Operations & Maintenance of Valves & Actuators

INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION

2. FLUID MECHANICS BASICS

3. TYPES OF VALVES & BROAD APPLICATION AREAS

4. VALVE BASICS

5. CONTROL VALVE CAPACITY AND FLOW COEFFICIENT

6. CONTROL VALVE SIZING - WATER SYSTEMS

7. CONTROL VALVE SIZING - STEAM SYSTEMS

8. CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS

9. VALVE ACTUATORS, POSITIONERS AND OTHER ACCESSORIES

10. VALVE AND TRIM MATERIALS

11. GOOD ENGINEERING PRACTICES

12. VALVE INSPECTION, TESTING

13. VALVES INSTALLATION & MAINTENANCE

14. CONTROL VALVE TROUBLESHOOTING FLOW CHARTS

15. VALVE STANDARDS

1. INTRODUCTION

A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized
solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are
technically fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows
in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure. The word is derived from the Latin valva,
the moving part of a door, in turn from volvere, to turn, roll.

The simplest, and very ancient, valve is simply a freely hinged flap which drops to obstruct fluid
(gas or liquid) flow in one direction, but is pushed open by flow in the opposite direction. This is
called a check valve, as it prevents or "checks" the flow in one direction. Modern control
valves may regulate pressure or flow downstream and operate on automation systems.

Valves are found in virtually every industrial process, including water and sewage processing,
mining, power generation, processing of oil, gas and petroleum, food manufacturing, chemical
and plastic manufacturing and many other fields.
Valves may be operated manually, either by a handle, lever, pedal or wheel. Valves may also be
automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature, or flow. These changes may act upon
a diaphragm or a piston which in turn activates the valve, examples of this type of valve found
commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or boilers.
More complex control systems using valves requiring automatic control based on an external
input (i.e., regulating flow through a pipe to a changing set point) require an actuator. An
actuator will stroke the valve depending on its input and set-up, allowing the valve to be
positioned accurately, and allowing control over a variety of requirements.
Valve Components

Cross-sectional diagram of an open globe valve

1. Body
2. Ports
3. Seat
4. Stem
5. Disc when valve is open
6. Handle or handwheel when valve is open
7. Bonnet
8. Packing
9. Gland nut
10. fluid flow when valve is open
11. Position of disc if valve is shut
12. Position of handle or handwheel if valve is shut
The main parts of the most usual type of valve are the body and the bonnet. These two parts
form the casing that holds the fluid going through the valve.
Body
The valve's body is the outer casing of most or the entire valve that contains the internal parts
or trim. The bonnet is the part of the encasing through which the stem (see below) passes and
that forms a guide and seal for the stem. The bonnet typically screws into or is bolted to the valve
body.
Valve bodies are usually metallic or plastic. Brass, bronze, gunmetal, cast iron, steel, alloy
steels and stainless steels are very common.[citation needed] Seawater applications, like
desalination plants, often use duplex valves, as well as super duplex valves, due to their corrosion
resistant properties, particularly against warm seawater. Alloy 20 valves are typically used in
sulphuric acid plants, whilst monel valves are used in hydrofluoric acid (HF Acid)
plants. Hastelloy valves are often used in high temperature applications, such as nuclear plants,
whilst inconel valves are often used in hydrogen applications. Plastic bodies are used for
relatively low pressures and temperatures. PVC, PP, PVDF and glass-reinforced nylon are common
plastics used for valve bodies.[citation needed]
Bonnet
A bonnet acts as a cover on the valve body. It is commonly semi-permanently screwed into the
valve body or bolted onto it. During manufacture of the valve, the internal parts are put into the
body and then the bonnet is attached to hold everything together inside. To access internal parts
of a valve, a user would take off the bonnet, usually for maintenance. Many valves do not have
bonnets; for example, plug valves usually do not have bonnets. Many ball valves do not have
bonnets since the valve body is put together in a different style, such as being screwed together
at the middle of the valve body.
Ports
Ports are passages that allow fluid to pass through the valve. Ports are obstructed by the valve
member or disc to control flow. Valves most commonly have 2 ports, but may have as many as
20. The valve is almost always connected at its ports to pipes or other components. Connection
methods include threading, compression fittings, glue, cement, flanges, or welding.
Handle or actuator
A handle is used to manually control a valve from outside the valve body. Automatically
controlled valves often do not have handles, but some may have a handle (or something similar)
anyway to manually override automatic control, such as a stop-check valve. An actuator is a
mechanism or device to automatically or remotely control a valve from outside the body. Some
valves have neither handle nor actuator because they automatically control themselves from
inside; for example, check valves and relief valves may have neither.
Disc
A disc or valve member is a movable obstruction inside the stationary body that adjustably
restricts flow through the valve. Although traditionally disc-shaped, discs come in various shapes.
Depending on the type of valve, a disc can move linearly inside a valve, or rotate on the stem (as
in a butterfly valve), or rotate on a hinge or trunnion (as in a check valve). A ball is a round valve
member with one or more paths between ports passing through it. By rotating the ball, flow can
be directed between different ports. Ball valves use spherical rotors with a cylindrical hole drilled
as a fluid passage. Plug valves use cylindrical or conically tapered rotors
called plugs.[ambiguous] Other round shapes for rotors are possible as well in rotor valves, as
long as the rotor can be turned inside the valve body. However, not all round or spherical discs
are rotors; for example, a ball check valve uses the ball to block reverse flow, but is not a rotor
because operating the valve does not involve rotation of the ball.
Seat
The seat is the interior surface of the body which contacts the disc to form a leak-tight seal. In
discs that move linearly or swing on a hinge or trunnion, the disc comes into contact with the seat
only when the valve is shut. In disks that rotate, the seat is always in contact with the disk, but
the area of contact changes as the disc is turned. The seat always remains stationary relative to
the body.
Seats are classified by whether they are cut directly into the body, or if they are made of a
different material:
Hard seats are integral to the valve body. Nearly all hard seated metal valves have a small amount
of leakage.
Soft seats are fitted to the valve body and made of softer materials such as PTFE or
various elastomers such as NBR, EPDM, or FKM depending on the maximum operating
temperature.

Ball valve
A closed soft seated valve is much less liable to leak when shut while hard seated valves are more
durable. Gate, globe, and check valves are usually hard seated while butterfly, ball, plug, and
diaphragm valves are usually soft seated.
The stem transmits motion from the handle or controlling device to the disc. The stem typically
passes through the bonnet when present. In some cases, the stem and the disc can be combined
in one piece, or the stem and the handle are combined in one piece.
The motion transmitted by the stem may be a linear force, a rotational torque, or some
combination of these (Angle valve using torque reactor pin and Hub Assembly). The valve and
stem can be threaded such that the stem can be screwed into or out of the valve by turning it in
one direction or the other, thus moving the disc back or forth inside the body. Packing is often
used between the stem and the bonnet to maintain a seal. Some valves have no external control
and do not need a stem as in most check valves.
Valves whose disc is between the seat and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction into
the valve to shut it are normally-seated or front seated. Valves whose seat is between the disc
and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction out of the valve to shut it are reverse-
seated or back seated. These terms don't apply to valves with no stem or valves using rotors.
Gaskets
Gaskets are the mechanical seals, or packings, used to prevent the leakage of a gas or fluids from
valves.
Valve balls
A valve ball is also used for severe duty, high-pressure, high-tolerance applications. They are
typically made of stainless steel, titanium, Stellite, Hastelloy, brass, or nickel. They can also be
made of different types of plastic, such as ABS, PVC, PP or PVDF.
Spring
Many valves have a spring for spring-loading, to normally shift the disc into some position by
default but allow control to reposition the disc. Relief valves commonly use a spring to keep the
valve shut, but allow excessive pressure to force the valve open against the spring-loading. Coil
springs are normally used. Typical spring materials include zinc plated steel, stainless steel, and
for high temperature applications Inconel X750.
The internal elements of a valve are collectively referred to as a valve's trim. According to API
Standards 600, "Steel Gate Valve-Flanged and Butt-welding Ends, Bolted Bonnets", the trim
consists of stem, seating surface in the body, gate seating surface, bushing or a deposited weld
for the backseat and stem hole guide, and small internal parts that normally contact the service
fluid, excluding the pin that is used to make a stem-to-gate connection (this pin shall be made of
an austenitic stainless steel material).
Valve operating positions
Valve positions are operating conditions determined by the position of the disc or rotor in the valve.
Some valves are made to be operated in a gradual change between two or more positions. Return
valves and non-return valves allow fluid to move in 2 or 1 directions respectively.
Two-port valves
Operating positions for 2-port valves can be either shut (closed) so that no flow at all goes through,
fully open for maximum flow, or sometimes partially open to any degree in between. Many valves
are not designed to precisely control intermediate degree of flow; such valves are considered to be
either open or shut. Some valves are specially designed to regulate varying amounts of flow. Such
valves have been called by various names such as regulating, throttling, metering, or needle valves.
For example, needle valves have elongated conically-tapered discs and matching seats for fine flow
control. For some valves, there may be a mechanism to indicate by how much the valve is open, but
in many cases other indications of flow rate are used, such as separate flow meters.
In plants with remote-controlled process operation, such as oil refineries and petrochemical plants,
some 2-way valves can be designated as normally closed (NC) or normally open (NO) during regular
operation. Examples of normally-closed valves are sampling valves, which are only opened while a
sample is taken. Other examples of normally-closed valves are emergency shut-down valves, which
are kept open when the system is in operation and will automatically shut by taking away the power
supply. This happens when there is a problem with a unit or a section of a fluid system such as
a leak in order to isolate the problem from the rest of the system. Examples of normally-open valves
are purge-gas supply valves or emergency-relief valves. When there is a problem these valves open
(by switching them 'off') causing the unit to be flushed and emptied.
Although many 2-way valves are made in which the flow can go in either direction between the two
ports, when a valve is placed into a certain application, flow is often expected to go from one certain
port on the upstream side of the valve, to the other port on the downstream side. Pressure
regulators are variations of valves in which flow is controlled to produce a certain
downstream pressure, if possible. They are often used to control flow of gas from a gas cylinder. A
back-pressure regulator is a variation of a valve in which flow is controlled to maintain a certain
upstream pressure, if possible.
Three-port valves
Valves with three ports serve many different functions. A few of the possibilities are listed here.
Three-way ball valves come with a T- or L- shaped fluid passageways inside the rotor. The T valve
might be used to permit connection of one inlet to either or both outlets or connection of the two
outlets. The L valve could be used to permit disconnection of both or connection of either but not
both of two inlets to one outlet.
Shuttle valves automatically connect the higher pressure inlet to the outlet while (in some
configurations) preventing flow from one inlet to the other.
Single handle mixer valves produce a variable mixture of hot and cold water at a variable flow rate
under control of a single handle.
Thermostatic mixing valves mix hot and cold water to produce a constant temperature in the
presence of variable pressures and temperatures on the two input ports.
Four-port valves
Main article: four-way valve
A 4-port valve is a valve whose body has four ports equally spaced round the body and the disc has
two passages to connect adjacent ports. It is operated with two positions.
It can be used to isolate and to simultaneously bypass a sampling cylinder installed on a pressurized
water line. It is useful to take a fluid sample without affecting the pressure of a hydraulic system and
to avoid degassing (no leak, no gas loss or air entry, no external contamination)....
Control
Many valves are controlled manually with a handle attached to the stem. If the handle is
turned ninety degrees between operating positions, the valve is called a quarter-turn valve.
Butterfly, ball valves, and plug valves are often quarter-turn valves. If the handle is circular with the
stem as the axis of rotation in the center of the circle, then the handle is called a handwheel. Valves
can also be controlled by actuators attached to the stem. They can be electromechanical actuators
such as an electric motor or solenoid, pneumatic actuators which are controlled by air pressure,
or hydraulic actuators which are controlled by the pressure of a liquid such as oil or water. Actuators
can be used for the purposes of automatic control such as in washing machine cycles, remote control
such as the use of a centralised control room, or because manual control is too difficult such as when
the valve is very large. Pneumatic actuators and hydraulic actuators need pressurised air or liquid
lines to supply the actuator: an inlet line and an outlet line. Pilot valves are valves which are used to
control other valves. Pilot valves in the actuator lines control the supply of air or liquid going to the
actuators.
The fill valve in a toilet water tank is a liquid level-actuated valve. When a high water level is
reached, a mechanism shuts the valve which fills the tank.
In some valve designs, the pressure of the flow fluid itself or pressure difference of the flow fluid
between the ports automatically controls flow through the valve.
Other considerations
Valves are typically rated for maximum temperature and pressure by the manufacturer. The wetted
materials in a valve are usually identified also. Some valves rated at very high pressures are
available. When a designer, engineer, or user decides to use a valve for an application, he/she should
ensure the rated maximum temperature and pressure are never exceeded and that the wetted
materials are compatible with the fluid the valve interior is exposed to. In Europe, valve design and
pressure ratings are subject to statutory regulation under the Pressure Equipment
Directive 97/23/EC (PED).[1]
Some fluid system designs, especially in chemical or power plants, are schematically represented
in piping and instrumentation diagrams. In such diagrams, different types of valves are represented
by certain symbols.
Valves in good condition should be leak-free. However, valves may eventually wear out from use and
develop a leak, either between the inside or outside of the valve or, when the valve is shut to stop
flow, between the disc and the seat. A particle trapped between the seat and disc could also cause
such leakage.

2. FLUID MECHANICS BASICS

Fluid mechanics is a branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases,
and plasmas) and the forces on them. Fluid mechanics has a wide range of applications, including
for mechanical engineering, civil engineering, chemical engineering, geophysics, astrophysics,
and biology. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid
dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. It is a branch of continuum mechanics,
a subject which models matter without using the information that it is made out of atoms; that is,
it models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from microscopic. Fluid mechanics,
especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research with many problems that are partly or
wholly unsolved. Fluid mechanics can be mathematically complex, and can best be solved
by numerical methods, typically using computers. A modern discipline, called computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this approach to solving fluid mechanics problems. Particle image
velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid flow, also takes
advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid flow.
Fluid statics
Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest. It embraces
the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium; and is contrasted
with fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Hydrostatics offers physical explanations for
many phenomena of everyday life, such as why atmospheric pressure changes with altitude, why
wood and oil float on water, and why the surface of water is always flat and horizontal whatever
the shape of its container. Hydrostatics is fundamental to hydraulics, the engineering of
equipment for storing, transporting and using fluids. It is also relevant to some aspect
of geophysics and astrophysics (for example, in understanding plate tectonics and anomalies in
the Earth's gravitational field), to meteorology, to medicine (in the context of blood pressure), and
many other fields.
Fluid dynamics
Fluid dynamics is a sub discipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flow—the science of
liquids and gases in motion. Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure—which underlies
these practical disciplines—that embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow
measurement and used to solve practical problems. The solution to a fluid dynamics problem
typically involves calculating various properties of the fluid, such as velocity, pressure, density,
and temperature, as functions of space and time. It has several sub disciplines itself,
including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study
of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including
calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through
pipelines, predicting evolving weather patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space and
modeling explosions. Some fluid-dynamical principles are used in traffic engineering and crowd
dynamics.
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The
principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.
Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in various forms
of Bernoulli's equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli's equation for different types of
flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g.
most liquid flows and gases moving at low Mach number). More advanced forms may be applied
to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the Bernoulli equation).
Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that,
in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all
points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential
energy and internal energy remains constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid – implying
an increase in both its dynamic pressure and kinetic energy – occurs with a simultaneous decrease
in (the sum of) its static pressure, potential energy and internal energy. If the fluid is flowing out of
a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a reservoir the
energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure and gravitational potential ρ g h) is the same
everywhere.
Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly from Isaac Newton's Second Law of Motion. If a
small volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure, then there is more pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on the volume,
accelerating it along the streamline.
Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally
and along a section of a streamline, where the speed increases it can only be because the fluid on
that section has moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure; and if its
speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of lower pressure to a region
of higher pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed occurs
where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is highest. [8]
Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluids
The Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluids can be derived by either integrating Newton's
second law of motion or by applying the law of conservation of energy between two sections
along a streamline, ignoring viscosity, compressibility, and thermal effects.
Derivation through integrating Newton's Second Law of Motion
The simplest derivation is to first ignore gravity and consider constrictions and expansions in pipes
that are otherwise straight, as seen in Venturi effect. Let the x axis be directed down the axis of
the pipe.
Define a parcel of fluid moving through a pipe with cross-sectional area A, the length of the parcel
is dx, and the volume of the parcel A dx. If mass density is ρ, the mass of the parcel is density
multiplied by its volume m = ρA dx. The change in pressure over distance dx is dp and flow
velocity v = dx/dt
Apply Newton's second law of motion (force = mass × acceleration) and recognizing that the
effective force on the parcel of fluid is −A dp. If the pressure decreases along the length of the
pipe, dp is negative but the force resulting in flow is positive along the x axis.
m. dv/dt = F; ρA dx . dv/dt=−A dp; ρ . dv/dt= - dp/dx
In steady flow the velocity field is constant with respect to time, v = v(x) = v(x(t)), so v itself is not
directly a function of time t. It is only when the parcel moves through x that the cross sectional
area changes: v depends on t only through the cross-sectional position x(t).
dv/dt = dv/dx . dx/dt;
= dv/dx . v
= d/dx (v. v /2)

With density ρ constant, the equation of motion can be written as

d/dx (ρ . v . v / 2 + p) = 0
by integrating with respect to x
v . v / 2 + p/ ρ = C
where C is a constant, sometimes referred to as the Bernoulli constant. It is not a universal
constant, but rather a constant of a particular fluid system. The deduction is: where the speed is
large, pressure is low and vice versa.
In the above derivation, no external work–energy principle is invoked. Rather, Bernoulli's principle
was derived by a simple manipulation of Newton's second law.

