, we have formed a Consortium and laid the foundation of SIT.

Keeping global competition in mind, SIT has designed professional courses which are a combination of
theory, latest industrial practices and practical sessions. Our institute offers numbers of courses to cover wide
spectrum of industrial aspects, which are recognized by industries.

Syllabus covered in these courses is exactly as per the global standards as well as latest working
requirements of various engineering companies. To develop proficient thinking skills in our participants we
have adopted case study approach.

Course structures are not at all dry accumulations of facts but it has way of thinking about possible difficulties,
ways to find solutions of obviously puzzling problems, which make our students well equipped to be in lead
roles. The overall structure assesses the students against the requirements, which include key skills,
knowledge level and execution power that define competences.

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Our Faculty…

SIT is globally known for its educational values and ethics. Our faculty members are the experienced, leading
professionals from top relevant organizations. These experts have the skill of illustrating highly complex
subject with an engaging combination of clarity & wit. This transforms complex engineering into easy learning
states. Practical sessions have been designed to set to rest all difficulties in classroom learning. These
sessions are vital parts of our courses.

Having attained firm footing, our organization is very keen to be a livewire of Industry and offer consultancy
services on various industrial & development Projects. Our Students have made strong impact & carved niche
difference in the Industry. They are rendering their services to various Industries in India & Abroad. Their
every contribution to Industry has made us proud.

Our Services…

• Industry specific Training in various disciplines of Engineering.

• Corporate Training as per the Company requirement.
• In-plant Training facilities.
• Case Studies to develop rational thinking skill.
• Seminars to update knowledge.
• Industrial visit to develop visualization skills.
• Personality development and Mock Interviews to develop confidence.
• Opportunity to work on Live Projects.
• Guidance to choose a right career.
• Enhancing the non-technical students to build up their Career.

Some of the companies where our students have made strong impact…

• M/s. Petrofac Engineering India Ltd - Mumbai

• M/s. Aker Solutions Pvt. Ltd. – Mumbai
• M/s. Toyo Engineering India Ltd. - Mumbai
• M/s. Tecnimont ICB Pvt. Ltd. – Mumbai
• M/s. Reliance Engineering Associates Pvt. Ltd - Mumbai
• M/s. Bechtel India Pvt. Ltd. – Gurgaon
• M/s. Flour Daniel India Pvt. Ltd. – Gurgaon
• M/s. Mott MacDonald Pvt. Ltd. - Mumbai
• M/s. UHDE India Ltd,
• M/s. Chemtex Engineering India Ltd. - Mumbai
• M/s. Jacobs Engineering India Ltd. - Mumbai
• M/s. Larsen & Turbo Ltd. Faridabad ….. and many more in India and abroad.

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Objectives of these Courses …

• To identify the basic vocabulary and to introduce the major concepts of design.
• To provide & understand the basic requirements for design as per the international codes & standards.
• To understand how to design cost effective new installation.
• To understand how to create cost effective design in trouble shooting as well as while improving existing
system.

SPECIALISED COURSES OFFERED BY US WHO CAN ATTEND:

• Piping Engineering - Mechanical, Chemical & Production Engineers

Advanced Pipe Stress Analysis - Mechanical/Chemical Engineering/ Piping

Engineers

• H.V.A.C - Mechanical & Production Engineers.

• Process Engineering - Chemical Engineers.

• Mechanical Design of Process Equipment - Mechanical / Production Engineers.

• Structural Engineering. - Civil / Structural Engineers.

• Electrical Engineering - Electrical Engineers.

• Instrumentation & Control - Instrumentation / Electronics Engineers.

• Water & Waste Water Engineering. - Engineers, B.Sc & M.sc

• Engineering Design & Drafting. - HSC

• Piping Design & Drafting - ITI - Mechanical Draughtsman.

TOGETHER WE WILL BRING NEW DIMENSIONS TO ENGINEERING

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INDEX
CONTENTS Page Nos.

Introduction to Oil & Gas Industry 6

Introduction To Process 51

Codes And Standards 82

Piping Elements 97

Valves 115

Special Parts 121

Process Equipments 127

Instruments 138

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OIL RIG SYSTEMS:-
Once the equipment is at the site, the rig is set up. Here are the major systems of a land oil rig:

Anatomy of an oil rig

Power system

Large diesel engines - burn diesel-fuel oil to provide the main source of power

Electrical generators - powered by the diesel engines to provide electrical power

Mechanical system - driven by electric motors

Hoisting system - used for lifting heavy loads; consists of a mechanical winch (draw works) with a large
steel cable spool, a block-and-tackle pulley and a receiving storage reel for the cable

Turntable - part of the drilling apparatus

Rotating equipment - used for rotary drilling

swivel - large handle that holds the weight of the drill string; allows the string to rotate and makes a pressure-
tight seal on the hole

kelly - four- or six-sided pipe that transfers rotary motion to the turntable and drill string

turntable or rotary table - drives the rotating motion using power from electric motors

drill string - consists of drill pipe (connected sections of about 30 ft / 10 m) and drill collars (larger
diameter, heavier pipe that fits around the drill pipe and places weight on the drill bit)

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Drill bit(s) - end of the drill that actually cuts up the rock; comes in many shapes and materials (tungsten
carbide steel, diamond) that are specialized for various drilling tasks and rock formations

Casing - large-diameter concrete pipe that lines the drill hole, prevents the hole from collapsing, and allows
drilling mud to circulate

Circulation system - pumps drilling mud (mixture of water, clay,

weighting material and chemicals, used to lift rock cuttings from the drill bit
to the surface) under pressure through the kelly, rotary table, drill pipes and
drill collars

pump - sucks mud from the mud pits and pumps it to the drilling apparatus

pipes and hoses - connects pump to drilling apparatus

mud-return line - returns mud from hole

shale shaker - shaker/sieve that separates rock cuttings from the mud

shale slide - conveys cuttings to the reserve pit

reserve pit - collects rock cuttings separated from the mud

Photo courtesy Institute of
mud pits - where drilling mud is mixed and recycled Petroleum
Mud circulation in the hole
mud-mixing hopper - where new mud is mixed and then sent to the mud
pits

Drill-mud circulation system

Derrick - support structure that holds the drilling apparatus; tall enough to allow new sections of drill pipe to
be added to the drilling apparatus as drilling progresses

Blowout preventer - high-pressure valves (located under the land rig or on the sea floor) that seal the high-
pressure drill lines and relieve pressure when necessary to prevent a blowout (uncontrolled gush of gas or oil
to the surface, often associated with fire)

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Extracting Oil
After the rig is removed, a pump is placed on the well head.

Pump on an oil well

In the pump system, an electric motor drives a gear box that moves a lever. The lever pushes and pulls a
polishing rod up and down. The polishing rod is attached to a sucker rod, which is attached to a pump.
This system forces the pump up and down, creating a suction that draws oil up through the well.

In some cases, the oil may be too heavy to flow. A second hole is then drilled into the reservoir and steam is
injected under pressure. The heat from the steam thins the oil in the reservoir, and the pressure helps push it
up the well. This process is called enhanced oil recovery.

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Enhanced oil recovery

With all of this oil-drilling technology in use, and new methods in development, the question remains: Will we
have enough oil to meet our needs? Current estimates suggest that we have enough oil for about 63 to 95
years to come, based on current and future finds and present demands.

For more information on oil drilling and related topics, including oil refining, check out the links on the next
page.

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Doc. No.
Process Description Rev.No. :
Page 11 of 149

The proposed early production facility is being set at oil field OPL 277,Imo state, Owerri, Nigeria by xxxxxx.

The total capacity of proposed production facility shall be 20,000 BLPD from total 4 production wells. The
production facility shall be in 2-3 modules having modular separation capacity of 10,000 BLPD x 1 No and
5000 BLPD x 2 Nos.

Crude oil/gas/water mixture from the production wellheads is brought to production manifold at about 500-
600 psig. The Fuel gases and crude oil are then separated from water in series of phase separators.

The separated fuel gas is Conditioned in pressure regulating station for use as fuel for engine driven
equipment and balance gas will be sent for flaring through flare system.( No compressor envisaged as the
gas volumes are very low)

The separated crude oil is either directly pumped via 15,000 M oil pipeline to Addax flow station or collected
in 2 Nos oil storage tanks through metering station.

The separated water from the feed mixture is collected storage tank and reinjected into 2 nos water disposal
wells through water discharge pumps .

It is proposed to have 2 Nos of oil storage tanks of capacity 20,000 bbls ( 1 present and one future )each and
2 Nos of water storage tanks of capacity 40,000 bbls each.

Prpd By : Chkd By : Aprd. By :

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PFD for Oil and Gas Separation

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Process Design Basis

1. Production Rate(Total capacity) : Liquid : 5000 – 20,000 BLPD

2. Modular capacity : 10,000 BLPD + 2 X 5000 BLPD

3. No. of wells : Present- 4 production wells

- 2 water disposal wells

4. Maximum STHP : Observed : 730 / 760 Psig.

Anticipated : 500 – 1500 Psig

5. GOR (max.) : 200 – 1000 ( scf /barrel)

6. Design Capacity :

Oil : 6000 BOPD Avg.

2000 BOPD Min.

10,000 BOPD Max.

Gas : 200 – 1000 GOR ( scf /barrel)

Produced Water z

8. Design Factor : 1.2

9. Onshore arrival pressure : 200 – 600 Psig.at well head

Onshore arrival temperature : 21˚C Min.

38˚C Max.

Well Shut in pressure : 500 – 1500 Psig

10. Gas Properties :

Composition : as per attached sheet

Specific Gravity : 0.565

Z Factor : 0.925 at Initial Pressure

11. Crude Oil Properties :

Composition : as per attached sheet

Specific Gravity : 0.9 – 0.91 at 15 ˚C.

Viscocity : 3 – 4 cp at 30 ˚C

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Wax Content : 12 - 24 %

Asphaltene Content : 7 -14 %

12. Produced Water Properties :

Viscosity : 0.87 – 1 Cp

Specific Gravity : 1.0122

13. Permitted Residual Oil in

disposal water : 20 ppm ( gm/lit.)

14. Design Codes & Norms : Relevant API /ANSI/ASME codes

for Process /Mechanical Systems

Local Nigerain Authority Rules For Safety

,Pollution & Env . Control.

15. Plant Design Life : 15 Years

16. Produced water storage : Storage for 1 day

2500 M3 x 2 Nos in 2 compartments

17. Oil Storage : Storage 5 Days

Prpd By : CHkd. BY. : Aprd By. :

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Gas oil separation plant
Gas Oil Separation Plant (GOSP) is a type of plant used primarily in the oil industry. The plant processes
crude oil from the well head and separates gases and contaminants from the crude for reasons of safety,
economy, and environmental protection. This makes the crude economically viable for storage, processing
and export.

Produced crude oil is sent to a GOSP to be divided into oil and associated gases, which are then streamed to
oil refineries and gas processing plants respectively. The products of these plants are then sent for supply
and distribution.

Reasons for processing

Pressure

The raw crude often leaves the well head under very high pressure. Production pressures of greater than
3000 pounds per square inch have been encountered in some fields. The high pressure makes transportation
and storage difficult and dangerous.

Contaminants

Produced crude oil leaving the well head is both sour (contains hydrogen sulfide gas) and wet (contains
liquids). The crude leaving the well head must be processed and treated to make it safe, environmentally
acceptable, and economically viable for storage, processing and export.

Gas recovery

It is not appropriate to burn off the gases associated with crude oil. There are also economic reasons for
processing and treating the produced crude. Recovering associated gases prevents wasting a natural
resource, which was originally flared off.

Corrosion

There are also other economic reasons for GOSP. Removing contaminants from the crude, such as salt and
hydrogen sulfide, protects the plant from corrosion damage. The initial processing of produced crude oil in a
GOSP is also required to meet specifications of the crude for export and oil refining

Off shore Production platform

An increasing portion of oil and gas production is coming from offshore fields. Advanced technologies now
permit production from deepwater fields and from marginal fields.

In parallel, platform technologies are evolving from fixed platforms suited for shallow waters, to semi-
submersible platforms (TLP, SPAR) and to Floating Production Units (FPU, FPSO). The latter reduce project
lead-time, have higher performance flexibility, and may be moved from a depleted field to a new field, thus
greatly reducing investments. They are the most common solution for deepwater and marginal fields.

Offshore platforms are equipped with the machinery needed to extract oil and natural gas but have some
critical challenges that should not be underestimated. Thanks to its many years of worldwide experience, GE

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Oil & Gas can provide optimum technical solutions and the project management experience needed to
maximize production while helping customers to meet or accelerate their "First Oil" date.

Offshore production platforms/FPSO collect the hydrocarbons produced under the seabed by means of
specially designed flow-lines and risers. The platform also contains the necessary monitoring & control
equipment, and gear for furnishing electric and/or hydraulic power to the subsea equipment installed at the
various field wells.

Power generation, compression and pumping equipment are generally installed on the platform. This
machinery is used to collect the hydrocarbons and convey them to onshore receiving facilities, or for the re-
injection of associated gas back into the well to enhance production.

Gas & Oil Field

Oil and gas fields are characterized by the geological structure of the field, as well as by the quality and
composition of the production streams. Each set of conditions requires unique recovery processes. New
discoveries of oil and gas reserves generally require drilling of very deep wells. As a consequence, the
wellhead equipment must be capable of handling high temperature/high pressure hydrocarbons, with a high
degree of reliability.

Oil and gas reserves are brought to the surface through piping that runs the entire depth of the well, and is
hung within a steel casing. Since the casing diameter is larger than that of the piping, there is a void space or
"annulus" between the tubing and the casing.

In many oil reservoirs the naturally occurring pressure is sufficient to force the crude oil to the surface of the
well. This production process is called "primary recovery" and generally does not require the use of a
compressor. But the duration of the primary recovery is limited because at a certain point the natural energy
to lift the oil is no longer sufficient. After this point, a compressor and choke valve combination is used to
restore or increase the pressure in the field. This phase of the well's life, known as Gas Depletion, is a form of
secondary recover.

In situations where the oil reservoir pressure is not sufficient to ensure the desired level of production,
pumping systems may also be added. Enhanced recovery systems are often installed to increase production
and/or to avoid decline of production over the years and increase the recovery ratio

Reinjection Plant

Re-injection is used as a method of enhanced oil recovery to compensate for the natural decline of an oil field
production by increasing the pressure in the reservoir, thus restoring the desired level of production and
stimulating the recovery of additional crude oil.

Using this technique the field exploitation can be increased by up to 20%.

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The gas that is re-injected is usually the associated gas separated from the crude oil in the flash and
stabilization phases. Other gases, such as nitrogen, or carbon dioxide, may also be used. The gas is re-
injected into the reservoir in dedicated wells and forces the oil to migrate toward the well bores of the
producing wells.

Recent material technology advances allow associated sour gases containing high percentages of H2S and/or
CO2 to be re-injected without the need for sweetening.

Depending on the depth and physical characteristics of the field, very high injection pressures may be
required. High pressure barrel compressors are normally used in this application, or in the case of moderate
gas flows reciprocating compressors may be selected.

Oil / Gas Treatment Plant

In an oil field the oil is generally mixed with associated gas, production water and contaminants such as
hydrogen sulfide. In the oil treatment plant the associated gases, production water, and hydrogen sulfide are
separated from the oil. The stabilized oil is then stored and ready to be shipped via pipeline or oil tanker.

The associated gas separated from the oil, or the raw natural gas produced by a gas field, is gathered and
collected in a gas plant where it is dehydrated and processed to recover the heavy fractions and to remove
sulphur compounds. The treated gas can then be transported via pipeline, forwarded to an LNG or GTL
facility, or used locally or abroad as feedstock for petrochemical processes.

In an oil treatment plant the crude oil is first sent to a gas-oil separation system where its pressure is reduced
in stages. In each decompression stage the associated gas is released in a separator until the pressure is
finally reduced to slightly above atmospheric pressure. The sour crude oil is then sent to the stabilizer column
where it is heated and cascaded through a series of bubble trays spaced throughout a column. The hydrogen
sulfide and remaining light hydrocarbons boil off in this process and are collected at the top of the column,
while the sweetened heavy crude is drawn off from the bottom. The stabilized oil is then cooled and stored.
The stream collected from the top of the stabilizer unit are treated in accordance with environmental
regulations.

In the gas plant the raw natural gas is dehydrated and processed through acid gas removal, molecular sieves,
and chilling units, to remove hydrogen sulfide, NGLs (Natural Gas Liquids) and LPG. These liquids are
typically ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, and pentane and have higher value than the bulk natural gas,
as they can be sold as specialized feedstocks for petrochemical processes.

Refinery Plant

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Refineries convert the crude oil feedstock into commercial products by means of suitable distillation and
chemical reactions, resulting in the production of a variety of valuable fuels and lubricants, as well as
feedstocks for other downstream processes. Environmental regulations covering plant emissions and the
composition of fuels drive plant upgrades and set new standards for grass root refineries.

The basic component of a refinery is the primary distillation (Topping) process where the crude oil is distilled
into a number of fractions, from the lightest petroleum gases, to light and heavy naphtha, to the heaviest
fractions up to asphalts and resid. The fractions coming from the topping unit are then treated in other
processes for upgrading to commercially viable products; e.g., hydrodesulphurization and hydrotreating
processes are used to produce fuels with reduced sulphur content, cracking processes are used to create a
higher yield of lighter gasoil, kerosene and gasoline, the reforming process is used to increase the octane
number of the gasoline, etc. The configuration of a refinery depends on the range of crude gravity that it is
able to handle and on the final product mix it is designed for.

Petrochemical Plant

In a Petrochemical Plant the feedstock (generally natural gas or petroleum liquids) is converted into fertilizers,
and/or other intermediate and final products such as olefins, adhesives, detergents, solvents, rubber and
elastomers, films and fibers, polymers and resins, etc.

Petrochemical plants show an infinite variety of configurations depending on the products being produced.
The main categories are:

Ethylene Plants: Ethylene is produced via steam cracking of natural gas or light liquid hydrocarbons.
Ethylene is one of the main components of the resulting cracked gas mixture and is separated by repeated
compression and distillation.

