1 Civil Ki Capsule (Civil Eng.

Pocket Dictionary)

SOIL MECHANICS
Soil Deposited by
Alluvial Soil River
Marine Soil Sea water
Lacustrine Soil Still water like as lakes
Aeolian Soil Wind
Glacial Soil Ice
Note: Loess is an aeolian soil.
Soil

3 Phase 2 Phase
(Partially Saturated)

Wa 0 Fully Saturated Dry Soil

Va Air
Vv Vw = Vv Vv = Va
Vw Water Water Ww Air Wa = 0
Ww
V W

Vs Solid Ws Vs Solid Ws Vs Solid Ws

WW
Water Content: W  W 100
S

VV
Void Ratio: e  V
S

VV
Porosity: n  100
V
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VW
Degree of Saturation: S  100
Vv

Va
Air Content: a c   1 S
Vv
Va
% Air Voids   ,   n ac
V
W WS  WW
Bulk Unit Weight:   
V Va  VW  VS

WS
Dry Unit Weight:  d 
V

Saturated Unit Weight: sat  Wsat

V
WS 
Specific Gravity: G   S
VS . W  W

W 
Appearent or Mass Specific Gravity: G m  
V W  W

W e n
 WS   n or e 
1 w 1 e 1 n
G W (1  W)
  
Se  WG (1  e)
 3 Civil Ki Capsule (Civil Eng. Pocket Dictionary)

G  e G w
 sat    . w  d 
 1 e  1 e

 G  1 
     w  d 
 1 e  1 w
 Method for Determination of water content
W2  W1
 Oven drying Method: W  W  W 100
3 1

 (W2  W1 )  G  1  
 Pycnometer Method: W   (W  W )  G   1 100
 3 4   
Determination of Unit Weight:
1. Core Cutter method
 Field method suitable for, fine grained and clayey soil.
 Not suitable for stoney, gravelly soil and dry soil.
2. Water displacement method
 Suitable for ohesive soils only
3. Sand replacement method
 field method
 used for gravelly, sandy and dry soil
4. Water ballon method
 volume of the pit is measured by covering the pit with plastic
sheet and then filling it with water.
 wt. of water thus calculated is equal to volume of soil
excavated.

Plasticity Index [IP]: I P  WL  WP

WL = Liquid limit
WP = Plastic limit
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WL  WN
Relative Consistency/Consistency-Index: I C  IP

WN  WP
Liquidity Index: I L  IP ( IC + IL = 1 )

W1  W2
If 
N 
Flow Index: log10  2 
 N1 

IP
Toughness Index: I t  I
f

(q u ) undisturbed
Sensitivity: Sf  (q ) Remoulded
u

e max  e
Relative Density/Density Index: I D  e  e 100
max min

Plasticity Index
Activity of Clay: AC = % by weight fine than 2

D 60
Uniformity Coefficient: Cu = , (Cu > 4 Gravel, Cu > 6 Sand)
D10
2
 D30 
Coefficient of Curvature: CC = , 1  CC  3 for well
D10  D60
Graded soil
 5 Civil Ki Capsule (Civil Eng. Pocket Dictionary)

Coarse grained soil classification based on grain size (mm)

Boulder Cobble Coarse grained soil Fine Grained soil
Gravel Sand
coarse fine coarse medium fine silt clay
>300 300-80 80-20 20-4.75 4.75-2.0 2-0.425 0.425-0.075 0.075-0.002 <0.002

Indian Standard Soil Classification system (ISSCS)

70

60
CH
Plasticity Index

50
WL = 50 0)
40 –2
L
(w MH
73
30 0.
W L = 35 =
IP OH
20
CL
10
7
CI MI MI
OI
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Liquidity Limit w L

Plasticity Chart

Hydrometer correction: CT = CM – Cd  Ct
Compaction Consolidation
Reduction in volume of air Volume reduction due to expultion of pore
voids at a given water content water from voids
Partially saturated soil Completely saturated soil
Instantaneous phenomenon Time dependent phenomenon
Specific compaction Technique By static load placed on soil
(use dynamic load)
Quick sand condition: In case of upward seepage flow, if the
upward seepage force becomes equal to the buoyant weight of soil,
the effective stress in soil becomes zero.
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 sub G  1
Critical hydraulic gradient: icr = 
w 1 + e
Note: Quick sand condition occurs in sand but not in clay becuase
in clay cohesion exists.
 cr
Factor of safety = i
e

ie = exit hydraulic gradient.