A streamtube of fluid moving to the right. Indicated are pressure, elevation, flow speed, distance
(s), and cross-sectional area.

Applications
In modern everyday life there are many observations that can be successfully explained by
application of Bernoulli's principle,
The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such as a Venturi meter or an orifice
plate, which can be placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. For a horizontal
device, the continuity equation shows that for an incompressible fluid, the reduction in diameter
will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently Bernoulli's principle then shows that
there must be a decrease in the pressure in the reduced diameter region. This phenomenon is
known as the Venturi effect.
The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap at the base can be calculated
directly from Bernoulli's equation, and is found to be proportional to the square root of the height
of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, showing that Torricelli's law is compatible with
Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity lowers this drain rate. This is reflected in the discharge coefficient,
which is a function of the Reynolds number and the shape of the orifice.
Control valves are used to control conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and
liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from
controllers that compare a "set point" to a "process variable" whose value is provided by sensors
that monitor changes in such conditions.
The opening or closing of control valves is done by means of
electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic systems. Positioners are used to control the opening or
closing of the actuator based on Electric, or Pneumatic Signals. These control signals,
traditionally based on 3-15psi (0.2-1.0bar), more common now are 4-20mA signals for
industry, 0-10V for HVAC systems, & the introduction of "Smart" systems, HART, Fieldbus
Foundation, & Profibus being the more common protocols.
Control valves are normally fitted with actuators and positioners. Pneumatically actuated
globe valves and Diaphragm Valves are widely used for control purposes in many industries,
although quarter-turn types such as (modified) ball, gate and butterfly valves are also used.
Control valves can also work with hydraulic actuators (also known as hydraulic pilots). These
types of valves are known as Automatic Control Valves. The hydraulic actuators will respond to
changes of pressure or flow and will open/close the valve. Automatic Control Valves do not
require an external power source, meaning that the fluid pressure is enough to open and close
the valve. Automatic control valves include: pressure reducing valves, flow control valves, back-
pressure sustaining valves, altitude valves, and relief valves. An altitude valve controls the
level of a tank. The altitude valve will remain open while the tank is not full and it will close
when the tanks reaches its maximum level. The opening and closing of the valve requires no
external power source (electric, pneumatic, or man power).
Process plants consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of control loops all networked together
to produce a product to be offered for sale. Each of these control loops is designed to keep some
important process variable such as pressure, flow, level, temperature, etc. within a required
operating range to ensure the quality of the end product. Each of these loops receives and
internally creates disturbances that detrimentally affect the process variable, and interaction
from other loops in the network provides disturbances that influence the process variable.
To reduce the effect of these load disturbances, sensors and transmitters collect
information about the process variable and its relationship to some desired set point. A controller
then processes this information and decides what must be done to get the process variable back
to where it should be after a load disturbance occurs. When all the measuring, comparing,
and calculations are done, some type of final control element must implement the strategy
selected by the controller. The most common final control element in the process control
industries is the control valve. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam,
water, or chemical compounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated
process variable as close as possible to the desired set point.
PIPELINE & TERMINAL VALVES

Liquids and gases are transported in pipelines and any chemically stable substance can be sent
through a pipeline. Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, fuels - such as
oil, natural gas and biofuels - and other fluids including sewage, slurry, water, and beer. Pipelines are
useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigation over long distances when it needs to move
over hills, or where canals or channels are poor choices due to considerations
of evaporation, pollution, or environmental impact. Pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be
used to transport solid capsules.
Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried. The oil is moved through
the pipelines by pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are lightly
pressurised into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs). Natural gas pipelines are constructed
of carbon steel. Highly toxic ammonia is theoretically the most dangerous substance to be
transported through long-distance pipelines, but accidents have been rare. Hydrogen pipeline
transport is the transportation of hydrogen through a pipe. District heating or teleheating systems
use a network of insulated pipes which transport heated water, pressurized hot water or
sometimes steam to the customer.
Pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil, refined oil
products or natural gas over land.
Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurized into liquids knows as Natural Gas
Liquids (NGLs). Small NGL processing facilities can be located in oil fields so the butane and propane
liquid under light pressure of 125 pounds per square inch (860 kPa), can be shipped by rail, truck or
pipeline. Propane can be used as a fuel in oil fields to heat various facilities used by the oil drillers or
equipment and trucks used in the oil patch. EG: Propane will convert from a gas to a liquid under
light pressure, 100 psi, give or take depending on temperature, and is pumped into cars and trucks
at less than 125 psi (860 kPa) at retail stations. Pipelines and rail cars use about double that pressure
to pump at 250 psi (1,700 kPa).
The distance to ship propane to markets is much shorter as thousands of NGL processing plants are
located in oil fields or close by when a number of pipelines tie into each other from various relatively
close fields. Many Bakken Basin oil companies in North Dakota, Montana, Manitoba and
Saskatchewan gas fields separate the NGLs in the field, allowing the drillers to sell propane directly
to small wholesalers, eliminating the large refinery control of product and prices for propane or
butane.
Construction and operation
Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes with inner diameter typically from 4 to 48 inches
(100 to 1,220 mm). Most pipelines are typically buried at a depth of about 3 to 6 feet (0.91 to
1.83 m). To protect pipes from impact, abrasion, and corrosion, a variety of methods are used. These
can include wood lagging (wood slats), concrete coating, rockshield, high-density polyethylene,
imported sand padding, and padding machines.
Crude oil contains varying amounts of paraffin wax and in colder climates wax buildup may occur
within a pipeline. Often these pipelines are inspected and cleaned using pigging, the practice of
using devices known as "pigs" to perform various maintenance operations on a pipeline. The devices
are also known as "scrapers" or "Go-devils". "Smart pigs" (also known as "intelligent" or
"intelligence" pigs) are used to detect anomalies in the pipe such as dents, metal loss caused by
corrosion, cracking or other mechanical damage. These devices are launched from pig-launcher
stations and travel through the pipeline to be received at any other station down-stream, either
cleaning wax deposits and material that may have accumulated inside the line or inspecting and
recording the condition of the line.
For natural gas, pipelines are constructed of carbon steel and vary in size from 2 to 60 inches (51 to
1,524 mm) in diameter, depending on the type of pipeline. The gas is pressurized by compressor
stations and is odorless unless mixed with a mercaptan odorant where required by a regulating
authority.

In general, pipelines can be classified in three categories depending on purpose:

Gathering pipelines
Group of smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks with the purpose of bringing
crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment plant or processing facility. In this
group, pipelines are usually short- a couple hundred metres- and with small diameters. Sub-sea
pipelines for collecting product from deep water production platforms are also considered
gathering systems.
Transportation pipelines
Mainly long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas, refined products) between
cities, countries and even continents. These transportation networks include several compressor
stations in gas lines or pump stations for crude and multi-products pipelines.
Distribution pipelines
Composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used to take the products to
the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses downstream. Pipelines
at terminals for distributing products to tanks and storage facilities are included in this groups.
Components
Pipeline networks are composed of several pieces of equipment that operate together to move
products from location to location. The main elements of a pipeline system are:
Initial injection station
Known also as "supply" or "inlet" station, is the beginning of the system, where the product is
injected into the line. Storage facilities, pumps or compressors are usually located at these
locations.
Compressor/pump stations
Pumps for liquid pipelines and compressors for gas pipelines, are located along the line to move
the product through the pipeline. The location of these stations is defined by the topography of
the terrain, the type of product being transported, or operational conditions of the network.
Partial delivery station
Known also as "intermediate stations", these facilities allow the pipeline operator to deliver part
of the product being transported.
Block valve station
These are the first line of protection for pipelines. With these valves the operator can isolate any
segment of the line for maintenance work or isolate a rupture or leak. Block valve stations are
usually located every 20 to 30 miles (48 km), depending on the type of pipeline. Even though it is
not a design rule, it is a very usual practice in liquid pipelines. The location of these stations
depends exclusively on the nature of the product being transported, the trajectory of the pipeline
and/or the operational conditions of the line.
Regulator station
This is a special type of valve station, where the operator can release some of the pressure from
the line. Regulators are usually located at the downhill side of a peak.
Final delivery station
Known also as "outlet" stations or terminals, this is where the product will be distributed to the
consumer. It could be a tank terminal for liquid pipelines or a connection to a distribution network
for gas pipelines.
3. TYPES OF VALVES AND THEIR BROAD APPLICATION AREAS

Gate valves
Gate valves are primarily designed to start or stop a flow when a straight line flow of fluid and
minimum flow restriction are needed. In service, these valves are pretty much kept either fully
open, or fully closed.
When turned open, the disc of the gate is completely removed allowing contents to pass.
Although this gives the valve good shut-off properties and is bidirectional, they cannot be quickly
opened or closed and are sensitive to vibration when open.

Ball valves
A ball valve is a quarter-turn rotational motion valve that used a ball-shaped disk to control a flow.
If the valve is opened, the holes in the ball stay in line with the body inlet allowing contents to
pass.
The balls are generally made out of several metallics whilst the seats are made from soft materials
like Teflon. The combination of materials means the ball valve can operate at temperatures as low
as -200 deg C and as high as 500 deg C.
Mainly used for air, gases and liquids, ball valves are quick to turn on and off and have a tight
sealing with low torque. The only downside to these valves are the lack of throttling properties
available.
Ball valves are made out of several metallics whilst the seats are made from soft materials like
Teflon. The combination of materials means the ball valve can operate at temperatures as low as -
200 deg C and as high as 500 deg C.
Mainly used for air, gases and liquids, ball valves are quick to turn on and off and have a tight
sealing with low torque. The only downside to these valves are the lack of throttling properties
available.
- Trunnion-mounted ball valves
- Floating ball valves
- Full-welded ball valves

Globe valves

Typically used for cooling water systems, transporting fuel oil and turbine lube oil systems, a globe
valve is a linear motion valve used to stop, start and regulate flow.

Conventionally used for isolation and throttling services, the globe has become the world's most
common types of valves. With a good shut off ability, available in tee, wye and angle patterns and
easy to machine the valve seats - its easy to see why they are so popular.
The slight disadvantages of the globe are that they perform unfavourably when high pressure
drops, and require greater force or throttling flow under the seat to shut off valve.

Bellow sealed valves

There are two main types of bellow, the forged and the welded versions. Forged bellows are
usually made from a thin wall of foil in a tube which is then longitudinally fusion welded.

The welded versions are made by welding washer-like plates of thin metal together at both the
inner and outer circumference of the washers.

Traditionally made from stainless steel, they are most commonly used in conjunction with gate or
globe designs due to their internal construction and axial movement of the valve stem.

In Bellow sealed valves, conventional gland packing is replaced by a bellows cartridge welded to
the valve bonnet and stem. A bellow is a long accordion-like tube. As the valve stem strokes, the
bellows expands or compresses with the stroke movement. There are no sliding or rotating seals
through which process fluid can pass.

Breather valves

Also known as vacuum relief valves, breather valves are a special type of relief valve designed for
tank protection. The valves prevent the build up of excessive pressure or vacuum which can
unbalance the system or damage the storage vessel.

Pressure and vacuum protection levels are usually controlled with weighted pallets and can be
combined to meet the required settings. This valve must be used in accordance with the American
Petroleum Institute's API standard 2000 for venting atmospheric and low pressure storage tanks.

Butterfly valves

A quarter-turn rotational motion valve, the butterfly valves is used to stop, start and regulate flow.
Easy and fast to open, the valve usually comes equipt with a gearbox where the hand wheel by
gear is connected to they stem.

This simplifies the operation of the valve, but at the expense of speed. These valves must also be
installed a minimum of 6 pipe diameters away from other line elements.

As well as being lightweight, and quick to use, the butterfly valves are available in large sizes and
can cope with low-pressure drop and high-pressure recovery.
- Centric butterfly valves with soft seated, it used to cut off the flow like air, water, oil and other
fluids. This type of butterfly valves have extended life cycles and lower cost of competing valves.

- High-performance butterfly valves are used to isolate and modulate a variety of media.

- Triple offset butterfly valves with blowout-proof stem and metal-to-metal seat, zero leakage
performance. To make sure it suitables for extreme pressures and temperatures.

Plug valves

A plug valve uses a tapered or cylindrical plug to stop or start a flow. In open position, the plug-
passage is in one line with the inlet and outlet ports. If the plugis rotated from the open position,
the solid part of the plug blocks the port and stops the flow.

These are quick to turn off, smaller in size compared to most valves and has minimal resistance
flow. However, they do have a reduced port due to tapered plugs and requires a large force to
actuate, due to high friction.

Check valves
Check valves are used to protect mechanical equipment in a piping system by preventing reversal
of flow by the fluid. This is particularly important in the case of pumps and compressors, where
back flow could damage the internals of the equipment and cause an unnecessary shutdown of
the system and in severe cases the complete plant.

SAFETY RELIEF VALVES

Safety valves are installed on equipment to prevent over-pressure (or excess vacuum), which could
cause damage, rupture or collapse of the equipment.

Where the type installed is to prevent excess vacuum, they are normally referred to as 'Vacuum
Breakers'.

A safety valve will have a lifting set pressure higher (about 1.5 times) than the operating pressure
of the system but well below the design maximum pressure allowed.

In the conventional type, the pressure of the valve discharge line will affect the set pressure of the
valve by giving a back-pressure on the valve plug.

In the bellows type, the bellows isolates the plug from the back-pressure and therefore there is no
effect on the valve setting.
The following diagram is of a conventional safety relief valve. All safety valves have the same
purpose of protecting equipment from over-pressure. Different makers have their own designs.

SAFETY RELIEF VALVE

VALVE P&ID SYMBOLS
The most common mechanical device used in plants is the valve. Valves in any piping system serve
four basic functions:
 Shut off or open a system to fluid flow

 Regulate or throttle any fluid flow

 Prevent backflow

 Relieve pressure

Valve installation may be in the normally-open position or the normally-closed position,

depending on the particular requirements. For example, an unloading valve at a storage tank is
normally closed. The valve would only be opened when the tank's contents are required to be
discharged. An example of a normally-open valve would be a pump discharge valve.
For functions that require only a fully-open or fully-closed position during operation, the gate
valve is the valve of choice. When the flow has to be regulated or throttled by only partial opening
of the valve, the globe or angle valve is much preferred. Check valves have only one main function
to perform, and that is the prevention of backflow in any system. A particular application for a
check valve is on the discharge side of a pump.
Besides these three categories, there are many other valve types available, and each type may
have its own particular application. Often, two or more valve styles can fulfill the same service
requirements. For instance, ball valves and plug valves have different body styles but are suitable
for similar use.
The main categories of valves used in plants and piping service are as follows:
 Block valves
 Throttle valves
 Automatic control valves
 Check valves
 Pressure relief valves
Valves come in a wide range of sizes from 1/4 inch to 42 inches and sometimes larger. Valves are
classified according to the pressure they can withstand. Valves come in pressure class ratings of
150, 300, 400, 600, 800, 900, 1500, 2500, and 4500 pounds per square inch (PSI).