Fertilizer Plants: A reforming process converts the feedstock into a raw syngas which is then purified,
compressed, and fed to high pressure reactors where ammonia is formed. In most cases, the ammonia
synthesis plant is combined with a urea synthesis plant where the ammonia reacts at high pressure with CO2
(separated from the raw syngas and then compressed) to form urea.

Methanol Plants and other Alcohols: High temperature steam-methane reforming produces a syngas that
then reacts at medium pressure with a suitable catalyst to produce methanol.

Plastic Production Plants: several grades of plastic materials are produced from ethylene, propylene and
other monomers by means of a great variety of proprietary processes that cause polymerization occur in the
presence of suitable catalysts.

Other Petrochemical Plants: include Acetylene, Butadiene, Sulfuric Acid, Nitric Acid, PTA, Chlorine, and
Ethylene Oxide/Ethylene Glycol.

Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) plant

Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) is a rapidly developing technology that allows monetization of remote natural gas or
other gaseous hydrocarbons, by converting it into sulphur-free synthetic crude oil that can be easily exported
via tankers. The GTL products can be used as is or blended with diesel oils as a fuel for transportation and
power plants that has lower environmental impact

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In a GTL plant the feed gas is first converted into syngas through a steam reforming and partial oxidation
process. To achieve this, very large volumes of oxygen or air, are necessary. Therefore a large air separation
unit (ASU) is often associated with the GTL plant.

The syngas, consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide with a 2:1 ratio, is then compressed and fed to the
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis reactors where the chain growth reaction occurs in the presence of a suitable
catalyst to form liquid hydrocarbons. Light or heavy syncrude may be obtained, depending on the
temperature, pressure and catalyst.

The product of the FT reaction can be further upgraded in a typical refining unit that may be associated with
the GTL plant.

Oil sand

Oil sand is a mixture of bitumen, sand, water and clay. Today's declining production from traditional oil fields
and high oil prices make the exploitation of unconventional sources of oil, such as that contained in huge oil
sand deposits viable. The exploitation of oil sands is particularly active in Canada, where vast deposits are
excavated to recover the heavy oil compounds that they contain

Huge quantities of oil sands are excavated from just below the surface using mammoth earth moving
machinery. This material is processed with hot water to separate the bitumen from the sand.

The bitumen is cleaned by removing fine clay particles and water and the thick bitumen is diluted with
naphtha and stored. The mixture is then delivered via pipeline to an upgrading unit where the solvent is
recovered and recycled back to the extraction area.

The bitumen is upgraded to a commercial grade crude oil using a hydrogen conversion process to break the
heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lower molecular weight components.These upgraded crude oils are
suitable feedstocks for refineries.

In other processes the bitumen is heated in furnaces and sent to coke drums where coke is removed. The
hydrocarbon vapors from the coke drums are sent to fractionators where they are separated into naphtha,
kerosene and gas oil that are further treated in hydroprocessing units, as in a typical refinery.

LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) production plants

Whenever the source of natural gas production is a long distance from the location of potential usage and a
pipeline is not a viable solution, liquefaction of the natural gas may be an economical choice. The liquefaction
of natural gas reduces its volume about 600 fold and allows the gas to be exported to distant ports as a liquid
in LNG tankers.

New LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) production plants are constantly being built to satisfy the growing global
demand for natural gas. Likewise, in order to reduce the unit production cost, liquefaction line capacity has
been increasing year by year and is currently topped by Qatar's mega LNG lines, each producing about 8
Mtons/y of LNG.

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The natural gas from the filed is first treated in a gas processing unit to remove higher molecular weight
hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds and water. It is then fed to the liquefaction process where it is, depending on
the process used, cooled in two or three cascade cooling cycles down to the liquefaction temperature of -
160°C (- 256 °F). The cold liquid LNG is then transferred to heavily insulated storage tanks at atmospheric
pressure, and from there it is loaded into LNG tankers for shipment.

Each of the cooling cycles requires a very large compression train which is typically driven by a gas turbine.
The 8 Mtons/y plants in Qatar are based on three trains, each driven by a 125MW Fr9E gas turbine.

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REFINING CRUDE OIL

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PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESS

I. INTRODUCTION.

A. The petroleum industry began with the successful drilling of the first commercial oil well in 1859, and the
opening of the first refinery two years later to process the crude into kerosene. The evolution of petroleum
refining from simple distillation to today's sophisticated processes has created a need for health and
safety management procedures and safe work practices. To those unfamiliar with the industry, petroleum
refineries may appear to be complex and confusing places. Refining is the processing of one complex
mixture of hydrocarbons into a number of other complex mixtures of hydrocarbons. The safe and orderly
processing of crude oil into flammable gases and liquids at high temperatures and pressures using
vessels, equipment, and piping subjected to stress and corrosion requires considerable knowledge,
control, and expertise.

B. Safety and health professionals, working with process, chemical, instrumentation, and metallurgical
engineers, assure that potential physical, mechanical, chemical, and health hazards are recognized and
provisions are made for safe operating practices and appropriate protective measures. These measures
may include hard hats, safety glasses and goggles, safety shoes, hearing protection, respiratory
protection, and protective clothing such as fire resistant clothing where required. In addition, procedures
should be established to assure compliance with applicable regulations and standards such as hazard
communications, confined space entry, and process safety management.

C. This chapter of the technical manual covers the history of refinery processing, characteristics of crude oil,
hydrocarbon types and chemistry, and major refinery products and by-products. It presents information
on technology as normally practiced in present operations. It describes the more common refinery
processes and includes relevant safety and health information. Additional information covers refinery
utilities and miscellaneous supporting activities related to hydrocarbon processing. Field personnel will
learn what to expect in various facilities regarding typical materials and process methods, equipment,
potential hazards, and exposures.

D. The information presented refers to fire prevention, industrial hygiene, and safe work practices, and is not
intended to provide comprehensive guidelines for protective measures and/or compliance with regulatory
requirements. As some of the terminology is industry-specific, a glossary is provided as an appendix. This
chapter does not cover petrochemical processing.

II. OVERVIEW OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY.

A. BASIC REFINERY PROCESS: DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY. Petroleum refining has evolved
continuously in response to changing consumer demand for better and different products. The original
requirement was to produce kerosene as a cheaper and better source of light than whale oil. The
development of the internal combustion engine led to the production of gasoline and diesel fuels. The
evolution of the airplane created a need first for high-octane aviation gasoline and then for jet fuel, a
sophisticated form of the original product, kerosene. Present-day refineries produce a variety of products
including many required as feedstock for the petrochemical industry.

1. Distillation Processes. The first refinery, opened in 1861, produced kerosene by simple atmospheric
distillation. Its by-products included tar and naphtha. It was soon discovered that high quality lubricating oils
could be produced by distilling petroleum under vacuum. However, for the next 30 years kerosene was the
product consumers wanted. Two significant events changed this situation: (1) invention of the electric light
decreased the demand for kerosene, and (2) invention of the internal combustion engine created a demand
for diesel fuel and gasoline (naphtha).

2. Thermal Cracking Processes. With the advent of mass production and World War I, the number of
gasoline-powered vehicles increased dramatically and the demand for gasoline grew accordingly. However,
distillation processes produced only a certain amount of gasoline from crude oil. In 1913, the thermal cracking
process was developed, which subjected heavy fuels to both pressure and intense heat, physically breaking
the large molecules into smaller ones to produce additional gasoline and distillate fuels. Visbreaking, another
form of thermal cracking, was developed in the late 1930's to produce more desirable and valuable products.

3. Catalytic Processes. Higher-compression gasoline engines required higher-octane gasoline with better
antiknock characteristics. The introduction of catalytic cracking and polymerization processes in the mid- to
late 1930's met the demand by providing improved gasoline yields and higher octane numbers.

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Alkylation, another catalytic process developed in the early 1940's, produced more high-octane aviation
gasoline and petrochemical feedstock for explosives and synthetic rubber. Subsequently,catalytic
isomerization was developed to convert hydrocarbons to produce increased quantities of alkylation feedstock.
Improved catalysts and process methods such as hydrocracking and reforming were developed throughout
the 1960's to increase gasoline yields and improve antiknock characteristics. These catalytic processes also
produced hydrocarbon molecules with a double bond (alkenes) and formed the basis of the modern
petrochemical industry.

4. Treatment Processes. Throughout the history of refining, various treatment methods have been used to
remove nonhydrocarbons, impurities, and other constituents that adversely affect the properties of finished
products or reduce the efficiency of the conversion processes. Treating can involve chemical reaction and/or
physical separation. Typical examples of treating are chemical sweetening, acid treating, clay contacting,
caustic washing, hydrotreating, drying, solvent extraction, and solvent dewaxing. Sweetening compounds and
acids desulfurize crude oil before processing and treat products during and after processing.

Following the Second World War, various reforming processes improved gasoline quality and yield and
produced higher-quality products. Some of these involved the use of catalysts and/or hydrogen to change
molecules and remove sulfur. A number of the more commonly used treating and reforming processes are
described in this Chapter of the manual.

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BASICS OF CRUDE OIL

1. Crude oils are complex mixtures containing many different hydrocarbon compounds that vary in
appearance and composition from one oil field to another. Crude oils range in consistency from water to tar-
like solids, and in color from clear to black. An "average" crude oil contains about 84% carbon, 14%
hydrogen, 1%-3% sulfur, and less than 1% each of nitrogen, oxygen, metals, and salts. Crude oils are
generally classified as paraffinic, naphthenic, or aromatic, based on the predominant proportion of similar
hydrocarbon molecules. Mixed-base crudes have varying amounts of each type of hydrocarbon. Refinery
crude base stocks usually consist of mixtures of two or more different crude oils.

2. Relatively simple crude oil assays are used to classify crude oils as paraffinic, naphthenic, aromatic, or
mixed. One assay method (United States Bureau of Mines) is based on distillation, and another method (UOP
"K" factor) is based on gravity and boiling points. More comprehensive crude assays determine the value of
the crude (i.e., its yield and quality of useful products) and processing parameters. Crude oils are usually
grouped according to yield structure.

3. Crude oils are also defined in terms of API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity. The higher the API
gravity, the lighter the crude. For example, light crude oils have high API gravities and low specific gravities.
Crude oils with low carbon, high hydrogen, and high API gravity are usually rich in paraffins and tend to yield
greater proportions of gasoline and light petroleum products; those with high carbon, low hydrogen, and low
API gravities are usually rich in aromatics.

4. Crude oils that contain appreciable quantities of hydrogen sulfide or other reactive sulfur compounds are
called "sour." Those with less sulfur are called "sweet." Some exceptions to this rule are West Texas crudes,
which are always considered "sour" regardless of their H2S content, and Arabian high-sulfur crudes, which
are not considered "sour" because their sulfur compounds are not highly reactive.

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C. BASICS OF HYDROCARBON CHEMISTRY. Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules, which are
organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen atoms that may include from one to 60 carbon atoms. The
properties of hydrocarbons depend on the number and arrangement of the carbon and hydrogen atoms in the
molecules. The simplest hydrocarbon molecule is one carbon atom linked with four hydrogen atoms:
methane. All other variations of petroleum hydrocarbons evolve from this molecule. Hydrocarbons containing
up to four carbon atoms are usually gases, those with 5 to 19 carbon atoms are usually liquids, and those
with 20 or more are solids. The refining process uses chemicals, catalysts, heat, and pressure to separate
and combine the basic types of hydrocarbon molecules naturally found in crude oil into groups of similar
molecules. The refining process also rearranges their structures and bonding patterns into different
hydrocarbon molecules and compounds. Therefore it is the type of hydrocarbon (paraffinic, naphthenic, or
aromatic) rather than its specific chemical compounds that is significant in the refining process.

1. Three Principal Groups or Series of Hydrocarbon Compounds that Occur Naturally

in Crude Oil.
a. Paraffins. The paraffinic series of hydrocarbon compounds found in crude oil have the general formula
CnH2n+2 and can be either straight chains (normal) or branched chains (isomers) of carbon atoms. The
lighter, straight-chain paraffin molecules are found in gases and paraffin waxes.Examples of straight-chain
molecules are methane, ethane, propane, and butane (gases containing from one to four carbon atoms), and
pentane and hexane (liquids with five to six carbon atoms). The branched-chain (isomer) paraffins are usually
found in heavier fractions of crude oil and have higher octane numbers than normal paraffins. These
compounds are saturated hydrocarbons, with all carbon bonds satisfied, that is, the hydrocarbon chain carries
the full complement of hydrogen atoms.

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b. Aromatics are unsaturated ring-type (cyclic) compounds which react readily because they have carbon
atoms that are deficient in hydrogen. All aromatics have at least one benzene ring (a singlering compound
characterized by three double bonds alternating with three single bonds between six carbon atoms) as part of
their molecular structure. Naphthalenes are fused double-ring aromatic compounds. The most complex
aromatics, polynuclears (three or more fused aromatic rings), are found in heavier fractions of crude oil.

c. Naphthenes are saturated hydrocarbon groupings with the general formula CnH2n, arranged in the form of
closed rings (cyclic) and found in all fractions of crude oil except the very lightest. Single-ring naphthenes
(monocycloparaffins) with five and six carbon atoms predominate, with tworing naphthenes (dicycloparaffins)
found in the heavier ends of naphtha.

2. Other Hydrocarbons.
a. Alkenes are mono-olefins with the general formula CnH2n and contain only one carbon-carbon double
bond in the chain. The simplest alkene is ethylene, with two carbon atoms joined by a double bond and four
hydrogen atoms. Olefins are usually formed by thermal and catalytic cracking and rarely occur naturally in
unprocessed crude oil.

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b. Dienes and Alkynes. Dienes, also known as diolefins, have two carbon-carbon double bonds. The
alkynes, another class of unsaturated hydrocarbons, have a carbon-carbon triple bond within the molecule.
Both these series of hydrocarbons have the general formula . Diolefins such as 1, 2-butadiene and

1,3-butadiene, and alkynes such as acetylene, occur in and lighter fractions from cracking. The olefins,
diolefins, and alkynes are said to be unsaturated because they contain less than the amount of hydrogen
necessary to saturate all the valences of the carbon atoms. These compounds are more reactive than
paraffins or naphthenes and readily combine with other elements such as hydrogen, chlorine, and bromine.

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PETROLEUM REFINING OPERATIONS

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sweetening

A process used to remove hydrogen sulfide [H2S] and carbon dioxide [CO2] from a gas stream. These components are
removed because they can form acidic solutions when they contact water, which will cause corrosion problems in gas
pipelines.

In a sweetening process, different types of ethanolamine can be used, including monoethanolamine (MEA),
diethanolamine (DEA), diglycolamine (DGA) and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA). Hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide
are absorbed by the ethanolamine and sweet gas leaves at the top of the absorber.

The ethanolamine is heated and acid gas (hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide gases) and water vapor are obtained.
The water is removed while the acid gas can be flared or further treated in a sulfur recovery unit to separate out
elemental sulfur. Finally, the lean ethanolamine is returned to the absorber.

flare
1. n. [Production Facilities] ID: 10589

The burning of unwanted gas through a pipe (also called a flare). Flaring is a means of disposal used when there is no
way to transport the gas to market and the operator cannot use the gas for another purpose. Flaring generally is not
allowed because of the high value of gas and environmental concerns.
See: flare gas
2. n. [Production Facilities] ID: 10830

An arrangement consisting of a vertical tower and burners used to burn combustible vapors. A flare is usually situated
near a producing well or at a gas plant or refinery. A flare is also called a flare stack.

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INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS ENGINEERING

Process design is the design of processes for desired physical and/or chemical transformation of materials.
Process design is central to chemical engineering and it can be considered to be the summit of chemical
engineering, bringing together all of the components of that field.

Process design can be the design of new facilities or it can be the modification or expansion of existing
facilities. The design starts at a conceptual level and ultimately ends in the form of fabrication and
construction plans.

Process engineering involves design of unit operations & equipment design.

Process design documents include:

• Block Flow Diagrams (BFD): Very simple diagrams composed of rectangles and lines indicating
major material or energy flows.

• Process Flow Diagrams (PFD's): Typically more complex diagrams of major unit operations as well
as flow lines. They usually include a material balance, and sometimes an energy balance, showing
typical or design flow rates, stream compositions, and stream and equipment pressures and
temperatures.

• Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID's): Diagrams showing each and every pipeline with
piping class (carbon steel or stainless steel) and pipe size (diameter). They also show valving along
with instrument locations and process control schemes.

• Specifications: Written design requirements of all major equipment items.

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What is Basic/Process engineering?

BASIC ENGINEERING

PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS

MASS & ENERGY BALANCE

UTLITY SIZING

PIPING & INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS

(PROCESS & UTILITY)

DISTRIBUTION DIAGRAMS

PROCESS EQUIPMENT SIZING

SPECIFICATIONS

Post Activities

TENDER ENQUIRY

PROCUREMENT & BID EVALUATION

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ROLE OF PROCESS ENGINEER
The Process Engineering role provides process engineering capabilities to trouble shoot and optimize existing
chemical processing facilities and to lead evaluation / design / implementation of new facilities.

Principal accountabilities:

High level design option selection including economics

Front end loading and scope development for new processes, transition to detailed engineering and on to
start up
Optimization / evaluation of existing processes, including understanding feedstock composition, heat /
material balance implications
Troubleshoots existing plant systems
Understands, uses, and champions engineering standards and work processes
Modeling of systems
Plant support when needed
Process Hazard analysis
Lead development of Authorization for Expenditure for capital projects
Documentation of work
Understands competing priorities including operational and commercial

Responsibilities:
Develops and evaluates plans and criteria for a variety of projects and problem solving activities, including
scale up, design, optimization of chemical manufacturing processes and facilities
Develops / assesses the feasibility, soundness, and safety of engineering designs and solutions. Provides
conceptual design of process equipment systems.
Identify and apply design and simulation tools for design, optimization and troubleshooting of processes
(including separations, reaction systems, piping networks)
Completes heat and material balances at different operating conditions
Develops feasibility studies and supporting project economics as input to funding proposals
Performs equipment sizing calculations and develop specs for estimating / procurement
Demonstrates sound data driven, engineering judgment in decisions
Works with R&D and Business development on new products and processes.
Provide / review designs for environmental, permitting and safety compliance

Identify process hazards and participate in process safety review.

