A dipole antenna, is a radio antenna that can be made by a simple wire, with a

center-fed driven element. These antennas are the simplest practical antennas
from a theoretical point of view; the current amplitude on such an antenna
decreases uniformly from maximum at the center to zero at the ends.

an atmospheric duct is a horizontal layer in the lower atmosphere in which the vertical refractive index
gradients are such that radio signals (and light rays) (a) are guided or ducted, (b) tend to follow the
curvature of the Earth, and (c) experience less attenuation in the ducts than they would if the ducts
were not present. The duct acts as an atmospheric dielectric waveguide and limits the spread of the
wavefront to only the horizontal dimension

Small loops

A shortwave loop antenna

A loop is considered a small loop if it is less than 1/4 of a wavelength in circumference. Most
directional receiving loops are about 1/10 of a wavelength. The small loop is also called the
magnetic loop because it is more sensitive to the magnetic component of the electromagnetic
wave. As such, it is less sensitive to near field electric noise when properly shielded. The
received voltage of a small loop can be greatly increased by bringing the loop into resonance
with a tuning capacitor.

Effective Height

the term effective height can refer to the height of the center of radiation of an antenna above the
effective ground level. Or in low-frequency applications involving loaded or nonloaded vertical
antennas, the moment of the current distribution in the vertical section divided by the input
current.

Dipole Antenna

A dipole antenna, is a radio antenna that can be made by a simple wire, with a center-fed driven
element. These antennas are the simplest practical antennas from a theoretical point of view; the
current amplitude on such an antenna decreases uniformly from maximum at the center to zero at
the ends.

GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

Ground Waves are radio waves that follow the curvature of the earth. Ground waves are
always vertically polarized, because a horizontally polarized ground wave would be shorted
out by the conductivity of the ground.  Because ground waves are actually in contact with the
ground, they are greatly affected by the ground’s properties. Because ground is not a perfect
electrical conductor, ground waves are attenuated as they follow the earth’s surface. This
effect is more pronounced at higher frequencies, limiting the usefulness of ground wave
propagation to frequencies below 2 MHz.  Ground waves will propagate long distances over
sea water, due to its high conductivity.

Ground waves are used primarily for local AM broadcasting and communications with
submarines. Submarine communications takes place at frequencies well below 10 KHz, which
can penetrate sea water (remember the skin effect?) and which are propagated globally by
ground waves.

SPACE (DIRECT) WAVE PROPAGATION

Space Waves, also known as direct waves, are radio waves that travel directly from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. In order for this to occur, the two antennas
must be able to “see” each other; that is there must be a line of sight path between them.
The diagram on the next page shows a typical line of sight. The maximum line of sight
distance between two antennas depends on the height of each antenna. If the heights are
measured in feet, the maximum line of sight, in miles, is given by:

  
Because a typical transmission path is filled with buildings, hills and other obstacles, it is
possible for radio waves to be reflected by these obstacles, resulting in radio waves that
arrive at the receive antenna from several different directions. Because the length of each
path is different, the waves will not arrive in phase. They may reinforce each other or
cancel each other, depending on the phase differences. This situation is known as multipath
propagation. It can cause major distortion to certain types of signals. Ghost images seen on
broadcast TV signals are the result of multipath – one picture arrives slightly later than the
other and is shifted in position on the screen. Multipath is very troublesome for mobile
communications. When the transmitter and/or receiver are in motion, the path lengths are
continuously changing and the signal fluctuates wildly in amplitude. For this reason,
NBFM is used almost exclusively for mobile communications. Amplitude variations caused
by multipath that make AM unreadable are eliminated by the limiter stage in an NBFM
receiver.

 An interesting example of direct communications is satellite communications. If a satellite

is placed in an orbit 22,000 miles above the equator, it appears to stand still in the sky, as
viewed from the ground. A high gain antenna can be pointed at the satellite to transmit
signals to it. The satellite is used as a relay station, from which approximately ¼ of the
earth’s surface is visible. The satellite receives signals from the ground at one frequency,
known as the uplink frequency, translates this frequency to a different frequency, known
as the downlink frequency, and retransmits the signal. Because two frequencies are used,
the reception and transmission can happen simultaneously. A satellite operating in this way
is known as a transponder. The satellite has a tremendous line of sight from its vantage
point in space and many ground stations can communicate through a single satellite.