Note: Class 800 is not normally tabulated ASME B16.34 designation, but it is an intermediate
class that is widely used for socket welding and threaded end valves.

Valves are designed to meet specific operating needs. The type of process and the characteristics
of the process material will determine the type, class, size, and function of the valve. Not only is
there an assortment of various valve types, but there is also a choice of materials, various pressure
ratings, and finally the type of connection in a given piping system. There is also a choice of the
various types of manual, mechanical, and automatic controlled operators. Some things that
determine the type of valve used are:
 Speed of operation required
 Amount of positive shut-off required
 Highly erosive or corrosive service
 Temperature of the process material
 Pressure in the piping system
 Amount of vibration present
 Available space
 Expense
4. VALVE BASICS

A basic control system would normally consist of the following components:

Control valves
Actuators
Controllers
Sensors

All of these terms are generic and each can include many variations and characteristics. With the
advance technology, the dividing line between individual items of equipment and their
definitions are becoming less clear. For example, the positioner, which traditionally adjusted the
valve to a particular position within its range of travel, can now take input directly from a
sensor and provide a control function, iinterface with a computer to alter the control functions,
and perform diagnostic routines, modify the valve movements to alter the characteristics of the
control valve.

Control Valves

A wide variety of valve types exist.

These include valve types which have linear and rotary spindle movement. Linear types include
globe valves and slide/ gate valves.
Rotary types include ball valves, butterfly valves, plug valves and their variants. The first choice to
be made is between two-port and three-port valves.
Two-port valves 'throttle' (restrict) the fluid passing through them.
Three-port valves can be used to 'mix' or 'divert' liquid passing through them.
Two-port valves

Globe valves

Globe valves are frequently used for control applications because of their suitability for throttling
flow and the ease with which they can be given a specific 'characteristic', relating valve opening to
flow.
Two typical globe valve types are shown in Figure. An actuator coupled to the valve spindle would
provide valve movement.

Two differently shaped globe valves

The major constituent parts of globe valves are:

The body

The bonnet

The valve seat and valve plug, or trim

The valve spindle (which connects to the actuator)

The sealing arrangement between the valve stem and the bonnet

Figure below is a representation of a single seat two-port globe valve. In this case the fluid flow
is pushed against the valve plug and tending to keep the plug off the valve seat.
 Flow through a single seat, two-port globe valve

The difference in upstream pressure (P1) and downstream pressure (P2) of the valve, against
which the valve must close, is known as the differential pressure (DP). The maximum differential
pressure against which a valve can close will depend upon the size and type of valve and the
actuator operating it. In broad terms, the force required from the actuator may be determined
using Equation

Where:

A = Valve seating area (m²)

= Differential pressure (kPa)

F = Closing force required (kN)

In a steam system, the maximum differential pressure is usually assumed to be the same as the
upstream absolute pressure. This allows for possible vacuum conditions downstream of the valve
when the valve closes. The differential pressure in a closed water system is the maximum
pump differential head.

If a larger valve, having a larger orifice, is used to pass greater volumes of the medium, then the
force that the actuator must develop in order to close the valve will also
increase. When very large capacities must be passed using large valves, or when very high
differential pressures exist, the point will be reached where it becomes impractical to provide
sufficient force to close a conventional single seat valve. The traditional solution to this
problem is the double seat two-port valve.

As the name implies, the double seat valve has two valve plugs on a common spindle, with
two valve seats. Not only can the valve seats be kept smaller (since there are two of them) but
also, as can be seen in Figure, the forces are partially balanced. This means that although the
differential pressure is trying to keep the top valve plug off its seat (as with a single seat valve) it
is also trying to push down and close the lower valve plug.

Flow through a double seat, two-port valve

However, a potential problem exists with any double seat valve. Because of manufacturing
tolerances and differing coefficients of expansion, few double seat valves can be guaranteed to
give good shut-off tightness.

Shut-off tightness

Control valve leakage is classified with respect to how much the valve will leak when fully closed.
The leakage rate across a standard double seat valve is at best Class III, (a leakage of 0.1% of full
flow) which may be too much to make it suitable for certain applications. Consequently, because
the flow paths through the two-ports are different, the forces may not remain in balance when
the valve opens.
Various international standards exist that formalize leakage rates in control valves. The leakage
rates are given by the British Standard BS 5793 Part 4 (IEC 60534-4). For an unbalanced
standard single seat valve, the leakage rate will normally be Class IV, (0.01% of full flow),
although it is possible to obtain Class V, (1.8 x 10-5 x differential pressure (bar) x seat diameter
(mm). Generally, the lower the leakage rate the more the cost.

Balanced single seat valves

Because of the leakage problem associated with double seat valves, when a tight shut- off is
required a single seat valve should be specified. The forces required to shut a single seat
globe valve increase considerably with valve size. Some valves are designed with a balancing
mechanism to reduce the closing force necessary, especially on valves operating with large
differential pressures. In a piston-balanced valve, some of the upstream fluid pressure is
transmitted via internal pathways into a space above the valve plug, which acts as a pressure
balancing chamber. The pressure contained in this chamber provides a downforce on the valve
plug as shown in Figure, balancing the upstream pressure and assisting the normal force exerted
by the actuator, to close the valve.

A steam control valve with piston balancing

Slide / Gate valves, spindle operated

Slide valves tend to come in two different designs; wedge gate type and parallel slide type. Both
types are well suited for isolating fluid flow, as they give a tight shut-off and, when open, the
pressure drop across them is very small. Both types are used as manually operated valves,
but if automatic actuation is required, the parallel slide valve is usually chosen, whether for
isolation or control. Typical valves are shown in Figure

Wedge gate valve and parallel slide valve (manual operation)

The parallel slide valve closes by means of two spring loaded sliding disks (springs not shown),
which pass across the flow-path of the fluid, the fluid pressure ensuring a tight joint between the
downstream disk and its seat. Large size parallel slide valves are used in main steam and
feedlines in the power and process industries to isolate sections of the plant. Small-bore
parallel slides are also used for the control of ancillary steam and water services although, mainly
due to cost, these tasks are often carried out using actuated ball valves and piston type valves.

Rotary type valves

Rotary type valves, often called quarter-turn valves, include plug valves, ball valves and butterfly
valves. All require a rotary motion to open and close, and can easily be fitted with actuators
Eccentric plug valves

Figure shows a typical eccentric plug valve. These valves are normally installed with the plug
spindle horizontal as shown, and the attached actuator situated alongside thevalve.
Plug valves may include linkages between the plug and actuator to improve the leverage and
closing force, and special positioners that modify the inherent valve characteristic to a more
useful equal percentage characteristic.

Side view of an eccentric plug valve (shown in a partially open position) Ball valves

Ball Valves

Figure shows a ball valve consisting of a spherical ball located between two sealing rings in a
simple body form. The ball has a hole allowing fluid to pass through. When aligned with the pipe
ends, this gives either full bore or nearly full bore flow with very little pressure drop. Rotating
the ball through 90° opens and closes the flow passage. Ball valves designed specifically for
control purposes will have characterized balls or seats, to give a predictable flow pattern.
Ball valves are an economic means of providing control with tight shut-off for many fluids
including steam at temperatures up to 250°C (38 bar g, saturated steam). Above this
temperature, special seat materials or metal-to-metal seatings are necessary, which can be
expensive. Ball valves are easily actuated and often used for remote isolation and control. For
critical control applications, segmented balls and balls with specially shaped holes are available to
provide different flow characteristics.
 Ball valve (shown in a fully open position)

Butterfly valves

Figure is a simple schematic diagram of a butterfly valve, which consists of a disc rotating in
trunnion bearings. In the open position the disc is parallel to the pipe wall, allowing full flow
through the valve. In the closed position it is rotated against a seat, and perpendicular to the
pipe wall.

Traditionally, butterfly valves were limited to low pressures and temperatures, due to the
inherent limitations of the soft seats used. Currently, valves with higher temperature
seats or high quality and specially machined metal-to-metal seats are available to overcome
these drawbacks. Standard butterfly valves are now used in simple control applications,
particularly in larger sizes and where limited turndown is required.
 Butterfly valve (shown in its open position)

Special butterfly valves are available for more demanding duties. A fluid
flowing through a butterfly valve creates a low pressure drop, in that the valve presents little
resistance to flow when open. In general however, their differential pressure limits are lower
than those for globe valves. Ball valves are similar except that, due to their different sealing
arrangements, they can operate against higher differential pressures than equivalent butterfly
valves.
Options

There are always a number of options to consider when choosing a control valve. For globe
valves, these include a choice of spindle gland packing material and gland packing
configurations, which are designed to make the valve suitable for use on higher temperatures or
for different fluids. Some examples of these can be seen in the simple schematic diagrams in
Figure. It is worth noting that certain types of gland packing produce a greater friction with
the valve spindle than others. For example, the traditional stuffing box type of packing will
create greater friction than the PTFE spring- loaded chevron type or bellows sealed type.
Greater friction requires a higher actuator force and will have an increased
propensity for haphazard movement.

Spring-loaded packing re-adjusts itself as it wears. This reduces the need for regular manual
maintenance. Bellows sealed valves are the most expensive of these three types, but provide
minimal friction with the best stem sealing mechanism. As can be seen in Figure, bellows sealed
valves usually have another set of traditional packing at the top of the valve spindle housing.
This will act as a final defence against any chance of leaking through the spindle to atmosphere.

Alternative gland packings

Valves also have different ways of guiding the valve plug inside the body. One common
guidance method, as depicted in Figure, is the 'double guided' method, where the
spindle is guided at both the top and the bottom of its length. Another type is the

'guided plug' method where the plug may be guided by a cage or a frame. Some valves can
employ perforated plugs, which combine plug guidance and noise reduction.

Guiding arrangements

Summary of two-port valves used for automatic control

By far the most widely used valve type for the automatic control of steam processes and
applications is the globe valve. It is relatively easy to actuate, it is versatile, and has inherent
characteristics well suited to the automatic control needs of steam.

It should also be said that two-port automatic control valves are also used within liquid
systems, such as low, medium and high temperature hot water systems, and thermal oil
systems. Liquid systems carry an inherent need to be balanced with regard to mass flows.
In many instances, systems are designed where two-port valves can be used without
destroying the balance of distribution networks.

However, when two-port valves cannot be used on a liquid system, three-port valves are
installed, which inherently maintain a balance across the distribution system, by acting in a
diverting or mixing fashion.
Three-port valves

Three-port valves can be used for either mixing or diverting service depending upon the plug and
seat arrangement inside the valve. A simple definition of each function is shown in Figure
 Three-port valve definition

There are three basic types of three-port valve:

Piston valve type

Globe plug type
Rotating shoe type

Piston valves

Piston valve (shown as a diverting valve)

This type of valve has a hollow piston, which is moved up and down by the actuator, covering and
correspondingly uncovering the two-ports A and B. Port A and port B have the same overall fluid
transit area and, at any time, the cumulative cross- sectional area of both is always equal. For
instance, if port A is 30% open, port B is 70% open, and vice versa. This type of valve is inherently
balanced and is powered by a self- acting control system.

Globe type three-port valves (also called 'lift and lay')

Here, the actuator pushes a disc or pair of valve plugs between two seats (Figure), increasing or
decreasing the flow through ports A and B in a corresponding manner.
Needle Valve

Needle valves generally are used for instrument, gauge, and meter line service. Very accurate
throttling is possible with needle valves and, therefore, they are extensively used in applications
that involve high pressures and/or high temperatures. In needle valves, the end of the stem is
needle point.
Figure shows a needle valve. Figure shows the drawing symbol for a needle valve.

Needle valve

A needle valve has six main parts, which are listed below:
o Needle
o Bonnet
o Seat
o Body
o Stem
o Hand wheel

Diaphragm Valve

Diaphragm valves are multi-turn, corrosion-proof valves used to control the flow of corrosive and
dangerous system products. This is accomplished by changing the position of a flexible diaphragm
between the fully-closed and fully-open positions. As such, they may be operated open, throttled,
or closed. Figure shows a diaphragm valve in the fully-open position. Figure shows a diaphragm
valve throttling the flow.
A diaphragm valve is a pack less valve that uses a flexible diaphragm, which functions as both a
closure and a seal. When the compressor is screwed down, it forces the flexible diaphragm against
a seat, or dam, in the valve body and blocks the flow of fluid. Figure shows a diaphragm valve fully-
closed.
All diaphragm valves are bidirectional. Diaphragm valves offer advantages in certain low-pressure
applications not possible with other types of valves. Their fluid passages are smooth and
streamlined, minimizing pressure drop. They are suitable for moderate throttling applications, and
they exhibit excellent leak-tight characteristics, even when conveying liquids containing suspended
solids. The fluid stream is isolated from the working parts of the valve, preventing contamination
of the fluid and corrosion of the operating mechanism. Since there is no leak path around the
valve stem, the valve is virtually leak tight. This feature makes the valve indispensable where
leakage into or out of the system cannot be tolerated.
The maximum pressure that these valves can be subjected to is a function of the diaphragm
material and the service temperature. In addition, the rated design life of the valve is influenced
by the service conditions. Furthermore, the system hydrostatic test pressure must not exceed the
maximum pressure rating of the diaphragm.

Construction of a Diaphragm Valve

Diaphragm valves consist mainly of the following (See also Figure):
o A rigid body formed with a weir placed in the flow path,
o A flexible diaphragm which forms the upper pressure boundary of the valve,
o A compressor which is used to force the diaphragm against the weir,
o The bonnet and hand wheel which secure the diaphragm to the body and actuate the
compressor
o Stem
o Seat
Diaphragm valves are manufactured in a variety of end connections: welding end socket or butt
welding; flanged, screwed, or threaded; clamp ends or grooved ends; solvent cement joint ends
for themoplastic valves; and male sanitary threaded ends.
The valve body is available in two patterns: tee-pattern and angle pattern. Diaphragm valves are
available in a wide choice of body, diaphragm, and lining materials that are suitable for service
with a wide variety of chemicals.
For severe corrosive applications, diaphragm valves are made of stainless steel or PVC plastics, or
they are lined with glass, rubber, lead, plastics, titanium, or still other materials.
Adjustable travel stops are used to prevent excessive compression of the diaphragm. The
adjustable travel stop can be enclosed in a temper-proof housing. The temper-proof housing
prevents inadvertent mishandling after the travel length is set. It requires a special tool to open
the housing and to make an adjustment in the travel length. When an actuator is required, it
should be sized and tested by the valve manufacturer and furnished with the valve as an
assembled unit with settings made and verified in the shop.
Types of Diaphragm Valves
Primarily there are two basic designs of diaphragm valves: weir and straight-through types. The
body interior and the end flanges can be lined to make the diaphragm valves suitable for corrosive
applications. Various lining materials can be used, depending upon the application.
Weir-Type Diaphragm Valves
In weir-type diaphragm valves, a weir forms an integral part of the valve body. The weir acts as the
valve seat against which the diaphragm is compressed to stop the flow. This type of diaphragm
valve is generally produced in large sizes. The raised weir reduces the amount of diaphragm travel
from the fully open to the fully closed position, thus reducing the amount of stress and strain in
the diaphragm.
Straight-Through Diaphragm Valves
Variations of the weir diaphragm valve are the straightway (Figure) and the full-bore types. When
the straightway valve is open, its diaphragm lifts high for full streamline flow in either direction.
When the valve is closed, the diaphragm seals tight for positive closure even with gritty or fibrous
materials in the line. The full-bore type of valve is most extensively used in the beverage industry.
It permits ball-brush cleaning with either steam or caustic soda, without opening or removing the
valve from the line.
Advantages of Diaphragm Valves
o Can be used as on-off and throttling service valves.
o Offer good chemical resistance due to variety of linings available.
o Stem leakage is eliminated.
o Does not have pockets to trap solids, slurries, and other impurities. It is suitable for
slurries and viscous fluids.
o These valves are particularly suitable for hazardous chemicals and radioactive
fluids.
o These valves do not permit contamination of flow medium, thus they are
used extensively in food processing, pharmaceutical, brewing, and other
Disadvantages of Diaphragm Valves
o The weir may prevent full drainage of piping.
o Working temperatures and pressures are limited by the diaphragm material.
o Generally, the pressures are limited to 200 psi (1380 kPa) and temperatures up
to 400°F (204°C).
o The diaphragm may also limit the hydrostatic pressure.
o The diaphragm may experience erosion when used extensively in severe throttling
service containing impurities.
o Diaphragm valves are available in limited sizes, usually NPS1½ - 12 (DN 15 to 300)

Check Valves

A check valve is used to prevent backflow. The system product is often required to flow in one
direction only. The check valve prevents the product from ever flowing in the wrong direction

Swing-Type Check Valve

When the system product is flowing, a disc inside the valve is forced open allowing the product to
flow (See Figure If flow direction changes (backflow), the disc swings down onto a seat and the
valve is closed.
An arrow on the valve body indicates the required direction of flow through the valve. The valve
must be installed with the arrow pointing in the normal direction of product flow.
A swing-type check valve has six main parts as follows (See also Figure):

o Disc
o Pivot pin
o Disc seat
o Body
o Pivot arm
o Flange

Main parts of a swing-type check valve

Lift Check and Ball Check Valve

The lift check valve and the ball check valve depend upon the force of gravity for closure. If
product flow in the proper direction should stop, gravity will force the ball type and lift-type of
check valves to close.
A lift-type or ball-type of check valve designed for horizontal operation will not function properly
in the vertical position. Figure shows a lift-type of check valve for horizontal installation, and
Figure shows a lift-type of check valve for vertical installation. Figure shows a ball-type of check
valve for horizontal installation, and Figure shows a ball-type of check valve for vertical
installation.