Lead / coordinate projects

Provide support to installation / start up

Documents work

Support operations in critical situations

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BASIC ENGINEERING PACKAGE
CONTENTS

SECTION I : PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

1. Introduction
2. Specification of product
3. Uses of Product
4. Physical properties of Raw Materials
5. Process Description
6. Material Balance
7. Energy Balance
8. Raw Materials & Utility Requirements
9. Effluent Treatment & Environmental Control
10. Operating Instructions for the plant
11. Testing Methods

SECTION II: EQUIPMENT LIST & DATASHEETS

1. Equipment List of Process & Utility Equipments

2. Process datasheets of Fabricated & Proprietary Equipments
3. Supplier’s list

SECTION III: DESIGN DRAWINGS

1. Process Flow Diagram ( PFD )

2. Material Balance Diagram
3. Energy Balance Diagram
4. Piping & Instrumentation Diagrams –Process,Utility,Tankfarm
5. Conceptual Equipment Layout

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PROCESS DOCUMENTS
There are a number of diagrams & drawings associated with process engineering most of which are involved
to some level with mechanical engineering.

A list of the diagrams:

1. Block Diagram
2. Mass Flow Diagram
3. Process Flow Diagrams
4. Process Data Sheets
5. System and Piping Diagrams
6. Piping and Instrument Diagrams
7. Piping Arrangement Drawings
8. Piping Isometrics
9. Installation Drawings(Equipment Layout/ Plot plan)
Block Diagram

This to show the essentials of an installation in sufficient block outline to indicate the main design features.
This will use lines and simple geometric shape

Mass Flow Diagram

This is a simple block diagram which identifies the mass flow of "all" matter through the process. This
document is essential in any process design and must be updated as the design progresses

Process Flow Diagram

The Flow diagram shows all the essential parts of the process and items of equipment in sufficient detail to
enable the analysis and calculation of the physical characteristics of the system to be undertaken

A Process Flow Diagram is a diagram of a fluid flow system showing the equipment items connected by the
major process pipes and containing data on the essential process control circuits or major process
requirements. The drawing is not to scale and the equipment items are represented by symbols. The main
equipment items and flow streams should be identified and included in tables which identify process
requirements in sufficient detail to enable production of the Piping and Instrument Diagrams (Engineering
Line Drawings).

Process Data Sheets

The process data sheets (PDS) are generally A4 documents with a number of sheets. A PDS relates to a
single item of equipment and contains the essential process data for initiating the detail design of an item. It
includes the overall size, number, approximate geometry and identification of the connections, material of
construction and the full range of operating conditions. The Process Data sheet generally includes a simple
diagram.
The process design also generally includes for Instrument Process Data Sheets which provides a similar level
of detail.

Piping and Instrument DiagramsThe P & I diagram (Engineering Line Diagram) allows the design to
progress from the "Process Flow Sheet / System and Piping diagram" to the final system design and
installation stage. The P&ID are definitive and comprehensive diagrams showing all of the equipment, piping,
valves and instrumentation. All items to be identified using a standard numbering systems. This normally
entails having a unique plant item number for each item of equipment, valve, instrument and line. Ideally the
line number should include a size, material and fluid contents identifier to enable the anyone reading the
drawing to obtain this information without having to refer to other documents.

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An Engineering line diagram should include.

• Mechanical equipment with names and numbers

• Instruments with identification and necessary interfaces with control loops
• Interconnecting piping, sizes and identification
• Valves with identifications
• Vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers and increasers
• Flow directions
• Interface tags to other ELD's
• Control interfaces, inputs and outputs.
• Main plant interlocks.
• Identification of symbols used

The symbols used to be in accordance with identified standards and should clearly indicate the type of
component, the method of connection (screwed, flanged etc) and the status (Valves - Normally Closed,
Normally Open). The method of operating equipment items should be clearly identified (electric motor,
pneumatic actuator). It is not generally necessary to identify services and electrical supplies to the operators.

Equipment Location Diagram

The design process includes for provision of equipment location diagrams which identify is some detail the
locations of all the equipment items used in the process. These diagrams also provide local floor loadings,
static and dynamic and proposed fastening arrangements. This information is required to enable the structural
design of the building to be progressed.

Piping Arrangement Drawings

These drawings are generally completed using 3 D Cad systems. They are either Isometric drawings or
orthographic or a combination of the two. These drawings are completed to identify, in detail the pipe runs
and to show the interfaces with the equipment and the various other services and to identify the access
allowances.

Piping Isometrics

Each pipe line is detailed by at least one isometric. This need not be to scale but should show all material,
size, weld, and fitting information. The isometric includes all pipe lengths and all necessary datums
identifying the pipe location in the region where it is to be installed. The isometric is the pipe manufacturing
drawing and includes a part list identifying all component parts of the pipe being detailed.

Installation Drawings

These drawing provide instructions of the installation requirements and often are based on the equipment
location drawings and the piping arrangement drawings. The drawings often provide information on the
sequence of equipment and piping installation by provision of a number of drawings of the same area at
different stages of the installation.

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PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

A Process Flow Diagram is a simple illustration that uses process symbols to describe the primary flow path
through a unit. A process flow diagram provides a quick snapshot of the operating unit. Flow diagrams include
all primary equipment and flows.
A technician can use this document to trace the primary flow of chemicals through the unit. Secondary or
minor flows are not included. Complex control loops and instrumentation are not included. The flow diagram
is used for visitor information and new employee training.

Process flow diagram is the starting document for Basic and further detailed engineering design.

PFD helps to understand the process scheme, different process equipments involved, raw materials/product
details, utilities required. Piping & Instrumentation diagram (PI & D) is generated from the PFD which is the
source for further detailed engineering.

To develop PFD, one has to study process technology or manufacturing process in detail and then arrive at
selection of equipments, utilities, material of construction and basic material flow scheme.
A Process Flow Diagram - PFD - (or System Flow Diagram - SFD) shows the relationships between the
major components in the system. PFD also tabulate process design values for the components in different
operating modes, typical minimum, normal and maximum. A PFD does not show minor components, piping
systems, piping ratings and designations.

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A PFD should include:

• Process Piping
• Major equipment symbols, names and identification numbers
• Control valves and valves that affect operation of the system
• Interconnection with other systems
• Major bypass and recirculation lines
• System ratings and operational values as minimum, normal and maximum flow, temperature and
pressure
• Composition of fluids

Flow Diagrams should not include:

• pipe class
• pipe line numbers
• minor bypass lines
• isolation and shutoff valves
• maintenance vents and drains
• relief and safety valve
• code class information

Seismic class information

PIPING & INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM

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A process and instrument drawing is more complex.

A Piping and Instrumentation Diagram - P&ID, is a schematic illustration of functional relationship of piping,
instrumentation and system equipment components
P&ID shows all of piping including the physical sequence of branches, reducers, valves, equipment,
instrumentation and control interlocks.
Modern process control can be clearly inserted into the drawing to provide a process technician with a
complete picture of electronic and instrument systems. Process operators can look at their process and see
how the engineering department has automated the unit. Pressure, temperature, flow, and level control loops
are all included on the unit P&ID.
The P&ID are used to operate the process system

A P&ID should include:

• Instrumentation and designations

• Mechanical equipment with names and numbers
• All valves and their identifications
• Process piping, sizes and identification
• Miscellaneous - vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers, expanders
• Permanent start-up and flush lines
• Flow directions
• Interconnections references
• Control inputs and outputs, interlocks
• Interfaces for class changes
• Seismic category
• Quality level
• Annunciation inputs
• Computer control system input
• Vendor and contractor interfaces
• Identification of components and subsystems delivered by others
• Intended physical sequence of the equipment

A P&ID should not include:

• Instrument root valves

• control relays
• manual switches
• equipment rating or capacity
• primary instrument tubing and valves
• pressure temperature and flow data
• elbow, tees and similar standard fittings
• extensive explanatory notes

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PROCESS EQUIPMENTS

1.0 Vessels & Tanks:

Pressure vessels: Cylindrical shell with both side dish ends say torispherical, ellipsoidal, hemispherical. Used
for as storage vessels, kettles, distillation columns, autoclaves, general reactors etc. Designed as per ASME
Sec VIII Div I, IS 2825

Conical roof tank: Cylindrical shell with flat bottom with conical top.
Used for storing Non volatile liquids under atmospheric conditions. Designed as per API 2000, IS 803.

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PUMPS

PUMPS USED IN THE INDUSTRY

TYPE OF PUMP APPICATION SELECTION MOC

CENTRIFUGAL Generally clear liquids Capacity above 1.2 M3/Hr Metallic/glass/Rubber

water/solvent/organics max10 Kg/cm2g Pressure lined/Plastics
Little suspended
solids Light viscous liquids max 40 cp

POSITIVE
DISPALCEMENT

RECIPROCATING Clear liquids

Piston High pressure High pressure upto 50 Kg/cm2g Metallic
very high pressure 1500 Kg/cm2g or
Plunger very high pressure more Metallic
Slurry/corrosive
Diaphragm liquids Low flow, High head Metallic/Plastics
Toxic liquids metering service

clean and viscous

ROTARY liquid
Lubricating oils Low flow High head
Gear Pressure upto 200 Kg/cm2g Metallic
Lobe Viscous liquid Metallic
Screw No slurry applications Metallic

Cam Metallic
Vane Metallic

CANNED MOTOR PUMP Organic solvent/heat transfer Metallic

liquids/abrasive solids seal less pumps

VACUUM PUMPS

Water ring vacuum 700 mmHg abs and lower Metallic

above 700 mmHg abs - 0.001mmHg
Oil ring High vacuum pressure Metallic

Centrifugal pump:

A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as gases, liquids or slurries. A pump displaces a volume by
physical or mechanical action. One common misconception about pumps is the thought that they create
pressure. Pumps alone do not create pressure they only displace fluid causing a flow. Adding resistance to
flow causes pressure.

A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the velocity of a fluid.
Centrifugal pumps are commonly used to move liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump
impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a
diffuser or volute chamber, from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are
used for large discharge through smaller heads

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A centrifugal pump works by the conversion of the rotational kinetic energy, typically from an electric motor or
turbine, to an increased static fluid pressure. The rotation of the pump impeller imparts kinetic energy to the
fluid as it is drawn in from the impeller eye (centre) and is forced outward through the impeller vanes to the
periphery. As the fluid exits the impeller, the fluid kinetic energy (velocity) is then converted to (static)
pressure due to the change in area the fluid experiences in the volute section. Typically the volute shape of
the pump casing (increasing in volume), or the diffuser vanes (which serve to slow the fluid, converting to
kinetic energy in to flow work) are responsible for the energy conversion. The energy conversion results in an
increased pressure on the downstream side of the pump, causing flow.

Multistage Centrifugal Pumps

A centrifugal pump containing two or more impellers is called a multistage centrifugal pump. The impellers
may be mounted on the same shaft or on different shafts. A multistage centrifugal pump has the following two
important functions:

• To produce a high head, and

• To discharge a large quantity of liquid.

If a high head is to be developed then the impellers are mounted on same shaft (series) while for large
quantity of discharge of liquid, the impellers are mounted on different shafts (parallel).

Positive Displacement Pump:

By definition, positive-displacement (PD) pumps displace a known quantity of liquid with each revolution of
the pumping elements. This is done by trapping liquid between the pumping elements and a stationary
casing. Pumping element designs include gears, lobes, rotary pistons, vanes, and screws.

PD pumps are found in a wide range of applications -- chemical-processing; liquid delivery; marine;
biotechnology; pharmaceutical; as well as food, dairy, and beverage processing. Their versatility and
popularity is due in part to their relatively compact design, high-viscosity performance, continuous flow
regardless of differential pressure, and ability to handle high differential pressure.

Positive displacement (PD) pumps are divided into two broad classifications, reciprocating and rotary (Figure
®
1). Pump School currently focuses on rotary pumping principles.

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Figure 1

By definition, PD pumps displace a known quantity of liquid with each revolution of the pumping elements
(i.e., gears, rotors, screws, vanes). PD pumps displace liquid by creating a space between the pumping
elements and trapping liquid in the space. The rotation of the pumping elements then reduces the size of the
space and moves the liquid out of the pump. PD pumps can handle fluids of all viscosities up to 1,320,000
3
cSt / 6,000,000 SSU, capacities up to 1,150 M /Hr / 5,000 GPM, and pressures up to 700 BAR / 10,000 PSI.
Rotary pumps are self-priming and deliver a constant, smooth flow, regardless of pressure variations.

Internal Gear. Internal gear pumps (Figure 2) carry fluid between the gear teeth
from the inlet to outlet ports. The outer gear (rotor) drives the inner or idler gear on
a stationary pin. The gears create voids as they come out of mesh and liquid flows
into the cavities. As the gears come back into mesh, the volume is reduced and the
liquid is forced out of the discharge port. The crescent prevents liquid from flowing
backwards from the outlet to the inlet port.
Figure 2
External Gear. External gear pumps (Figure 3) also use gears which come in and
out of mesh. As the teeth come out of mesh, liquid flows into the pump and is
carried between the teeth and the casing to the discharge side of the pump. The
teeth come back into mesh and the liquid is forced out the discharge port. External
gear pumps rotate two identical gears against each other. Both gears are on a shaft
with bearings on either side of the gears. Figure 3

Vane. The vanes - blades, buckets, rollers, or slippers - work with a cam to draw
fluid into and force it out of the pump chamber. The vanes may be in either the
rotor or stator. The vane-in rotor pumps may be made with constant or variable
displacement pumping elements. Figure 4 shows a sliding vane pump.
Figure 4

Flexible Member. This principle is similar to the Vane principle except the vanes
flex rather than slide. The fluid pumping and sealing action depends on the
elasticity of the flexible members. The flexible members may be a tube, a vane, or
a liner. Figure 5 shows a flexible vane pump.
Figure 5

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Lobe. Fluid is carried between the rotor teeth and the pumping chamber. The rotor
surfaces create continuous sealing. Both gears are driven and are synchronized by
timing gears. Rotors include bi-wing, tri-lobe, and multi-lobe configurations. Figure
6 is a tri-lobe pump.
Figure 6

Circumferential Piston. Fluid is carried from inlet to outlet in spaces between

piston surfaces. Rotors must be timed by separate means, and each rotor may
have one or more piston elements. See Figure 7.

Figure 7
Screw. Screw pumps carry fluid in the spaces between the screw threads. The
fluid is displaced axially as the screws mesh.

Single screw pumps (Figure 8) are commonly called progressive cavity pumps.
They have a rotor with external threads and a stator with internal threads. The rotor
threads are eccentric to the axis of rotation. Figure 8

Multiple screw pumps have multiple external screw threads. These pumps may be
timed or untimed. Figure 9 shows a three-screw pump.

Figure 9

Positive displacement pumps

A lobe pump

Hand-operated, reciprocating, positive displacement, water pump

Mechanism of a scroll pump

A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to move by trapping a fixed amount of it then forcing (displacing)
that trapped volume into the discharge pipe. A positive displacement pump can be further classified as either

• a rotary-type (for example the rotary ur vane),

• lobe pump similar to oil pumps used in car engines, or
• The Wendelkolben pump or the helical twisted Roots pump.

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Roots-type pumps

The low pulsation rate and gentle performance of this Roots-type positive displacement pump is achieved due
to a combination of its two 90° helical twisted rotors, and a triangular shaped sealing line configuration, both
at the point of suction and at the point of discharge. This design produces a continuous and non-vorticuless
flow with equal volume. High capacity industrial "air compressors" have been designed to employ this
principle as well as most "superchargers" used on internal combustion engines.

Reciprocating-type pumps

Reciprocating-type pumps use a piston and cylinder arrangement with suction and discharge valves
integrated into the pump. Pumps in this category range from having "simplex" one cylinder, to in some cases
"quad" four cylinders or more. Most reciprocating-type pumps are "duplex" (two) or "triplex" (three) cylinder.
Furthermore, they are either "single acting" independent suction and discharge strokes or "double acting"
suction and discharge in both directions. The pumps can be powered by air, steam or through a belt drive
from an engine or motor. This type of pump was used extensively in the early days of steam propulsion (19th
century) as boiler feed water pumps. Though still used today, reciprocating pumps are typically used for
pumping highly viscous fluids including concrete and heavy oils.

Compressed-air-powered double-diaphragm pumps

Another modern application of positive displacement pumps are compressed-air-powered double-diaphragm
pumps. Run on compressed air these pumps are intrinsically safe by design, although all manufacturers offer
ATEX certified models to comply with industry regulation. Commonly seen in all areas of industry from
shipping to process, SandPiper, Wilden Pumps or ARO are generally the larger of the brands. They are
relatively inexpensive and can be used for almost any duty from pumping water out of bunds, to pumping
hydrochloric acid from secure storage (dependant on how the pump is manufactured - elastomers / body
construction). Suction is normally limited to roughly 6m although heads can be almost unlimited

01. a)Centrifugal Pump

Horizontal Split Casing Type Vertical Type Multi Stage Type

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b) Reciprocating Pump

c) Lobe Pumps

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d) Screw Pump

Vacuum pumps:
A vacuum pump is a device that removes gas molecules from a sealed volume in order to leave behind a
partial vacuum

LIQUID RING VACUUM PUMPS

Single stage models will be 700 mm Hg.

Double stage models will be 720 mm Hg.

MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION :
Bronze/Stainless steel impeller, Stainless
steel shaft and all other contact parts in
cast iron.

