UNIT 1

Concepts of Food Science

Properties of food: Physical, Chemical and Sensory: Their Measurments

1. Introduction:

Food items are being processed for various reasons. Since times immemorial, grains have been
dried after harvest to increase their shelf life. Initially, foods were processed primarily to improve
digestibility, palatability and to ensure a continuous supply. In India pickles, murabbas and papads
are examples of preserved products made from certain vegetables/ fruits/ grains. With passage of
time, improved transportation, communication and increasing industrialisation, the needs of
consumers have become more diverse and there is now increasing demand for convenient foods,
‘fresh’ and ‘more natural’ foods, ‘safer and healthier’ foods and foods with adequate shelf life.
Consumers expect better-quality foods with retention of nutrients, many a time having specific
functional properties and taste/ texture/consistency, while being shelf-stable and easy to package,
store and transport. This has served as a stimulus to scientists to develop methods and techniques to
process foods in a manner that the food products will meet the requirements and demands of the
consumers. All of us eat readymade foods. These range from biscuits, bread, pickles/papads to
foods such as ready-to-eat curries, meal items, snacks, etc. Such foods and others are manufactured
using a variety of processes and technologies. For some, simple traditional methods are still used
while newer processes and technologies are employed to produce processed foods in bulk.
The term 'food' brings to our mind countless images. We think of items not only that we eat and
drink but also how we eat them and the places and people with whom we eat and drink. Food plays
an important role in our lives and is closely associated with our existence. It is probably one of the
most important needs of our lives. The food that we eat is composed of small units that provide
nourishment to the body. These are required in varying amounts in different parts of the body for
performing specific functions. This means that good nutrition is essential for good health. However,
if our diet provides the important units in incorrect amounts, either very less or in excess of what is
required, it results in an imbalance of nutrients in your body. The condition is responsible for
various deficiency diseases and slow or no growth of the body. In this lesson you will learn about
why food is essential, its functions and components. You will also be introduced to the terms like
‘nutrition’ and ‘nutrients’. After learning the meaning of these terms, you will then learn the sources
and functions of the nutrients and the amounts required by different individuals.

2. Basic Concepts:
2.1 Food Science: It is a distinct field involving the application of basic sciences such as chemistry
and physics, culinary arts, agronomics and microbiology. It is a broad discipline concerned with all
the technical aspects of food, beginning with harvesting or slaughtering and ending with cooking
and consumption. Food Scientists have to use the knowledge of biology, physical sciences and
engineering to study the composition of foods, changes that occur at various stages from harvest
through different processes and storage, causes of their spoilage and the principles underlying food
processing. Food scientists deal with physico-chemical aspects of food, thus helping us to
understand the nature and properties of food.

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

2.2 Food Technology: Technology is the science and application of scientific, as well as socio-
economic knowledge and legal rules for production. Food technology uses and exploits knowledge
of Food Science and Food Engineering to produce varied foods. Study of Food Technology gives
in-depth knowledge of science and technology, and develops skills for selection, storage,
preservation, processing, packaging, distribution of safe, nutritious, wholesome, desirable as well as
affordable, convenient foods. Another significant aspect of food technology is to save and utilise all
the food produced.
2.3 Food Processing: It is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into
finished and semi-finished products. Food processing requires good quality raw materials from
either plant and/or animal source to be converted into attractive, marketable and often long shelf-
life food products.
2.4 Food manufacturing: It is the mass production of food products using principles of food
technology to meet the diverse needs of the growing population. Food manufacturing is one of the
largest manufacturing industries in the present times.

3. Significance: India has progressed from an agro-deficit to an agro-surplus country creating

need for storage and processing of agricultural and horticultural produce. Indian food
industry has thus emerged as a major producer of processed foods and ranks fifth in terms of
size, contributing nearly 6 per cent of GDP. Besides, changes in lifestyle, increasing
mobility and globalisation have increased the demands for various types of products,
making the research for newer technologies necessary. Further, on 14 January 2010,
Government of India announced the setting up of mega food processing parks to boost the
food processing industry in India. It is well known that simple diets based largely on staple
foods such as cereals are often deficient in certain nutrients leading to deficiency diseases.
Therefore, food fortification is done by adding the nutrient that is lacking in the food stuffs
or condiments to ensure that minimum dietary requirements are met. Some examples are
iodised salt, folic acid added to flour, vitamin A added to oils/fats. Increasing prevalence of
diseases like heart disease and diabetes and concern about wellness, has made it necessary
for scientists to alter the nutrient content of foods, for example reducing the Calorie content
of processed foods in several ways such as using artificial sweeteners. Likewise fat from ice
creams is replaced by specially treated proteins which give ice cream the smooth texture
associated with fat but the energy value is reduced. Also, consumer perceptions about food
have changed. The demand for foods free of chemicals, pesticides and preservatives, yet
having a longer shelf life and retaining their natural flavour and appearance, is rapidly
increasing. All this has increased the importance of food processing and technology as a
discipline and there is a huge demand for food technologists.

4. Development of Food Processing and Technology: Research in the field of Food

Technology has been conducted for decades.
 In 1810, development of the canning process by Nicolas Appert was a decisive event.
Canning had a major impact on food preservation techniques.
 Later Louis Pasteur’s research, in 1864, on spoilage of wine and his description of how to
avoid spoilage was an early attempt to put food technology on a scientific basis. Besides
wine spoilage, Pasteur conducted research on production of alcohol, vinegar, wines, beer

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

 and souring of milk. He developed ‘pasteurisation’- the process of treating milk to destroy
disease producing organisms. Pasteurisation was a significant advance in ensuring
microbiological safety of food. Food Technology was initially used to serve military needs.
 In the 20th century, world wars, exploration of space and the rising demand for varied
products from consumers contributed to the growth of Food Technology. Products such as
instant soup mixes and ready-to-cook items including meals were developed, specially
catering to needs of working women. Further, food industry was compelled to focus on
nutritional concerns. Food preferences and choices changed and people started incorporating
into their diet food items/preparations from different regions and countries. The desire to
have seasonal foods all year round increased. Food technologists made efforts to provide
both safer and fresher food using new techniques.
 In the 21st century, food technologists are challenged to produce foods suitable for health
and other changing needs of consumers. Food technology has provided a vast variety of safe
and convenient foods. In developing countries this rapidly expanding and developing field,
has been helpful in improving food security and has opened avenues for employment at all
levels.