Darcy’s Law: q  kiA
Measrement of Permeability:
q qL
 Constant Head Permeameter Test: K  
iA Aht
where
q = Discharge (cm3)
Collected in time (t)1
A = Cross section Area of sample (cm2)
h = difference in manometer levels (cm)
L = distance b/w manometer topping point (cm)

2.3aL  h1 
 Falling Head Permeameter Test: K  At log10  h 
 2

 r2 
 
2.3q r
 Confined Flow Pumping Test: K  log10  1 
2D h 2  h1
 7 Civil Ki Capsule (Civil Eng. Pocket Dictionary)

2.3q R
 Unconfined Flow Pumping Test: K  (H 2  h 2 ) log10 r

1  e3
 Kozeny-Carman Equation: K  K .S2 .  . 1  e
0

2
 Allen Hazen’s Equation: K  C.D10

 Coefficient of Consolidation Equation: K  Cv .M v . w

V
Vs = , R = 3000d K , Sy + SR = n
n
Permeability of Stratified Soils

K1H1  K 2 H 2  .....
Horizontal Flow: K H  H1  H 2  .....

H1  H 2  ..... H
Kv  
H1 H 2  H/K
Vertical Flow:   .....
K1 K 2

Note: KH> KV always.

Determination of coefficient of consolidation (CV)

Casagrande’s method Taylor’s method

(Logarithm of time fitting method) (Square root time fitting method)

T50H 2 T50H 2
Cv  Cv 
Dial gauge t50 Dial gauge t90
reading reading
T50 = 0.196 T90 = 0.848
log (time) t
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Note: CV is inversely proportional to liquid limit (wL) where as Cc
is directly proportional to liquid limet.
Value of CV decreases with increases in plasticity.
G 1
Critical Hydraulic Gradeint: Ic   (G  1)(1  n)
1 e
5/ 2
 
 
3q  1 
Z  2 2
Boussinesq’s Equations: z   r  
1    
 z 

NF
Seepage Calculation: q  k.H N
d

1 q 1 q
z    kw . 
 z2  2 3/ 2 
r 
Westergaard’s Solution:     
  z  

e1  e2
Compression Index: Cc  log   log 
2 

e
Coefficient of Compressibility: a v 

V
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility: M v   V

 9 Civil Ki Capsule (Civil Eng. Pocket Dictionary)

e av
MV   
1  e0   1  e0
Terzaghi Equation for one- dimension consolidation:
du 2u
 Cv. 2
t Z

k
Coefficient of Consolidation: C v  m . m2/S or m2/day
v w

C v .t
Time Factor: Tv 
H2
 2
Tv = (u) , u  60%
4
Tv = 1.781 – 0.933 log (100 – u); u > 60%
u1  u z  e
Degree Of Consolidation: Vz  u1
, 
H 1  eo

H0     
Calculation of Settlement:   CC  1  e log   
0   

  m v .H 0 ., CC  0.009(w L  10)

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Shear Strength Mechanism

Frictional strength Cohesive strength

Particle to particle Interlocking True cohesion Apparent cohesion

friction electrostatic attraction or capillary rise or
cementation due to addition suction due to
of Ca to clay negative pressure

2   
Triaxial Test:    tan  45º     2c tan  45º  2 
   

T
S
Vane Shear test: h d
2
d   
2 6
If the test is carried out such that the top end of the vane does not
shear.
T
S
h d  2
d   
 2 12 
Pore Pressure Parameter (Given by Skempton): U= B[3+
A(1–3)]
U
B =  (For saturated soil, B = 1, for dry soil, B = 0)


tan 
Stability of slope: F  tan  ,   z cos  sin 

Swedish Circle Method: Surface of sliding is assumed as "arc of

 11 Civil Ki Capsule (Civil Eng. Pocket Dictionary)

circle"

Face/slope failure Toe failure most Base failure

soil close to the common mode soil below the toe is
toe is quite strong of failure soft and slope is flat
 > 53º > 3º  < 53º > 3º
Cm c
Stability Number = SN = H.  F .H (Max. value = 0.261)
c
Types of lateral earth pressure

Active earth pressure Earth pressure at rest Passive earth pressure

(wall moves away from (wall does not (wall moves towards the
backfill) moves at all) backfill)
Movement tendency
of soil
Movement tendency
H of soil

Shear stress on
soil block Pp , P0 Shear stress on
Passive
H earth soil block
On the verge
of failure Active earth Earth pressure pressure
On the verge
pressure at rest of failure
P p < P0
P a = active earth pressure
P 0 = earth pressure of rest Movement Away from Soil Movement Towards the soil
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Active earth pressure Passive earth pressure
Failure plane is inclined at Failure plane is inclined at
(45 + /2) (45 –/2) with
with the horizontal the horizontal
Very little movement is required much higher movement is required to
to mobilise the active pressure mobilise the pressure
H = 0.2% of H Dense sands H = 2% of H Dense sands
H = 0.5% of H loose sands H = (5-10)% of H loose sands
Length of failure block
 