SKY WAVES
Propagation beyond the line of sight is possible through sky waves. Sky waves are radio
waves that propagate into the atmosphere and then are returned to earth at some distance
from the transmitter. We will consider two cases:

            ionospheric refraction

            tropospheric scatter

IONOSPHERIC REFRACTION 
 
This propagation mode occurs when radio waves travel into the ionosphere, a region of
charged particles 50 – 300 miles above the earth’s surface. The ionosphere is created when
the sun ionizes the upper regions of the earth’s atmosphere. These charged regions are
electrically active. The ionosphere bends and attenuates radio waves at frequencies below
30 MHz. Above 200 MHz the ionosphere becomes completely transparent. The ionosphere
is responsible for most propagation phenomena observed at HF, MF, LF and VLF. The
ionosphere consists of 4 highly ionized regions
 
The D layer at a height of 38 – 55 mi
The E layer at a height of 62 – 75 mi
The F1 layer at a height of 125 –150 mi (winter) and 160 – 180 mi (summer)
The F2 layer at a height of 150 – 180 mi (winter) and 240 – 260 mi (summer)
 
The density of ionization is greatest in the F layers and least in the D layer Though created by
solar radiation, the ionosphere does not completely disappear shortly after sunset. The D and
E layers disappear almost immediately, but the F1 and F2 layers do not disappear; rather they
merge into a single F layer located at a distance of 150 – 250 mi above the earth.
Recombination or charged particles is quite slow at that altitude, so the F layer lasts until
dawn.

The diagram below shows the geometry of ionospheric refraction. The maximum frequency
that can be returned by the ionosphere when the radio waves are vertically incident on the
ionosphere (transmitted straight up) is called the critical frequency.

Ground Wave
Region

Skip Zone
TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER
  
 

 
 
 
Regional over the horizon communications are possible through a sky wave technique
called tropospheric scatter (troposcatter or just tropo).  As shown in the diagram below,
the troposphere, which is the layer of the atmosphere closest to the ground, has pockets or
cells of air within it that have a different water vapor content and therefore a different
refractive index for radio waves. As a result, radio waves are scattered by the cells over the
horizon. This scatter occurs at frequencies of 0.3 – 10 GHz. Operation above 10 GHzis not
possible because water vapor in the air strongly absorbs the signals This scattering process
is not efficient and very little of the transmitted signal is scattered in the direction of the
receiver. High power transmitters and sensitive receivers are required.

 
The troposphere contains almost all of the earth’s weather patterns, which makes the
troposphere’s properties quite variable. This makes troposcatter communications subject
to weather induced fading and communications blackouts. To improve the reliability of
troposcatter links, a technique called diversity operation is used. There are three types of
diversity:
 

BASIC ANTENNA THEORY

An antenna is a device that provides a transition between electric currents on a conductor and
electromagnetic waves in space. A transmitting antenna transforms electric currents into radio waves
and a receiving antenna transforms an electromagnetic field back into electric current.

There are several basic properties that are common to all antennas:

Reciprocity:
an antenna’s electrical characteristics are the same whether it is used for transmitting or receiving.
Because this is always true, throughout this lecture, we will consider antennas as transmitting
antennas.

Polarization:
polarization is the orientation of the electric field vector of the electromagnetic wave produced by
the antenna. For most antennas, the orientation of the antenna conductor determines the
polarization. Polarization may be vertical, horizontal or elliptical.

  
The diagram above shows vertical and horizontal polarization. If the radio wave's electric
field vector points in some other direction, it is said to be obliquely polarized.

If the electric field rotates in space, such that its tip follows an elliptical path, it is elliptically
polarized.