Lift-type check valve

Another type of check valve is the piston type shown in Figure which shows a lift-type of check
valve while Figure shows a ball-type of check valve. The function of all check valves, regardless of
the type, is to prevent backflow.
Advantages of Check Valves
o They are self-actuated and require no external means to actuate the valve either to
open or close. They are fast acting.
Disadvantages of Check Valves
o Since all moving parts are enclosed, it is difficult to determine whether the valve is
open or closed. Furthermore, the condition of internal parts cannot be assessed.
o Each type of check valve has limitations on its installation configurations.
o Valve disc can stick in open position.
5. CONTROL VALVE CAPACITY AND FLOW COEFFICIENT

Valves need to be measured on their capacity to pass fluid. To enable fair comparison, valves are
sized on a capacity index or flow coefficient. This section explains the different types of
flow coefficient in use, how they are established, how they compare, and typical values for
different sized valves.

Introduction to Valve Capacity

A control valve must, as its name suggests, have a controlling influence on the process. Whilst
details such as connection sizes and materials of construction are vitally important, they do not
give any indication of the control exerted by the valve.
Control valves adjust processes by altering:

Flowrate - For example, the amount of steam or water that enters the process equipment. for
example, With a two-port valve , as the valve moves to the closed position, less steam flows, and
less heat is added to the process.
With a three-port valve, as the valve plug moves to a new position, it diverts hot water away from
the process.
And/or Differential pressure - This is defined as the difference between the pressure at the valve
inlet and the pressure at the valve outlet (see Figure).
For any given valve orifice size, the greater the differential pressure the greater the flowrate,
within certain limitations.
With saturated steam, the lower its pressure, the lower its temperature, and less heat transfer will
occur in the heat exchanger.
(a) Flowrate and (b) Differential pressure these two factors are brought together as a flow
coefficient or 'capacity index' as it is sometimes termed.
 Differential pressure across a valve

The flow coefficient allows:

 The performance of valves to be compared

 The differential pressure across a valve to be determined from any flowrate
 The flowrate through a control valve to be determined for a given differential
pressure.

Because many different units of measurement are used around the world, a number of flow
coefficients are available, and it is worthwhile understanding their definitions. Table identifies
and defines the most commonly encountered capacity indices.

The flow coefficient, Kvs for a control valve is essential information, and is usually stated, along
with its other data, on the manufacturer's technical data sheets.
Symbols and definitions used to identify and quantify flow through a control valve
For conversion:

C v (Imperial) = K v x 0.962 658

C v (US) = K v x 1.156 099

Av = 2.88 x 10-5 C v (Imperial)

Control valve manufacturers will usually offer a number of trim sizes (combination of valve seat
and valve plug) for a particular valve size. This may be to simplify the pipework by
eliminating the need for reducers, or to reduce noise.

A typical range of Kvs flow coefficients available for a selection of valves is shown below

Kvs values for a typical range of valves

The relationship between flowrates, differential pressures, and the flow coefficients will vary
depending upon the type of fluid flowing through the valve.
6. CONTROL VALVE SIZING - WATER SYSTEMS

Sizing valves for water service

In order to size a valve for a water application, the following must be known:

The volumetric flowrate through the valve

The differential pressure across the valve in terms of Kv (bar), that is units of m³/h bar,
unless otherwise stated.

The control valve can be sized to operate at a certain differential pressure by using a graph
relating flowrate, pressure drop, and valve flow coefficients.

Alternatively, the flow coefficient may be calculated using a formula. Once determined, the flow
coefficient is used to select the correct sized valve from the manufacturer's technical data.

Historically, the formula for flow coefficient was derived using Imperial units, offering
measurement in terms of gallons/minute with a differential pressure of one pound per square
inch. There are two versions of the Imperial coefficient, a British version and an American
version, and care must be taken when using them because each one is different, even though the
adopted symbol for both versions is 'Cv'. The British version uses Imperial gallons, whilst the
American version uses American gallons, which is 0.833 the volume of an Imperial gallon. The
adopted symbol for both versions is C v.

The metric version of flow coefficient was originally derived in terms of cubic metres an hour
(m³/h) of flow for a differential pressure measured in kilogram force per square metre (kgf/m²).
This definition had been derived before an agreed European standard existed that defined Kv in
terms of SI units (bar). However, an SI standard has existed since 1987 in the form of IEC 534 -1
(Now EN 60534 -1). The standard definition now relates flowrate in terms of m³/h for a
differential pressure of 1 bar. Both metric versions are still used with the adopted symbol Kv, and
although the difference between them is quite small, it is important to be certain or to make
clear which one is being used. Some manufacturers mistakenly quote Kv conversion values
without qualifying the unit of pressure differential.
Table below converts the different types of flow coefficient mentioned above.

Table 4.1 Multiplication factors for flow coefficient conversion between Kv and Cv

For example, multiply Kv (bar) by 1.16 to convert to Cv (US).

For liquid flow generally, the formula for Kv is

Where:

Kv = Flow of liquid that will create a pressure drop of 1 bar (m³/ h bar)

= Flowrate (m³/h)

= Relative density/specific gravity of the liquid (dimensionless). Note: Relative

G density is a ratio of the mass of a liquid to the mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C

ΔP = Pressure drop across the valve (bar)

Sometimes, the volumetric flowrate needs to be determined, using the valve flow
coefficient and differential pressure.
Rearranging Equation 4.1 gives:

For water, G = 1, consequently the equation for water may be simplified to that shown in
Equation 4.2.
Pumps

Unlike steam systems, liquid systems require a pump to circulate the liquid. Centrifugal pumps
are often used, which have a characteristic curve similar to the one shown in Figure. Note that as
the flowrate increases, the pump discharge pressure falls as under:

Typical pump performance curve

Circulation system characteristics

It is important not only to consider the size of a water control valve, but also the system in which
the water circulates; this can have a bearing on which type and size of valve is used, and
where it should be positioned within the circuit.

As water is circulated through a system, it will incur frictional losses. These frictional losses may
be expressed as pressure loss, and will increase in proportion to the square of the velocity. The
flowrate can be calculated through a pipe of constant bore at any other pressure loss by using
Equation where 1 and 2 must be in the same units, and P1 and P2 must be in the same units.
1, 2, P1 and P2 are defined below.

Where:
1 = Flowrate at pressure loss P1

2 = Flowrate at pressure loss P2

Example

It is observed that the flowrate ( 1) through a certain sized pipe is 2500 m³/h when the
pressure loss (P1) is 4 bar. Determine the pressure loss (P2) if the flowrate ( 2) were
3500 m3/h, using equation

It can be seen that as more liquid is pumped through the same size pipe, the flowrate will
increase. On this basis, a system characteristic curve, like the one shown in Figure can be
created using Equation where the flowrate increases in accordance to the square law.
Typical system curve
It can be observed from the pump and system characteristics, that as the flowrate and friction
increase, the pump provides less pressure. A situation is eventually reached where the pump
pressure equals the friction around the circuit, and the flowrate can increase no further.
If the pump curve and the system characteristic curve are plotted on the same chart - Figure
the point at which the pump curve and the system characteristic curve intersect will be the
actual performance of the pump/circuit combination.

Typical system performance curve

Two-port Valves

When a two-port valve is used on a water system, as the valve closes, flow will decrease and the
pressure upstream of the valve will increase. Changes in pump head will occur as the control
valve throttles towards a closed position. The effects are illustrated

A fall in flowrate not only increases the pump pressure but may also increase the power
consumed by the pump. The change in pump pressure may be used as a signal to operate
two or more pumps of varying duties, or to provide a signal to variable speed pump drive(s). This
enables pumping rates to be matched to demand, saving pumping power costs.

Two port control valves are used to control water flow to a process, for example, for steam
boiler level control, or to maintain the water level in a feedtank.
They may also be used on heat exchange processes, however, when the two-port valve is
closed, the flow of water in the section of pipe preceding the control valve is stopped, creating a
'dead-leg'. The water in the dead-leg may lose temperature to the environment. When the
control valve is opened again, the cooler water will enter the heat exchange coils, and disturb the
process temperature. To avoid this situation, the control system may include an arrangement
to maintain a minimum flow via a small bore pipe and adjustable globe valve, which bypass
the control valve and load circuit.

Two-port valves are used successfully on large heating circuits, where a multitude of valves are
incorporated into the overall system. On large systems it is highly unlikely that all the two-
port valves are closed at the same time, resulting in an inherent 'self- balancing' characteristic.
These types of systems also tend to use variable speed pumps that alter their flow characteristics
relative to the system load requirements; this assists the self-balancing operation.

Effect of two-port valve on pump head and pressure

When selecting a two-port control valve for an application:
If a hugely undersized two-port control valve were installed in a system, the pump would use a
large amount of energy simply to pass sufficient water through the valve. Assuming sufficient
water could be forced through the valve, control would be accurate because even small
increments of valve movement would result in changes in flowrate. This means that the entire
travel of the valve might be utilised to achieve control.
If a hugely oversized two-port control valve were installed in the same system, the energy
required from the pump would be reduced, with little pressure drop across the valve in the
fully open position.
However, the initial valve travel from fully open towards the closed position would have little
effect on the flowrate to the process. When the point was reached where control was achieved,
the large valve orifice would mean that very small increments of valve travel would have a large
effect on flowrate.
This could result in erratic control with poor stability and accuracy.
A compromise is required, which balances the good control achieved with a small valve against
the reduced energy loss from a large valve. The choice of valve will influence the size of pump,
and the capital and running costs. It is good practice to consider these parameters, as they will
have a bearing on the overall lifetime cost of the system.

These balances can be realised by calculating the 'valve authority' relative to the system in which
it is installed.
Valve authority

Valve authority may be determined using Equation

Where:

N = Valve authority

ΔP1 = Pressure drop across a fully open control valve

ΔP2 = Pressure drop across the remainder of the circuit

ΔP1 + ΔP2 = Pressure drop across the whole circuit

The value of N should be near to 0.5 (but not greater than), and certainly not lower than 0.2.

This will ensure that each increment of valve movement will have an effect on the flowrate
without excessively increasing the cost of pumping power.
Example

A circuit has a total pressure drop (ΔP1 + ΔP2) of 125 kPa, which includes the control valve.
a) If the control valve must have a valve authority (N) of 0.4, what pressure drop is used to size
the valve?
b) If the circuit/system flowrate ( ) is 3.61 l/s, what is the required valve Kv?

Part a) Determine the ΔP

Consequently, a valve ∆p of 50 kPa is used to size the valve, leaving 75 kPa (125 kPa - 50 kPa) for
the remainder of the circuit.

Part b) Determine the required KV

Where:

= 3.61 l/s (13m³/h)

ΔP = 50 kPa (0.5 bar)

Cavitation and flashing

Other symptoms sometimes associated with water flowing through two-port valves are due to
'cavitation' and 'flashing'.
Cavitation in liquids

Cavitation can occur in valves controlling the flow of liquid if the pressure drop and hence
the velocity of the flow is sufficient to cause the local pressure after the valve seat to drop
below the vapour pressure of the liquid. This causes vapour bubbles to form. Pressure may
then recover further downstream causing vapour bubbles to rapidly collapse. As the bubbles
collapse very high local pressures are generated which, if adjacent to metal surfaces can cause
damage to the valve trim, the valve body or downstream pipework. This damage typically has
a very rough, porous or sponge-like appearance which is easily recognised. Other effects which
may be noticed include noise, vibration and accelerated corrosion due to the repeated removal of
protective oxide layers.
Cavitation will tend to occur in control valves:
On high pressure drop applications, due to the high velocity in the valve seat area causing a
local reduction in pressure where the downstream pressure is not much higher than the
vapour pressure of the liquid. This means that cavitation is more likely with hot liquids and/or
low downstream pressure.
Cavitation damage is likely to be more severe with larger valves sizes due to the
increased power in the flow.
Flashing in liquids

Flashing is a similar symptom to cavitation, but occurs when the valve outlet pressure is lower
than the vapour pressure condition. Under these conditions, the pressure does not recover in
the valve body, and the vapour will continue to flow into the connecting pipe. The vapour
pressure will eventually recover in the pipe and the collapsing vapour will cause noise similar to
that experienced with cavitation. Flashing will reduce the capacity of the valve due to the
throttling effect of the vapour having a larger volume than the water. Figure illustrates typical
pressure profiles through valves due to the phenomenon of cavitation and flashing.

Cavitation and flashing through a water control valve

Avoiding cavitation

It is not always possible to ensure that the pressure drop across a valve and the temperature of
the water is such that cavitation will not occur. Under these circumstances, one possible solution
is to install a valve with a valve plug and seat especially designed to overcome the problem. A set
of such internals would be classified as 'anti-cavitation' trim.
The anti-cavitation trim consists of the standard equal percentage valve plug operating inside a
valve seat fitted with a perforated cage. Normal flow direction is used. The pressure drop is split
between the characterised plug and the cage which limits the pressure drop in each stage and
hence the lowest pressures occur. The multiple flow paths in the perforated cage also increase
turbulence and reduce the pressure recovery in the valve. These effects both act to prevent
cavitation occuring in case of minor cavitation, or to reduce the intensity of cavitation in slightly
more severe conditions. A typical characterised plug and cage are shown in Figure

A typical two-port valve Cavitation is alleviated by anti-cavitation trim

The pressure drop is split between the orifice pass area and the cage. In many applications the
pressure does not drop below the vapour pressure of the liquid and cavitation is avoided. Figure
shows how the situation is improved.
7. CONTROL VALVE SIZING STEAM SYSTEMS

Before discussing the sizing of control valves for steam systems, it is useful to review the
characteristics of steam in a heat transfer application.
Steam is supplied at a specific pressure to the upstream side of the control valve through which
it passes to a heat exchanger, also operating at a specific pressure.
Steam passes through the control valve and into the steam space of the equipment where it
comes into contact with the heat transfer surfaces. Steam condenses on the heat transfer
surfaces, creating condensate.
The volume of condensate is very much less than steam. This means that when steam condenses,
the pressure in the steam space is reduced. The reduced pressure in the steam space means that
a pressure difference exists across the control valve, and steam will flow from the high-pressure
zone (upstream of the control valve) to the lower pressure zone (the steam space in the
equipment) in some proportion to the pressure difference and, ideally, balancing the rate at
which steam is condensing.The rate of steam flow into the equipment is governed by this
pressure difference and the valve orifice size. Should, at any time, the flowrate of steam
through the valve be less than the condensing rate (perhaps the valve is too small), the steam
pressure and the heat transfer rate in the heat exchanger will fall below that which is required;
the heat exchanger will not be able to satisfy the heat load.