Single Stage

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Liquid Ring Vacuum Pump with Motor

Two Stage

ROTARY HIGH VACUUM PUMPS

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Heat exchanger/Condenser
Condenser is heat exchanger to condense Vapours and convert into liquid. Condensers can be water cooled
or air cooled. Water cooled condensers are normal shell & tube type heat exchanger whereas air cooled
condenser are finned tube heat exchangers.

Water Heat Recovery Units:

HRSG UNITS

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D-Frame evaporator layout.

This configuration is very popular for

HRSG units recovering heat from small
gas turbines and diesel engines. It is a
very compact design and can be shipped
totally assembled. It is limited, however,
since the bent tube arrangement quickly
causes the module to exceed shipping
limitations for units having a large gas
flow.

O-Frame evaporator layout.

This configuration has probably been

used for more years than any of the
others. It has the advantage of the upper
header being configured as the steam
separation drum. Or, the upper header
can be connected to the steam drum by
risers, allowing more than one O-Frame
evaporator to be connected to the same
steam drum, resulting in shipable
modules being able to handle very large
gas flows.

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A-Frame evaporator layout.

This configuration is simply a variation of the O-Frame

Evaporator. It was popular for services with a large
amount of ash, since the center area between the lower
drums could be configured as a hopper to collect and
remove solid particles.

I-Frame evaporator layout.

In the past twenty years, this configuration has

become the most popular of all the Evaporator
designs. This type module can be built in multiple
axial modules or in multiple lateral modules,
allowing it to be designed to accept any gas flow.
There are numerous variations of this design
where tube bundles may contain one, two, or
three rows of tubes per header. It is also,
normally, more economical to manufacture, ship
and field construct. The tube bundles may be
shipped to field installed in the modules, or as
loose bundles which are installed into a field
erected shell.

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Horizontal tube evaporator layout.

The horizontal tube evaporator is used,

not only for heat recovery from Gas
Turbine exhaust, but for recovery from
flue gases in Refinery and Petrochemical
furnaces also. It has similar size
limitations due to shipping restrictions
similar to the O-frame modules. It is
generally a less expensive unit to
manufacture than the other
configurations, but if it is a natural
circulation design with large tubes, such
as in some CO Boilers, or very long
tubes, special consideration needs to be
given to assure all tubes are provided with
sufficient effluent. These considerations
will be discussed later on in this
document.

Superheater configurations.
Superheater designs would normally follow along with the evaporator type that is being used. Three
basic Superheater designs are shown below, Horizontal Tube, Vertical Tube, and I-Frame. The
Horizontal Tube design would normally be used for the D-Frame Evaporator if gas flow is vertical up at
the outlet. This horizontal design would be expected to be used also on a horizontal evaporator design.
The Vertical Tube design would generally be used with the A-Frame or O-Frame Evaporator and with
the D-Frame if the gas exits horizontally. The I-Frame Superheater would be used with the I-Frame
Evaporator, but may also be used with the other evaporator designs.

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Desuperheaters
The simplest type of desuperheater is an
unlagged section of pipe, where heat can be
radiated to the environment. However, apart
from the obvious risk of injury to personnel from
such a hot item of plant, and the expensive
energy wastage, this approach does not adjust
to compensate for changes in the environmental
conditions, steam temperature or steam flow
rate.

Fig. 15.2.1 Typical multi-nozzle spray desuperheater

Indirect contact desuperheaters

Tube bundle type desuperheaters

This type of desuperheater (Figure 15.2.2) consists of a heat exchanger, typically a shell and tube, with
superheated steam on one side, and the cooling medium on the other.

The shell of the first heat exchanger (containing the cooling water) is fixed at both ends on the inlet side,
whereas on the outlet side, it is fixed at the bottom and opens at the top. The floating head allows the
pressure in the two sections of the shell to equalize.

The cooling medium is water at saturation temperature and pressure. As superheated steam enters the first
and then the second set of tubes, it gives up heat to the water, some of which will be evaporated by this
addition of energy. Any evaporated cooling water passes through the floating head and will accumulate in the
outlet side of the shell. It then passes through the open end of the shell where it is mixed with the
desuperheated steam.

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Fig.
15.2.2 A tube and bundle type desuperheater

Advantages:

1. Turndown is only limited by the controls that are fitted.

2. This design is capable of producing desuperheated steam to within 5°C of the saturation temperature.
3. High maximum operating temperatures and pressures, typically around 60 bar and 450°C.
4. Fast response.

Disadvantages:

1. Bulky - because there are now a number of in-line devices available, they have been largely
superseded.
2. Cost.
3. An important concern with this type of desuperheater is the efficiency of the heat exchange process.
The build up of air or scale films on the heat exchange surface can act as an extremely effective
barrier to heat transfer.

Applications:

1. Those applications that experience wide variations in load.

Direct contact desuperheaters

Water bath type desuperheater

This is the simplest form of direct contact desuperheater. The superheated steam is injected into a bath of
water. This additional heat will cause saturated steam to evaporate from the surface of the bath. A pressure
controller maintains a constant pressure in the vessel, and hence the temperature and pressure of the
saturated steam in the downstream pipe.

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Fig. 15.2.3
Water bath type desuperheater (schematic)

Since the superheated steam has more energy per unit mass than the saturated steam, more steam will be
evaporated than actually enters the desuperheater. Consequently, the water level will fall and therefore
provision must be made to maintain this level. This usually requires a pump of similar design to a boiler
feedwater pump, as the water must be pumped against the vessel pressure.
A good non-return valve is required in the superheated steam supply to avoid any water from the bath being
drawn into the superheated steam system should the pressure in the superheated main drop.

Applications:

1. Simple
2. Steam is produced at saturation temperature.
3. Steam with a dryness fraction of 0.98 can be produced.
4. Turndown is only limited by the controls that are fitted.

Disadvantages:

1. Bulky.
2. Not practical for high temperatures.

Applications:

1. Wide variations in the flow rate.

2. Where no residual superheat can be tolerated.

Water spray desuperheating

This type of desuperheating represents the vast majority of desuperheating applications. In water spray
desuperheaters, superheated steam is passed through a section of pipe fitted with one or more spray
nozzles. These inject a fine spray of cooling water into the superheated steam, which causes the water to be
converted into steam, reducing the quantity of superheat. The cooling water may be introduced into the
superheated steam in a number of ways; consequently, there are a number of different types of water spray
desuperheater.

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Despite this, most water spray desuperheaters are affected by the following factors:
• Particle size - The smaller the water particle size, the greater the ratio of surface area to mass,
and the higher the rates of heat transfer. Since the water is being directly injected into the moving
superheated steam, the smaller the particle size, the shorter the distance required for heat
exchange to take place.

The water is broken into small particles using either a mechanical device (such as a variable or
fixed orifice nozzle) or steam atomising nozzles.
• Turbulence - As the flow within the pipeline becomes more turbulent, the individual entrained
water particles reside longer in the desuperheater, allowing for greater heat transfer. In addition,
turbulence encourages the mixing of the cooling water and the superheated steam. Increased
turbulence results in a shorter distance being required for complete desuperheating to occur.

Turbulence can be created in two ways:

• Pressure drop across the nozzle - Subjecting the cooling water to a higher pressure drop will
increase its velocity and induce greater turbulence.

• Velocity - By increasing the overall velocity of the water and steam mixture, the amount of
turbulence is inherently increased. The increase in velocity is usually achieved by creating a
restriction in the steam path, which further generates turbulence by vortex shedding.

In addition to these high velocities, if poor piping design practices are used, the speed of the
superheated steam could in theory approach Mach 1. At such speeds a number of problems
would occur (including the generation of shock waves). However, this would be far in excess of
the velocities used in good piping design. Typical velocities of steam entering a desuperheater
should be around 40 to 60 m/s.
• Thermal sleeves - Careful control of the spray is required to ensure that the water does not fall
out of suspension as this can result in thermal stresses being generated in the pipeline and
cracking may occur. However, in some cases, an inner thermal sleeve can be used to provide
protection from this.

Fig. 15.2.5 A thermal sleeve inserted in an in-line spray desuperheater

The thermal sleeve also allows the circulation of superheated steam around the annular area between the
sleeve and the inside diameter of the pipe. This provides a hot surface upon which the injected water can
evaporate, as opposed to the walls of the desuperheater, which are inevitably cooler.

Water spray type desuperheaters

Single point radial injection spray desuperheaters

The simplest method of injecting cooling water is to introduce a nozzle through the pipe wall.

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P & ID SYMBOLS

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CODES & STANDARDS

CODE:

CODE is a group of general rules or systematic procedure or guidelines required for design, fabrication,
installation & inspection and is prepared in such a manner that it can be adopted by legal jurisdiction & made
into law.

STANDARDS:

Standards prepared by a professional group or committee which are believed to be good and proper
engineering practice and which contain mandatory requirements and dimensions.

The STDS are mainly of two types :

i) Dimensional STDS
ii) Pressure Integrity STDS

DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS:

They provide configuration control Information for components. The main purpose of Dimensional STD is to
assure Similar components manufactured by different supplier will be physically Interchangeable. Mainly this
document I giving dimensions of various parts.

PRESSURE INTEGRITY STANDARDS:

They Provide performance criteria. The components designed & manufactured to the same STDS Will run an
equivalent manner

RECOMMENDED PRACTICES:

Recommended Practices prepared by professional group or committee indicating good engineering practices
but which are optional. Companies also develop Guide in order to have consistency in the documentation.
These cover various engineering methods which are considered good practices, without specific
recommendation or requirements.
Each country has its own Codes and Standards. Normally American National standards are most widely used
all over the world and compliance with those requirements are accepted globally.
In India, other than American standards, British standards and Indians are also used for the design and
selection of equipment and piping systems.

MAJOR ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDS:

Country Organization

India BIS : Bureau of Indian standards.

U.S.A. ASME : American Society of Mechanical Engineers
United Kingdom BSI : British Standards Institute
Germany DIN : Deutsches Institute for Normung.
Japan JIS : Japanese Industrial Standards
Europe CEN : Europe Community for Standardization
Canada CSA : Canadian Standards Association
France AFNOR: Association Francoise

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1.0 AMERICAN STANDARDS

Commonly used American Standards in Piping

The American Petroleum Institute (API).

The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
The American Welding Society (AWS).
The American Water Works Association (AWWA).
The Manufactures Standardization Society & Industry-Standards practices (MSS-SP)
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).

Commonly used American CODE in Piping

ASME B31 - Codes of Pressure Piping

B31 Code for pressure piping, developed by American Society of Mechanical Engineers - ASME, covers
Power Piping, Fuel Gas Piping, Process Piping, Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons
and Other Liquids, Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components and Building Services Piping. ASME
B31 was earlier known as ANSI B31.

B31.1 - 2001 - Power Piping

Piping for industrial plants and marine applications. This code prescribes minimum requirements for the
design, materials, fabrication, erection, test, and inspection of power and auxiliary service piping systems for
electric generation stations, industrial institutional plants, central and district heating plants.
The code covers boiler external piping for power boilers and high temperature, high pressure water boilers in
which steam or vapor is generated at a pressure of more than 15 PSIG; and high temperature water is
generated at pressures exceeding 160 PSIG and/or temperatures exceeding 250 degrees F.

B31.2 - 1968 - Fuel Gas Piping

This has been withdrawn as a National Standard and replaced by ANSI/NFPA Z223.1, but B31.2 is still
available from ASME and is a good reference for the design of gas piping systems (from the meter to the
appliance).

B31.3 - 2002 - Process Piping

Design of chemical and petroleum plants and refineries processing chemicals and hydrocarbons, water and
steam. This Code contains rules for piping typically found in petroleum refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical,
textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic plants; and related processing plants and terminals.
This Code prescribes requirements for materials and components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection,
examination, inspection, and testing of piping. This Code applies to piping for all fluids including: (1) raw,
intermediate, and finished chemicals; (2) petroleum products; (3) gas, steam, air and water; (4) fluidized
solids; (5) refrigerants; and (6) cryogenic fluids. Also included is piping which interconnects pieces or stages
within a packaged equipment assembly.

B31.4 - 2002 - Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids

This Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly, inspection, and testing
of piping transporting liquids such as crude oil, condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquefied
petroleum gas, carbon dioxide, liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia and liquid petroleum products
between producers' lease facilities, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, refineries, stations, ammonia
plants, terminals (marine, rail and truck) and other delivery and receiving points.

Piping consists of pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief devices, fittings and the pressure containing
parts of other piping components. It also includes hangers and supports, and other equipment items
necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing parts. It does not include support structures such
as frames of buildings, buildings stanchions or foundations

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Requirements for offshore pipelines are found in Chapter IX. Also included within the scope of this Code are:

• Primary and associated auxiliary liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping at pipeline
terminals (marine, rail and truck), tank farms, pump stations, pressure reducing stations and metering
stations, including scraper traps, strainers, and prover loop;

• Storage and working tanks including pipe-type storage fabricated from pipe and fittings, and piping
interconnecting these facilities;

• Liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping located on property which has been set aside
for such piping within petroleum refinery, natural gasoline, gas processing, ammonia, and bulk plants;

• Those aspects of operation and maintenance of liquid pipeline systems relating to the safety and
protection of the general public, operating company personnel, environment, property and the piping
systems.

B31.5 - 2001 - Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components

This Code prescribes requirements for the materials, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, test, and
inspection of refrigerant, heat transfer components, and secondary coolant piping for temperatures as low as
-320 deg F (-196 deg C), whether erected on the premises or factory assembled, except as specifically
excluded in the following paragraphs.

Users are advised that other piping Code Sections may provide requirements for refrigeration piping in their
respective jurisdictions.

This Code shall not apply to:

• any self- contained or unit systems subject to the requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or other
nationally recognized testing laboratory:

• water piping;

• piping designed for external or internal gage pressure not exceeding 15 psi (105 kPa) regardless of
size; or

• pressure vessels, compressors, or pumps, but does include all connecting refrigerant and secondary
coolant piping starting at the first joint adjacent to such apparatus.

B31.8 - 2003 - Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems

This Code covers the design, fabrication, installation, inspection, and testing of pipeline facilities used for the
transportation of gas. This Code also covers safety aspects of the operation and maintenance of those
facilities.

B31.8S-2001 - 2002 - Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines

This Standard applies to on-shore pipeline systems constructed with ferrous materials and that transport gas.

Pipeline system means all parts of physical facilities through which gas is transported, including pipe, valves,
appurtenances attached to pipe, compressor units, metering stations, regulator stations, delivery stations,
holders and fabricated assemblies.

The principles and processes embodied in integrity management are applicable to all pipeline systems. This
Standard is specifically designed to provide the operator (as defined in section 13) with the information
necessary to develop and implement an effective integrity management program utilizing proven industry
practices and processes.

The processes and approaches within this Standard are applicable to the entire pipeline system
.

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B31.9 - 1996 - Building Services Piping

This Code Section has rules for the piping in industrial, institutional, commercial and public buildings, and
multi-unit residences, which does not require the range of sizes, pressures, and temperatures covered in
B31.1.

This Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, installation, inspection, examination
and testing of piping systems for building services. It includes piping systems in the building or within the
property limits.

B31.11 - 2002 - Slurry Transportation Piping Systems

Design, construction, inspection, security requirements of slurry piping systems.

Covers piping systems that transport aqueous slurries of no hazardous materials, such as coal, mineral ores
and other solids between a slurry processing plant and the receiving plant.

ASME/ANSI B16 - Standards of Pipes and Fittings

The ASME B16 Standards covers pipes and fittings in cast iron , cast bronze, wrought copper & steel

ASME/ANSI B16.1 - 1998 - Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

This Standard for Classes 25, 125, and 250 Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings covers:
• pressure-temperature ratings,
• sizes and method of designating openings of reducing fittings,
• marking,
• minimum requirements for materials,
• dimensions and tolerances,
• bolt, nut, and gasket dimensions and
• tests.

ASME/ANSI B16.3 - 1998 - Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings

This Standard for threaded malleable iron fittings Classes 150, and 300 provides requirements for the
following:
• pressure-temperature ratings
• size and method of designating openings of reducing fittings
• marking
• materials
• dimensions and tolerances
• threading
• coatings

ASME/ANSI B16.4 - 1998 - Cast Iron Threaded Fittings

This Standard for gray iron threaded fittings, Classes 125 and 250 covers:
• pressure-temperature ratings
• size and method of designating openings of reducing fittings
• marking
• material
• dimensions and tolerances
• threading, and
• coatings

ASME/ANSI B16.5 - 1996 - Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

The ASME B16.5 - 1996 Pipe Flanges and Flange Fittings standard covers pressure-temperature ratings,
materials, dimensions, tolerances, marking, testing, and methods of designating openings for pipe flanges
and flanged fittings.

The standard includes flanges with rating class designations 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 in
sizes NPS 1/2 through NPS 24, with requirements given in both metric and U.S units. The Standard is limited

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to flanges and flanged fittings made from cast or forged materials, and blind flanges and certain reducing
flanges made from cast, forged, or plate materials. Also included in this Standard are requirements and
recommendations regarding flange bolting, flange gaskets, and flange joints.

ASME/ANSI B16.9 - 2001 - Factory-Made Wrought Steel Buttwelding Fittings

This Standard covers overall dimensions, tolerances, ratings, testing, and markings for wrought factory-made
buttwelding fittings in sizes NPS 1/2 through 48 (DN 15 through 1200).

ASME/ANSI B16.10 - 2000 - Face-to-Face and End-to-End Dimensions of Valves

This Standard covers face-to-face and end-to-end dimensions of straightway valves, and center-to face and
center-to-end dimensions of angle valves. Its purpose is to assure installation interchangeability for valves of
a given material, type size, rating class, and end connection

ASME/ANSI B16.11 - 2001 - Forged Steel Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded

This Standard covers ratings, dimensions, tolerances, marking and material requirements for forged fittings,
both socket-welding and threaded.

ASME/ANSI B16.12 - 1998 - Cast Iron Threaded Drainage Fittings

This Standard for cast iron threaded drainage fittings covers:

• size and method of designating openings in reducing fittings
• marking
• materials
• dimensions and tolerances
• threading
• ribs
• coatings
• face bevel discharge nozzles, input shafts, base plates, and foundation bolt holes (see Tables 1 and
2).