Wavelength: this is the length of one RF wave. It can be computed by either of the following
formulas, depending on the units required:

(in m) = 300/f(in MHz)  or (in ft) = 984/f(in MHz) 

 
 

Gain (directivity):
This is a measure of  the degree to which an antenna focuses power in a given direction,
relative to the power radiated by a reference antenna in the same direction. Units of measure
are dBi (isotropic antenna reference) or dBd (half-wave dipole reference). The two gain
measurements can be converted using the following formula:

dBi = dBd + 2.1

If the directivity of the transmitting and receiving antennas is known, it is possible to

compute the power received by the receiving antenna using either of the formulas below:

When using dB:

Antenna gain should be expressed in dBi, wavelength and distances in m and powers in dBm
or dBW.

When using gain ratios and powers in W:

Antenna gains should be expressed as a number, distances and wavelengths in m and powers
in W.

 
Here is an example:

Two dipole antennas 100 km apart are aligned and one transmits a 1 kW signal. The frequency is 222
MHz. What is the received power?

Solution A using dB

Convert 1 kW to dbm  PT = 10log(1kW/1mW) = 10 log(1,000,000) = 60 dBm

Find the wavelength:  = 300/f = 300/222 MHz = 1.35 m

This is the same as 9.4*10-10 W

Beamwidth: the angular separation between the half-point (-3dB) points in an antenna’s radiation
pattern. In general, the beamwidth of the main lobe of the radiation pattern decreases as the directivity
increases.

Near field (induction field): electromagnetic field created by an antenna that is only significant 
at distances of less than 2D/ from the antenna, where D is the longest dimension of the
antenna. 
 
Near field region: A spherical region of radius 2D/ centered on the antenna.
 
Far field (radiation field): electromagnetic field created by the antenna that extends throughout
all space. At distances greater than 2D/ from the antenna, it is the only field. It is the field used
for communications.
 
Far field region: The region outside the near field region, at distances greater than 2D/.
 
Input Impedance: This is the impedance measured at the antenna input terminals. In general it
is complex and has two real parts and one imaginary part:
            Radiation resistance: - represents conversion of power into RF waves (real)
            Loss resistance – represents conductor losses, ground losses, etc. (real)
            reactance – represents power stored in the near field (imaginary)
 
Efficiency:  this is the ratio of radiation resistance to total antenna input resistance:

The  loss resistances come from conductor losses and losses in the ground (the near field of the
antenna can interact with the ground and other objects near the antenna).  The efficiency of
practical antennas varies from less than 1% for certain types of low frequency antennas to 99%
for some types of wire antennas.
 
Electrical length. This came up in the section on transmission lines. It is the length or distance
expressed in terms of wavelengths.
 
Bandwidth: generally the range of frequencies over which the antenna system’s SWR remains
below a maximum value, typically 2.0
 
Azimuth and Elevation: These are angles used to describe a specific position in an antenna's
radiation pattern. Azimuth is a horizontal angle, generally measured from true north. The
elevation angle is a vertical angle, ranging from 0 degrees (horizon) to 90 degrees (zenith). 
 

THE HALF WAVE DIPOLE (HERTZ ANTENNA)

 
The dipole antenna dates back to the early RF experiments of Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century. It
consists of a conductor that is broken in the center so that RF power can be applied to it. One can think
of the half wave dipole as an open circuited transmission line that has been spread out, so that the
transmission line can radiate a signal into space.

A dipole can be any length, but it most commonly is just under 1/2 wavelength long. A dipole with this
length, known as a resonant or half wave dipole, has an input impedance that is purely resistive and lies
between 30 and 80 ohms, which provides a good match to commercially available 50 ohms coaxial
cables as well as commercial transmitters and receivers, most of which have 50 ohm output and input
impedances. The length of a dipole can be approximately determined from the following formula:

    l = 468/f

where:

    l is the length  in feet and

    f is  the frequency in MHz.  

The radiation pattern of a /2 dipole in free space is shown below

 
 

 The 3-dimensional radiation pattern in free space is a fat doughnut with the dipole piercing its central
hole. Notice that unlike an isotropic radiator that radiates equally well in all directions, the dipole
radiates more RF in some directions than others. This means that the dipole has a gain or directivity over
an isotropic radiator of  approximately 2.1 dB. That means that the radiation from the dipole is 2.1 dB
stronger in the direction of maximum radiation than the radiation from an isotropic radiator in the same
direction, when both antennas are fed with the same amount of RF power..