5. Properties of Food:
5.1 Physical Properties of food and food material:
Lord Kelvin once said, “When you can measure what you are speaking about, and can express it
in numbers, you know something about it; and when you cannot measure it, when you cannot
express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the
beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the stage of a
science.” This chapter covers the basic physical characteristics of foods and food products.
Since the physical characteristics of plant and animal food materials affect how they are to be
processed, handled, stored, and consumed, knowledge of these characteristics are important to
engineers, processors and food scientists, plant and animal breeders, and other scientists.
Knowledge of a food’s physical properties is necessary for:
 defining and quantifying a description of the food material
 providing basic data for food engineering and unit operations, and
 predicting behavior of new food materials.
It is common for the physical properties of a food to change during processing operations. Not
recognizing these changes can lead to potential processing failures. Physical properties are an
important aspect of food quality and relate to food safety.
1. Shape
2. Surface area
3. Appearance
4. Size
5. Density
6. Drag coefficient
7. Weight
8. Porosity
9. Center of gravity
10. Volume

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

11. Color

5.1.1 Shape:
Shape affects the grade given to fresh fruit. To make the highest grade a fruit or vegetable must
have the commonly recognized expected shape of that particular fruit/vegetable. Misshapen fruit
and vegetables will be down-graded and may sell at a lower price in high volume markets.
The shape of an irregular object can be described by terms such as the following:
Sr. No. Shape Description
1. Round Approaching spheroid
2. Oblate Flattened at the stem end and apex
3. Oblong Vertical diameter greater than the horizontal diameter
4. Conic Tapered toward the apex
5. Ovate Tapered toward the apex
6. Lopsided Axis connecting stem and apex slanted
7. Elliptical Approaching ellipsoid
8. Truncate Having both ends squared or flattened
9. Unequel One half larger than the other
10. Ribbed In cross section, sides are more or less angular
11. Regular Horizontal section approaches a circle
12. Irregular Horizontal cross section departs materially from a circle

Various methods are used to measure or characterize the shape and size characteristics of foods
and food products. In several cases, actual measurements are made to estimate the major
dimensions and cross sections of the product. Tracings or projections are made to compare the
shapes to listed standards.
Mohsenin (1970) illustrates the use of standard charts in the describing and defining the shape
of a product. Various formulas and methods have been devised to estimate cross sections and
other characteristics of the materials.
Roundness, as defined by Mohsenin (1970), “is a measure of the sharpness of the corners of the
solid.” Curray (1951) and Mohsenin (1970) provided the following equations for estimating
roundness under different conditions of geometry and application:
Roundness = Ap/Ac
Where: Ap = largest projected area of object in natural rest position
Ac = area of smallest circumscribing circle
Roundness ratio: r/R
Where: r = radius of curvature as defined in figure
R = radius of maximum inscribed circle

Sphericity expresses the characteristic shape of a solid object relative to that of a sphere of the
same volume (Mohsenin, 1970). Curray (1951) suggested the following equation for estimating
the sphericity of an object:

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

 Sphericity= Di / Dc
where: Di = diameter of largest inscribed circle
Dc = diameter of smallest circumscribed circle
5.1.2 Density (ρ) of a material is the amount of that material occupying a certain space
and is expressed in units of mass per unit volume. Materials consisting of particles or grains
with interstitial air spaces have different values of particle density and bulk density. Materials
without internal air spaces, such as fluids and solids, have equal particle and bulk density.
Particle density is the mass divided by the volume of the particle alone. Bulk density is the
mass of a group of individual particles divided by the space occupied by the entire mass,
including the air space. Density of food materials is useful in mathematical conversion of mass
to volume. The grain industry determines the amount of agricultural grains by converting the
weight to volume (bushels). Even though grain marketing is done in terms of bushels, grain
weight, not actual bushels, is the property measured. The density of processed products dictate
the characteristics of its container or package. Product density influences the amount and
strength of packaging material. Breakfast cereal boxes contain a required weight of cereal. More
weight of material can be placed into a box if the cereal density is greater. Also, food density
influences its texture or mouth feel. Processing can affect product density by introducing more
air, such as is done in the manufacture of butter or ice cream. In products like whipped cream,
which are primarily air, control of density is essential.
5.1.3 Porosity is the percentage of air between the particles compared to a unit volume of
particles. Porosity allows gases, such as air, and liquids to flow through a mass of particles
referred to as a packed bed in drying and distillation operations. Beds with low porosity (low
percentage air space) are more resistant to fluid flow and thus are more difficult to dry, heat, or
cool. With high porosity, air flows easily through the bed, drying is fast, and the power required
by fans and pumps is low.
A frequently used method of measuring the volume of non-porous objects such as vegetables
and fruits is the use of platform scales or a top loading balance to determine the volume of a
displaced liquid such as water. The liquid volume is computed by determining the mass of the
displaced water and dividing by the known density of the water. The mass of the displaced water
is the scale’s reading with the object submerged minus the mass of the container and water. For
objects that float, it is necessary to force the object entirely into the water with a thin stiff rod. If
the object is heavier than water, it must be suspended in the water by a rod or other support to
insure that the added mass of the object is not measured. The following expression is used to
calculate the volume of displaced water:
Volume (m3)= mass of displaced water (kg) / density of water (kg/ m3)

5.1.4 The specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the mass of that product to the mass of
an equal volume of water at 4°C, the temperature at which water density is greatest. A reference
temperature other than 4°C may be used if that temperature is explicitly specified with the
specific gravity value. Specific gravity may be calculated from the following expression:
Specific gravity: (mass in air × specific gravity of water) / mass of displaced water

5.1.5 Another important physical characteristic, Surface area, is related to size but also
depends on particle shape. Surface area is difficult to measure for irregular-shaped objects and

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

thus is often determined indirectly or computed by assuming a specific shape. Several methods
have been developed to measure the surface area of items. Surface area is most easily measured
for items that very closely resemble common geometric shapes. A frequently used method is the
projection method, which uses photographs or projected images to obtain an outline of the
object. Once the object outline is obtained, segments can be defined by drawing parallel lines
and calculating the area enclosed in each segment. Another method involves tracing an object.
The area enclosed in the tracing may be determined by the use of a planimeter, development of
segments as defined above, or other methods. Surface area is useful in estimating the amount of
wax applied to fruit, amount of packaging film to wrap fruit, and rate of heating, cooling,
freezing, and drying.
Particle surface area is important in heating and cooling operations since heat transfer is
proportional to surface area.
5.1.6 Ultimate use will dictate which physical characteristic properly represents size. Size
of a carrot may be expressed only in length or in diameter of its large end. Size may be
indicated by weight since it is so easily determined by simply placing on a scale. Thus, the
physical property size is actually related or correlated to the property weight. In practice, there
is often a compromise between ease or cost of measurement and usefulness or value of that
property in the market channel.

6. Chemical Properties:
A chemical property is any of a material's properties that becomes evident during, or after, a
chemical reaction; that is, any quality that can be established only by changing a substance's
chemical identity.Simply speaking, chemical properties cannot be determined just by viewing
or touching the substance; the substance's internal structure must be affected greatly for its
chemical properties to be investigated. When a substance goes under a chemical reaction, the
properties will change drastically, resulting in chemical change. However, a catalytic property
would also be a chemical property.
Chemical properties of food components are as follows:
1. Water Activity (aw)
2. pH – Acidity
3. Fat and oil content
4. Protein content
5. Minerals Content
6. Vitamin Content

6.1 Water Activity (aw):

Water is the most abundant constituent of food and in terms of food safety the most significant.
Its presence, quantity and nature determines many chemical and biochemical processes
important for the control of product safety and quality.
Hydrophilic (water-loving) substances dissolve readily while hydrophobic (waterfearing)
substances are immiscible. At standard temperature and pressure the boiling point of water is
100 °C (212 °F). The density of liquid water is 1,000 kg/m3 (62.43 lb/cu ft) at 4 °C. Ice has a
density of 917 kg/m3 (57.25 lb/cu ft).
Water in food is an important parameter in the field of food science and safety. Due to its unique