If a modulating control system is used, as the temperature of the process approaches the
controller set point, the controller will close the valve by a related amount, thereby reducing the
steam flowrate to maintain the lower pressure required to sustain a lower heat load.
Closing the valve reduces the mass flow. The steam pressure falls in the steam space and so too
the steam temperature. This means that a smaller difference in temperature exists between the
steam and the process, so the rate of heat transfer is reduced, in accordance with Equation 5.3.

Where:

= Heat transferred per unit time (W (J / s))

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W / m°C)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
∆TM = Mean temperature difference between the steam and secondary fluid (°C)

The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) does not change very much during the process, and the
area (A) is fixed, so if the mean temperature difference (∆T M) is reduced, then the heat transfer
from the steam to the secondary fluid is also reduced.
Saturated steam flow through a control valve

A heat exchanger manufacturer will design equipment to give a certain heat output. To achieve
this heat output, a certain saturated steam temperature will be required at the heat transfer
surface (such as the inside of a heating coil in a shell and tube heat exchanger). With saturated
steam, temperature and pressure are strictly related; therefore controlling the steam
pressure easily regulates the temperature.

Consider an application where steam at 10 bar g is supplied to a control valve, and a given mass
flow of steam passes through the valve to a heat exchanger. The valve is held fully open (see
Figure).
If a DN50 valve is fitted and the valve is fully open, the pressure drop is relatively small across
the valve, and the steam supplied to the heat exchanger is at a fairly high pressure (and
temperature). Because of this, the heating coil required to achieve the design load is relatively
small.
Consider now, a fully open DN40 valve in the steam supply line passing the same flowrate as the
DN50 valve. As the valve orifice is smaller the pressure drop across the valve must be greater,
leading to a lower pressure (and temperature) in the heat exchanger. Because of this, the heat
transfer area required to achieve the same heat load must be increased. In other words, a
larger heating coil or heat exchanger will be required.
Further reduction of the valve size will require more pressure drop across the control valve for
the same mass flow, and the need for an increased heat transfer surface area to maintain the
same heat output.

Flow through a fully open control valve

Whatever the size of the control valve, if the process demand is reduced, the valve must
modulate from the fully open position towards closed. However, the first part of the travel has
only a small regulating effect, with any percentage change in valve lift producing a lesser
percentage change in flow rate. Typically, a 10% change in lift might produce only a 5% change in
flow rate. With further travel, as the valve plug approaches the seat, this effect reverses such
that perhaps a 5% change in lift might produce a 10% change in flow rate, and better regulation is
achieved.

The initial part of the control valve travel, during which this lowered control effect is seen, is
greater with the selection of the larger control valves and the accompanying small pressure
drop at full load. When the control valve chosen is small enough to
require a 'critical pressure drop' at full load the effect disappears. Critical pressure is
explained in the Section below.

Further, if a larger control valve is selected, the greater size of the valve orifice means that a
given change in flow rate is achieved with a smaller percentage change in lift than is needed
with a smaller control valve.

This can often make the control unstable, increasing the possibility of 'hunting',
especially on reduced loads.

Critical pressure

The mass flow of steam passing through the valve will increase in line with differential pressure
until a condition known as 'critical pressure' is reached. The principle can be explained by
looking at how nozzles work and how they compare to control valves.

Consider an almost perfect orifice, such as a convergent-divergent nozzle shown in Figure.

Its shape, if designed correctly to match the upstream and downstream pressure conditions
and the condition of the supplied steam, will allow it to operate at high efficiency.

A convergent-divergent nozzle
Such a nozzle can be thought of as a type of heat engine, changing heat energy into mechanical
(kinetic) energy. It is designed to discharge the required weight of steam with a given
pressure drop, and with minimum turbulence and friction losses.

In the convergent section, the steam velocity increases as the pressure falls, though the specific
volume of the steam also increases with the lowered pressures. At first, the velocity increases
more quickly than the specific volume, and the required flow area through this part of the
nozzle becomes less. At a certain point, the specific volume begins to increase more rapidly than
does the velocity and the flow area must become greater. At this point, the steam velocity will
be sonic and the flow area is at a minimum. The steam pressure at this minimum flow area or
'throat' is described as the 'critical pressure', and the ratio of this pressure to the initial
(absolute) pressure is found to be close to 0.58 when saturated steam is passing.

Critical pressure varies slightly according to the fluid properties, specifically in relation to the
ratio of the specific heats cp /cv of the steam (or other gaseous fluid), which is termed
the adiabatic index or isentropic exponent of the fluid, often depicted by the

0.53.
For dry saturated steam, using Equation 5.1:

Clearly, the mass flow through the throat of a given size is at a maximum at this 'critical pressure
drop'. To achieve a greater flow, either:
a. The velocity would have to be greater, which could only be reached with a greater pressure
drop - but this would also increase the specific volume by an even greater amount, or:
b. The specific volume would have to be less, which could only be the case with a lesser pressure
drop - but this would reduce the velocity by an even greater amount.
Thus, once the critical pressure drop is reached at the throat of the nozzle, or at the 'vena
contracta' when an orifice is used, further lowering of the downstream pressure cannot increase
the mass flow through the device.

If the pressure drop across the whole nozzle is greater than the critical pressure drop, critical
pressure will always occur at the throat. The steam will expand after passing the throat such
that, if the outlet area has been correctly sized, the required downstream pressure is achieved
at the nozzle outlet, and little turbulence is produced as the steam exits the nozzle at high
velocity.

Should the nozzle outlet be too big or too small, turbulence will occur at the nozzle outlet,
reducing capacity and increasing noise:
If the nozzle outlet is too small, the steam has not expanded enough, and has to continue
expanding outside the nozzle until it reaches the required downstream pressure in the low
pressure region.
 If the nozzle outlet is too large, the steam will expand too far in the nozzle and the steam
pressure in the nozzle outlet will be lower than the required pressure, causing the steam to
recompress outside the outlet in the low pressure region.
The shape of the nozzle (Figure) is gently contoured such that the vena contracta occurs at the
nozzle throat. (This is in contrast to a sharp-edged orifice, where a vena contracta occurs
downstream of the orifice)

The convergent-divergent nozzle

Control valves can be compared to convergent-divergent nozzles, in that each has a high-
pressure region (the valve inlet), a convergent area (the inlet between the valve plug and its
seat), a throat (the narrowest gap between the valve plug and its seat), a divergent area (the
outlet from the valve plug and its seat, and a low-pressure region (the downstream valve
body). See Figure
 The convergent-divergent principle in a control valve

Nozzles and control valves have different purposes. The nozzle is primarily designed to increase
steam velocity in order to produce work (perhaps to turn a turbine blade), so the velocity of
steam leaving the nozzle is required to remain high.

In contrast, the control valve is a flow restricting or 'throttling' device designed to produce a
significant pressure drop in the steam. The velocity of steam passing out of a control valve throat
will behave in a similar fashion to that of the steam passing out of the throat of a convergent-
divergent nozzle; in that it will increase as the steam expands in the diverging area between the
plug and seat immediately after the throat. If the pressure drop across the valve is greater than
critical pressure drop, the steam velocity will increase to supersonic in this area, as the pressure
here is less than that at the throat.
Past this point, the steam passes into the relatively large chamber encased by the valve body (the
low pressure region), which is at a higher pressure due to the backpressure
imposed by the connecting pipework, causing the velocity and kinetic energy to fall rapidly.
In accordance with the steady flow energy equation (SFEE), this increases the steam
enthalpy to almost that at the valve entrance port. A slight difference is due to energy lost to
friction in passing through the valve.

From this point, the valve body converges to port the steam flow to the valve outlet, and the
pressure (and density) approach the pressure (and density) in the downstream pipe. As this
pressure stabilises, so does the velocity, relative to the cross sectional area of the valve outlet
port.

The relative change in volume through the valve is represented by the dotted lines in the
schematic diagram shown in Figure

The convergent-divergent-convergent valve body

When the pressure drop across a valve is greater than critical, noise can be generated by the
large instantaneous exchange from kinetic energy to heat energy in the low pressure
region, sometimes exacerbated by the presence of supersonic steam.
Valve outlet velocity, noise, erosion, drying and superheating effect

Noise can be an important consideration when sizing control valves, not only because it creates
increased sound levels but because its associated vibration can damage valve internals. Special
noise-reducing valve trims are available but, sometimes, a less expensive solution is to fit a larger
valve body than required. Complicated equations are required to calculate noise emitted from
control valves and these are difficult to use manually. It is usually considered that the control
valve will produce unacceptable noise if the velocity of dry saturated steam in the control valve
outlet is greater than 0.3 Mach. The speed of sound in steam will depend upon the steam
temperature and the quality of the steam, but can be calculated from Equation 5.2 if the
conditions are known (Mach
1 = speed of sound).

Where:

C = Speed of sound in steam (m / s)

31.6 = Constant of proportionality

r = Steam isentropic exponent (1.135 : saturated, 1.3 : superheated

R = 0.461 5 the gas constant for steam (kJ / kg) T =

Absolute steam temperature (K)
A less accurate but useful method to estimate whether noise will be a problem is by
calculating the velocity in the valve outlet port. In simplistic terms and for dry saturated steam, if
this is greater than 150 m / s, there is a chance that the valve body is too small (even though the
valve trim size suits the required capacity). Higher velocities also cause erosion in the
downstream valve body, especially if the steam is wet at this point. It is recommended that the
maximum exit velocity for wet steam is 40 m / s in the outlet port.

Another result of dropping steam pressure across a control valve is to dry or superheat the
steam, depending upon its condition as it enters the valve. Large degrees of
superheat are usually unwanted in heating processes, and so it is useful to be able to determine
if this will occur. Superheated steam (and dry gas) velocities, however, may be allowed to reach
0.5 Mach in the outlet port; whereas, at the other end of the scale, liquids might be restricted to
a maximum outlet velocity of 10 m / s.

Equations for sizing control valves.

Control valves are not as efficient as nozzles in changing heat into kinetic energy. The path taken
by steam throgh a valve inlet, the throat and into the valve outlet is relatively tortuous.

In a control valve a great deal more energy is lost to friction than in a nozzle and because
The outlet area of the valve body is unlikely to match the downstream pressure condition.
The relationship between the plug position and the seat is continually changing.

It seems that control valves of differing types may appear to reach critical flow conditions at
pressure drops other than those quoted above for nozzles. Restricted flow passages through the
seat of a valve and on the downstream side of the throat may mean that maximum flowrates may
only be reached with somewhat greater pressure drops. A ball valve or butterfly valve may be so
shaped that some pressure recovery is achieved downstream of the throat, so that maximum flow
conditions are reached with an overall pressure drop rather less than expected.

Complicated valve sizing equations can be used to take these and other criteria into
consideration, and more than one standard exists incorporating such equations.

One such standard is IEC 60534. Unfortunately, the calculations are so complicated, they can only
be used by computer software; manual calculation would be tedious and slow.

Nevertheless, when sizing a control valve for a critical process application, such software is
indispensable. For example, IEC 60534 is designed to calculate other symptoms such as the noise
levels generated by control valves, which are subjected to high pressure drops. Control valve
manufacturers will usually have computer sizing and selection software complementing their own
range of valves.

However, a simple steam valve sizing equation, such as that shown in Equation for saturated
steam, is perfectly adequate for the vast majority of steam applications with globe valves.

Also, if consideration is given to critical pressure occurring at 58% of the upstream absolute
pressure, a globe valve is unlikely to be undersized.
For simplicity, the rest of this problem assumes critical pressure for saturated steam occurs at
58% of the upstream absolute pressure.

For example, if the pressure upstream of a control valve is 10 bar a, the maximum flowrate
through the valve occurs when the downstream pressure is:
10 bar a x 58% = 5.8 bar a

Equally, critical pressure drop is 42% of the upstream pressure, that is, a pressure drop ratio of
0.42. As shown in the previous text, once this downstream pressure is reached, any further
increase in pressure drop does not cause an increase in mass flow rate.

This effect can be observed in Figure showing how, in the case of a globe valve, the flowrate
increases with falling downstream pressure until critical pressure drop is achieved.
The mass flowrate through a steam valve increases until critical pressure is reached
Sizing a control valve for a steam heat exchanger is a compromise between:

1. A smaller pressure drop that will minimise the size (and perhaps the cost) of the heat
exchanger.
2. A larger pressure drop that allows the valve to apply effective and accurate control over the
pressure and flowrate for most of its travel.
If the pressure drop is less than 10% at full load, three problems can occur:

Depending upon the controller settings and secondary temperature, and system time lags,
'hunting' of the temperature around the set value may occur because the valve is effectively
oversized; small changes in lift will cause large changes in flowrate, especially in the case of a
valve with a linear characteristic.
Running loads are often much less than the full load, and the valve may operate for very long
periods with the valve plug close to its seat. This creates a risk of wiredrawing, (erosion caused
by high velocity water droplets squeezing through the narrow orifice). Wiredrawing will result in
a reduced valve service life.
The system will not control well at low heat loads, effectively reducing the 'turndown capability
of the valve.

Simple sizing routine for globe valves in steam service

The flow and expansion of steam through a control valve is a complex process. There are a
variety of very complex sizing formulae available, but a pragmatic approach, based on the 'best
fit' of a mathematical curve to empirical results, is shown in Equation 5.2 for globe valves
throttling saturated steam. The advantage of this relatively simple formula is that it can be
used with the aid of a simple calculator. It assumes that critical pressure
drop occurs at 58% of the upstream pressure.

Where:

s = Mass flowrate (kg / h)

Kv = Valve flow coefficient (m³ / h bar) P1 =
Upstream pressure (bar a)

= Pressure drop ratio =

P2 = Downstream pressure (bar a)

Note: When P2 is less than the critical pressure, then the term within the bracket (0.42 -

sign becomes unity, and the equation is simplified as shown in Equation 5.3.

Alternatively, valve-sizing or Kv charts can be used.

Terminology
Normally the full lift value of the valve will be stated using the term Kvs, thus: Kvr =Actual value
required for an application
Kvs = Full lift capacity stated for a particular valve
Manufacturers give the maximum lift Kvs values for their range of valves. Hence the

Kv value is not only used for sizing valves but also as a means of comparing the capacity of
alternative valve types and makes. Comparing two DN15 valves from different sources shows
that valve 'A' has a Kvs of 10 and valve 'B' a Kvs of 8. Valve 'A' will give a higher flowrate for the
same pressure drop.
Bringing together the information for steam valve sizing
Certain minimum information is required to determine the correct valve size:

The pressure of the steam supply must be known. The steam pressure in the heat exchanger to
meet the maximum heat load must be known. The difference between the above criteria defines
the differential pressure across the valve at its full load condition. The heat output of the
equipment must be known, along with the enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) at the working pressure
in the heat exchanger. These factors are required to determine the steam mass flowrate.
Example

A control valve is required for the application shown in Figure

The shell and tube heat exchanger manufacturer specifies that a steam pressure of 5 bar absolute
is required in the tube bundle to satisfy a process demand of 500 kW.
Wet steam, at dryness 0.96 and 10 bar a, is available upstream of the control valve. Enthalpy
of evaporation (hfg ) at 5 bar a is 2 108.23 kJ / kg.
Determine the steam flowrate.

Control valve on steam supply to a shell and tube heat exchanger

First, it is necessary to determine the steam state for the downstream condition of 5 bar a. By
entering wet steam at 10 bar a, and 0.96 dryness into steam table, it can be seen that the total
heat (hg) held in the 10 bar wet steam is 2 697.15 kJ / kg.

The heat exchanger design pressure is 5 bar a, and the total heat in dry saturated steam at this
pressure is 2 748.65 kJ / kg (from the steam table).

The total heat in the 10 bar steam (due to its 'wetness'), is less than the total heat in saturated
steam at 5 bar, and so the lower pressure steam will not contain enough heat to be totally dry.
The dryness fraction of the lower pressure steam is the quotient of the two total heat figures.
The steam flowrate can now be determined from Equation 5.5, where hfg is the enthalpy of
evaporation available after accounting for wet steam.

Determine the required Kvr

The pressure drop ratio at full load is larger than 0.42, so critical conditions apply and

Equation 5.4 may be used to find the required Kvr.

A DN25 control valve with a Kvs of 10 is initially selected. A calculation can now be carried out
to determine if noise is an issue with this sized valve passing wet steam in the valve outlet.