 
As the dipole's electrical length changes, its radiation pattern changes. You can click on the link
below to view an animation that shows how the dipole's radiation pattern varies with antenna
length. The antenna is shown as a red line. When you are done, be cure to use your browser's
BACK button to return to this web page. 
 
 

The input impedance of a dipole antenna also depends on its electrical length. When the antenna is
approximately an odd multiple of a half wavelength long, the input impedance is resistive and lies
between 50 and 200 ohms. For antennas that are an even number of half wavelengths long, the input
impedance is resistive and extremely high, between 1000 and 50,000 ohms.

 
The chart below shows the effect of  ground on the input impedance of a dipole. 

As a horizontal antenna is brought closer to the surface of the earth, its input resistance decreases at
first because the electric field is being shorted by the ground. As the antenna is brought  closer, the
input resistance will rise again because increases in ground loss resistance overwhelm the decrease due
to shorting of the electric field.  Over a good conductor such as sea water, the input resistance drops
steadily as the antenna is lowered, reaching a value of zero when the antenna touches the water's
surface.  

As a horizontal dipole is raised above the ground, the input resistance increases until a maximum value
of approximately 90 ohms is reached at a height of  3/8 . As the antenna is raised even higher, the
input resistance slowly oscillates around the free space value of 73 ohms. Most dipoles in actual
installations show an input resistance of 50 to 75 ohms, depending on the location. 

There is a variation of the /2 dipole known as the folded dipole that is often used for FM and TV
reception. A diagram of the folded dipole is shown below.

 
The folded dipole is the  same overall length as the /2 dipole, but has a second conductor connected to
the first only at the ends, and separated from it by approximately /400. The input impedance of the
folded dipole is approximately 300 ohms, which is a perfect match to TV twin lead and to the input of
the TV set. The folded dipole also has a larger bandwidth than the regular dipole, which is important for
proper TV reception.

TRANSMISSION LINE APPLICATIONS

TRANSPORT OF RF ENERGY

Transmission lines are widely used to transport RF between various pieces of communications
equipment and to connect antennas to transmitters and receivers. At low frequencies (<300 MHz)
coaxial cables or parallel conductor lines are most often used. At higher frequencies, waveguides
and stripline are more common. (Stripline is a transmission line that is etched directly into a PC
board. The two conductors of the transmission line are the ground plane covering the back side
of the board, and the etched conductor on the front side.)

REACTIVE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

We learned in an earlier section that half and quarter wavelength lines can mimic either a parallel
or series RLC circuit. In general, an electrically short (less than a quarter wavelength) piece of
open circuited transmission line looks like a capacitor. As the length of the open circuited line
approaches a quarter wavelength, the capacitive reactance measured at the input becomes less
and less, which is equivalent to making the capacitance larger and larger. In a similar way, and a
piece of shorted transmission line less than a quarter wavelength long looks line an inductor. As
its length increases towards a quarter wavelength, the inductive reactance and equivalent
inductance increase. Capacitors and inductors made from transmission line segments are very
useful at high frequencies (> 500 MHz) because it is difficult to construct standard capacitors
and inductors of the proper values. The transmission line segments can be put directly on the PC
board using stripline techniques or even etched directly into a microwave device using IC
fabrication techniques.
IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION

Transmission lines can also be used as impedance transformers. They are simpler to design than
pi, T, or L networks using capacitors and inductors and they generally have lower losses than
conventional RF transformers made with ferromagnetic materials. The most widely used
transmission line transformer is the quarter-wave transformer, although other lengths are used for
special purposes.

LOOP ANTENNAS
  

All antennas discussed so far have used radiating elements that were linear conductors. It is also possible
to make antennas from conductors formed into closed loops. There are two broad categories of loop
antennas:

    1. Small loops, which contain no more than 0.085 wavelengths (~/12) of wire

    2. Large loops, which contain approximately 1 wavelength of wire.

SMALL LOOP ANTENNAS

A small loop antenna is one whose circumference contains no more than 0.085 wavelengths of wire. In
such a short conductor, we may consider the current, at any moment in time to be constant. This is quite
different from a dipole, whose current was a maximum at the feed point and zero at the ends of the
antenna. The small loop antenna can consist of a single turn loop or a multi-turn loop as shown below:

 
 

The radiation pattern of a small loop is very similar to a dipole. The figure below shows a 2-dimensional
slice of the radiation pattern in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the loop. There is no radiation from
a loop

 
  

There is no radiation from a loop along the axis passing through the center of the loop, as shown below.