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

role in various chemical and biochemical reactions in a food matrix an understanding of water
is crucial.
Water activity or aw is the partial vapor pressure of water in a substance divided by the
standard state partial vapor pressure of water. In the field of food science, the standard state is
most often defined as the partial vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Using
this particular definition, pure distilled water has a water activity of exactly one. To understand
this more fully, we must recognise that much of the water in food is bound water, i.e. bound to
ions as water of hydration, or bound to surfaces of large molecule or cell structures. This water
is not free to support microbial growth, or to participate in or support chemical or enzyme
reactions and spoilage processes. The total amount of bound water in a food has no relation to
food stability. The free or available water in a food supports microbial growth, and participates
in and supports chemical and enzymatic reactions and spoilage processes. It is this amount of
free water which is called water activity, aw, and it is more important for food stability,
chemical and microbial, than total water content. Therefore, we can generally define Water
Activity (aw ) as an indication of the amount of Free Water in a food.
Specifically Water Activity (aw) is: =
Actual Equilibrium v.p. of air-space over the food / Equilibrium v.p. of pure water at same
temperature
Relative Humidity (RH): =
Actual v.p. water vapour in air x 100 / Equilibrium v.p. of Pure Water at Same Temperature
The ideal solution may be written as : Aw = P/ Po = %ERH / 100
aw Microorganisms of Foods in this aw range
concern
Bacteria Mold Yeast
0.95-0.97 + - - Fresh meat, fruit, vegetables, canned fruits, canned
vegetables, cooked sausage
0.90-0.94 + + + Some cheese, cured meat (ham), evaporated milk
0.87-0.89 + - + Sweetened condensed milk, aged cheeses, dried
0.80-0.85 - + + meats, bacon, chocolate syrup, fondant

0.71-0.79 - + - Jam, marmalade, marzipan, molasses, dried figs

0.60-0.70 - + + Dried fruit, corn syrup, marshmallow, chewing gum
0.00-0.60 - - - Caramels, toffee, honey, cocoa, crackers, dry mixes,
boiled sweets, milk powder

6.2 pH – Acidity:
The pH value of a food is a direct function of the free hydrogen ions present in that food. Acids
present in foods release these hydrogen ions, which give acid foods their distinct sour flavor.
Thus, pH may be defined as a measure of free acidity. More precisely, pH is defined as the
negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration.
Therefore, if a food has a pH value of 3, then the concentration of hydrogen ions present in that
food is equal to 10-3 (0.001) moles/liter. If the pH value is 6, then the concentration of hydrogen
ions equals 10-6 (0.000001) moles/liter.

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

 The range of pH is commonly considered to extend from zero to 14. A pH value of 7 is neutral,
because pure water has a pH value of exactly 7. Values less than 7 are considered acidic, while
those greater than 7 are considered basic or alkaline. Figure 1, below, shows the approximate
pH values of several types of foods. A more detailed list is given in Appendix 1. A few foods,
such as egg whites, sweet corn and some baked goods may be basic. Most foods are naturally
acidic, with a pH value less than 7.0. Even so, the pH value of a particular food may have a
dramatic effect on the type of processing needed to safely preserve it.

6.3 Nutrient composition:

Nutrients are the chemical substances present in food and are responsible for nourishing the
body. NUTRITION is the process by which food is taken in and utilized by the body.

NUTRITION = Eating → Digestion →Absorption →Transportation →Utilization

Nutrients are of two types:

1. Macronutrients – carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils
2. Micronutrients – vitamins, minerals
Both macronutrients and the micronutrients are equally essential for good health. Each nutrient
plays a significant role in the body.

7. Sensory Properties: A sensory property can be defined as the human physiological-

psychological perception of a number of physical and other properties of food and their
interactions. The physiological apparatus (fingers, mouth, eyes, taste and aroma receptors,
ears) examines the food and reacts to the food's properties. Signals are sent to the brain
which interprets the signals and comes to a decision about the food's sensory quality; this is
the psychological bit. Sensory properties are measured subjectively by trained or untrained
sensory panels or individuals. Sensory properties can be subdivided into:
1. Tactile properties
2. Textural properties
3. Color and appearance
4. Taste
5. Odor
6. Sound.
Tactile properties are perceived by touch, i.e. by the fingers. For example, the surface roughness and
softness of a food can be evaluated by touch. The main difference between texture and other

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

sensory attributes is that texture is perceived mainly by biting and mastication, i.e. by the mouth.
Many of the sensory properties are related to physical and physico-chemical properties as measured
objectively with instruments. However, this does not mean that instrumentally measured
characteristics are sensory properties. The following discussion will help to highlight the difference.
The Theological nature of a food, and the food's texture, are two different things.
Rheological properties are measured objectively using suitable instruments that allow controlled
deformation of the food. Texture, however, has to be measured subjectively. It will depend partly, of
course, on the food's rheological properties, but also, potentially, on a number of other properties
(e.g. shape, size, porosity, thermal properties) and on the expectations and prior experience of the
person (s) assessing the texture. In many cases, texture can be correlated quite well with an
instrumentally measured rheological property (often an empirical or imitative one), but texture as
such can be measured only by subjective means.
7.1 Sensory Evaluation:
Foods have several characteristics that require evaluation by sensory methods. The various food
attributes that are judged on the sensory scale are flavour, texture, aroma and appearance. Every
time the food is eaten, the quality is evaluated or the judgment is made. The reaction of the
consumer on the basis of the sensory perception serves as an endorsement or proof of the product
acceptance. The sensory evaluation of food is carried out on a scientific basis to ascertain the
product formulations or processing techniques that are anticipated to be successful in the market
place. In the research and development process of a product, trained sensory panelists evaluate the
samples and provide guidance in improvement of the product.
Thus, sensory evaluation has been defined as a scientific method to evoke, measure, analyze and
interpret those responses to products as perceived through the senses of sight, smell, touch, taste
and hearing.
1) Appearance
The appearance of a food can be evaluated in terms of colour, surface characteristics such as
smoothness of a surface, dry surface, glossy surface or the exterior appearance such as lump
formation, thickness or thinness, layering etc.
2) Taste
Individuals respond to a product on the basis of their sensory perception and judge the product
quality differently. The auditory sense is the least used in appreciation of food quality, however, the
senses for taste stimulation has a strong influence on the acceptability of food quality. Taste is
sensed by taste buds, which you may already know by now, are located in the papillae on the
tongue. Taste buds are located in the epithelium and on the parts of the tongue where the food
contacts the most during chewing and swallowing. Taste sensations which the taste buds register are
sweet, salt, sour and bitter. Taste buds near the tip of the tongue are more sensitive to sweet and salt,
those on the sides to sour and those near the back to bitter.

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

 Figure : Taste buds on tongue

3) Flavour
Flavour is composed of two subcategories, which are taste and odour. Flavour of a food is judged
on the basis of the sensory message resulting from the combination of taste and aroma. The
temperature at which the food is served may have a very important influence on the ability to detect
taste and to evaluate flavour. The extremes, whether very hot or cold, limit the ability of people to
judge food accurately. The best temperature range for flavour evaluation is 20-30°C. However,
some foods like ice creams should be evaluated at their serving temperature rather than at the
temperature range ideal for detecting taste and odour.
4) Texture
Texture indicates the characteristic of a food and would include descriptive parameters like
graininess, softness, chewiness, brittleness etc. The textural qualities of a food have a relationship to
the appearance of a product, as described previously and to its evaluation in the mouth as well.
Mouthfeel would include the textural qualities of a food perceived in the mouth.
Various texture attributes used in the process of evaluation:
Sr. No. Texture Attribute Definition
1. Adhesiveness Force required to separate individual pieces adhering to
each other.
2. Wetness Amount of moisture perceived on the surface of the
product, when in contact with the upper lip.
3. Roughness Degree of abrasiveness of the product’s surface as
perceived by the tongue.
4. Springiness Force with which sample returns to its original size and
shape, after partial compression.
5. Cohesiveness Amount of deformation undergone by the material before

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

 rupture when biting completely through sample with
molars.
6. Denseness Compactness of the cross section of the sample after biting
completely through with molars.
7. Fracturability Force with which the sample ruptures when placed between
molars and bitten completely down at a fast rate.
8. Hardness Force required to bite completely through sample placed
between molars.
9. Adhesiveness to Amount of product adhering on/in the teeth after
teeth mastication of the product.