ASME/ANSI B16.14 - 1991 - Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings and Locknuts with Pipe Threads

This Standard for Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings, and Locknuts with Pipe Threads covers:
pressure-temperature ratings:
• size;
• marking;
• materials;
• dimensions and tolerances;
• threading; and
• pattern taper.

ASME/ANSI B16.15 - 1985 (R1994) - Cast Bronze Threaded Fittings

This Standard pertains primarily to cast Class 125and Class 250 bronze threaded pipe fittings. Certain
requirements also pertain to wrought or cast plugs, bushings, couplings, and caps. This Standard covers:
• pressure-temperature ratings;
• size and method of designating openings of reducing pipe fittings;
• marking;
• minimum requirements for casting quality and materials;
• dimensions and tolerances in U.S. customary and metric (SI) units;
• Threading.

ASME/ANSI B16.18 - 1984 (R1994) - Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings

This Standard for cast copper alloy solder joint pressure fittings designed for use with copper water tube,
establishes requirements for:
• Pressure-temperature ratings;
• Abbreviations for end connections;
• Sizes and method of designating openings of fittings;
• Marking;

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• Material;
• Dimensions and tolerances; and
• Tests.

ASME/ANSI B16.20 - 1998 - Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges-Ring-Joint, Spiral-Would, and Jacketed

This standard covers materials, dimensions, tolerances, and markings for metal ring-joint gaskets, spiral-
wound metal gaskets, and metal jacketed gaskets and filler material. These gaskets are dimensionally
suitable for used with flanges described in the reference flange standards ASME/ANSI B16.5, ASME B16.47,
and API-6A. This standard covers spiral-wound metal gaskets and metal jacketed gaskets for use with raised
face and flat face flanges. Replaces API-601 or API-601.

ASME/ANSI B16.21 - 1992 - Nonmetallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges

This Standard for nonmetallic flat gaskets for bolted flanged joints in piping includes:
types and sizes;
• materials;
• dimensions and allowable tolerances.

ASME/ANSI B16.22 - 1995 - Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings

The Standard establishes specifications for wrought copper and wrought copper alloy, solder-joint, seamless
fittings, designed for use with seamless copper tube conforming to ASTM B 88 (water and general plumbing
systems), B 280 (air conditioning and refrigeration service), and B 819 (medical gas systems), as well as
fittings intended to be assembled with soldering materials conforming to ASTM B 32, brazing materials
conforming to AWS A5.8, or with tapered pipe thread conforming to ASME B1.20.1. This Standard is allied
with ASME B16.18, which covers cast copper alloy pressure fittings. It provides requirements for fitting ends
suitable for soldering. This Standard covers:
• pressure temperature ratings;
• abbreviations for end connections;
• size and method of designating openings of fittings;
• marking;
• material;
• dimension and tolerances; and
• tests.

ASME/ANSI B16.23 - 1992 - Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings (DWV)

The Standard establishes specifications for cast copper alloy solder joint drainage fittings, designed for use in
drain, waste, and vent (DWV) systems. These fittings are designed for use with seamless copper tube
conforming to ASTM B 306, Copper Drainage Tube (DWV), as well as fittings intended to be assembled with
soldering materials conforming to ASTM B 32, or tapered pipe thread conforming to ASME B1.20.1. This
standard is allied with ASME B16.29, Wrought Copper and Wrought Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage
Fittings - DWV. It provides requirements for fitting ends suitable for soldering. This standard covers:
• description;
• pitch (slope);
• abbreviations for end connections;
• sizes and methods for designing openings for reducing fittings;
• marking;
• material; and
• dimensions and tolerances.

ASME/ANSI B16.24 - 1991 (R1998) - Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

This Standard for Classes 25, 125, 250, and 800 Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings covers:
• pressure temperature ratings,
• sizes and methods of designating openings for reduced fittings,
• marking,
• dimensions and tolerances,
• bolt, nut, and gasket dimensions, and
• tests.

ASME/ANSI B16.25 - 1997 - Buttwelding Ends

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The Standard covers the preparation of butt welding ends of piping components to be joined into a piping
system by welding. It includes requirements for welding bevels, for external and internal shaping of heavy-
wall components, and for preparation of internal ends (including dimensions and tolerances). Coverage
includes preparation for joints with the following.
• no backing rings;
• split or non continuous backing rings;
• solid or continuous backing rings;
• consumable insert rings;
• gas tungsten are welding (GTAW) of the root pass. Details of preparation for any backing ring must
be specified in ordering the component.

ASME/ANSI B16.26 - 1988 - Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for Flared Copper Tubes

This standard for Cast Copper Alloy Fitting for Flared Copper Tubes covers:
pressure rating;
• material;
• size;
• threading;
• marking.

ASME/ANSI B16.28 - 1994 - Wrought Steel Buttwelding Short Radius Elbows and Returns

This Standard covers ratings, overall dimensions, testing, tolerances, and markings for wrought carbon and
alloy steel buttwelding short radius elbows and returns. The term wrought denotes fittings made of pipe,
tubing, plate, or forgings.

ASME/ANSI B16.29 - 1994 - Wrought Copper and Wrought Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings
(DWV)

The standard for wrought copper and wrought copper alloy solder joint drainage fittings, designed for use with
copper drainage tube, covers:
• Description,
• Pitch (slope),
• Abbreviations for End Connections,
• Sizes and Method of Designating Openings for Reducing Fittings,
• Marking,
• Material,
• Dimensions and Tolerances.

ASME/ANSI B16.33 - 1990 - Manually Operated Metallic Gas Valves for Use in Gas Piping Systems Up
to 125 psig

General This Standard covers requirements for manually operated metallic valves sizes NPS 1.2 through
NPS 2, for outdoor installation as gas shut-off valves at the end of the gas service line and before the gas
regulator and meter where the designated gauge pressure of the gas piping system does not exceed 125 psi
(8.6 bar). The Standard applies to valves operated in a temperature environment between .20 degrees F and
150 degrees F (.29 degrees C and 66 degrees C). Design This Standard sets forth the minimum capabilities,
characteristics, and properties, which a valve at the time of manufacture must possess, in order to be
considered suitable for use in gas piping systems.

ASME/ANSI B16.34 - 1996 - Valves - Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End

This standard applies to new valve construction and covers pressure-temperature ratings, dimensions,
tolerances, materials, nondestructive examination requirements, testing, and marking for cast, forged, and
fabricated flanged, threaded, and welding end, and wafer or flangeless valves of steel, nickel-base alloys, and
other alloys shown in Table 1. Wafer or flangeless valves, bolted or through-bolt types, that are installed
between flanges or against a flange shall be treated as flanged end valves.

ASME/ANSI B16.36 - 1996 - Orifice Flanges

This Standard covers flanges (similar to those covered in ASME B16.5) that have orifice pressure differential
connections. Coverage is limited to the following:

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• welding neck flanges Classes 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500
• slip-on and threaded Class 300
• Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi Flow Rate Meters

ASME/ANSI B16.38 - 1985 (R1994) - Large Metallic Valves for Gas Distribution

The standard covers only manually operated metallic valves in nominal pipe sizes 2 1/2 through 12 having the
inlet and outlet on a common center line, which are suitable for controlling the flow of gas from open to fully
closed, for use in distribution and service lines where the maximum gage pressure at which such distribution
piping systems may be operated in accordance with the code of federal regulations (cfr), title 49, part 192,
transportation of natural and other gas by pipeline; minimum safety standard, does not exceed 125 psi (8.6
bar). Valve seats, seals and stem packing may be nonmetallic.

ASME/ANSI B16.39 - 1986 (R1998) - Malleable Iron Threaded Pipe Unions

This Standard for threaded malleable iron unions, classes 150, 250, and 300, provides requirements for the
following:
• design
• pressure-temperature ratings
• size
• marking
• materials
• joints and seats
• threads
• hydrostatic strength
• tensile strength
• air pressure test
• sampling
• coatings
• dimensions

ASME/ANSI B16.40 - 1985 (R1994) - Manually Operated Thermoplastic Gas

The Standard covers manually operated thermoplastic valves in nominal sizes 1.2 through 6 (as shown in
Table 5). These valves are suitable for use below ground in thermoplastic distribution mains and service lines.
The maximum pressure at which such distribution piping systems may be operated is in accordance with the
Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Title 49, Part 192, Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline;
Minimum Safety Standards, for temperature ranges of .20 deg. F to 100 deg. F (.29 deg. C to 38 deg. C). This
Standard sets qualification requirements for each nominal valve size for each valve design as a necessary
condition for demonstrating conformance to this Standard. This Standard sets requirements for newly
manufactured valves for use in below ground piping systems for natural gas [includes synthetic natural gas
(SNG)], and liquefied petroleum (LP) gases (distributed as a vapor, with or without the admixture of air) or
mixtures thereof.

ASME/ANSI B16.42 - 1998 - Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150 and 300

The Standard covers minimum requirements for Class 150 and 300 cast ductile iron pipe flanges and flanged
fittings. The requirements covered are as follows:
• pressure-temperature ratings
• sizes and method of designating openings
• marking
• materials
• dimensions and tolerances
• blots, nuts, and gaskets
• tests

ASME/ANSIB16.44 - 1995 - Manually Operated Metallic Gas Valves for Use in House Piping Systems

This Standard applies to new valve construction and covers quarter turn manually operated metallic valves in
sizes NPS 1/2-2 which are intended for indoor installation as gas shutoff valves when installed in indoor gas
piping between a gas meter outlet & the inlet connection to a gas appliance.

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ASME/ANSI B16.45 - 1998 - Cast Iron Fittings for Solvent Drainage Systems

The Standard for cast iron drainage fittings used on self-aerating, one-pipe Solvent drainage systems, covers
the following:
• description
• sizes and methods for designating openings for reducing fittings
• marking
• material
• pitch
• design
• dimensions and tolerances
• tests

ASME/ANSI B16.47 - 1996 - Large Diameter Steel Flanges: NPS 26 through NPS 60

This Standard covers pressure-temperature ratings, materials, dimensions, tolerances, marking, and testing
for pipe flanges in sizes NPS 26 through NPS 60 and in ratings Classes 75, 150,0300, 400, 600, and 900.
Flanges may be cast, forged, or plate (for blind flanges only) materials. Requirements and recommendations
regarding bolting and gaskets are also included.

ASME/ANSI B16.48 - 1997 - Steel Line Blanks

The Standard covers pressure-temperature ratings, materials, dimensions, tolerances, marking, and testing
for operating line blanks in sizes NPS 1/2 through NPS 24 for installation between ASME B16. 5 flanges in
the 150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 pressure classes.

ASME/ANSI B16.49 - 2000 - Factory-Made Wrought Steel Butt welding Induction Bends for
Transportation and Distribution Systems

This Standard covers design, material, manufacturing, testing, marking, and inspection requirements for
factory-made pipeline bends of carbon steel materials having controlled chemistry and mechanical properties,
produced by the induction bending process, with or without tangents. This Standard covers induction bends
for transportation and distribution piping applications (e.g., ASME B31.4, B31.8, and B31.11) Process and
power piping have differing requirements and materials that may not be appropriate for the restrictions and
examinations described herein, and therefore are not included in this Standard.

API - Valve Standards

An overview of the American Petroleum Institute - API - valve standards

API 5L : Specification for Line pipe

API 6D : Specification for Pipeline Valves. API Specification 6D is an adoption of

API 6F : Recommended Practice for Fire Test for valves.

API 6RS : Referenced Standards for Committee 6, Standardization of Valves and

Wellhead Equipment.

API 11V6 V : Design of Continuous Flow Gas Lift Installations Using Injection Pressure
Operated Valves. The standard sets guidelines for continuous flow gas lift installation
designs using injection pressure operated valves.

API RP 11V7 : Recommended Practice for Repair, Testing, and Setting Gas Lift Valves.
ball, check, gate and plug valves for application in pipeline systems.

API 520-1 : Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries:

Part I Sizing and Selection. The recommended practice applies to the sizing and
selection of pressure relief devices used in refineries and related industries for
equipment that has a maximum allowable working pressure of 15 psig (1.03 bar g or
103 kPa g) or greater.

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API 520-2 : Recommended Practice 520: Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-
Relieving Devices in Refineries-Part II, Installation. The recommended practice
covers methods of installation for pressure-relief devices for equipment that has a
maximum allowable working pressure of 15 psig (1.03 bar g or 103 kPa g) or greater.
It covers gas, vapor, steam, two-phase and incompressible fluid service.

API 526 : Flanged Steel Pressure Relief Valves. The standard is a purchase specification for
flanged steel pressure relief valves. Basic requirements are given for direct spring-
loaded pressure relief valves and pilot-operated pressure relief valves as follows:
orifice designation and area; valve size and pressure rating, inlet and outlet;
materials; pressure-temperature limits; and center-to-face dimensions, inlet and
outlet.

API 527 : Seat Tightness of Pressure Relief Valves R(2002). Describes methods of
determining the seat tightness of metal- and soft-seated pressure relief valves,
including those of conventional, bellows, and pilot-operated designs.

API 57 : Inspection Practices for Piping System Components. The standard covers
the inspection of piping, tubing, valves (other than control valves) and fittings used in
petroleum refineries.

API 576 : Inspection of Pressure Relieving Devices. The recommended practice describes the
inspection and repair practices for automatic pressure-relieving devices commonly
used in the oil and petrochemical industries.

API 593 : Ductile Iron Plug Valves-flanged ends.

API 594 : Check Valves: Flanged, Lug, Wafer and Butt-welding. API Standard 594
covers design, material, face-to-face dimensions, pressure-temperature ratings, and
examination, inspection, and test requirements for two types of check valves.

API 598 : Valve Inspection and Testing. The standard covers inspection, supplementary
examination, and pressure test requirements for both resilient-seated and metal-to-
metal seated gate, globe, plug, ball, check, and butterfly valves. Pertains to
inspection by the purchaser and to any supplementary examinations the purchaser
may require at the valve manufacturer's plant.

API 599 : Metal Plug Valves - Flanged, Threaded and Welding Ends A purchase specification
that covers requirements for metal plug valves with flanged or butt-welding ends, and
ductile iron plug valves with flanged ends, in sizes NPS 1 through NPS 24, which
correspond to nominal pipe sizes in ASME B36.10M. Valve bodies conforming to
ASME B16.34 may have flanged end and one butt-welding end. It also covers both
lubricated and nonlubricated valves that have two-way coaxial ports, and includes
requirements for valves fitted with internal body, plug, or port linings or applied hard
facings on the body, body ports, plug, or plug port.

API 600 : Bolted Bonnet Steel Gate Valves for Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries - Modified
National Adoption of ISO 10434:1998.

API 601 : Metallic Gasket for Refinery piping.

API 602 : Compact Steel Gate Valves - Flanged, Threaded, Welding, and Extended- Body
Ends. The standard covers threaded-end, socket-welding-end, butt-welding-end, and
flanged-end compact carbon steel gate valves in sizes NPS4 and smaller.

API 603 : Corrosion-Resistant, Bolted Bonnet Gate Valves - Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends.
The standard covers corrosion-resistant bolted bonnet gate valves with flanged or
butt-weld ends in sizes NPS 1/2 through 24, corresponding to nominal pipe sizes in
ASME B36.10M, and Classes 150, 300, and, 600, as specified in ASME B16.34.

API 604 : Ductile Iron Gate Valves-flanged ends.

API 605 : Large Diameter Carbon Steel Flanges.

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API 607 : Fire Test for Soft-Seated Quarter Turn Valves. The standard covers the requirements
for testing and evaluating the performance of straightway, soft-seated quarter-turn
valves when the valves are exposed to certain fire conditions defined in this
standard. The procedures described in this standard apply to all classes and sizes of
such valves that are made of materials listed in ASME B16.34.

API 608 : Metal Ball Valves - Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends. The standard covers Class 150
And Class 300 metal ball valves that have either butt-welding or flanged ends and
are for use in on-off service.

API 609 : Butterfly Valves: Double Flanged, Lug- and Wafer-Type. The standard covers design,
materials, face-to-face dimensions, pressure-temperature ratings, and examination,
inspection, and test requirements for gray iron, ductile iron, bronze, steel, nickel-base
alloy, or special alloy butterfly valves that provide tight shutoff in the closed position
and are suitable for flow regulation.

API 1104 : Standard for welding pipeline and facilities.

BSi - British Standard Valves : An overview of BSi - British Standard institute valve standards

BSi - British Standard institute valve standards:

BS 341-1 : Transportable gas container valves. Specification for industrial valves for working
pressures up to and including 300 bar

BS 341-2 : Transportable Gas Container Valves. Valves with Taper Stems for Use with
Breathing Apparatus.

BS 341-3 : Transportable gas container valves. Valve outlet connections

BS 341-4 : Transportable gas container valves. Pressure relief devices

BS 759-1 : Valves, gauges and other safety fittings for application to boilers and to piping
Installations for and in connection with boilers. Specification for valves, mountings
and fittings

BS 1123-1 : Safety valves, gauges and fusible plugs for compressed air or inert gas installations –
Code of practice for installation

BS 1212-1 : Float operated valves - Specification for piston type float operated valves (copper
alloy body) (excluding floats)

BS 1414 : Gate valves for petroleum industry

BS 1552 : Specification for open bottomed taper plug valves up to 200 mbar

BS 1570 : Flanged and but weld-welding end steel plug valves for the petroleum industry
(excluding well -head and flow-line valves)

BS1655 : Flanged automatic control valves for the process control industry (face to face
dimensions)

BS 1735 : Flanged cast iron outside-screw-and-yoke wedge gate valve, class 125, sizes 1 1/3
in to 24 in, for the petroleum industry

BS 1868 : Specification for steel check valves (flanged and butt-welding ends) for the
petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries

BS 1873 : Specification for steel globe and globe stop and check valves (flanged and butt-
welding ends) for the petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries.

BS1952 : Copper alloy valves for general purposes

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BS1953 : Copper alloy check valves for general purposes.