= H cot  45    length of failure bolck = H cot
 2
 
 45  
 
1  sin    1  sin   
 Ka   tan 2  45    k P   tan 2  45  
1  sin     sin   
Active Earth Pressure For Cohesive:
Pa = K a z  2C k a
Z = 0 when Pa = 2C K a
2C
ZC =  K , H c  2Zc
a

Earth Pressure at Rest:

h 
  K 0 , Coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
v 1  
1  sin    1
Ka =  tan 2  45º   =
1  sin   2 Kp
 13 Civil Ki Capsule (Civil Eng. Pocket Dictionary)
Types of footings

Strip Isolated/spread Raft/mat Combined Pile foundation

footing footing foundation footing

L L
B B

Net Safe Bearing Capacity:

Net ultimate bearing capacity
qnet =
Factor of safety.
q nu q u  Df
qnet = 
F F
q u  Df
Safe Bearing Capacity: qsaf =  Df
F

Elastic Settlement: S = k.q. A

1    2

E
Bearing Capacity for Strip footing
1
qult = CN c  Df N q  bN 
2
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Circular Footing
qult = 1.3CNC + DfNq+0.3 bN
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Square Footing
qult = 1.3 CNC + DfNq+0.4bN
Plate Load test: (IS 1888–1992)
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Girder

Hydraulic jack
Pipe arrangement
Dial gauge
Plate
BP
5 × BP

It is used to calculate
(a) Ultimate bearing capacity
(b) Allowable bearing capacity
(c) Safe settlement of foundation
 Significant only for cohesionless soil
2
Sf  Bf  Bp  0.3 
 
SP  BP  Bf  0.3  For Sandy Soil
 

q uf BF

q up BP (for sand).
Standard Penetration Test:
Bore holes

Df
A
D 150mm 150mm
150mm 300mm Reading
st 150mm Taken
(1.5-2)B 1 readily B 150mm
300mm
1st readily C
 15 Civil Ki Capsule (Civil Eng. Pocket Dictionary)

 For Granular soils only

 N-value is determined at selected number of bore hoes and avg.
value of corrected N is calculated for the depth from Df + (1.5–
2) B.
 Any value greater than 50% of the avg. value is descarded and
new avg. value is found out.
Coorection Applied to SPT Value.
 350 
Over burden Correction: Nt = N 0bs   
   70 
1
Dilatancy Correction: N = 15  (N t  15)
2
Classification of Pile

Material Mode of load Function or Installation Displacement

transfer action method of soil

Timber Load bearing

End bearing Driven Displacement pile
Concrete Tension
Friction Bored (cast in Non-displacement
Steel Compaction situ) pile
Composite Combined Sheet piles Screw piles
Fender piles Jack piles
Batter piles

Ultimate bearing Capacity of pile Load taken by base + load by

skin friction.
Qup = qeb + Qsf
Qup = qb× Ab + FSAS.
Engineering News Formula
Ultimate load on pile
WH
Qup =
6(S  C)
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Boring and its its methods
Making and advancing of bore holes is called boring

Auger Wash Rotary Percussion

Boring Boring Boring Boring
Done in partially Not done in hard Mud Only method to be
saturated sands, silts and soils, rocks and soil rotary used in bouldery &
medium to stiff clays containing boulders. Boring gravelly stratum
Highly disturbed sample Give Core drilling Heavy drilling bit is
for idenfication only disturbed samples (give least dropped & raised.
disturbed
samples)
Small depth of exploration
(upto 6 meter)

Soil samples
Disturbed sample are those in which natural soil structure gets
modified or destroyed during the sampling operation.
Undisturbed samples are those in which original soil structure is
preserved as well as mineral properties have not undergone any
change. These size distribution, Atterberg’s limits, coefficient of
permeability, consolidation parameters, shear strength parameters.
D3  D1
Inside Clearance: Ci =  100%
D1
D2  D4
Out Side Clearance: C0 =  100
D4
Note: C0 > Ci always.
D 2 2  D12
Area ratio: Ar = 100
D12
Re covery length of the Sample.
Recovery Ratio: Lr = Penetration length of the Sample
 17 Civil Ki Capsule (Civil Eng. Pocket Dictionary)

Field Compaction Control.

Type Soil Types Uses
 Rammers  All Types  Confined construction
area
 Smooth wheeled Roller  Sand, Gravels  Road Embankment
 Sheep footed Roller  Clay-Soil  Earthen dam Construction
 Pneumatic Tyred Roller  Silty Sand  Base, Sub base formation
 Vibrators  Sand, all type  Soil Embankment
Soil Most prefer