When the loop is oriented vertically, the resulting radiation is vertically polarized and vice versa:

 
The input impedance of a small loop antenna is inductive, which makes sense, because the small loop
antenna is actually just a large inductor. The real part of the input impedance is very small, on the order
of 1 ohm, most of which is loss resistance in the conductor making up the loop. The actual radiation
resistance may be 0.5 ohms or less. Because the radiation resistance is small compared to the loss
resistance, the small loop antenna is not an efficient antenna and cannot be used for transmitting unless
care is taken in its design and manufacture.

While the small loop antenna is not necessarily a good antenna, it makes a good receiving antenna,
especially for LF and VLF. At these low frequencies, dipole antennas are too large to be easily
constructed (in the LF range, a dipole's length ranges from approximately 1600 to 16,000 feet, and VLF
dipoles can be up to 30 miles long!) making the small loop a good option. The small loop responds to the
magnetic field component of the electromagnetic wave and is deaf to most man-made interference,
which has a strong electric field. Thus the loop, although it is not efficient, picks up very little noise and
can provide a better SNR than a dipole. It is possible to amplify the loop's output to a level comparable
to what one might receive from a dipole.

When a small loop is used for receiving, its immunity and sensitivity may be improved by paralleling a
capacitor across its output whose capacitance will bring the small loop to resonance at the desired
receive frequency. (see module A for a review of LC circuits). Antennas of this type are used in AM
radios as well as  in LF and VLF direction finding equipment used on aircraft and boats.

LARGE LOOP ANTENNAS

A large loop antenna consists of approximately 1 wavelength of wire. The loop may be square,
circular, triangular or any other shape. Because the loop is relatively long, the current
distribution along the antenna is no longer constant, as it was for the small loop. As a result, the
behavior of the large loop is unlike its smaller cousin.
The current distribution and radiation pattern of a large loop can be derived by folding two half
wave dipoles and connecting them as shown in the diagrams below:

We begin with two /2 dipoles separated by /4. RF is fed into the center of each dipole. The
resulting current distribution is shown below as a pink line. Note that the current is zero at the
dipoles' ends,

 Now each dipole is folded in towards the other in a "U" shape as shown below. The current
distribution has not changed - the antenna current is still zero at the ends. 
Since the current at the ends is zero, it would be OK to connect the ends to make a loop as
shown below.

Loop antennas may be combined to form arrays in the same manner as dipoles. Arrays of loop
antennas are called "quad arrays" because the loops are most often square. The most common type
of quad array is a Yagi-Uda array using loops rather than dipoles as elements. This type of array is
very useful at high elevations, where the combination of high voltage at the element tips of the
dipoles in a standard Yagi array and the lower air pressure lead to corona discharge and erosion of
the element . In fact, the first use of a quad array was by a broadcaster located in Quito, Ecuador
(in the Andes Mountains) in the 1930's. 

The input impedance of a loop depends on its shape. It ranges from approximately 100 ohms for a
triangular loop to 130 ohms for a circular loop. Unlike the dipole, whose input impedance presents a
good match to common 50 or 75 ohm transmission lines, the input impedance of a loop is not a good
match and must be transformed to the appropriate impedance. Impedance matching will be the
topic of the next unit.

ANTENNA ARRAYS
 

An antenna array is an antenna that is composed of more than one conductor. There are two types
of antenna arrays:

Driven arrays – all elements in the antenna are fed RF from the transmitter
Parasitic arrays – only one element is connected to the transmitter. The other elements are coupled to the
driven element through the electric fields  and magnetic fields that exist in the near field region of the
driven element

There are many types of driven arrays. The four most common types are:

Collinear array

Broadside array

Log Periodic Array

Yagi-Uda Array 

COLLINEAR ARRAY

The collinear array consists of /2 dipoles oriented end-to-end. The center dipole is fed by the transmitter
and sections of shorted transmission line known as phasing lines connect the ends of the dipoles as shown
below.