5) Consistency
Both texture and consistency characterize the mouthfeel of the product. As the term creamy
indicates the consistency in an ice cream but is the textural attribute in the fudge. With a brief
review on the different attributes of foods, we will move on to describe the various tests involved in
sensory evaluation of food.
7.2 Various test involved in sensory evaluation of foods:
1. Difference testing - This is the sensory testing designed to determine whether detectable
differences exist between the products.
2. Preference testing - It is the sensory testing to determine the acceptability or preference between
products.
3. Descriptive testing - It is the testing which provides information on selected characteristics of
food samples.

7.3 Techniques of Sensory Evaluation:

Sr. No. Techniques Description
1. Single sample This type of test is used to test acceptability and to aid in the
decision on future development of the product.
2. Paired comparison It is the difference test in which a specific characteristic is to
be evaluated in two samples, and the sample with the greater
level of that characteristic is to be identified.
3. Duo-trio test Difference test in which two samples are judged against a
control to determine which of the two samples is different
from the control.
4. Triangle test Difference test in which three samples (of which two are
same), and the odd sample is to be identified.
5. Rank order Preference or difference test in which all samples are ranked
in order of intensity of a specific characteristic.
6. Descriptive test Use of key or descriptive words in sensory evaluation to
characterize food samples.
7. Profiling It is a very detailed word description like texture profiling or
flavour profiling or characteristics such as chewiness,
adhesiveness, hardness.

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

 8. Descriptive scale It uses array of words describing a range of intensity of a
single characteristic such as surface colour of a cake can be
described as pale, slightly brown, pleasing golden brown,
dark brown, burned etc. The scales can be designed with an
odd number of points usually 5 or 9 point scales. The above
example is that of a 5- point rating scale.
9. Hedonic scale Hedonic rating range from unacceptable to very acceptable
is relatively easy to construct and is effective when the
desirable and undesirable characteristics of a few samples
are taken into account. The 9 point hedonic scale can be
described as:
1= like extremely, 2= like very much, 3= like moderately,
4= like slightly, 5= neither like or dislike, 6= dislike slightly,
7= dislike moderately, 8= dislike very much, 9= dislike
extremely
10. Smiley scale This is a sequential series of very happy and continuing
through to very unhappy faces used in evaluating food
products when respondents are unable to use the language
easily.

8. function of Foods:
There are basically three important functions of food:
1. Social Function Food and eating have significant social meaning. Sharing food with any other
person implies social acceptance. Food is also an integral part of festivity every where in the world.
Have you noticed that certain occasions such as birth of a child or a marriage or birthdays, are
celebrated by having feasts and serving delicacies? Food also has a specific significance and
meaning in the religious context.
2. Psychological Function We all have emotional needs, such as need for security, love and
affection. Food is one way through which these needs are satisfied. For example, how do you feel
when your mother prepares your favourite food or dish? You feel that she loves you and cares for
you. Food is often served as a reward also. Do you recall giving a chocolate because some one had
been good to you? Similarly, certain foods become associated with sickness, such as khichri and
bland foods. Sickness is an unpleasant experience, hence, even the food items served during this
state may be associated with unpleasant feelings.
3. Physiological Function There are three physiological functions performed by food. These are
energy giving, body building, regulating body processes and providing protection against diseases.
8.3.1 Food provides energy Everybody needs energy to do work. Energy is required for walking,
studying, eating, working in the house or outside. You get this energy from the food that you eat.
You need energy even when you are resting. Can you tell why? Different organs inside your body
are always working, for example, heart is pumping blood, stomach is digesting food, lungs are
breathing in air, etc. All these organs need energy for their respective functions and food provides
that energy.
8.3.2 Food helps in body building Have you ever wondered how a small child grows into an adult?
Our body is already made up of thousands of small cells. New cells are added to these to help the
body to grow. Food is needed for the formation of new cells. Cells also die or are damaged due to

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

injury. New cells need to be formed and this repair work is done with the help of food.
8.3.3 Food regulates body processes and provides protection against diseases Regulatory
functions refer to the role of food in controlling body processes, for example, our body temperature
is maintained at 98.60 F or 370 C. Similarly, the heart beats are also maintained at 72 beats/minute.
Excretion of waste products from the body is also regular. If not, the body suffers from a disease
called constipation which can lead to further complications. All these processes are regulated by the
food that you eat. The food that we eat gives us strength to fight against disease germs.

*****

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

 UNIT 2
Food Composition and Chemistry
Water, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, Flavours, Colours,
Miscellaneous Bioactives & Important reactions
1. Introduction:
Food is defined as any commodity which can be ingested, digested and assimilated by human
body to gain the essential nutrients and components which supports body to growth and
provide a enegy for its metabolosm.
Food chemistry is a division of food science that evaluates how foods are processed, prepared and
distributed. This science is closely related to biochemistry in that, its principles are based on
knowledge of the main components of life such as water, carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins,
minerals and vitamins. Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all
biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include items such as
meat, poultry, milk, vegetables, and fruits etc. Food is made up of non-biological chemicals that
include primarily water, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. It is similar to
biochemistry in its main components such as carbohydrates, lipids, protein, water, vitamins,
minerals, enzymes, but it also includes areas such as food additives, flavors, and colors. This
discipline also encompasses how food materials change under certain food processing techniques
and describes the ways either to enhance or to prevent these changes. An example of enhancing a
process would be to encourage fermentation of dairy products with microorganisms that convert
lactose to lactic acid. An example of preventing a process would be stopping the browning reaction
on the surface of freshly cut red delicious apples using lemon juice or other acidulated water.
The chemical nature of foods is important in two ways in respect to food processing:
(a) Food chemicals are altered by processing and these changes result in changes in the
characteristics of the food and consumer acceptance of the product.
(b) Because of the lability of some food chemicals, the parameters used in food processing such as
temperature and shear, are limited to achieve minimal changes in the characteristics of the food and
to maximize consumer acceptance. Minimal processing of the food results in least changes in the
chemical composition and interactions of the food constituents and provides the food with good
nutritional quality. However, this type of processing results in a food product with a very short shelf
life.
As processing is performed to extend the shelf life of the product by subjecting the food to
processes such as drying and canning, more chemical changes may occur resulting in changes in
nutritional quality of products. Food chemistry focuses on the chemistry of foods, their deterioration
and the principles underlying the improvement of foods for consumers. It applies chemistry to
developing, processing, packaging, preserving, storing and distributing foods and beverages to
obtain safe, economical and aesthetically pleasing food supplies.
In this lesson you will learn about why food is essential, its functions and components. You will
also be introduced to the terms like ‘nutrition’ and ‘nutrients’. After learning the meaning of these
terms, you will then learn the sources and functions of the nutrients and the amounts required by
different individuals.