The speed of sound in the valve outlet:

R = 0.461 5 kj/kg (the gas constant for steam)

The temperature of wet steam at 5 bar a is the same as dry saturated steam at the same
pressure; T = 425 K. The speed of sound in the wet steam in the the value outlet:

The noise criterion for wet steam in the valve outlet = 40 m / s

As this outlet velocity is higher than 40 m / s, the DN25 control valve might:
1. Create an unacceptable noise.
2. Cause unreasonable erosion in the valve outlet.
The DN25 control valve will therefore be unsuitable for this application where wet steam
passes through the valve outlet.
One solution to this problem is to fit a larger bodied valve with the same Kvs of 10 to reduce
the wet steam outlet velocity.
Consider Table to determine the minimum sized control valve with an outlet area greater
than 0.002 22 m.

Typical valve outlet areas DN15 - DN200 control valves

It can be seen from Table 5.1 that the smallest valve required to satisfy the maximum outlet
velocity of 40 m / s for wet steam is a DN65 valve, having an outlet area of
0.00332 m.

Therefore, due to wet steam passing through the valve outlet, the size of the control valve
would increase from, in this instance a DN25 (1") to DN65 (2½").

A better solution might be to fit a separator before the control valve. This will allow the smaller
DN25 control valve to be used, and is preferred because:
It will give better regulation as it is more appropriately sized to handle changes in the steam
load.
It will ensure dry steam passes through the control valve, thereby reducing the
propensity for erosion at the valve seat and valve outlet.
It will ensure optimal performance of the heat exchanger, as the heating surface is not thermally
insulated by moisture from wet steam.
The cost of the smaller valve and its actuator plus separator will probably be the same as
the larger valve with a larger actuator.
Sizing on an arbitrary pressure drop

If the apparatus working pressure is not known, it is sometimes possible to compromise.

It should be stressed that this method should only be used as a last resort, and that every
effort should be made to determine the working pressures and flowrate.
Under these circumstances, it is suggested that the control valve be selected using a pressure
drop of 10% to 20% of the upstream pressure. In this way, the selected control valve will more
than likely be oversized.

To help this situation, an equal percentage valve will give better operational
performance than a linear valve. Sizing on an arbitrary pressure drop is not
recommended for critical applications.

The higher the pressure drop the better?

It is usually better to size a steam valve with critical pressure drop occurring across the control
valve at maximum load. This helps to reduce the size and cost of the control valve.
However, the application conditions may not allow this.
For example, if the heat exchanger working pressure is 4.5 bar a, and the maximum available
steam pressure is only 5 bar a, the valve can only be sized on a 10% pressure drop ([5 - 4.5] / 5)
= 0.1. In this situation, sizing on critical pressure drop would have unduly reduced the size of
the control valve, and the heat exchanger would be starved of steam.
If it is impossible to increase the steam supply pressure, one solution is to install a larger heat
exchanger operating at a lower pressure. In this way, the pressure drop will increase across the
control valve.
This could result in a smaller valve but, unfortunately, a larger heat exchanger, because the heat
exchanger operating pressure (and temperature) is now lower.
However, a larger heat exchanger working at a lower pressure brings some advantages:
There is less tendency for the heating surfaces to scale and foul as the required steam
temperature is lower.
Less flash steam is produced in the condensate system leading to less backpressure in the
condensate return pipework.
It is important to balance the cost of the valve and heat exchanger, the ability of the valve to
control properly, and the effects on the rest of the system, as explained previously.

On steam systems, equal percentage valves will usually be a better choice than linear valves,
as low pressure drops will have less effect on their operating performance.
A checklist of the major factors to be taken into account when selecting a control valve
for steam service include:
1. Mass flow or volumetric flow to be considered (typically maximum, normal or
minimum).
2. Flow medium (this may affect the type of material used for the valve body and
internals).
3. Upstream pressure available at maximum, normal and minimum loads.
4. Downstream pressure for maximum, normal and minimum loads.
5. Kv value required.
6. Pressure drop across the valve at maximum, normal and minimum loads.
7. Body size of valve.
8. Body material and nominal pressure rating.
9. Maximum differential pressure for shut-off.
10. Connection required. Which pipe connections are required on the inlet and outlet of the
valve? Screwed or flanged connections, and which type of flange, for example, ANSI, EN 1092 or
DIN?
11. Maximum temperature of the medium flowing through the valve.
12. Any special requirements, for example, special gland packing variations; hardened valve
seat and plug, soft seats for absolutely tight shut-off; and others. Note:
Manufacturers restrict the leakage rates of control valves to agreed limits and / or they are
sometimes the subject of national standards. Also see point 17.
13. Details of the application control requirements. An application needing on / off control
(either fully-open or fully-closed) may require a valve characteristic suited to that purpose,
whereas an application calling for continuous control (any degree of opening or closing), might
perform better with a different type of valve characteristic.
14. Method of actuation and type of control to be used; for example, self-acting, electric,
pneumatic, electropneumatic.
15. Noise levels. It is required to keep noise below 85 dBA at 1 m from the pipe if people are to
work unprotected in the area. Keeping the same size internals but increasing the size of the
connections may achieve this. (Many control valves have the option of reduced trim variants,
alternatively special noise-reducing trims are available, and / or acoustic lagging can be applied
to the valve and pipework. Valves for critical process applications should be sized using
computer software utilising the IEC 60534 standard or national equivalent.
16. Pressure drops, sizes of valve body and noise level are related and should be
considered. It is good practice to keep the downstream steam velocity in the valve body typically
below 150 m / s for saturated steam and 250 m / s for superheated steam. This can be achieved
by increasing the valve body size, which will also reduce the velocity in the valve outlet and the
likelihood of excess noise. It is possible to consider a saturated steam exit velocity of 150 m / s to
200 m / s if the steam is always guaranteed to be dry saturated at the valve inlet. This is because,
under these circumstances, the steam leaving the control valve will be superheated due to the
superheating effect of reducing the pressure of dry saturated steam. Please note that these
are general figures, different standards will quote different guidelines.
17. Leakage and isolation. Control valves are meant to control flowrate rather than isolate
the supply, and are likely to leak slightly when fully shut. Control valves will be manufactured to
a standard relating to shut-off tightness. Generally, the better the shut-off, the higher the
cost of the valve. For steam control valves, a leakage rate of
0.01% is perfectly adequate for most applications.
18. Turndown. Usually expressed as a ratio of the application maximum expected flow to the
minimum controllable flow through a control valve.
19. Rangeability. Usually expressed as a ratio of the valve maximum controllable flow to the
minimum controllable flow, between which the characteristics of the control valve are
maintained. Typically, a rangeability of 50:1 is acceptable for steam applications.
20. The type of valve, its materials of construction, variations in design and special
requirements will inevitably result in cost variations. For optimum economy the selected valve
should be correct for that application and not over-specified.
8. CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS

Flow characteristics

All control valves have an inherent flow characteristic that defines the relationship between
'valve opening' and flowrate under constant pressure conditions. Please note that 'valve
opening' in this context refers to the relative position of the valve plug to its closed position
against the valve seat. It does not refer to the orifice pass area. The orifice pass area is
sometimes called the 'valve throat' and is the narrowest point between the valve plug and seat
through which the fluid passes at any time. For any valve, however it is characterised, the
relationship between flowrate and orifice pass area is always directly proportional.

Valves of any size or inherent flow characteristic which are subjected to the same volumetric
flowrate and differential pressure will have exactly the same orifice pass area. However, different
valve characteristics will give different 'valve openings' for the same pass area. Comparing linear
and equal percentage valves, a linear valve might have a
25% valve opening for a certain pressure drop and flowrate, whilst an equal percentage valve
might have a 65% valve opening for exactly the same conditions. The orifice pass areas will be
the same.

The physical shape of the plug and seat arrangement, sometimes referred to as the valve
'trim', causes the difference in valve opening between these valves. Typical trim shapes for
spindle operated globe valves are compared in Figure

The shape of the trim determines the valve characteristic

The term 'valve lift' is used to define valve opening, whether the valve is a globe valve (up
and down movement of the plug relative to the seat) or a rotary valve (lateral movement
of the plug relative to the seat).

Rotary valves (for example, ball and butterfly) each have a basic characteristic curve, but
altering the details of the ball or butterfly plug may modify this. The inherent flow
characteristics of typical globe valves and rotary valves are compared in Figure.

Globe valves may be fitted with plugs of differing shapes, each of which has its own inherent
flow/opening characteristic. The three main types available are usually designated:
 Fast opening
 Linear
 Equal percentage

Examples of these and their inherent characteristics are shown in Figures

Inherent flow characteristics of typical globe valves and rotary valves

Fast opening characteristic
The fast opening characteristic valve plug will give a large change in flowrate for a small valve lift
from the closed position. For example, a valve lift of 50% may result in an orifice pass area and
flowrate up to 90% of its maximum potential.

A valve using this type of plug is sometimes referred to as having an 'on / off' characteristic. Unlike
linear and equal percentage characteristics, the exact shape of the fast opening curve is not
defined in standards. Therefore, two valves, one giving a 80% flow for 50% lift, the other 90% flow
for 60% lift, may both be regarded as having a fast opening characteristic.

Fast opening valves tend to be electrically or pneumatically actuated and used for 'on /off' control.
The self-acting type of control valve tends to have a plug shape similar to the fast opening plug
In figure. The plug position responds to changes in liquid or vapour pressure in the control
system. The movement of this type of valve plug can be extremely small relative to small
changes in the controlled condition, and consequently the valve has an inherently high
rangeability. The valve plug is therefore able to reproduce small changes in flowrate, and should
not be regarded as a fast opening control valve.

Linear characteristic
The linear characteristic valve plug is shaped so that the flowrate is directly proportional to the
valve lift (H), at a constant differential pressure. A linear valve achieves this by having a linear
relationship between the valve lift and the orifice pass area (see Figure

Flow / lift curve for a linear valve

For example, at 40% valve lift, a 40% orifice size allows 40% of the full flow to pass.
Equal percentage characteristic (or logarithmic characteristic)

These valves have a valve plug shaped so that each increment in valve lift increases the flowrate
by a certain percentage of the previous flow. The relationship between valve lift and orifice size
(and therefore flowrate) is not linear but logarithmic, and is
expressed mathematically in Equation

Where:
= Volumetric flow through the valve at lift H.

x = (ln e Note: 'In' is a mathematical function known as 'natural logarithm'.

= Valve rangeability (ratio of the maximum to minimum controllable flowrate,

typically 50 for a globe type control valve)

H = Valve lift (0 = closed, 1 = fully open)

max = Maximum volumetric flow through the valve = 10 m/h

Example

The maximum flowrate through a control valve with an equal percentage characteristic is 10
m/h. If the valve has a turndown of 50:1, and is subjected to a constant differential pressure,
by using Equation 6.1 what quantity will pass through the valve with lifts of
40%, 50%, and 60% respectively?
Where:

max = Maximum volumetric flow through the valve = 10 m/h

H = Valve lift (0 closed to 1 fully open) = 0.4; 0.5; 0.6

= Valve rangeability = 50
The increase in volumetric flowrate through this type of control valve increases by an
equal percentage per equal increment of valve movement:
When the valve is 50% open, it will pass 1.414 m/h , an increase of 48% over the flow of
0.956 m/h when the valve is 40% open.

When the valve is 60% open, it will pass 2.091 m/h , an increase of 48% over the flow of
1.414 m/h when the valve is 50% open.

It can be seen that (with a constant differential pressure) for any 10% increase in valve lift,
there is a 48% increase in flowrate through the control valve. This will always be the case for
an equal percentage valve with rangeability of 50. For interest, if a valve has a rangeability of
100, the incremental increase in flowrate for a 10% change in valve lift is
58%.

Table shows how the change in flowrate alters across the range of valve lift for the equal
percentage valve in Example with a rangeability of 50 and with a constant differential
pressure.

Change in flowrate and valve lift for an equal percentage characteristic with constant
differential pressure

Few other inherent valve characteristics are sometimes used, such as parabolic,
modified linear or hyperbolic, but the most common types in manufacture are fast
opening, linear, and equal percentage.
Typical Installation of Control Valves

Flowing points must be considered while installing a control valve:

1) Air supply used should be free from oil, moisture and dust in case of pneumatic control
valves.
2) Inlet piping to control valves with small passageways should be fitted with appropriate
filter to eliminate internal valve damage from foreign matter in the piping system
3) For split body valves, while installing into the system, do not put excessive stress on valve
bodies.
4) Before initial startup and after a maintenance shutdown install screens ahead of the control
valve, to collect pipe scale rust and other dear is (whenever possible, piping system should be
filled with a spool-piece and flushed out prior to control valve installation)
5) Operation of control valve in dusty atmosphere, install a rubber or plastic bolo around
the stem, to prevent its polished surface from getting damaged
6) Be sure to follow manufactures instructions for adjustments and switch positions or
accessories

7) Be sure that the valve is installed with flow direction arrow in the proper direction. Cases have
been reported where the manufacturer has furnished a valve with the arrow, pointing in the
wrong direction.

If the control valve is to be removed from the system after installation, be sure that all the
block valves are closed and bypass valve is open if required.
9. VALVE ACTUATORS, POSITIONERS & OTHER ACCESSORIES

Actuators

The operation of a control valve involves positioning its movable part (the plug, ball or vane)
relative to the stationary seat of the valve. The purpose of the valve actuator is to accurately
locate the valve plug in a position dictated by the control signal.
The actuator accepts a signal from the control system and, in response, moves the valve to a
fully-open or fully-closed position, or a more open or a more closed position (depending on
whether 'on / off' or 'continuous' control action is used).
There are several ways of providing this actuation, the two major ones are
Pneumatic
Electric
Other significant actuators include the hydraulic and the direct acting types.

Pneumatic actuators - operation and options

Pneumatic actuators are commonly used to actuate control valves and are available in two
main forms; piston actuators and diaphragm actuators

Typical pneumatic actuators

Piston actuators

Piston actuators are generally used where the stroke of a diaphragm actuator would be too
short or the thrust is too small. The compressed air is applied to a solid piston contained within a
solid cylinder. Piston actuators can be single acting or double acting, can withstand higher input
pressures and can offer smaller cylinder volumes, which can act at high speed.

Diaphragm actuators

Diaphragm actuators have compressed air applied to a flexible membrane called the diaphragm.
Figure shows a rolling diaphragm where the effective diaphragm area is virtually constant
throughout the actuator stroke. These types of actuators are single acting, in that air is only
supplied to one side of the diaphragm, and they can be either direct acting (spring-to-retract) or
reverse acting (spring-to-extend).

A pneumatic diaphragm actuator

Reverse acting (spring-to-extend)

The operating force is derived from compressed air pressure, which is applied to a flexible
diaphragm. The actuator is designed so that the force resulting from the air pressure, multiplied
by the area of the diaphragm, overcomes the force exerted (in the opposite direction) by the
spring(s).

The diaphragm (Figure) is pushed upwards, pulling the spindle up, and if the spindle is connected
to a direct acting valve, the plug is opened. The actuator is designed so that with a specific change
of air pressure, the spindle will move sufficiently to move the valve through its complete stroke
from fully-closed to fully-open.

As the air pressure decreases, the spring(s) moves the spindle in the opposite direction. The
range of air pressure is equal to the stated actuator spring rating, for example 0.2 - 1 bar.
With a larger valve and / or a higher differential pressure to work against, more force is needed
to obtain full valve movement.

To create more force, a larger diaphragm area or higher spring range is needed. This is why
controls manufacturers offer a range of pneumatic actuators to match a range of valves -
comprising increasing diaphragm areas, and a choice of spring ranges to create different forces.

The diagrams in Figure show the components of a basic pneumatic actuator and the direction of
spindle movement with increasing air pressure.

Valve and actuator configurations

Direct acting actuator (spring-to-retract)

The direct acting actuator is designed with the spring below the diaphragm, having air
supplied to the space above the diaphragm. The result, with increasing air pressure, is
spindle movement in the opposite direction to the reverse acting actuator.

The effect of this movement on the valve opening depends on the design and type of valve
used, and is illustrated in Figure There is however, an alternative, which is shown in Figure
A direct acting pneumatic actuator is coupled to a control valve with a reverse acting plug
(sometimes called a 'hanging plug').