Feed Line

Phasing Lines

Phasing Lines

 
The length of the phasing lines are adjusted so that the currents in all the dipole sections are in phase, as
shown below. 

  The input impedance of a collinear array is approximately 300 ohms. The directivity of a collinear array
slowly increases as the number of collinear sections is increased. 

BROADSIDE ARRAY

A broadside array consists of an array of dipoles mounted one above another as shown below. Each
dipole has its own feed line and the lengths of all feed lines are equal so that the currents in all the dipoles
are in phase.

 Rows of broadside arrays can be combined to form a two dimensional array as shown below:

 
 

 The two-dimensional array is used in high performance radar systems. The amplitude and phase of each
input current is adjusted so that the antenna radiates its RF in a narrow beam. By making changes to the
input phase and amplitude, the beam can be made to scan over a wide range of angles. Electronic
scanning is much faster than mechanical scanning (which uses a rotating antenna) and permits rapid
tracking of large numbers of targets.

  

A special type of  phased array consisting of 2 or more vertical antennas is widely used in AM
broadcasting. Consider an AM transmitter located in a coastal city such as Charleston, SC. It would make
no sense to radiate a signal in all directions; there is only water to the east of city.  Two or more antennas
could be used to produce a directional pattern that would radiate most of the signal to the west.

The design and analysis of phased arrays is quite difficult and will not be covered further in this unit.

LOG PERIODIC DIPOLE ARRAY

The log periodic dipole array (LPDA) is one antenna that almost everyone over 40 years old has seen.
They were used for years as TV antennas. The chief advantage of an LPDA is that it is frequency-
independent. Its input impedance and gain remain more or less constant over its operating bandwidth,
which can be very large. Practical designs can have a bandwidth of an octave or more.

Although an LPDA contains a large number of dipole elements, only 2 or 3 are active at any given
frequency in the operating range. The electromagnetic  fields produced by these active elements add up
to produce a unidirectional radiation pattern, in which maximum radiation is off the small end of the
array. The radiation in the opposite direction is typically 15 - 20 dB below the maximum. The ratio of
maximum forward to minimum rearward radiation is called the Front-to-Back (FB) ratio and is normally
measured in dB.

 
  

Log-Periodic Dipole Array

 
The log periodic antenna is characterized by three interrelated parameters, andas well as
the minimum and maximum operating frequencies, fMIN and fMAX. The diagram below shows the
relationship between these parameters. 
 

Unlike many antenna arrays, the design equations for the LPDA are relatively simple to work
with. If you would like to experiment with LPDA designs, click on the link below. It will open
an EXCEL spreadsheet that does LPDA design. 
 
 
YAGI-UDA ARRAY (YAGI)
The Yagi-Uda array, named after the two Japanese physicists who invented it, is the most common
antenna array in use today. In contrast to the other antenna arrays that we have already looked at, the Yagi
has only a single element that is connected to the transmitter, called the driver or driven element.  The
remaining elements are coupled to the driven element through its electromagnetic field . The other
elements absorb some of the electromagnetic energy radiated by the driver and re-radiate it. The fields of
the driver and the remaining elements sum up to produce a unidirectional pattern.  The diagram below
shows the layout of elements in a typical Yagi. 

Behind the driven element is a single element that is approximately 5% longer. This is the
reflector. It prevents radiation off the back of the array. In front of the director are a series of
elements that are shorter than the driven element. These are the directors. They help focus the
radiation in the forward direction. Together the reflector and directors can reduce the radiation
off the back of the antenna to 25 - 30 dB below the forward radiation. As more directors are
added, the forward gain increases.
 
 
The design and analysis of Yagi antennas is very involved and is best done using antenna
modeling software. However, to get insight into the basic operation of theYagis, we will examine
one with only three elements: a reflector, driver, and director.
 