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

 2. Composition of food:
Food composed Water and other Nutrients.

Food Nutrients

Macronutrients : Major functions Micronutrients: Major functions

1. Carbohydrates: Energy yeilding 1. Minerals: Calcium, iron, iodine
(Body building and regulation)
2. Fats: Energy yeilding 2. Vitamins:
3. Protein: Body Building a. Vitamin A: healthy vision
4. Water: regulatory and excretory b. Vitamin D: Development of bones
function and teeth
c. Vitamin E: Reproduction
d. Vitamin K: Blood Coagulation
e. B complex: Normal growth and
Development
f. Vitamin C: Normal teeth and bones

All of us eat food. Food provides nourishment to the body and enables it to stay fit and healthy. The
food that we eat undergoes many processes, like, first the food is digested, then it is absorbed into
blood and transported to various parts of the body where it is utilized. The waste products and
undigested food are excreted from the body. NUTRITION is the process by which food is taken in
and utilized by the body. Nutrients are the chemical substances present in food and are responsible
for nourishing the body
Nutrients are of two types:
1. Macronutrients 2. Micronutrients
Both macronutrients and the micronutrients are equally essential for good health. Each nutrient
plays a significant role in the body.

2.1 Macronutrients:
These are present in large quantities in foods and are also required in large amounts by the body.
2.1.1 Water:
A major component of food is water, which can encompass anywhere from10% in grains to 50% in
meat products to around 70-80% in fruit and vegetable products. It is also an excellent place for
bacterial growth and food spoilage, if it is not properly processed. It influences textural properties
and the extent to which the food may be subjected to microbial spoilage. One way by which this is
measured in food is by water activity which is very important in the shelf life of many foods during
processing. One important aspect of food preservation is to reduce the amount of water or alter the
water's characteristics to enhance shelf life. Such methods include dehydration, freezing,

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

refrigeration etc. Removing water through concentration, drying or freezing reduces the "free"
water and prevents microbial growth. Water activity is a measure of free (unbound) water available
for chemical and biological activity. Generally bacteria require a water activity of > 0.9 to grow and
most yeasts and molds are inhibited by a water activity of < 0.7. Materials that are water soluble are
called hydrophilic and those that are not water soluble are called hydrophobic. Food chemistry can
manipulate a factor as seemingly insignificant as water to design and develop food products. Apart
from the actual water content of food products that can be catered for during mixing, water is also
used to create varieties that can affect the taste, texture and color of finished food products.
2.1.2 Carbohydrates:
The carbohydrates in foods are mixtures of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and can be classified as
simple and complex carbohydrates. Carbohydrate, as it relates to food chemistry, is a general term
used for a group of chemical compounds present in both plants and animals that are essentially
carbon and water molecular combinations. Simple carbohydrates are sugars and complex
carbohydrates are starches and fibers.
2.1.2.1 Available Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are present in a large quantity as starch in cereals, legumes, pulses and potatoes.
They are present as simple carbohydrates in sugar, jaggery, fruits, honey and milk. Starch and
sugars are easily digested and provide energy to the body.
2.1.2.2 Unavailable carbohydrates or dietary fibre
They are present in the form of cellulose and hemicellulose which are not digested in our body.
They add bulk to the stool and help in easy defecation process.
2.1.2.3 Simple carbohydrates: These are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides,
trisaccharides etc. Monosaccharides generally may have 3-6 carbons and are called as trioses,
tetroses, pentoses and hexoses depending on the number of carbon atoms. Glucose (sometimes
called dextrose), fructose and galactose are three common hexoses. Ribose and deoxyribose are two
common pentoses. Two monosaccharides may be linked together to form a disaccharide by a
glycosidic linkage. There are two general types of carbohydrates: (a) reducing and (b) non-reducing
sugars. Examples of these are glucose (reducing) and sucrose (nonreducing). Reducing sugars
contain a reactive aldehyde (CHO) or keto (C=O) group that is absent in non-reducing sugars.
Thermal processing can cause reactions between reducing sugars and the amino group of proteins,
causing browning and altering color and flavor of the products. This reaction is termed as the
Maillard reaction. Heat processing at high temperatures in a low water environment can cause
caramelization (polymerization) of sugars and can result in browning reaction. Sucrose is the most
common disaccharide and is made of one molecule each of glucose and fructose. Sucrose is
commonly referred to as sugar. Lactose is the major sugar in milk and is made up of one molecule
of glucose and one of galactose. Maltose is a disaccharide made from two molecules of glucose.
2.1.2.4 Complex carbohydrates: These carbohydrates have a number of monosaccharide units
linked by glycosidic linkages. Starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin etc are examples of these
complex carbohydrates. Starch is made up of a number of glucose units linked by α-1-4 and α-1-6
glycosidic linkages that can be digested by humans. In plants, starch is an energy reserve. Starches,
commonly used as thickening agents in food, are plant storage polysaccharides that are either
branched (amylopectin) or unbranched (amylose). The proportion of these two components of
starch varies from plant to plant and influences the processing of the foods in which starches are
used, as well as the characteristics of the food. Starches with 100% amylopectin (waxy starch) are

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

clear with a long texture and do not form films. Starches that have >20% amylose have a pudding
like short texture, are cloudy and do form films. Regular starches require heating to replace the
hydrogen bonds between starch molecules with starch-water bonds, which causes gelatinization and
creates the thickening effect. In animals, small amount of energy is stored in liver and muscle as
glycogen, a highly branched polymer of glucose. In glycogen also, the glucose units are linked by
α-1-4 and α-1-6 glycosidic linkages. Cellulose is the most common polysaccharide and the major
component of plant cell walls. Cellulose is a polymer of glucose molecules linked together by β1-4
linkages and cannot by digested by humans. Thus, cellulose is a major component of dietary fiber.
Pectin is a polymer of galacturonic acid and is not digested by humans. In plants, pectin cements
cells together. Polysaccharides may be added to foods for a variety of reasons. Nutritionally, they
are generally added to increase the dietary fiber content. Functionally, polysaccharides are added to
thicken, to form gels, to bind water, and to stabilize proteins. Starch is the most common
polysaccharide added to food products. For some uses, starch may be chemically modified to
improve stability or to alter its functional properties. Cellulose and cellulose derivatives are also
added to a number of food products. The term, gum, is used to describe some of the naturally
occurring polysaccharides added to food. Polysaccharides commonly added to foods include Agar,
Gum tragacanth, Alginates, Locust bean gum , Carrageenan, Pectin, Guar gum, Xanthan gum, Gum
Arabic, Starch, Cellulose etc.

Energy can be derived from carbohydrates, fats and proteins and it is measured in kilo calories.
However, carbohydrates are cheapest sources of energy. If there is a short supply of carbohydrates
and fats in our body, proteins are utilized for energy production. Function of proteins is to provide
for body building. Therefore, carbohydrates have to be consumed in proper amounts to spare
proteins for body building purpose.
2.1.2.5 Functions of carbohydrates are summarized here:-
 Carbohydrates provide energy
 Carbohydrates are the main source of energy
 Carbohydrates spare proteins for body building function
 Dietary fibre increases the bulk in stool and helps in defecation
1 gm of carbohydrate gives 4 kcal of energy. Kilocalorie is the measure of energy in
food.