Direct acting actuator and reverse acting control valve

The choice between direct acting and reverse acting pneumatic controls depends on what
position the valve should revert to in the event of failure of the compressed air supply. Should
the valve close or be wide-open? This choice depends upon the nature of the application and
safety requirements. It makes sense for steam valves to close on air failure, and cooling valves to
open on air failure. The combination of actuator and valve type must be considered. Figure and
Figure show the net effect of the various combinations.
Net effect of various combinations for two port valves

Net effect of the two combinations for three port valves

Effect of differential pressure on the valve lift

The air fed into the diaphragm chamber is the control signal from the pneumatic
controller. The most widely used signal air pressure is 0.2 bar to 1 bar. Consider a
reverse acting actuator (spring to extend) with standard 0.2 to 1.0 bar spring(s), fitted to a direct
acting valve (Figure).

Reverse acting actuator, air-to-open, direct acting valve - normally closed

When the valve and actuator assembly is calibrated (or 'bench set'), it is adjusted so that an air
pressure of 0.2 bar will just begin to overcome the resistance of the springs and move the valve
plug away from its seat.

As the air pressure is increased, the valve plug moves progressively further away from its seat,
until finally at 1 bar air pressure, the valve is 100% open. This is shown graphically in Figure.

Now consider this assembly installed in a pipeline in a pressure reducing application, with 10 bar
g on the upstream side and controlling the downstream pressure to 4 bar g.
The differential pressure across the valve is 10 - 4 = 6 bar. This pressure is acting on the
underside of the valve plug, providing a force tending to open the valve. This force is in addition
to the force provided by the air pressure in the actuator.
Therefore, if the actuator is supplied with air at 0.6 bar (halfway between 0.2 and 1 bar), for
example, instead of the valve taking up the expected 50% open position, the actual opening will
be greater, because of the extra force provided by the differential pressure.
Also, this additional force means that the valve is not closed at 0.2 bar. In order to close the valve
in this example, the control signal must be reduced to approximately 0.1 bar.
The situation is slightly different with a steam valve controlling temperature in a heat
exchanger, as the differential pressure across the valve will vary between:
A minimum, when the process is calling for maximum heat, and the control valve is 100% open.

A maximum, when the process is up to temperature and the control valve is closed. The steam
pressure in the heat exchanger increases as the heat load increases If the pressure upstream
of the control valve remains constant, then, as the steam pressure rises in the heat exchanger,
the differential pressure across the valve must decrease.

Figure shows the situation with the air applied to a direct acting actuator. In this case, the force
on the valve plug created by the differential pressure works against the air pressure. The effect
is that if the actuator is supplied with air at 0.6 bar, for example, instead of the valve taking up
the expected 50% open position, the percentage opening will be greater because of the extra
force provided by the differential pressure. In this case, the control signal has to be increased to
approximately 1.1. bar to fully close the valve.

Direct acting actuator, air-to-close, direct acting valve - normally open

It may be possible to recalibrate the valve and actuator to take the forces created by differential
pressure into account, or perhaps using different springs, air pressure and actuator
combinations. This approach can provide an economic solution on small valves, with low
differential pressures and where precise control is not required. However, the practicalities are
that:
Larger valves have greater areas for the differential pressure to act over, thus increasing the
forces generated, and having an increasing effect on valve position.
Higher differential pressures mean that higher forces are generated.
Valves and actuators create friction, causing hysteresis. Smaller valves are likely to have greater
friction relative to the total forces involved.
The solution is to fit a positioner to the valve / actuator assembly.

For simplicity, the above examples assume a positioner is not used, and hysteresis is zero.
The formulae used to determine the thrust available to hold a valve on its seat for various
valve and actuator combinations are shown in Figure
Where:
A = Effective area of diaphragm
Pmax = Maximum pressure to actuator (normally 1.2 bar)
Smax = Maximum bench setting of spring
Pmin = Minimum pressure to actuator (normally 0 bar)
Smin = Minimum bench setting of spring
The thrust available to close the valve has to provide three functions:

1. To overcome the fluid differential pressure at the closed position.

2. To overcome friction in the valve and actuator, primarily at the valve and actuator stem
seals.
3. To provide a sealing load between the valve plug and valve seat to ensure the required degree
of tightness.

Control valve manufacturers will normally provide full details of the maximum
differential pressures against which their various valve and actuator/spring
combinations will operate; the Table in Figure is an example of this data.

Note: When using a positioner, it is necessary to refer to the manufacturer's literature for the
minimum and maximum air pressures.
Two and three port formulae
Positioners

For many applications, the 0.2 to 1 bar pressure in the diaphragm chamber may not be enough
to cope with friction and high differential pressures. A higher control pressure and stronger
springs could be used, but the practical solution is to use a positioner.

This is an additional item (Figure), which is usually fitted to the yoke or pillars of the actuator, and
it is linked to the spindle of the actuator by a feedback arm in order to monitor the valve position.
It requires its own higher-pressure air supply, which it uses
to position the valve.

Basic pneumatic positioner fitted to actuator pillars (valve not shown)

A valve positioner relates the input signal and the valve position, and will provide any output
pressure to the actuator to satisfy this relationship, according to the requirements of the valve,
and within the limitations of the maximum supply pressure.
When a positioner is fitted to an 'air-to-open' valve and actuator arrangement, the spring
range may be increased to increase the closing force, and hence increase the maximum
differential pressure a particular valve can tolerate. The air pressure will also be adjusted as
required to overcome friction, therby reducing hysteresis effects.

Example: Taking a PN5400 series actuator fitted to a DN50 valve (see Table/ Figure)
1. With a standard 0.2 to 1.0 bar spring range (PN5420), the maximum allowable
differential pressure is 3.0 bar.
2. With a 1.0 to 2.0 bar spring set (PN5426), the maximum allowable differential pressure is
increased to 13.3 bar.

With the second option, the 0.2 to 1.0 bar signal air pressure applied to the actuator
diaphragm cannot provide sufficient force to move an actuator against the force provided by
the 1.0 to 2.0 bar springs, and even less able to control it over its full operating range. In
these circumstances the positioner acts as an amplifier to the
control signal, and modulates the supply air pressure, to move the actuator to a position
appropriate to the control signal pressure.

For example, if the control signal was 0.6 bar (50% valve lift), the positioner would need to allow
approximately 1.5 bar into the actuator diaphragm chamber. Figure illustrates this relationship.

The positioner as a signal amplifier

It should be noted that a positioner is a proportional device, and in the same way that a
proportional controller will always give an offset, so does a positioner.

On a typical positioner, the proportional band may be between 3 and 6%. The positioner
sensitivity can usually be adjusted. It is essential that the installation and maintenance
instructions be read prior to the commissioning stage.

Summary - Positioners

1. A positioner ensures that there is a linear relationship between the signal input pressure
from the control system and the position of the control valve. This means that for a given input
signal, the valve will always attempt to maintain the same position regardless of changes in
valve differential pressure, stem friction, diaphragm hysteresis and so on.
2. A positioner may be used as a signal amplifier or booster. It accepts a low pressure air
control signal and, by using its own higher pressure input, multiplies this to provide a higher
pressure output air signal to the actuator diaphragm, if required, to ensure that the valve
reaches the desired position.
3. Some positioners incorporate an electropneumatic converter so that an electrical input
(typically 4 - 20 mA) can be used to control a pneumatic valve.
4. Some positioners can also act as basic controllers, accepting input from sensors.

A frequently asked question is, 'When should a positioner be fitted?

A positioner should be considered in the following circumstances:

1. When accurate valve positioning is required.

2. To speed up the valve response. The positioner uses higher pressure and greater air flow to
adjust the valve position.
3. To increase the pressure that a particular actuator and valve can close against. (To act as an
amplifier).
4. Where friction in the valve (especially the packing) would cause unacceptable
hysteresis.
5. To linearise a non-linear actuator.
6. Where varying differential pressures within the fluid would cause the plug position to vary.
To ensure that the full valve differential pressure can be accepted, it is important to adjust the
positioner zero setting so that no air pressure opposes the spring force when the
valve is seating.
Figure below shows a typical positioner. Commonly, this would be known as a P to P positioner
since it takes a pneumatic signal (P) from the control system and provides a resultant pneumatic
output signal (P) to move the actuator.

Typical P to P positioner (gauges omitted for clarity)

One advantage of a pneumatic control is that it is intrinsically safe, i.e. there is no risk of
explosion in a dangerous atmosphere, and it can provide a large amount of force to close a valve
against high differential pressure. However, pneumatic control systems themselves have a
number of limitations compared with their electronic counterparts.

Typical I to P converter
To alleviate this, additional components are available to enable the advantages of a
pneumatic valve and actuator to be used with an electronic control system.

The basic unit is the I to P converter. This unit takes in an electrical control signal, typically 4 -
20 mA, and converts it to a pneumatic control signal, typically 0.2 - 1 bar, which is then fed into
the actuator, or to the P to P positioner, as shown in Figure.

Pneumatic valve / actuator operated by a control signal using I to P converter and P to P

positioner
With this arrangement, an I to P (electrical to pneumatic) conversion can be carried
outoutside any hazardous area, or away from any excessive ambient temperatures, which may
occur near the valve and pipeline.

However, where the conditions do not present such problems, a much neater solution is to use
a single component electropneumatic converter / positioner, which combines the functions of
an I to P converter and a P to P positioner, that is a combined valve positioner and
electropneumatic converter. Figure shows a typical I to P converter / positioner.
A typical I to P converter / positioner fitted to a pneumatic valve (gauges omitted for
clarity)
Most sensors still have analogue outputs (for example 4 - 20 mA or 0 - 10 V), which can be
converted to digital form. Usually the controller will perform this analogue-to-digital (A / D)
conversion, although technology is now enabling sensors to perform this A / D function
themselves. A digital sensor can be directly connected into a communications system, such as
Fieldbus, and the digitised data transmitted to the controller over a long distance. Compared to
an analogue signal, digital systems are much less susceptible to electrical interference.
Analogue control systems are limited to local transmission over relatively short
distances due to the resistive properties of the cabling.

Most electrical actuators still require an analogue control signal input (for example 4 -20 mA or 0 -
10 V), which further inhibits the completion of a digital communications network between
sensors, actuators, and controllers.

Digital positioners

Sometimes referred to as a SMART positioner, the digital positioner monitors valve position,
and converts this information into a digital form. With this information, an integrated
microprocessor offers advanced user features such as:
High valve position accuracy
Adaptability to changes in control valve condition.
Many digital positioners use much less air than analogue types.
An auto stroking routine for easy setting-up and calibration.
On-line digital diagnostics.
Centralised monitoring.
*Using digital communications protocols such as HART®; Fieldbus, or Profibus.

The current industrial trend is to provide equipment with the capability to communicate digitally
with networked systems in a Fieldbus environment. It is widely thought that digital
communications of this type offer great advantages over traditional analogue systems.

Digital positioner

Selecting a pneumatic valve and actuator

In summary, the following is a list of the major factors that must be considered when selecting
a pneumatic valve and actuator:
1. Select a valve using the application data
2. Determine the valve action required in the event of power failure, fail-open or fail- closed.
3. Select the valve actuator and spring combination required to ensure that the valve will open or
close against the differential pressure.
4. Determine if a positioner is required.
5. Determine if a pneumatic or electric control signal is to be provided. This will
determine whether an I to P converter or, alternatively a combined I to P
converter/positioner, is required.
Rotary pneumatic actuators and positioners

Actuators are available to drive rotary action valves, such as ball and butterfly valves. The
commonest is the piston type, which comprises a central shaft, two pistons and a central
chamber all contained within a casing. The pistons and shaft have a rack and pinion drive
system.

In the simplest types, air is fed into the central chamber (Figure), which forces the pistons
outwards. The rack and pinion arrangement turns the shaft and, because the latter is coupled to
the valve stem, the valve opens or closes.

When the air pressure is relieved, movement of the shaft in the opposite direction occurs
due to the force of the return springs (7.18). It is also possible to obtain double acting
versions, which have no return springs. Air can be fed into either side of the pistons to
cause movement in either direction. As with diaphragm type actuators, they can also be
fitted with positioners.

Spring return rotary pneumatic actuator

Air Supply
An adequate compressed air supply system is essential to provide clean and dry air at the
right quantity and pressure. It is advantageous to install an individual coalescing filter /
regulator unit ahead of the final supply connection to each piece of equipment. Air quality is
particularly important for pneumatic instrumentation such as controllers, I to P convertors
and positioners.

The decision to opt for a pneumatically operated system may be influenced by the
availability and / or the costs to install such a system. An existing air supply would
obviously encourage the use of pneumatically powered controls.

Electrical actuators
Where a pneumatic supply is not available or desirable it is possible to use an electric
actuator to control the valve. Electric actuators use an electric motor with voltage
requirements in the following range: 230 Vac, 110 Vac, 24 Vac and 24 Vdc.

There are two types of electrical actuator; VMD (Valve Motor Drive) and Modulating.
VMD (Valve Motor Drive)

This basic version of the electric actuator has three states:

1. Driving the valve open.
2. Driving the valve closed.
3. No movement.

Typical electric valve actuator

 Valve motor drive actuator system

Figure shows the VMD system where the forward and reverse travel of the actuator is
controlled directly from any external 3-position or two 2-position switch units. The switches
are rated at the actuator voltage and may be replaced by suitable relays.

Limiting devices are fitted within the VMD actuators to protect the motors from over- travel
damage. These devices are based on either the maximum motor torque or physical position limit
switches. Both devices stop the motor driving by interrupting the motor power supply.
Position limit switches have the advantage that they can be adjusted to limit valve strokes in
oversized valves.

Torque switches have the advantage of giving a defined closing force on the valve seat,
protecting the actuator in the case of valve stem seizure.
If only position limit switches are used, they may be combined with a spring-loaded coupling to
ensure tight valve shut-off.
A VMD actuator may be used for on/off actuation or for modulating control. The controller
positions the valve by driving the valve open or closed for a certain time, to ensure that it
reaches the desired position. Valve position feedback may be used with some controllers.

Modulating

In order to position the control valve in response to the system requirements a modulating
actuator can be used. These units may have higher rated motors (typically 1
200 starts/hour) and may have built-in electronics.

A positioning circuit may be included in the modulating actuator, which accepts an analogue
control signal (typically 0-10 V or 4-20 mA). The actuator then interprets this control signal, as
the valve position between the limit switches.

To achieve this, the actuator has a position sensor (usually a potentiometer), which feeds the
actual valve position back to the positioning circuit. In this way the actuator can be positioned
along its stroke in proportion to the control signal. A schematic of the modulating actuator is
shown in Figure
Integral positioning circuit for modulating electric actuators Pneumatic actuators have an
inherent fail-safe feature; should the air supply or control signal fail the valve will close. To
provide this function in electric actuators, 'spring reserve' versions are available which will
open or close the valve on power or control signal failure. Alternatively, fail-safe can
be provided with battery power.

Electric actuators offer specified forces, which may be limited on spring reserve versions. The
manufacturer's charts should always be consulted during selection.

When sizing an actuator, it is wise to refer to the manufacturer's technical data sheets for
maximum differential pressure across the valve (see Figure).

Another limitation of an electric actuator is the speed of valve movement, which can be as low
as 4 seconds / mm, which in rapidly varying systems may be too slow.
Typical manufacturer’s electric actuator selection chart
Auxilary Air Relays

Air Regulator

Regulators are designed for pressure reducing and controlling services on air or gas.

Figure illustrates the schematic operation of a regulator. Supply pressure is admitted to the supply
port and is dead ended at the supply valve. When the adjusting knob is turned clockwise, the main
spring deflects the diaphragm assembly downward, seating exhaust valve and pushing the valve
stem to open supply valve. Supply pressure bleeds through to output port and also bleeds into the
diaphragm cavity via the aspirator tube until the force at the bottom of the diaphragm is balanced
with the force on the top of the diaphragm. This state is also known as force balance. At this stage
the diaphragm assembly moved up again causing the supply valve to move into the seat by means
of spring.

Air regulator
A decrease in output pressure causes the main spring to overcome the force on the bottom of the
diaphragm, and the supply valve is opened to increase the output pressure.

An increase in output pressure causes the diaphragm assembly to overcome the force of the main
spring and the supply valve is seated and the exhaust valve is unseated, causing excess air to escape
to atmosphere via the vent. Cavities are divided by a partition.
Lock-Up-Device
The lock-up device is mostly used as a safety device to seal the air system feeding a pneumatic
operated control valve in the event of an air failure. The control valve will be held in its operating
position at the time of the air failure until the air supply pressure is restored.