    Simple 3 Element Yagi-Uda Array

The reflector is 5% longer than the driver, and the director is 5% shorter. The spacing is the same between
all three elements. The plots below show the radiation pattern of the Yagi in two perpendicular planes.

 
 

Notice that the pattern is unidirectional, and somewhat wider in the plane perpendicular to the elements.
This is true in general for Yagis, regardless of the number of directors used. However, as more directors
are added, the forward gain will increase, and the beamwidth will become narrower in both planes.

You may wonder what would happen if additional reflectors are added. The answer is that nothing
happens. The first reflector reduces the power radiated rearward to approximately 1% of the forward
value. The additional directors cannot couple strongly to the driver because the radiated field passing by
them is so small. Only 1 reflector is necessary to reduce rearward radiation.

 
The operating bandwidth (the range of frequencies over which the gain and FB ratio stay within design
criteria) for a Yagi is generally quite narrow and can be altered to some extent through  careful
adjustment of the length and spacing of the elements. The chart below shows how the gain and FB ratio
of the 3 element Yagi depend on frequency.

Notice that the maximum gain and FB ratio do not occur at the same frequency. This is true in general
for 3 element designs. By making the Yagi longer (adding more elements) and controlling the length and
spacing of each new element, it is possible to bring the frequency of maximum gain and FB ratio closer
together. 

The operating bandwidth of a Yagi is often defined as the range of frequencies over which the FB ratio is
greater than 20 dB. In the chart above, the range of frequencies over which the FB ratio is greater than
20 dB is 0.985 f0 to 1.01f0 or 2.5% of the design frequency. This is a typical bandwidth for a Yagi array. It
is possible to widen the operating bandwidth by lengthening the array and adding elements, although
this improvement normally comes at the expense of forward gain. 
A rhombic antenna is a broadband directional antenna co-invented by Edmond Bruce and
Harald Friis,[1] mostly commonly used in HF (high frequency, also called shortwave) ranges.

DRIVEN ELEMENT

 In a mutually coupled antenna array (notably a Yagi-Uda antenna), the driven element is the
single antenna that has an applied source feed. The other antenna elements are not excited (or
driven). There are a few reasons why one would only drive one element of the array. Doing this
in the manner of a Yagi-Uda array allows for the field patterns to be directed in one direction
with increased gain. The other elements are parasitic and take advantage of mutual coupling to
aim the antenna.

Parasitic Element:
Of an antenna, a directive element that is not connected to a radio transmitter or receiver either
directly or via a feeder, but is coupled to the driven element only by the fields. (188) Synonym
passive element.

An antenna reflector is a device that reflects electromagnetic waves.

It is often a part of an antenna assembly.

The most common reflector types are

 a passive element slightly longer than and located behind a radiating dipole element that
absorbs and re-radiates the signal in a directional way as in a Yagi antenna array.
 corner reflector which reflects the incoming signal back to the direction it came from
 parabolic reflector which focuses a beam signal into one point, or directs a radiating signal into a
beam
 flat reflector which just reflects the signal like a mirror and is often used as a passive repeater

ANTENNA NOISE TEMPERATURE

In telecommunication, antenna noise temperature is the temperature of a hypothetical resistor

at the input of an ideal noise-free receiver that would generate the same output noise power per
unit bandwidth as that at the antenna output at a specified frequency.
Antenna noise temperature has contributions from several sources:


o Galactic radiation
o Earth heating
o The sun
o Electrical devices
o The antenna itself

Galactic noise is high below 1000 MHz. At around 150 MHz, it is approximately 1000K. At
2500 MHz, has leveled off to around 10K.

Earth has an accepted standard temperature of 290K.

The level of the sun's contribution depends on the solar flux. It is given by

TA = 3.468Fλ210G / 10

where F is the solar flux,

λ is the wavelength,

and G is the gain of the antenna in decibels.

The antenna noise temperature depends on antenna coupling to all noise sources in its
environment as well as on noise generated within the antenna. That is, in a directional antenna,
the portion of the noise source that the antenna's main and side lobes intersect contribute
proportionally.

For example, a satellite antenna may not receive noise contribution from the earth in its main
lobe, but sidelobes will contribute a portion of the 290K earth noise to its overall noise
temperature.