BS1963 : Specification for pressure operated relay valves for domestic, commercial and
catering gas appliances.

BS2080 : Specification for face to face, center to face, end to end and center to end
dimensions of valves

BS2995 : Cast and forged steel wedge gate, globe, check and plug valve, screwed and socket
welding, sizes 2 in and smaller, for the petroleum industry

BS 3464 : Cast iron wedge and double disk gate valves for general purposes

BS3808 : Cast and forged steel flanged, screwed and socket welding wedge gate valves
(compact design), sizes 2 in and smaller, for the petroleum industry

BS3948 : Cast iron parallel slide valves for general purposes

BS3952 : Cast iron butterfly valves for general purposes

BS3961 : Cast iron screw down stop valves and stop and check valves for general purposes

BS4090 : Cast iron check valves for general purposes

BS4133 : Flanged steel parallel slide valves for general purposes

BS 4460 : Steel ball valves for the petroleum industry

BS 5041 : Fire hydrant systems equipment - Specification for landing valves for wet risers

BS 5154 : Specification for copper alloy globe, globe stop and check, check and gate valves

BS 5155 : Specification for butterfly valves

BS 5156 : Specification for diaphragm valves

BS 5157 : Specification for steel gate (parallel slide) valves

BS 5158 : Specification for cast iron plug valves

BS 5159 : Cast iron and carbon steel ball valves for general purposes

BS 5160 : Specification for steel globe valves, globe stop and check valves and lift type check
valves

BS 5163 : Specification for predominantly key-operated cast iron gate valves for waterworks
purposes

BS 5351 : Steel ball valves for petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries

BS 5352 : Steel wedge gate, globe and check valves 50mm and small

BS 5353 : Specification for steel plug valves

S 5417 : Testing of general purpose industrial valves

BS 5418 : Specification for marking of general purpose industrial valves

BS 5793-4 : Industrial-process control valves - Specification for inspection and routine testing

BS 5793-6 : Industrial-process control valves - Specification for mounting details for attachment of
positioners to control valve actuators

BS 6755 : Testing of valves.

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BS 6283-2 : Safety and control devices for use in hot water systems - Specifications for
temperature relief valves for pressures from 1 bar to 10 bar

BS 6283-4 : Safety and control devices for use in hot water systems - Specification for drop-tight
pressure reducing valves of nominal size up to and including DN 50 for supply
pressures up to and including 12 bar

BS 6494-4 : Hydraulic fluid power valve mounting surfaces - Specification for clamping
dimensions of four-part, size 03 and 05, modular stack valves and directional control
valves

BS 6675 : Specification for servicing valves (copper alloy) for water services

BS 6683 : Guide to installation and use of valves

BS 6697 Methods of test for electro hydraulic proportional control valves

BS 6755-2 : Testing of valves - Specification for fire type-testing requirements

BS 6759-1 : Safety valves - Part 1. Specification for safety valves for steam and hot water

BS 6759-2 : Safety valves - Part 2. Safety valves for compressed air or inert gas

BS 6759-3 : Safety valves - Part 3. Specification for safety valves for process fluids

BS 6821 : Methods for aerodynamic testing of dampers and valves

BS 7244 : Flame Arrestor.

BS 7296-1 : Cavities for hydraulic fluid power cartridge valves - specification for two-port slip-in
valves

BS 7350 : Specification for double regulating globe valves and flow measurement devices for
heating and chilled water systems

BS 7389-1 : Pneumatic fluid power valve mounting surfaces - specification for five-port directional
control valves (without electrical motor)

BS 7438 : Specification steel and copper alloy wafer check valves, single disk, spring-loaded
type

ASTM STANDARDS

ASTM standards consist of 16 sections on definitions & classifications of material of construction and test
methods.
ASME section II has four parts.
• Part-A Ferrous materials specifications
• Part-B Non ferrous metals specification
• Part-C Specification for welding materials
• Part-D Properties of materials.

In Part II, the materials are listed in the Index based on the available forms such as plates, casting, tubes …

The selection of ASTM specification depends upon the required manufactures, from of material, its
mechanical strength and the corrosion properties.

The specification number is given on Alphabetical prefix ‘A’ for Ferrous materials and ‘B’ for Non-ferrous
materials.

Commonly used AWWA STANDARDS

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• C-500 Gate Vales for water & sewage system
• C-510 Cast Iron sluice Gates
• C-504 Rubber Seated Butterfly Valves
• C-507 Ball valves 6”- 48
• C-508 Swing Check Valves 2”-24
• C-509 Resilient Seated Gate Valves for water & sewage.

Commonly used Recommended Practices

• MSS-SP-6 Standard Finishes for Contact Surface for Flanges.

• MSS-SP-43 Wrought Stainless Steel Butt weld Fittings.
• MSS-SP-56 Pipe Hanger Supports: Materials, Design and Manufacture
• MSS-SP-97 Standard for ‘O” let fittings.

Commonly used Indian Standards

• IS 210 Grey Iron Casting

• IS 226 Structural Steel (superseded by IS 2062)
• IS 1239 Specification for Mild Steel Tubes and Fitting Part I & II
• IS 1536 Centrifugally Cast Iron Pipes.
• IS 1537 Vertically Cast Iron Pipes.
• IS 1538 Cast Iron Fitting.
• IS 2062 Steel for general structure purposes.

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4. PIPING ELEMENTS
1. Pipe: Pipe is identified by NPS (Nominal Pipe Size) or NB (Nominal Bore) with wall thickness defined by
“SCHEDULE NUMBER”. Non Standard Pipe is specified by nominal size with wall thickness stated ANSI
Standard B 36.10 establish wall thickness for pipe ranging from ⅛” to 8”, Small Bore pipes normally used in
½” NPS to 1½”NPS, Large Bore pipe 2” & Above and not commonly used pipe sizes are 1¼”, 2½”, 3½” & 5”
Straight Pipe in SRL (Single Random length) is 6mtr & DRL (Double Random Length) is 11 meter. The end of
these lengths is PE (Plain End) for Small Bore & BE (Bend End) for large Bore (Butt Welded) Pipes. The most
used Steel pipe fro Process lines and for welding Bending & Coiling is made to ASTM A-53 or ASTM A -106.
Both pipes are fabricated seamless or seamed by ERW in grade A& B. Grade B have higher tensile strength.
Three grades of A106 are available Grade A, B, & C in order of increasing Tensile strength.

Methods for Joining Pipe.

Welded & Screwed Joints: Line Sizes 2” Above are usually butt welded this being the most economic leak
proof way of joining larger diameter piping line sizes 1½” & Below are usually either screwed or socket
welded.
Socket Welded Joints: Like screwed piping, socket welding is used for lines sizes 1½” & smaller but the
advantage that absence of leaking is assured this is a valuable factor when flammable, toxic or radioactive
fluids are begin conveyed the use of socket welded joint is not restricted to such fluids etc…

Bolted Flange Joints: Flange is expensive. For the most part are used to make with flanged vessel
equipment, valve & for process lines which may require periodic cleaning. Flanged joints are made by bolting
together two flange with a gasket between them to provide a seal
Where Used Advantage Disadvantage How joint is made
For most process, Most practicable Intruding weld metal The end of the pipe is
utility and service way of joining may affect flow Fittings are similarly
piping larger pipes & beveled by the
fittings which offers manufacturer. The
BUTT - reliable, leak proof two parts are aligned,
WELDED joints. properly gapped, tack
welded, & then a
continuous weld is
made to complete the
joint.
For lines conveying 1. Easier alignment 1. The 1/16-inch The end of the pipe is
flammable, toxic, or on small lines than recess in joint finished flat. It is
expensive material, butt welding. Tack pockets liquid. located in the fitting,
where no leakage welding is un- valve, flange, etc,
can be permitted. necessary. 2. Use not permitted and a continuous fillet
For steam: 300 to by ANSI B31.1 1989 weld is made around
SOCKET-
600 PSI & 2. No weld metal if severe vibration or the circumference.
WELDED
sometime 150 PSI can enter bore . crevice corrosion is
Steam. For anticipated
Corrosion 3. Joint will not
conditions, see leak, when properly
index under made
‘Corrosion’
For lines conveying 1. Easily made 1. Use not permitted
services, and for from pipe & fittings by ANSI 31.1 1889 if
smaller process on site severe erosion,
SCREWED piping. crevice corrosion,
2. Minimizes fire shock, or vibration is
hazard when anticipated, nor at
installing piping in temperatures over

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area where 925 F.
flammable gases or
liquids are present 2. Possible leakage
of joint

3. Seal welding may

be required.

4. Strength of the
pipe is reduced, as
forming the screw
thread reduces the
wall thickness

2. FITTINGS:

Fitting’s permit a change in direction of piping, a change in diameter of pipe or a branch to be made from the
main pipe. Threaded fitting have pressure class designation of 2000, 3000, 6000. Socket welded fitting have
Pressure class designation of 3000, 6000, & 9000.

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CORRELATION OF CLASS OF THREADED & SOCKET WELDED FITTINGS WITH SLIDER / WEIGHT OF

Pressure Class 2000 3000 6000 9000

Threaded Fitting 80/xs 160 XXS

Socket Welded --- 80/xs 160 XXS

Some of the fitting are:

a) Elbows: - Elbows make 90 & 45 changes in direction of the run of pipe. The elbows normally used
Long Radius (LR) radius is 1.5 D Short Radius (SR) Elbows are also available Radius is 1D.

90 Deg. Butt Welded Elbow 45 Deg. Butt Welded Elbow

90 Deg. Socket Welded Elbow 45 Deg. Socket Welded

Elbow

90 Deg. Threaded Elbow 45 Deg. Threaded Elbow

b) Reducing Elbows: - Reducing Elbows are also available to make 90 degree change with change
in line size.

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c) Return: - Return change direction of flow thru 180 degrees, and is used to construct heating coils,
vents on tanks, etc.

d) Miter Bend: - Fabricated bend as per requirement used in low pressure service and in general services
like water and air.

e) Tees: - Butt – Welding Tees, Straight or reducing are employed to make 90-degree branches from
the main run of pipe. Straight tees, with branch the same size as the run, are readily available.
Reducing tees have branch smaller than the run. Bullhead tees have branch larger than the run, and
are very seldom used but can be made to special order. None of these tees requires reinforcement.

Butt Welded Tee Socket Welded Tee Threaded Tee

Butt Welded Tee Socket Welded Tee

f) CAP – Welding fitting used to terminate pipe end

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Butt Welded Cap Socket Welded Cap

Threaded Cap

g) Reducer (or Increaser):- joins a larger pipe to a smaller one. The two available types, concentric
and eccentric. The ecce- ntric reducer is used when it is necessary to keep either the top or the
bottom of the line level- offset equal ½ x (larger ID minus smaller ID).

Concentric Reducer Eccentric Reducer

h) Swage: - is employed to connect butt-welded piping to smaller screwed or socket – welded piping.
In butt-welded lines, used as an alternative to the reducer when greater reductions in line size are
required. Regular swages in concentric or eccentric from give abrupt change of line size, as do
reducers.

i) Nipples and other threaded fittings: Threaded nipples used in threaded piping as a spool.

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45ELBOW SQUARE PLUG HOSE NIPPLE

REDUCER TEE UNION ELBOW

SOCKET BANDED SOCKET PLAIN HEXAGON BUSHING

REDUCER HEX NIPPLE HEXAGON HEAD CAP HEX NIPPLE

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ii) FLANGES: Flanges are required for joining two pipes or pipes to equipments where maintenance is
required. Flanges are of various types like Socket welded, Slip On, Weld Neck, Threaded with different face
and face finish as per the various process requirements.

• Socket Welded Flange: used in small bore pipes, and dimensions are available in ASMR B 16.5 up
to 3” NPS.

• Slip-On Flange: - It is cheaper to buy than the welding-neck flange, but is costlier to assemble. It is
easer to align than the welding-neck flange. Calculated strengths under internal pressure are about
one third that of the corresponding welding-neck flanges

• Welding-Neck Flange, Regular & long: - Regular welding-neck flanges are with butt-welding
fittings. Long welding-neck flanges are primarily used for vessel and equipment nozzles, rarely for
pipe. Suitable where extreme temperature, shear, impact and vibratory stresses apply. Regularity of
the bore is maintained.

• Flat Face Flange: used if flange material is of Cast Iron.

• Blind Flange: used to terminate pipe end when there is chances of future expansion.

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• Threaded flange : normally used

• Reducing Flange/ Expander Flange: - Suitable for changing line size, but should not be used if
abrupt transition would create undesirable turbulence, as at pump connections. Available to order in
welding-neck and eccentric types, and usually from stock in slip-on type.

• Expander Flange: - Application as for welding-neck flange-see above. Increases pipe size to first
or second larger size. Alternative to using reducer and welding-neck flange. Useful for connecting to
valves, compressors and pumps.

• Lap Joint, or ‘Van Stone’ Flange: - Economical if costly pipe such as stainless steel is used, as
the flange can be of carbon steel and only the lap-joint stub end need be of the line material. A stub
end must be used in a lap-joint, and of the same material they will be more expensive than a
welding-neck flange. Useful where alignment of bolt holes is difficult, as with spools to be attached to
flanged nozzles of vessels.

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Stub End Backing Flange

• Some of flanged fittings

j) Stub-In:- Term for a branch pipe welded directly into the side of the main pipe run-it is not a fitting.
This is the commonest and least expensive method of welding a full-size or reducing branch for pipe
2-inch and larger.

k) Stub-out: Normally preferred when branch is one size less than header.

l) ‘O” let fittings : O let fittings are self reinforced forged fittings.

i) Weldolet : Used for branching

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ii) Sockolet: used for branching

iii) Sweepolet

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iv) Latrolet

BUTT-WELDED 45oLATERAL SOCKET 45oLATERAL OLET- THREADED 45oLATERAL

45oLATERAL OLET
OLET-CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION OLET-CONSTRUCTION

v) Elbowlet

BUTT-WELDED ELBOW SOCKET ELBOW OLET-- THREADED ELBOW OLET--

ELBOW OLET
OLET--CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION

vi) Thredolet

m) Bolts & Nut :

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Two types of bolt are available in the market. Machine Bolt and Stud Bolt. They can be fully or partially
threaded but full threaded bolts are preferred. In Industry generally stud bolts are used as fasteners but for
blind holes on equipments Machine bolt is the only option. Length of the bolts is calculated as per ASME
B16.5. Nuts used are of hexagonal shape. And for machine bolts Hexagonal head is preferred.

For low pressure, low temperature machine bolt, otherwise use studs
The Bolts are provided with hexagonal head hexagonal nuts & Washer.
STUDS are provided with hexagonal nuts & two Washers
The length of Joints of all pressure class are specified in ANSI 16.5

U Bolt Foundation Bolt Hex. Bolts & Nut Stud Bolts & Nut
(Machine Bolts)

n) Gasket: Gaskets can be mainly categorized in to two types – metallic and Non Metallic. Metallic
gaskets are referred to ASME B16.20 and nonmetallic gaskets to ASME B 16.21. Metallic Gasket
can be further be divided in to Spiral Wound, Corrugated Metallic and Ring Type Joint (RTJ).

i) Asbestos Non-metallic Gasket

various non-metallic flat gaskets, made from asbestos, non-asbestos, graphite, reinforced graphite, PTFE,
improved PTFE, mica, and various rubber sheets etc. They are used in large quantity by various industries
and in a variety of applications. Available in standard and non-standard gasket designs.

Specification:

Material Max. pressure Max. temperature

Graphite 3.0~30.0Mpa 550°C
Asbestos rubber
2.0~5.5Mpa 200°C~450°C
CAF
Oil resistant
1.5~4.0Mpa 150°C~400°C
asbestos
Acid resistant
3.0Mpa 300°C
asbestos
Non-asbestos
1.5~4.0Mpa 200°C~400°C
NCAF
Oil resistant
2.0~4.0Mpa 200°C~400°C
NCAF
PTFE 10Mpa 200°C
Rubber 2.0Mpa 70°C~250°C
Mica 2.0~5.0Mpa 650°C
Cork 2.0Mpa 150°C

various gaskets Other special materials, braided cloth or tapes with materials of fiberglass, asbestos and
ceramic are also available to be made into.

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ii) PTFE Gasket

The product is molded, skived or cut from virgin PTFE sheets, rods, tubes etc.
PTFE has the best chemical resistance among known plastics. It also has good aging stability, electrical
insulation, wear resistance, and extremely low friction coefficient. The unloaded operating temperature range
is -180~+260°C.

Application:
PTFE gasket is one of the most suitable types of gaskets for a variety of sealing applications. Different types
of Uni-seals PTFE gaskets are available to meet various application demands.

Specification:
Density Tensile strength Elongation at break Temperature Maximum pressure
3
2.1~2.3g/cm ≥15Mpa ≥150% -180°C~+260°C 10Mpa

PTFE gasket with filler

It is PTFE gasket with filler materials such as glass fiber, carbon fiber and graphite etc. Improved mechanical
and processing properties can be additionally reached by combination of virgin PTFE and different fillers.
See details in the product page “Filled PTFE Articles”.

iii) PTFE envelope gasket

The PTFE is cut into square envelope form.

For use with medium and higher pressure.

Application:
PTFE envelope gasket is the ideal solution for applications demanding virtually 100% chemical resistance
and where the mechanical properties of a compressed gasket material are also needed. It performs well in
the food processing industries where contamination of the medium is not permitted. Suitable for mediums like
strong alkalis, cryogenic fluids, oxygen, chlorine gas etc.

Properties:
Virtually 100% chemically resistant.

Temperature range from -180°C to +260°C, depending on the core.