2.1.2.6 Food sources of carbohydrates are:

 Cereals - wheat, rice, bajra, maize, etc.
 Pulses - Rajma, channa, all dals
 Roots and tubers - potatoes, sweet potatoes, beetroot and tapioca
 Sugar, jaggery
2.1.3 Proteins:
Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together through a peptide bond. They are mainly
composed of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and some sulfur, and sometimes may also contain
iron, copper, phosphorus, zinc etc. They play a fundamental role in the structure and function of
cells.The function of a protein is determined by the sequence of its amino acids. Proteins are

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

essential to the nutritional well being of the human. There are twenty two amino acids that are
found in proteins out of which 10 are called as essential amino acids because the body cannot
produce these amino acids and they have to be provided through the diet. Food chemistry explains
how proteins can change their structure through many methods of food processing. Proteins in
foods add texture to foods, contribute to odor and taste, form gels, stabilize foams and emulsions
etc. The food sources of proteins are grains and animal foods. However, the quality of protein is
superior from animal foods compared to plant foods because of amino acid composition. Generally
the conditions used in food processing are adjusted to optimize the effects of the processing on the
proteins and subsequent characteristics of the food. In bread, for example, the brown crust is related
to the Maillard reaction and the final structure of the bread is caused by the thermal gelation of the
protein gluten.
Protein are needed in the body for body building.
1 gm of protein gives 4kcal of energy
Essential amino acids are those which our body cannot manufacture and hence have to be supplied
through the diet.
Non essential amino acids are those amino acids which our body can manufacture.

2.1.3.1 Functions and sources of proteins:

 Functions:
(i) Needed for growth, maintenance and repair of tissues.
(ii) Necessary for production of enzymes, hormones, antibodies, haemoglobin, etc.
(iii) Help in the clotting of blood
(iv) Provide energy, if necessary
 Sources:
i. Meat, poultry, fish, eggs
ii. Milk, cheese, paneer, curd
iii. soybeans, peas, pulses,
iv. cereals, nuts and oilseeds like til, groundnuts, etc.
 Special features:
(i) Animal proteins, i.e., proteins from meat, eggs, milk, etc., are better than vegetable proteins,
i.e., proteins, from pulses, cereals, etc. This is because proteins from vegetable sources do not
contain all essential amino acids.
(ii) Including two or more sources of vegetable proteins in each meal helps to improve the quality
of proteins and their utilization.
Note: When the body does not get enough carbohydrates or fats to meet its energy needs, proteins
are broken down to supply these calories. When proteins are used for energy they are not available
for other vital functions.

 Lipids/Fats and oils:

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules such as waterinsoluble or non polar
compounds of biological origin, including triglycerides, fatty acids, phospholipids,
sphingolipids, glycolipids terpenoids, waxes, retinoids and steroids. A triglyceride contains
three fatty acids that are esterified to the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol. Triglycerides that

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

contain mostly unsaturated fatty acids are oils and triglycerides that contain mostly saturated
fatty acids are fats. Generally oils, because of the higher level of unsaturated fatty acids will
oxidize over time. Hydrogenation (addition of hydrogen and removal of double bonds) is
used to convert vegetable oils into semi-solid or solid fats to be used as ingredients in
baked/processed foods. These partially hydrogenated products are less susceptible to
oxidation than the original oils. Some lipids, such as phospholipids and mono and di
glycerides are used as emulsifiers.
Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely non polar. Generally, the
bulk of their structure is non polar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not
interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or
hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This
makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions).
Lipids in food include the oils of grains such as ground nuts, soybean, sunflower, corn and
from animal fats such as milk, cheese, ghee, and meat. They also act as vitamin carriers.
Lipids serve as energy sources, organ cushioning, insulation and are an important part of cell
composition.
Fats and oils are the concentrated source of energy in our diet. 1 gm of fat gives 9 kcal of
energy. Fats are made up of small units called fatty acids. The nature of fats is dependent on
the type of fatty acids present. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty
acids are found in solid fats whereas oils contain more of unsaturated fatty acids. Vegetable
oils are rich in unsaturated fatty acids. a substance is liquid at room temperature it is
called oil and if it is solid at the room temperature, it is known as fat.

2.4.1.1 Functions and sources of fats and oils:

 Functions:
(i) Provide concentrated source of energy
(ii) Reduce the use of proteins for energy
(iii) Carry fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) into the body and help in the absorption of these
vitamins
(iv) Help to maintain body temperature. The layer of fat under the skin helps to conserve
body heat
(v) Act as a cushion to certain vital organs
(vi) Help in growth of tissues
 Sources:
- Cooking oils, ghee, butter
- Oilseeds, nuts
- Meat, poultry, fish, eggs
- Whole milk, cheese

 Special features:
(i) Fats improve the texture as well as absorb and retain flavours making meals more
appetizing.
(ii) Fats have properties that help them to remain in the stomach longer and prolong the
feeling of fullness.

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

2.2 Micronutrients:
Other important nutrients which are present in small quantities in foods but are essential for
our body are called micronutrients. These are minerals and vitamins and are required in very
small quantities. If these micronutrients are not eaten in required amounts, it results in
deficiency diseases.
Minerals and vitamins are called micronutrients.
2.2.1 Vitamins:
Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the
body. Fourteen different vitamins have been shown to be essential for normal growth and
health in humans. The vitamins as a class have no particular chemical structure in common,
but they can be divided into the fat soluble and water soluble vitamins. Vitamins are required
in the diet because the body is either unable to synthesize them or unable to produce
adequate amounts of them. By themselves vitamins do not provide chemical energy,
although they may participate as coenzymes in chemical reactions which release energy from
other molecules. Increasing the amount of vitamins in the diet does not necessarily increase
the activity of those enzymes for which the vitamins function as coenzymes. However, lack
of vitamins in the diet causes ill effects, since they are essential for the activity of many
enzymes. Vitamins are classified as water soluble or fat soluble vitamins. Water soluble
vitamins include B complex vitamins, vitamin C, Pantothenic acid etc. Vitamin A, D, E and
K are examples of fat soluble vitamins. As the amount of water soluble vitamins in the diet is
increased so is the amount excreted in the urine, with the result that accumulation of these
vitamins in the body is limited. On the other hand, in the case of the fat soluble vitamins, the
intake of very large quantities is known to produce toxic effects that damage various tissues.
These effects are related to the fact that very large quantities of these fat soluble vitamins can
accumulate in the body because they dissolve readily in the fat stores in adipose tissue.
Our body contains very little quantity of vitamins, however, you will be surprised to know
that they are responsible for all the major functions of the body.
These vitamins are of two types: (i) Fat soluble: A,D,E and K (ii) Water soluble: B and C
Functions and Sources of fat soluble vitamins:
Nutrients Functions Sources
Vitamin A (i) Essential for proper functioning of - Liver, eggs, fish liver oils.
eyes, that is, vision in dim light - Milk and its products
- Green leafy vegetables, i.e.,
(ii) Necessary for healthy skin and bathua, etc.
linings of nose, mouth, throat, eyes, - Yellow or orange fruits and
ears, lungs and other organs vegetables such as pumpkin,
carrot, papaya, mango, etc.
Vitamin D (i) Necessary for formation and - Exposure of skin to sunlight
maintenance of strong, healthy teeth (When the body is exposed to
and bones the sun rays, a substance in the
(ii) Helps in the proper absorption and skin is converted into vitamin
utilization of calcium and phosphorus D and transferred to the blood
in the body stream)
- Eggs, liver, fish liver oils

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

 - Milk, butter
- Refined oils and ghee fortified
with vitamin D
Vitamin E (i) Prevents destruction of certain - All cereals, pulses, vegetables
substance in presence of oxygen oils
Vitamin K (i) Necessary for clotting of blood - Formed in the intestines by
bacteria normally present there
- Green leafy vegetables
- Egg, liver

Functions and Sources of water soluble vitamins:

Nutrients Functions Sources
Vitamin B Complex (i) Necessary for utilization of – Liver, poultry, meat, fish,
There are eight B carbohydrates in the body eggs;
vitamins. Together they (ii) Necessary for normal – Whole grain cereals and
are called vitamin functioning of nervous system pulses
Bcomplex. These are: (iii) Essential for proper growth – Green leafy vegetables and
thiamine B1 (iv) Helps body organs to milk
Riboflavin B2 function normally
niacin etc. (v) Needed for formation of red
blood cells
(vi) Helps in digestion and
improves appetite.
Vitamin C (i) Necessary for the formation Citrus fruits like amla, orange,
of the sub- stance that holds lemon, guava, etc; Green leafy
cells together vegetables e.g. spinach,
(ii) Needed for strong teeth and cabbage;
bones Sprouted pulses such as grams
(iii) Helps in the production of
haemoglobin
(iv) Helps in the utilization of
other nutrients in the body
(v) Helps in fighting the germs
causing diseases

2.2.2 Minerals:
Minerals are inorganic substances, present in all body tissues and fluids and their presence is
necessary for the maintenance of certain physicochemical processes which are essential to
life. Although they yield no energy, they have important roles to play in many activities in
the body. Minerals may be broadly classified as macro (major) or micro (trace) elements.
The macro minerals include calcium, phosphorus, sodium and chloride, while the micro
elements include iron, copper, cobalt, potassium, magnesium, iodine, zinc, manganese,
molybdenum, fluoride, chromium, selenium and sulfur. The macro–minerals are required in
amounts greater than 100 mg/day and the micro minerals are required in amounts less than
100 mg/day. Micronutrient deficiencies are a major public health problem in many
developing countries, with infants and pregnant women especially at risk. The micronutrient

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

deficiencies which are of greatest public health significance are iron deficiency, causing
varying degrees of impairment in cognitive performance, lowered work capacity, lowered
immunity to infections, pregnancy complications e.g. babies with low birth weight, poor
learning capacity and reduced psychomotor skills.
Minerals constitute a very small amount of the total body tissues. However, these are
essential for many vital processes and also for the maintenance of the body. In total, there are
about 19 minerals required by the body in various amounts.
2.2.2.1 Calcium: Calcium and phosphorus are available in sufficient quantities in milk, curd,
green leafy vegetables, ragi and oil seeds. Other foods also provide fair quantity of calcium.
The major function of calcium is the formation and development of bones and teeth.
Calcium is also required in blood clotting and muscular contraction.
Calcium is necessary for bone formation, blood clotting and muscular contraction.
Deficiency of calcium in the body results in poor bone development, particularly in children,
women and elderly. The deficiency disease is known as osteoporosis. In this, the bones
becomes brittle and people become prone to frequent fractures.
2.2.2.2 Iron: Iron is required in very small quantity by the body. It is an important material
present in haemoglobin which is a part of red blood cells and is responsible for the red
colour of blood. Whole grain cereals and pulses are the major sources of iron in our diet.
Other sources of iron are green leafy vegetables, egg yolk, liver and meat. In our country,
majority of the population, especially women and children, suffer from iron deficiency
disease called anaemia.
Young girls (12-18 yrs.) need move iron rich foods in their diets because of loss of iron
during the menstrual cycle. Extra iron is also needed during pregnancy for healthy
development and growth of the focus. This is not because people do not consume food which
are rich in iron but because the absorption and utilization of iron is poor. This is due to the
presence of certain naturally occuring constituents in food called oxalates and phytates.
These oxalates and phytates are called inhibitors of iron. Vitamin C and proteins help in
better absorption of iron and are known as enhancers of iron.
Iron is essential for haemoglobin formation.
2.2.2.3 Iodine: Iodine is an important substance present in thyroxine hormone produced
from thyroid gland. Thyroxine regulates various functions of the body. We get iodine from
water and food. The foods which grow in iodine rich soil provide iodine for us. Sea foods are
also rich in iodine. Iodine deficiency disorder is known as goitre or enlargement of the neck
region. Deficiency of iodine causes mental retardation in children. Recent studies have
shown a direct link between iodine deficiency and academic performance of children. Iodine
deficiency disorders have been identified in many parts of India.
Iodine is necessary for growth and development.
To avoid goitre we must have iodine rich food sources in our daily meals. Iodized salt is a
good source of iodine and we must consume it instead of the non-iodized salt.
Make iodized salt a part of your daily diet.
Certain foodstuff like cabbage, cauliflower, radish, ladies finger, oilseeds etc., contain
substances known as goitrogens which interfere with the body’s ability to produce and use
thyroxine. These goitrogens are destroyed on cooking. Therefore, these foodstuffs should be
cooked before eating.

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

3. Food Colours:
The acceptance of a food depends to a large extent upon its attaractive colour. The
characteristic color of raw food is due to the pigments naturally present in it. Sometimes,
artificial colour is added during the preparation and processing of foods to make them more
attractive.
3.1 Natural coloring matters:
the natural colours (pigments) in vegetables and fruits can be classified on the basis of
chemical structure as caretonoids (yellow- orange), chlorophyls (green), flavonoids and
anthocynin (red, blue and purple) and anthoxanthins (cream yellow).
The following pigments are present, singly or in combination, in plant-based foods.
3.1.1 Chlorophylls:
These green coloured, fat- soluble pigments, involved in photosynthesis, are present in many
plants specially in leafy vegetables such as cabbage and lettuce. These are two types of
chlorophyll, a and b, which occure in plants in the ratio of 3:1. they are related to the
porphyrins, an important group of biological pigments which includes heamoglobin. There is
always some deterioration of chlorophylls on storage, whatever the processing method used.
3.1.2 Carotenoids:
carotenoids are fat- soluble, orange- yellow pigments that are present in many vegetables and
fruits such as carrot, pumpkin, mango and orange. The first carotenoid isolated was from
carrot and, therefore, was name carotene. Its concentration in a vegetable is indicated by the
intensity of the colour.
The most widely distributed carotenoids are lutein, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin which
found in green leaves. Carotene and zeaxanthin also occure widely but in small quantities.
Some pigments predominate in certain plants like lycopene in tomato, capsanthin in red
pepper and bixin in annatto.
Carotenoids are also present in most green leafy vegetables along with chlorophyll but their
colour is masked by the green of chlorophyll. The fresh yellow- green color of spring leaves
is due to carotenoids together with a small amount of chlorophyll.
Carotenoids are extracted from annatto, saffron, paprika, tomato etc. And used as a natural
food colorants. Extract of carrot, butter fat and palm oil contains ᵦ- carotene the precursor of
vitamin A and thus show vitamin A activity.
3.1.3 Anthocynin:
these are the red, blue and purple water-soluble compounds occuring in the cell sap of some
fruits and vegetables, e.g. Coloured grapes, red cabbage, cherry, apple and in most flowers.
Anthocynins are glycosides which on hydrolysis yeild coloured aglycones known as
anthocynidins, which are phenylbenzopyran derivatives, and sugars. The sugar moities are
glucose, galactose, rhamnose, arabinose, xylose, etc. A large number of anthocynidins are
known of which six are commonely present in foods. These are pelargonidin, cyanidin,
delphinidin, peonidin, petunidin and malvidin. At low pH, the color of anthocyanins is an
intense red, which changes through orange and red to blue or purple as the pH values rises.
Sulphite or sulphur dioxide rapidally bleaches the color of anthocyanins. Removal of
sulphite by boiling and acidification results in the regenaration of anthocyanins.
Sugars influence the stabillity of anthocyanins. Decolourization is not due to the sugar itself

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

but is brought about by its degradation products, furfural and 5-hydroxyfurfural. Ascorbic
acid reacts with anthocyanins resulting in the degradation of both the compounds. An
intermediate peroxide is formed by the degrasdation of ascorbic acid and this reacts with
anthocyanins. Oxidation of ascorbic acid is catalyzed by copper and iron and this results in
further oxidation of anthocyanins. The effect of ascorbic acid is of particular importance in
the preparation of fruit juices.
3.1.4 Flavonoids:
these are very widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They are water- soluble, polyphenolic
substances, similar in structure to anthocyanins, which also occur as glycosides, and include
the subgroups of flavones, flavonols, flavanones, clalcones, aurones and biflavanyls.
Flavonoids may be the sole pigments in such vegetables as potato, cauliflower and yellow
skin onion. Flavones and anthoxanthins are responsible for the yellow white or creamy white
color of potato and cauliflower.
Flavonoids are usually more stable to heat and oxidation than the anthocyanins. The
flavonoid, rutin (quercitin-3-rham-noglucoside), forms dark coloured complexes with iron
which discolour canned foods (aspargus). The tin complex, in contrast, produces a desirable
yellow colour.
3.1.5 Anthoxanthins:
These are the creamy yellow, creamy white or yellow white water soluble compounds
occuring in the cell saps of some fruits and vegetables, e.g. Potato, cauliflower
anthoxanthins are glycosides which on boiling with dilute acid yeild one or two molecules of
monosaccharides and a flavone or a flavone darivative such as flavonal, flavanonal, or
isoflavone.
3.1.6 Tannins:
these are colourless or yellow substances which turn brown when fruits and vegetables
containing them, e.g. Brinjal, bottle guard, apple are cut and exposed to air. Thus tannins are
responsible for enzymatic browning and also for the astrigency of foods. Tannins are a
complex mixture of polymeric polyphenols also known as tannic acid or gallotannic acid,
and derivatives of flavones. They are divided into two major groups.
1. condesed tannins, e.g. Catechins and related compounds
2. hydrolyzable tannins, e.g. Gallic acid (gallotannins) and ellagic acid (ellagitannins)
3.1.7 Quinones and Xanthones:
A large number of pigments found in cell sap of flowering plants, fungi, bacteria and algea
are darivatives of anthraquinone, napthoquinone and benzoquinone and range in color from
pale yellow to almost black. Anthraquinone derivatives are the largest group of such
pigments, followed by thoes of nepthoquinone and benzoquinone.
Xanthones are a group of yellow pigments. One well known member is mangiferin, which
occurs as a glucoside in mangoes.

3.1.8 Betalains:
Betalains are a group of red and yellow pigments found in red beet (Beta vulgaris) and, to
some extent, in cactus fruits, pokeberries and a number of flowers (Bougainvillea).
They resemble the anthocyanins and flavonoids in structure but unlike them, contain
nitrogen. Betalains are stable in the pH range 4-6 but are degraded by thermal processing as

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

in canning. Colour in the food may not always come from plant and animal pigments. It
could be due to browning reactions that may be enzymatic or nonenzymatic.
The following natural coloring matters, wheather isolated from a natural source or
synthesized, are permitted to be added to any article of food.
1. Cochineal or carmine
2. carotene and carotenoids
3. chlorophyll
4. lactoflavin
5. caramel
6. annatto
7. ratanjot
8. saffron
9. curcumin
Dehydrated beet powder, carrot oil and juices of fruits, e.g. Strawberries and cherries, which
impart a pink colour to icecream are also approved as natural colour additives.

3.2 Certified (Synthetic) Colors:

The first synthetic organic dye, a purplish lilac color, was discovered in 1856 by William
Henry Perkin and called “mauve.” Over the next 50 years, scores of similar organic aniline
dyes, representing every color and tint of the rainbow, were developed, and many were used
to color food with little thought or testing regarding their safety. Significant toxicity of many
early aniline and coal-tar based colors prompted regulators to examine exactly what was
being used to color food. Of the 80 synthetic food colorants sold in 1907, only 16 were
deemed to be “more or less” harmless. By 1907, this list was pared to seven synthetic
colorants, which eventually were subjected to “batch certification” to detect and limit toxic
impurities. The list of “certified” colors has expanded and contracted over the decades to the
current group of nine certified colors chemically classified into four chemical families: azo,
xanthene/fluoroscein, triphenylmethane, and sulfonated indigoid. Synthetic certified colors
remain the most popular type of food colorings, as they are brighter, more uniform, better
characterized, and of higher tinctorial strength, encompass a wider range of hues, and are
less expensive than colors derived from nature. The downside to working exclusively with
synthetic certifiable colors is use limitations based on amounts added via good
manufacturing practices and the perceived “baggage” the synthetics add to an ingredient
label. To protect the public health from toxic impurities, each batch must be rigorously
examined and “certified.” It cannot be used in foods and must be stored separately from
certified batches until certification is complete. Upon certification, the Food and Drug
Administration issues a certificate with a unique lot number and allows the industrial or
common color name to be changed to the mandatory Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
designation, such as FD&C Red No. 40. Certification applies to both domestic and foreign
manufacturers, requiring that every “lot” of color be submitted as a batch sample to FDA and
extensively analyzed by sophisticated techniques to ensure that it meets established
specifications for residual contaminants, heavy metals, pesticides, and unreacted
contaminants. If a color requiring certification has not been certified and is used in food, the
food will be deemed adulterated and subject to seizure. More than 17.2 million lb of

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT

synthetic food colors were certified in 2004 (FDA, 2004). FD&C Red No. 40 is the most
popular certified food color, followed by FD&C Yellow No. 5. The acronym FD&C
indicates that these colors are approved by FDA for use in coloring foods, drugs, and
cosmetics. Colors in a morelimited category, D&C, are considered safe to use with drugs and
cosmetics. Colors in a third category, Ext. D&C, are only certifiable for external use in drugs
and cosmetics, not to be taken orally or applied to mucous membranes. Certified colors in all
three categories may be used as dyes or converted to lakes. Dyes will dissolve in water and
can be manufactured as a powder, granule, or liquid. They are often used in aqueous
beverages, dry mixes, confections, and dairy products. Lakes, on the other hand, are
prepared by precipitating the soluble synthetic dye onto an approved insoluble base or
substratum. For FD&C colors, the base is aluminum hydroxide, with an aluminum cation
serving as the precipitant, such that the color adsorbs onto the surface of aluminum
hydroxide, which is then dried and ground to appropriate fineness. The advantage to the food
manufacturer is that the lakes are insoluble in most nonaqueous solvents. They provide
opacity, can be used in dry products, have significant stability to heat and light, and are the
only colorants suitable for fats, gums, waxes, oils, and food-packaging materials. Unlike
colors that dye a food via adsorption or attachment from the solution to the food material,
lakes impart color by dispersing into the medium.

Colors certified for use in foods:

Sr. No. Common or industrial Hue Uses and
name restrictions
1. Brilliant Blue FCF brilliant blue Foods generally
2. Indigotine royal blue Foods generally
3. Fast Green FCF sea green Foods generally
4. Erythrosine cherry red Foods generally
5. Allura Red AC orange-red Foods generally
6. Tartrazine lemon yellow Foods generally
7. Sunset yellow orange Foods generally

Prepared By: Prof. G. S. Raut, Asst. Professor, MGMCFT