Mechanical strength dependent on core selection.

iv) Graphite Gasket

graphite gasket is made from homogeneous graphite, reinforced by metal mesh, foil or tanged metal. It offers
excellent sealing capabilities such as thermal stability, self-lubrication, corrosion resistance, not being brittle
and aging etc. It is with long life and less maintenance is required under extreme conditions.
The metal eyeleted gasket is an improvement from pure cut gaskets. The metal foils bound at inner and outer
edges offer a special protection against blowout and chemical corrosion for the gasket, and increase the
pressure resistance capability.
Tanged metal plate
0.05mm metal foil 0.1mm metal mesh
Insert material None (0.25mm CS, 0.1mm
(SS304, 316 etc) (CS, 304, 316 etc)
SS304, 316)

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Application:

Various shapes are available, used in petrochemical, mining, vessels, boilers, piping and ducts, pumps and
valves, flanges etc. Suitable for steam, mineral oil, heat transfer oil, hydraulic oil, fuel, water, seawater,
freshwater etc.

Specification:
Type I II III IV
Temperature -200°C~+650°C -200°C~+550°C -200°C~+550°C -200°C~+550°C
Maximum Pressure 30bar 300bar 200bar 200bar
Compressibility ≥30% 15~35% 35~50% 35~50%
Recovery ≥15% ≥15% ≥10% ≥10%
PH 0~14 0~14 0~14 0~14

v) Spiral Wound Gasket

Spiral wound gasket (SWG) consists of thin metal hoop and nonmetal filler material that are simultaneously
wound. The metal hoop is pre-formed in V or W shaped profile, which allows the gasket to act as a spring
between the flanges. The hoop also provides the basic structural element for the gasket while the nonmetal
filler material seals the flange surfaces that are with small imperfections.

Depending on its excellent compression resilience, it is suitable for sealing spots where the alteration of
temperature and pressure are frequent. It can be used as the static sealing element of pipe, valve, pump,
thermal exchange, condensing tower, plain hole and man hole of flange, etc. It has been widely applied in the
fields of petrochemical, mechanical manufactory, power station, metallurgy, shipbuilding, pharmaceutical,
nuclear power station and navigation, etc.

Normal thickness
Inner &
Suitable Hoop Filler Inner &
Style Construction outer ring
flange material material Gasket outer
material
ring
Tongue and 304,
I Basic style
groove 304L,
Carbon
Male and 316,
II With inner ring Steel,
female 316L, Graphite,
304, 304L, 3.2mm 2mm
With outer ring 321, PTFE,
III 316, 316L,
Raised face 317L, Asbestos,
321, 317L,
Flat face Titanium, Non- 4.5mm 3mm
With inner & outer ring Titanium,
IV Nickel, asbestos, (0.175”) (0.125”)
Nickel,
Monel, Mica,
For use with RTJ flanges Ring-Type- Monel,
V Inconel, Ceramic, 6.4mm 4mm
Joint Inconel,
Hast. etc.
Hast. C/B,
With bar for heat Heat C/B,
VI Zr702, etc.
exchanger exchanger Zr702,
etc.

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Service Limits:

Filler material Temperature Pressure

-240°C~+550°C in oxidizing media 300bar in hot water, oil, etc
Graphite -240°C~+800°C in non-oxidizing
200bar in vapor oil, gases, etc
media
Asbestos -150°C~+450°C 150bar
PTFE -200°C~+250°C 150bar

Vi) Ring Joint Gasket

Ring joint gaskets are machined from solid metal in a variety of shapes with high quality numerical control
machines. They are designed for high pressure, high temperature or highly corrosive applications by selecting
the most suitable materials and shapes.
All Ring joint gaskets are forged.

Oval ring joint gasket

A standard ring joint gasket with oval cross section and designed for flanges with standard ring joint
grooves.

Octagonal ring joint gasket

A standard ring joint gasket with octagonal cross section and designed for flanges with standard ring joint
grooves. It is interchangeable with oval section gasket on modern octagonal grooved flanges.

Normal Material:
Metal material Ring identification Maximum hardness Temperature
Soft iron* D 90 HB -60°C~+500°C
Low carbon steel* S 120 HB -40°C~+500°C
5Cr1/2Mo F5 130 HB -40°C~+650°C
Stainless steel 304(L), 321 S304(L), S321 160 HB -250°C~+550°C
Stainless steel 316(L) S316(L) 160 HB -100°C~+550°C
Stainless steel 316Ti S316Ti 160 HB -100°C~+550°C
Stainless steel 347 S347 160 HB -250°C~+550°C

Gaskets made of soft iron or low carbon steel materials are normally applied with anticorrosive oil in final
production.

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Zinc electroplating is also available on customer’s special request, with a higher cost.

Ring joint gaskets can be manufactured in accordance with all relevant standards (such as ASME B16.20,
API 6A, etc) to suit the different flange designations (such as ASME B16.5, ASME B16.47 Series A, API 6B,
API 6BX, etc).

Vii) Metal Jacketed Gaskets

Metal jacketed gaskets (MJG) take expanded graphite, non-asbestos or ceramic fibers etc as the filler
material, and thin stainless steel foil, carbon steel foil or copper foil etc as the covering metal jacket. This kind
of structure effectively protects the filler against pressure conditions, fluctuating temperatures and corrosion,
providing outstanding resilience and efficient sealing.

Single jacketed gasket

Single Jacketed Gasket has one of its contact surfaces covered and is ideally suited
for comparatively narrow flange widths in circular and non-circular configurations.
Suited for low pressure applications such as boilers, compressors, pumps, and
diesel and gasoline engines, but not recommended for standard pipe flanges.

Double jacketed gasket

The filler material is completely enclosed by a two piece metal jacket, which covers both the inside and
outside diameters and both contact surfaces. It is designed for high pressure and temperature applications.

Flat double jacketed gasket

Corrugated double jacketed gasket

The metal jacket is formed from a corrugated jacket providing better

resilience than the other jacketed gaskets, since the corrugations form
multi-seals across the flange sealing face.

Metallic Material:
CS, Soft Iron, SS304, SS304L, SS316, SS316L, Copper, Aluminum, etc. Other special
materials such as Ti, Mon 400 etc are also available on request.
Non-metallic Inserted Material:
Flexible graphite, asbestos, non-asbestos, PTFE, ceramic fiber, mica etc.

Service Limits:
Material of jacket Maximum Temperature Pressure
Carbon steel 300°C 20~60bar
Copper 400°C 20~60bar
Stainless steel (SS304, SS316, etc) 530°C 20~60bar

viii) Corrugated Metal Gasket

The corrugations in the gasket provide multi-seals across the face of the gasket and inherent resilience. A
minimum of three corrugations is recommended and gasket thickness is approximately 50% of the
corrugation pitch.
It has outstanding mechanical strength and thermal conductivity, capable of withstanding high temperature,
almost no limitation on size, and trouble-free on handling and installation even for large size.
The gasket is available to be covered with non-metallic layer materials on both sides.

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Application:
The gasket has been proven to be both reliable and cost-effective for the application on flanges and heads
where bolt loading is sufficient. Typically used in high temperature applications and applications involving
steam, water, gas, oil, etc.

The gasket with soft layer on both sides is used in low-pressure applications in large diameter flue gas ducts
at high temperatures. It is suitable for gas pipes and valve caps, or wherever acids, oils and chemicals are
found.

Metallic Material:

Metal material Din material No. Density Hardness Temperature

3
CS/Soft Iron 1.1003/1.0038 7.85g/cm 90~120 HB -60°C~+500°C
3
SS304, SS304L 1.4301/1.4306 7.9g/cm 130~180 HB -250°C~+550°C
SS316, SS316L 1.4401/1.4404 7.9g/cm3 130~180 HB -100°C~+550°C

Other special metal materials such as Ti, Mon 400 etc are also available on request.

Non-metallic Layer Material:

Flexible graphite, PTFE, non-asbestos, etc.

Normally in thickness of 0.5mm, 1mm, 1.5mm
viii) Kammprofile Gasket
Kammprofile gasket (serrated metallic gasket) consists of a metal core, generally stainless steel with
concentric grooves on both sides. Sealing layers are usually applied on both sides and depending on the
service duty the material for the layers can be expanded graphite, PTFE, non-asbestos materials or some soft
metal. It can be used without sealing layers to provide an excellent sealing but there is a risk of flange surface
damage especially at high seating pressure.

Kammprofile gasket basic style

Kammprofile gasket with integral outer ring

Kammprofile gasket with loose outer ring

Depending on centering ring with cheaper material (e.g. CS) and thinner thickness (e.g. 1.5mm) for Style
GA9503, maybe it is more economical than GA9502.

Application:
Kammprofile gasket is the preferred gasket when improved performance at low seating stresses is required. It
features excellent anti-blow-out properties linked with the reliably of a solid metal-to-metal seal combined with
a soft sealing face to provide a tighter joint. It is particularly suitable for applications where high temperature,
pressures and fluctuating conditions are encountered. Non-metal cover layers ensure that flanges are not
damaged, even at extreme loads. Maximum pressure: 250bar.

Metallic Material:

Metal material Din material No. Density Hardness Temperature

CS/Soft Iron 1.1003/1.0038 7.85g/cm3 90~120 HB -60°C~+500°C
3
SS304, SS304L 1.4301/1.4306 7.9g/cm 130~180 HB -250°C~+550°C
3
SS316, SS316L 1.4401/1.4404 7.9g/cm 130~180 HB -100°C~+550°C

Other special metal materials such as Ti, Mon 400 etc are also available on request.
Non-metallic Layer Material: Flexible graphite, PTFE, non-asbestos, etc.Normally in thickness of 0.5mm.

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VALVES
VALVES are the manual or automatic fluid-controlling elements in a piping system. They are constructed to
withstand a specific range of temperature, pressure, corrosion, and mechanical stress
Valves have some of the following primary functions:

• Starting, stopping, and directing flow

• Regulating, controlling, or throttling flow
• Preventing backflow
• Relieving or regulating pressure

Valves are used in piping for following purposes:

• Process control during operation.

• Controlling services & utilities.
• Isolating equipment or instruments for maintenance.
• Discharging gas, vapor, liquid.
• Draining piping & equipment on shut down.
• Emergency shutdown in the event of plant mishap or fire.

SR. TYPE OF
PHOTO APPLICATION
NO VALVE

• Gate Valves are designed to operate fully open

or fully closed. Because they operate slowly they
prevent fluid hammer, which is detrimental to
piping systems.
01 Gate Valve • There is very little pressure loss through a gate
valve.
• In the fully closed position, gate valves provide a
positive seal under pressure.

• Globe valves, as is the case with all valve

designs, have both advantages and
disadvantages.
• Like a gate, they close slowly to prevent fluid
hammer. You can throttle the flow and they will
not leak under low pressure when they are shut
Globe off.
02
Valve • Flow and pressure control valves as well as
hose bibs generally use the globe pattern.
• The disadvantage of this design is that the "Z"
pattern restricts flow more than the gate, ball, or
butterfly valves.

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SR.
TYPE OF PHOTO APPLICATION
NO
VALVE

• Ball Valves are also designed to be operated

fully open or fully closed with any liquid
containing particles that could scratch the ball.
• Many people use them successfully for throttling
clear water.

03 Ball Valve • Ball valves have low pressure drops, open and
close quickly, are simple, and are trouble free.
• With the development of Teflon seals, ball
valves have grown in popularity.
• Opening or closing a ball valve too quickly can
cause fluid hammer..

• Butterfly valves, like ball valves, operate with a

1/4 turn.
• They are generally used for handling large flows
Butterfly of gases or liquids, including slurries, but should
04 not be used for throttling for extended periods of
Valve time.
• Because of compact design Butterfly Valves are
more popular in Industry.
• Normally used above 3”Nps because ion small
valves pressure drop is more.

• Like the gate valve, a plug valve has an

unobstructed flow, yet requires only a 90 degree
turn to open it. It also requires very little
headroom.
05 Plug Valve • Stem corrosion is minimal because there are no
screw threads.
• However, plug valves are available in much
larger sizes than ball valves and are highly
suitable for use in wastewater plants.

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SR. TYPE OF
PHOTO APPLICATION
NO VALVE

It is basically a directional Control Valve which

allows the flow only in one direction.
Check Valve
It is available in Lift type and swing type and
06 / Non Return now a days wafer type check valve is also
becoming popular because of its low weight
Valve and compact design

• Needle valve is a type of globe valve only

with the wedge having needle shape.
07 Needle Valve • It is used for precise control of flow.
• Rest of all features are same as globe
valve.

• Diaphragm valves are used whenever

either the fluid is highly corrosive or high
Diaphragm
08 degree of purity is required in process e.g.
Valve pharmaceutical and food processing
industry.

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SR. TYPE OF
PHOTO APPLICATION
NO. VALVE

Flush • Usually a globe type, designed to minimize

pocketing, primarily for conveniently liquid
09 Bottom from the low of a tank.

Valve

• An automatic pressure relieving device

actuated by the static pressure upstream
10 Safety Valve of th valve, and characterized by rapid full
opening or pop action. It is used for steam,
gas, or vapor service.

Breather • To Break vacuum at the time of draining/

11 pumpout condition.
Valve • To release air at the tim of filling tank.

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SR. TYPE OF
PHOTO APPLICATION
NO VALVE

• Is similar like Gate Valve with thin blade

used in very high viscous fluids like
Slide Gate Grease etc.
12
Knife Vale

Three Way
13
Valve • Multiport valve available in Ball Vale and
In Plug Valve.

Four Way
14 • Multiport valve available in Ball Vale and
Valve In Plug Valve.

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SPECIAL PARTS
Special parts are used in piping for various purposes :
• Strainers : used for removal of solid particles from line to protect equipments.
• Steam Traps : used to remove condensate from steam line
• Bellows : used to take care of misalignment and thermal expansion of Piping.
• Sight Glasses : used to see flow inside the pipe.
• Flame Arrestor : Used to protect equipments from fire.
• Rupture Disk : used to take care of excessive internal pressure

TYPE OF
SR.
SPECIAL PHOTO APPLICATION
NO
PARTS
• Strainers remove suspended grit from steam
and condensate that would otherwise damage
your downstream equipments with no additional
pressure drop.

• Y-type Strainers with stainless steel screens

Wye Type
have 0.8 mm diameter perforations as
01
standard.
Strainer
• Y strainer works for steam, air, water, oil and
gas lines. it features a blow-off bottom cover for
easy cleaning without removing the screen and
self-aligning cylindrical screens.

• The Basket Strainer prevents costly shutdowns

and protects your piping system and
equipment. Ideal for steam, air, water, oil and
gas lines, our basket strainer removes the dirt
from the system that can damage moving
Basket equipment. Strainer also helps maximize the
life of pumps and other equipment.
02 Type
• Ruggedly constructed, it features a closed
bottom and cast iron drain plug. Stainless steel
Strainer
basket for long life. Available in sizes from 2"
thru 20", body castings and strainer screens
are available in a variety of materials,
perforations and mesh linings for virtually every
application.

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TYPE OF
SR.
SPECIAL PHOTO APPLICATION
NO
PARTS

• Tee strainers is a custom fabricated compound

Tee Type strainer designed to remove foreign particles from
03 pipeline.
Strainer • Tee strainers are used where a compact
accessible strainers is needed for protection of
pumps, valves and similar equipment.

Temporar • Temporary strainers are available in various

04 styles (Baskets, Cones, Cone type baskets, Plate)
y Strainer which are designed to provide inexpensive
protection for pumps, meters, valves and other
mechanical equipments..

• Duplex Strainers are designed for applications

where flow cannot be shut down to service the
strainer screen.
Duplex • Change over is accomplished by use of butterfly
05 valves.This arrangement provides a bubble-tight
Strainer shut off between basket chambers, essential for
use in negative head pump suction systems.
• They are very economical because they are
fabricated to your specific requirements and with
any type of valves.

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SR. TYPE OF
SPECIAL PHOTO APPLICATION
NO PARTS

• The thermodynamic trap is an extremely

robust steam trap with a simple mode of
Thermod operation.
• The trap operates by means of the dynamic
ynamic effect of flash steam as it passes through the
06 trap, as depicted in Figure.
Steam • The only moving part is the disc above the flat
face inside the control chamber or cap. On
Trap start-up, incoming pressure raises the disc,
and cool condensate plus air is immediately
discharged from the inner ring, under the disc,
and out through three peripheral outlets

• The inverted bucket steam trap as its name

implies, the mechanism consists of an
inverted bucket which is attached by a lever to
a valve.
• An essential part of the trap is the small air
Inverted vent hole in the top of the bucket.
• bucket hangs down, pulling the valve off its
Bucket seat. Condensate flows under the bottom of
the bucket filling the body and flowing away
07 Type through the outlet.
• the arrival of steam causes the bucket to
Steam become buoyant, it then rises and shuts the
outlet. In
Trap • the trap remains shut until the steam in the
bucket has condensed or bubbled through the
vent hole to the top of the trap body. It will
then sink, pulling the main valve off its seat.
Accumulated condensate is released and the
cycle is repeated

• The ball float type trap operates by sensing

the difference in density between steam and
condensate.
Ball Float • In the case of the trap condensate reaching
the trap will cause the ball float to rise, lifting
Type the valve off its seat and releasing
08 condensate.
Steam • As can be seen, the valve is always flooded
and neither steam nor air will pass through it,
Trap so early traps of this kind were vented using a
manually operated cock at the top of the body.
• Modern traps use a thermostatic air vent, This
allows the initial air to pass whilst the trap is
also handling condensate.

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SR. TYPE OF
SPECIAL PHOTO APPLICATION
NO PARTS

• A FLAME ARRESTOR is a device which

allows gas to pass through it but stops a
flame in order to prevent a larger fire or
explosion.
Flame • There is an enormous variety of situations
09 in which flame arrestors are applied.
Arrestor • Anyone involved in selecting flame
arrestors needs to understand how these
products work and their performance
limitations. For that purpose, this paper
provides an introduction to the technology
and terminology of flame arrestors and the
types of products available

• An expansion joint is a device used to

allow movement in a piping system while
Expansion containing pressure and the medium
running through it.
10 Joints – •
Frequently, thermal growth, equipment
Bellows movement, vibration or pressure pulsation
can cause movement in a piping system.
When flexibility for this movement cannot
be designed into the piping system itself,
an expansion joint is the ideal solution

• Used in various application like Air, Steam,

11 Hoses Chemical handling etc…

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SR. TYPE OF
SPECIAL PHOTO APPLICATION
NO PARTS

Rupture
12 • One type of Safety Device used to take
Disk care of Internal pressure.

Sight Flow
13
Indicators • Used in Piping to see internal fluid Flow.

Spectacle

Blinds and • Used in in Piping for Positive Isolation

14
Spacer and

Blank.

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Storage Tanks

a) Conical Roof Storage Tanks

b) Floating Roof Tank

b) Dome Roof Storage Tank

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c) Horizontal Bullet

d) Sphere

Heat Exhangers

Fixed Shell & Tube type

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Floating Head type

Plate Type

Finned tube Type

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Distillation Column Tray Type

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Distillation column Packed

Column Packing

Kettle type rebolier

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Thermosyphone type reboiler

Filters

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Reactors and agitators

Reactors

Agitators

Propeller Turbine Paddle Anchor

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Propeller Type Turbine Type Paddle Type Anchor Type

Dryers

Blowers

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Steam Turbine

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Compressors Centrifugal

Compressor Reciprocating

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Introduction to Instruments
Pressure Gauge

Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to
measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.
A manometer is also a pressure measuring instrument, usually limited to measuring pressures near to
atmospheric. The term manometer is often used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments.
A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum --- which is further divided into two
subcategories: high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure range of
many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining several different
types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10-11 mbar.

Vacuum Pressure Gauge High Pressure Gauge In-Line Pressure Gauge

Syphone Type Pressure Gauge Diaphragm Type Pressure Gauge

Pressure Transmitter

Pressure Transmitter Pressure Transmitter

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Temperature gauge
A temperature gauge is a device used to indicate the temperature of an item being monitored. The display
can be an analogue dial, an Analogue range or a digital readout.

Many methods have been developed for measuring temperature. Most of these rely on measuring some
physical property of a working material that varies with temperature. One of the most common devices for
measuring temperature is the glass thermometer. This consists of a glass tube filled with mercury or some
other liquid, which acts as the working fluid. Temperature increases cause the fluid to expand, so the
temperature can be determined by measuring the volume of the fluid. Such thermometers are usually
calibrated, so that one can read the temperature, simply by observing the level of the fluid in the thermometer.

Other important devices for measuring temperature include:

• Thermocouples
• Thermistors
• Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Pyrometers
• Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of a plasma)
• Infrared

thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor and can also be used as a means to convert
thermal potential difference into electric potential difference.

when any conductor (such as a metal) is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is
now known as the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect.
A variety of thermocouples are available, suitable for different measuring applications. They are usually
selected based on the temperature range and sensitivity needed.
Type K (chromel–alumel) is the most commonly used for general purpose thermocouple. It is inexpensive
and, owing to its popularity, available in a wide variety of probes. They are available in the −200 °C to
+1350 °C range. Others types are E (Chromel-constantan),J(Iron-constantan), N(nicrosil-nisil) etc.
resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in
electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature. As they are almost invariably made of
platinum, they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs).
A thermistor is a type of resistor with resistance varying according to its temperature.
Pyrometer is any non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation. This measure is
used to determine temperature, often of the object's surface.
Infrared type are used for remote temperature sensing. It works on electromagnetic radiation.

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Level Indicator:

Float Type Level Gauge Top Mounted Level Gauge

Radar level transmitters

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Float Switches

In these point level sensors, a magnetic float moves with the liquid surface, actuating a hermetically sealed "reed switch"
in the stem. The simple, low-maintenance design installs readily; minimizes shock, vibration, and pressure; and works
with a variety of media. The reed switch can be single pole, single throw (SPST) or single pole, double throw (SPDT).

Non-Contact Ultrasonic Sensors

These sensors incorporate an analog signal processor, a microprocessor, binary coded decimal (BCD) range switches,
and an output driver circuit. Transmit pulses and a gate signal from the microprocessor route through the analog signal
processor to the sensor, which sends an ultrasonic beam to the liquid surface. The sensor detects the echo from the
surface and routes it back to the microprocessor for a digital representation of the distance between the sensor and the
surface level. Through constant updating of received signals, the microprocessor calculates averaged values to
measure liquid level.

With a continuous sensor, the microprocessor converts the averaged value to an analog 4 to 20 mA signal linear with
the liquid level. When the echo from the level does not return to the sensor within 8 seconds, the output signal from the
system drops below 4 mA, indicating a low-level condition or empty pipe. With a point sensor, the microprocessor
compares the averaged value with the BCD switch setting and energizes an output relay for either high or low level
indication. A signal loss exceeding 8 seconds de-energizes the relays and restores their original state. The electronics
incorporate a half-second delay that minimizes surface turbulence effects.

Contact Ultrasonic Sensors

A low-energy ultrasonic device within these sensors measures liquid level at a certain point. Consisting of a field- ounted
sensor and integral solid state amplifier, contact ultrasonic sensors have no moving parts and require no calibration.
Typically, they are equipped with terminal blocks for connection of a power source and external control devices. The
ultrasonic signal crosses a one-half inch gap in the sensor, controlling relay switches when the gap contains liquid. The
sensing level is midway along the gap for horizontally mounted sensors, at the top of the gap for vertically mounted
sensors. As liquid falls below this level, the ultrasonic signal attenuates and ultimately switches the relay to its prior state.

These sensors are used in vessels or pipes to automatically operate pumps, solenoid valves, and high/low alarms. Two
would be required to fill and empty tanks, and to meter liquid volumes. Compatible with most liquids, they are unaffected
by coatings, clinging droplets, foam, and vapor. However, highly aerated liquids and liquids viscous enough to clog the
sensor gap may cause problems.

Capacitance Level Sensors

Like ultrasonic sensors, capacitance sensors can handle point or continuous level measurement. They use a probe to
monitor liquid level changes in the tank, electronically conditioning the output to capacitive and resistive values, which
are converted to analog signals. The probe and the vessel wall equate to two plates of a capacitor, the liquid to the
dielectric medium. Because the signal emanates from level changes alone, material build-up on the probe has no effect.
Non-conductive fluid vessels may dictate dual probes or an external conducting strip.

The probe, which can be rigid or flexible, commonly employs conducting wire insulated with PTFE. Using stainless steel
as the probe's base metal provides the extra sensitivity needed for measuring liquids that are non-conductive, granular,
or low in dielectric properties (dielectric constant less than 4). Flexible probes must be used when there is insufficient
clearance for a rigid probe, or in applications that demand very long lengths. Rigid probes offer higher stability, especially
in turbulent systems, where swaying of the probe can cause signal fluctuations.

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Flow Metering/Indicators:

Instruments to measure the rate of flow and also to totalize the flow with time. Flow measurement is the
quantification of bulk fluid movement. It can be measured in a variety of ways. Units of measurement
Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in volumetric or mass flow rates (such as litres per second or kg/s).
These measurements can be converted between one another if the materials density is known. The density
for a liquid is almost independent of the liquids conditions, however this is not the case for a gas, whose
density highly depends upon pressure, temperature and to a lesser extent, the gas composition.
When gases or liquids are transferred for their energy content (such as the sale of Natural Gas) the flow rate
my also be expressed in terms of energy flow, such as GJ/hour or BTU/day. The energy flow rate is the
volume flow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit volume or mass flow rate multiplied by the energy
content per unit mass. Where accurate energy flow rate is desired, most flow meters will be used to calculate
the volume or mass flow rate which is then adjusted to the energy flow rate by the use of a flow computer.
In engineering contexts, the volumetric flow rate is usually given the symbol Q and the mass flow rate the
symbol .

Gas
Gases are compressible and change volume when placed under pressure or are heated or cooled. A volume
of gas under one set of conditions (pressure and temperature) is not equivalent to the same gas under
different conditions. References will be made to "actual" flow rate through a meter and "standard" or "base"
flow rate through a meter with units such as acm/h, (actual cubic meters per hour) Kscm/h (Kilo standard
cubic meters per hour) or MMSCFD (thousands of standard cubic feet per day) . The actual flow rate is the
volume flow per time that the meter measured at the pressure and temperature conditions in the meter. The
standard flow rate is the volume flow per time that the measured gas would take up if it was under a standard
set of conditions. Converting back to a standard allows two measured samples to be compared, even if they
were measured under different conditions. The conversion between different pressure conditions is via
variations to the Ideal Gas Law and are usually performed by a flow computer.
The change in volume is only a physical change, so the mass of the gas does not change. Meters that
measure mass flow do not need a conversion to compare two samples.

Liquid

For liquids, other units are used depending upon the application and industry but might include gallons (U.S.
liquid or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per minute and, when describing river flows, cumecs
(cubic metres per second) or acre-feet per day.

Mechanical flow meters

There are several types of mechanical flow meter

Piston meter
Because they are used for domestic water measurement, piston meters, also known as rotary piston or semi-
positive displacement meters, are the most common flow measurement devices in the UK and are used for
almost all meter sizes up to and including 40 mm (1 1/2"). The piston meter operates on the principle of a
piston rotating within a chamber of known volume. For each rotation, an amount of water passes through the
piston chamber. Through a gear mechanism and, sometimes, a magnetic drive, a needle dial and odometer
type display is advanced.

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Woltmann meter
Woltman meters, commonly referred to as Helix meters are popular at larger sizes. Jet meters (single or
Multi-Jet) are increasing in popularity.

Multi-jet meter
A multi-jet meter is a velocity type meter which has an impeller which rotates horizontally on a vertical shaft.
The impeller element is in a housing in which multiple inlet ports direct the fluid flow at the impeller causing it
to rotate in a specific direction in proportion to the flow velocity. This meter works mechanically much like a
paddle wheel meter except that the ports direct the flow at the impeller equally from several points around the
circumference of the element, where a paddle wheel normally only receives flow from one offset flow stream.

Venturi meter
Another method of measurement, known as a venturi meter, is to constrict the flow in some fashion, and
measure the differential pressure (using a pressure sensor) that results across the constriction. This method
is widely used to measure flow rate in the transmission of gas through pipelines.

Dall tube
The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter with a lower pressure drop than an orifice plate. Both
flow meters the flow rate of Dall tube is determined by measuring the pressure drop caused by restriction in
the conduit. The pressure differential is measured using diaphragm pressure transducers with digital read out.
Since these meters have significantly lower permanent pressure losses than the orifice meters, the Dall tubes
have widely been used for measuring the flow rate of large pipeworks.

Orifice plate
Another simple method of measurement uses an orifice plate, which is basically a plate with a hole through it.
It is placed in the flow and constricts the flow. It uses the same principle as the venturi meter in that the
differential pressure relates to the velocity of the fluid flow (Bernoulli's principle).

Pitot tube
A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity by determining the
stagnation pressure. Bernoulli's equation is used to calculate the dynamic pressure and hence fluid velocity.

Multi-hole pressure probe

Multi-hole pressure probes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of pitot tube to more than one
dimension. A typical impact probe consists of three or more holes (depending on the type of probe) on the
measuring tip arranged in a specific pattern. More holes allow the instrument to measure the direction of the
flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after appropriate calibration). Three-holes arranged in a line allow
the pressure probes to measure the velocity vector in two dimensions. Introduction of more holes e.g., five
holes arranged in a 'plus' formation allow measurement of the three-dimensional velocity vector.

Paddle wheel
The paddle wheel translates the mechanical action of paddles rotating in the liquid flow around an axle into a
user-readable rate of flow (gallon per minute, litre per minute, etc.). The paddle tends to be inserted into the
flow.
Pelton wheel
The Pelton wheel turbine (better described as a radial turbine) translates the mechanical action of the Pelton
wheel rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The Pelton
wheel tends to have all the flow traveling around it with the inlet flow focused on the blades by a jet. The
original Pelton wheels were used for the generation of power and consisted of a radial flow turbine with
"reaction cups" which not only move with the force of the water on the face but return the flow in opposite
direction using this change of fluid direction to further increase the efficiency of the turbine.

Oval gear meter

An oval gear meter is a positive displacement meter that uses two or more oblong gears configured to rotate
at right angles to one another, forming a tee shape. Such a meter has two sides, which can be called A and
B. No fluid passes through the center of the meter, where the teeth of the two gears always mesh. On one
side of the meter (A), the teeth of the gears close off the fluid flow because the elongated gear on side A is
protruding into the measurement chamber, while on the other side of the meter (B), a cavity holds a fixed
volume of fluid in a measurement chamber. As the fluid pushes the gears, it rotates them, allowing the fluid in
the measurement chamber on side B to be released into the outlet port. Meanwhile, fluid entering the inlet
port will be driven into the measurement chamber of side A, which is now open. The teeth on side B will now
close off the fluid from entering side B. This cycle continues as the gears rotate and fluid is metered through
alternating measurement chambers. Permanent magnets in the rotating gears can transmit a signal to an
electric reed switch or current transducer for flow measurement.

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Optical flow meters

Optical flow meters use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which accompany natural and industrial
gases pass through two laser beams focused in a pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is scattered when a
particle crosses the first beam. The detecting optics collects scattered light on a photodetector, which then
generates a pulse signal. If the same particle crosses the second beam, the detecting optics collect scattered
light on a second photodetector, which converts the incoming light into a second electrical pulse. By
measuring the time interval between these pulses, the gas velocity is calculated as V=D/T where D is the
distance between the laser beams and T is the time interval.

Laser-based optical flow meters measure the actual speed of particles, a property which is not dependent on
thermal conductivity of gases, variations in gas flow or composition of gases. The different operating principle
enables optical laser technology to deliver highly accurate flow data, even in challenging environments which
may include high temperature, low flow rates, high pressure, high humidity, pipe vibration and acoustic noise.

Optical flow meters are very stable with no moving parts and deliver a highly repeatable measurement over
the life of the product. Because distance between the two laser sheets does not change, optical flow meters
do not require periodic calibration after its initial commissioning. Optical flow meters require only one
installation point, instead of the two installation points typically required by other types of meters. A single
installation point is simpler, requires less maintenance and is less prone to errors.

Optical flow meters are capable of measuring flow from 0.1 m/s to faster than 100 m/s (1000:1 turn down
ratio) and have been demonstrated to be effective for the measurement of flare gases, a major global
contributor to the emissions associated with climate change.

Turbine flow meter

The turbine flow meter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the mechanical action of the turbine
rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine tends
to have all the flow traveling around it.

The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine blades,
imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion. when a steady rotation speed has been
reached, the speed is proportional to fluid velocity.

Vortex flowmeters
Another method of flow measurement involves placing a bluff body (called a shedder bar) in the path of the
fluid. As the fluid passes this bar, disturbances in the flow called vortices are created. The vortices trail behind
the cylinder, alternatively from each side of the bluff body. This vortex trail is called the Von Kármán vortex
street after von Karman's 1912 mathematical description of the phenomenon. The frequency at which these
vortices alternate sides is essentially proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. Inside, atop, or downstream of
the shedder bar is a sensor for measuring the frequency of the vortex shedding. This sensor is often a
piezoelectric crystal, which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created.
Since the frequency of such a voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid velocity, a volumetric flow rate is
calculated using the cross sectional area of the flow meter. The frequency is measured and the flow rate is
calculated by the flowmeter electronics.

Electromagnetic, ultrasonic and coriolis flow meters

Modern innovations in the measurement of flow rate incorporate electronic devices that can correct for
varying pressure and temperature (i.e. density) conditions, non-linearities, and for the characteristics of the
fluid.

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Magnetic flow meters

Industrial magnetic flow meter

The most common flow meter apart from the mechanical flow meters, is the magnetic flow meter, commonly
referred to as a "mag meter" or an "electromag". A magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which
results in a potential difference proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The physical
principle at work is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow meter requires a
conducting fluid, e.g. water, and an electrical insulating pipe surface, e.g. a rubber lined non magnetic steel
tube.

Ultrasonic (Doppler, transit time) flow meters

Ultrasonic flow meters measure the difference of the transit time of ultrasonic pulses propagating in and
against flow direction. This time difference is a measure for the average velocity of the fluid along the path of
the ultrasonic beam. By using the absolute transit times both the averaged fluid velocity and the speed of
sound can be calculated

Schematic view of a flow sensor.

Measurement of the Doppler shift resulting in reflecting an ultrasonic beam off the flowing fluid is another
recent innovation made possible by electronics. By passing an ultrasonic beam through the tissues, bouncing
it off of a reflective plate then reversing the direction of the beam and repeating the measurement the volume
of blood flow can be estimated. The speed of transmission is affected by the movement of blood in the vessel
and by comparing the time taken to complete the cycle upstream versus downstream the flow of blood
through the vessel can be measured. The difference between the two speeds is a measure of true volume
flow. A wide-beam sensor can also be used to measure flow independent of the cross-sectional area of the
blood vessel.

For the Doppler principle to work in a flowmeter it is mandatory that the flow stream contains sonically
reflective materials, such as solid particles or entrained air bubbles.

Coriolis flow meters

Using the Coriolis effect that causes a laterally vibrating tube to distort, a direct measurement of mass flow
can be obtained in a coriolis flow meter. Furthermore a direct measure of the density of the fluid is obtained.
Coriolis measurement can be very accurate irrespective of the type of gas or liquid that is measured; the
same measurement tube can be used for hydrogen gas and peanut butter without recalibration.

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Laser doppler flow measurement

Laser-doppler flow meter.

Blood flow can be measured through the use of a monochromatic laser diode. The laser probe is inserted into
a tissue and turned on, where the light scatters and a small portion is reflected back to the probe. The signal
is then processed to calculate flow within the tissues. There are limitations to the use of a laser doppler probe;
flow within a tissue is dependent on volume illuminated, which is often assumed rather than measured and
varies with the optical properties of the tissue. In addition, variations in the type and placement of the probe
within identical tissues and individuals result in variations in reading. The laser doppler has the advantage of
sampling a small volume of tissue, allowing for great precision, but does not necessarily represent the flow
within an entire organ. The flow meter is more useful for relative rather than absolute measurements.

Rotameter

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Orifice

Orifice Plate Flow Meter Installation

Venturi Meter

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