This device is usually installed between the valve actuator and positioner as can be seen in figure

OPERATION
The lock-up device is illustrated in figure. Supply pressure (140 kPa) is fed into cavity and, if it
overcomes the force of the main spring, it will lift the diaphragm assembly upwards. This in turn
will move the valve stem, which is attached to the diaphragm, upwards, lifting the lock-up plug off
the seat.
Regulated air, from the output of the positioner, enters the input and flow through the plug to the
output port which is connected to the actuator of the control valve.
In the event of an air supply failure, the force on the bottom of the diaphragm assembly will fall
away and the main spring force will push the stem downwards, closing the lock-up valve. The air in
cavity is now locked to the control valve actuator and this control valve will be held in its operating
position at the time of the air failure. Cavities are divided by a partition.
It is very important that there must be no leaks in the system, especially on the outlet of the lock-up
device to the control valve actuator.

Volume Booster
The volume booster is an auxiliary force balance pneumatic unit which speeds up the response of a
diaphragm motor when actuated by a pneumatic signal. A greater volume of air is delivered to the
motor or operator at the same pressure as the signal pressure due to a 1:1 ratio of diaphragm areas
in the volume booster. A rapid exhaust rate is provided by a large relief valve and relief ports.

OPERATION
Figure illustrates the schematic diagram of the volume booster. Air supply (140 kpa) is fed to the
inlet port and is dead ended at the supply valve which is seated at this stage. Signal pressure (from
the controller output) is fed to the signal port and this air fill cavity on the top of the diaphragm
assembly. This force pushes the whole diaphragm assembly downwards, seating the vent valve and
pushing the valve stem down simultaneously. The supply valve which is connected to the stem is
now unseated and supply air bleeds through to cavity and to the outlet port. Air also bleeds into
cavity through the aspirator tube to the bottom of the diaphragm assembly. If these two forces
(top and bottom of diaphragm assembly) are equal, the unit will be in force balance and the
diaphragm will move up somewhat, causing the supply valve to seat because of spring. At this
stage the output pressure will be the same as the signal pressure. (1:1 ratio of diaphragms).

If the output decreases, the force on top of the diaphragm assembly will overcome the force at the
bottom, pushing the assembly and the stem down simultaneously, unseating the supply valve to
increase output pressure.
If the signal pressure decrease, the force on the bottom of the diaphragm assembly will overcome
the force on the top, and this will cause an upward movement of the assembly. The valve stem will
move upwards until the supply valve is seated and then stop moving. More upward movement of
the diaphragm assembly will cause the vent valve to unseat and access air will bleed through
escape ports to the vent port and out to atmosphere.
10. VALVE AND TRIM MATERIALS

Various parts of a valve are exposed to varying conditions of pressure, process fluid, corrosion
and other effects of service, these parts have to be manufactured from approved materials.
These parts include body, bonnet, bonnet bolting, plug/disc/wedge, seat rotory shaft and so
on.
ANSI publishes pressure temperature limits for specified materials [B16.34]. This must be
reviewed before selection.
Materials used for pressure retaining parts are specified and designated by ASTM
standards.

Common ASTM Materials For Bodies and Bonnets

Body Type Material Body Standard Bonnet Standard

Castings Stainless Steel A351-CF8M A479-316
Carbon Steel A216-WCB A675-70
Chrom-Moly Steel A217-WC6 A479-316
A217-WC9 A479-316
A217-C5 A479-316
Forgings Stainless Steel A743-CF8M A479-316
Carbon Steel A105 A675-70
Chrom-Moly A182-F11 A479-316
A182-F22 A479-316
A182-F5a A479-316
Bar Stock Stainless Steel A182-F316 A479-316
A479-316 A479-316
Carbon Steel A675-70 A675-70
Chrom-Moly See forgings See forgings
Body Material Selection
Normally control valve user specifies body material in case of special service or severe service.
Many general service valves are specified with common materials like carbon steel, stainless steel,
or Chrom-Moly steel.
Carbon steel of these is however most common. It is ideal for non-corrosive fluids, widely
used for steam and condensate services, works well at temperatures up to 425 0C in continuous
service or even up to 5350C in non-continuous service. It is readilt available and
inexpensive.
Stainless steel is highly corrosion resistant and is commonly used at temperatures upto5350C and
even higher. It is costlier than carbon steel.
Chrom-Moly steels are not as corrosion resistant as Stainless steels, but better thaqn carbon
steels. They can handle temperatures higher than carbon steels can, and are as strong as stainless
steels. They are ideal for high pressure stream.
Severe services need special materials. Hastelloy B or C, or titanium is selected for highly acidic
fluids, Monel or Bronze is selected for handling pure oxygen where a non-sparking material is
necessary.
Valves bodies can cast, forged, or machined from bar stock. Castings are cheap,
especially for large quantities. Forgings are preferred for high pressures or for special materials.
Bar stock as raw material is used only when quick delivery of a small number are required.
Generally body and bonnet are made from same material as that for body, but they are
manufactured from bar stock.

Temperature Limits for Body Materials

Material Upper Limit, 0C Lower Limit, 0C

Cast iron 210 -5
Ductile iron 345 -5
Carbon steel [Grade WCB] 535 -5
Carbon Steel [Grade LCB] 345 -10
Carbon – Moly Steel 455 -5
1¼Cr - ½Mo [Grade WC6] 535 -5
2¼-½Mo [Grade WC9] 565 -5
5Cr-½Mo [Grade C5] 595 -5
9Cr-1Mo [Grade C2] 595 -5
Type 304 [Grade CF8] 815 -220
Type 347 [Grade CF8C] 815 -220
Type 316 [Grade CF8M] 815 -220
3-½Ni [Grade LC3] 345 -65
Aluminum 205 -160
Bronze 285 -160
Inconel 600 650 -160
Monel 400 480 -160
Hastelloy B 370 -160
Hastelloy C 535 -160
Titanium 315 NA
Nickel 260 -160
Alloy 20 150 -10
Trim Materials

Trim items include the stem, the gate seat surfaces, the body (or seat ring) seat surfaces
and the backseat stem contact surface. The trim materials shall be as in table 13 unless
other materials are agreed upon between the purchaser and manufacturer. The trim
combination number, CN, identifies both the stem material and the associated seating
surfaces.
11. GOOD ENGINEERING PRACTICE

WHAT’S IN A PIPELINE?

Both quarter-turn and multi-turn block valves as well as check valves are used in pipeline service.
Those built for gas or crude oil pipeline service are designed and tested in accordance with the
American Petroleum Institute (API) specification 6D “Pipeline Valves.” The document, which is
also published by the International Organization for Standardization as ISO 14313, includes
requirements for gate, ball, check and plug type valves
Product pipelines that carry fluids such as gasoline, distillates, diesel fuel and other finished
petroleum products are a popular place for the rough and ready gate valve.
The quarter-turn trunnion pipeline ball valve is much cheaper to make than the jumbo-sized gate
valves, with their large and expensive body castings
The pipeline gates come in two basic types: slab and expanding wedge. The slab type utilizes a
large slab that floats slightly in the valve body and seals downstream with the aid of upstream
pressure. Spring-loaded seats are often employed to increase the sealing efficiency. The expanding
gate, on the other hand, uses a split-disc design and separator mechanism that tightly expands the
gate both upstream and downstream as the valve is closed. This type then reverses the process
upon opening. The tighter closing design enables the valve to seat more effectively at lower
pressures.

A QUESTION OF INTEGRITY

Valve integrity along with pipeline integrity is of prime importance to the pipeline owner as well
as those who live and work close to the line. A complex formula for risk assessment is used to
guide pipeline operators with inspection programs
valves are in operation at each pumping station (for liquids) or compressor station (for gas
transmission), the critical valves in a pipeline are spaced along its route. They serve as blocking or
isolation valves to segregate pipeline sections for required maintenance or to help in cases of an
accident. The minimum required spacing of these valves is prescribed in ASME B31.4, “Gas
Transmission & Distribution Piping Systems” and ASME B31.8, “Pipeline Transportation Systems
for Liquid Hydrocarbons & Other Liquids.”
Several factors influence valve spacing, including: 1) the amount of potential fluid leakage, 2) the
impact of a release, 3) future development in the pipeline area, and 4) the time required to blow
down (empty) an isolated section. Other criteria include how close the line is to occupied buildings
and houses. According to B31.4, the distance between block valves could be as little as four miles
apart for a gas pipeline.

Liquid pipelines have their own criteria for valve placement. They are placed: 1) at the suction end
and discharge ends of a pump station, 2) on each line entering or leaving a storage tank area, 3) on
each mainline at locations along the pipeline that will limit damage or pollution from accidental
hazardous liquid discharge, 4) on each lateral take-off from the trunk line, 5) on each side of a
water crossing that is more than a 100 feet wide, and 6) on each side of a reservoir holding water
for human consumption.
Additionally, check valves may be installed on grades and the downstream side of rivers and
streams for more protection from backflow conditions in case of a line breach.

Many block valve installations are outfitted with automatic shutdown controls. These controls are
set to close the valve if pressure or flow rates change, indicating a possible breach in the line. By
having these valves spaced throughout the line, the amount of potential fluid leakage that might
occur during a line break is limited. Additionally, many pipeline valves are designated as
emergency shutdown valves (ESD), which are remotely operated from the pipeline control center.

These block valve location requirements account for the numerous small, fenced-in valve
installations visible when driving around areas with many pipelines—numerous pipeline block
valves are located above the ground for easy maintenance. However, some are buried, with only
the operating mechanism and auxiliary lubrication and bleed lines showing. These installation
areas used to be the exclusive domain of gate valves. However, today welded body trunnion-
mounted ball valves are very popular, especially for clean natural gas transmission lines. The
unique welded body construction eliminates the potential body-bonnet leak path, while the only
remaining leak path is up through the packing area.

TERMINAL AUTOMATION SYSTEMS

Terminal Automation system (TAS) is a process in which a Supervisory Software System

(Terminal Automation System) automates certain manual processes in a terminal. TAS is used to
automate, measure, record and report all transfers and exchanges throughout the product
movement in a terminal. TAS provides monitoring, control and management of the entire
product handling process from receiving to storage to distribution.

TAS combines automatic control and business management functions. It is generally an

integrated, modular, open and scalable solution that helps ensure the safe and stable operation,
optimal management and profit maximization of the terminal, as well as lowering production
costs.

Motorized valves: Motorized valves are either hardwired or multidropped using communication
bus and connected to process control PLC. All the motorized valves are operated and monitored
by process control PLC as per process requirement. As per OISD guidelines motor operated valve
(MOV) on inlet, outlet and recirculation lines should be located outside the dyke.

Double Block and Bleed Valves: The purpose of DBBV is to have positive isolation of lines /
tanks. Remote operation and monitoring of DBBV is carried out through process control PLC.
Dyke valve position monitoring: As per OISD guidelines Dyke drain Valves shall be provided with
position indication and alarm system in the event of opening the valve.

Emergency Shutdown System

As per OISD guidelines Remote operated shut off valve (ROSOV) is not a regularly operated valve
and is kept normally open; the second motor operated valve (MOV) is a regular operating valve.
ROSOV shall be fail safe and fire safe (shall close in case of signal failure). The actuator shall be
fail-safe. The cables leading to the control room shall be fire retardant. ROSOV shall have only
close operation from control room or at a strategic remote location. The Open/Close push
buttons of ROSOV shall be provided in field i.e. just outside the dyke. These push buttons shall
have distinctive feature so that opening is different than action required for closing (e.g. pull
type and push type).

CHALLENGES AND DESIGN ISSUES IN TERMINALS:

Automation of terminals is a must to have safe and efficient operations. Manually planning,
executing, and recording movements can greatly impact the profitability of terminal. Mistakes
result in contamination, unsafe working conditions, and the loss of materials and energy. Any of
these factors can directly contribute to higher operating costs, revenue loss, and, ultimately, lost
opportunities.

Operation of valves inside the dyke

In case of emergencies such as oil spillage inside dyke it is not possible to access the valves
located inside dyke. Hence it should be ensured that suitable access platforms are provided
right from outside the dyke up to the valves so that person need not have to land inside the
dyke to approach the ROSOVs.

Safety Integrity Level (SIL) requirement for field instruments( Radar Relay only SIL certified)

The instrument, valves, relays, control system etc. used in emergency shutdown loops shall be SIL
certified. The SIL level for these items shall be ascertained after carrying out SIL identification
study

Actuator Selection for ROSOV

The ROSOVs in terminals are part of ESD system and hence are generally provided with
pneumatic or electro-hydraulic actuators. In case instrument air is available in terminal then
providing pneumatic actuator is most economical. When air is not available the providing
electro-hydraulic actuators may be economical. Hence proper techno-economical study shall be
carried out in selecting the type of actuator with due considerations to fail safe action, total air
requirement, total quantity of valves etc.

Dyke valves position monitoring

For draining of leakage oil from dyke pit valves are provided. It is very important and also
mandatory as per OISD to monitor the open / close positions of these valves and alarms shall be
generated on operator stations as per the logic of operation.

Motorized valve communication

The second valve on the tanks inlet, outlet or recirculation lines are generally motorized valves.
The distance between these valves and the control system located in control room are very
large. It is most economical to use multidrop communication cable between the motorized
valves and control room for operation and monitoring of valves. This will save huge amount of
multicore cables to be laid for each motorized valve. Additionally it will provide all the diagnostic
information and save commissioning time of valves.

Valves commonly used in process Industry are either pneumatically operated or electrically
operated depending on the availability of Instrument air / power at that location and its
application. The control & monitoring of the valves shall be from the control room. This involves
a large amount of cabling from the field / MCC, junction boxes, I/O cards etc. With the
advancement in technology, valve operation on Digital communication system has been
introduced.

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
In a digital communication channel, the information is represented by individual data bits, which
may be encapsulated into multi bit message units. A group of eight bits is called a byte. A
collection of bytes are grouped into a frame or higher level message unit. Such multiple levels of
encapsulation facilitate the handling of messages in a complex data communication network.
ADVANTAGES:
The digital communication provides a vital link between the valve actuator in the field and the
Control System in the Control / Equipment room. Digital communication is a highly reliable,
smart, quick and easy to install network connecting the field to the Control room.
The advantages of digital communication over the conventional ‘multi-wire’ method are:-

• A twisted pair cable can be used instead of expensive multicore cables.

• Installation & Commissioning costs are reduced as there are minimum connections to make
and test.
• Commissioning time is reduced due to faster and easier Installation.
• Reduced downtime and increase of plant productivity if the same is implemented in an
operating plant.
• Use of Industry standard protocols for communication in the field and with the Control
system such as DCS / PLC.
• Highly reliable and secured communication protocols and all parameters can be set
remotely.
• Easily expandable.
• Easy to upgrade devices in the field as no additional cabling is required
• Full diagnostics are available.
• Non Intrusive Operation in Field
• Faster response time
• Predictive failure warnings and troubleshooting
• More data is available in the control room for predictive maintenance and centralized asset
management.

DIAGNOSTICS:
The diagnostic feature comprises of the following
• Obstructed valve
• Jammed Valve Protection
• Torque Switch By Pass
• Anti Hammer Protection
• Incorrect Phase Rotation
• Motor Overheating
• Reversal Protection
• Actuator fault
• Remote Control Failure
• Spurious Operation
ARCHITECTURE OF ACTUATORS WITH DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

ELECTRIC ACTUATORS:
The actuators of valves / dampers are modular in construction. It comprises of an Electric motor,
Gear mechanism, Integral starter with Local indication & control, Torque limitation with logic
controls and LCD display unit for monitoring.
Following provisions are made on the actuator’s field unit locally
• Open, Stop & Close commands
• Local / Remote selection
• ESD command and “Go to the position” command
• Alarm messages
• Limit & Torque status check back
• User Analog input feedback
• Redundant isolated communication channels
• Non-intrusive configuration from the hand held terminal

The Master Station in the Control room has the following features
• LED indicator for Network status.
• DCS interface via RS-232, RS-422 or RS-485 Modbus
• Modbus TCP/IP for interface with Web server.
• HMI for configuration & operation
The electric actuators are available with all types of communication buses which are mentioned
above.
The following actions / feedbacks are possible via Communication bus.
a) ON-OFF Operation
• Opening & Closing of the valve by activating / deactivating the communication network.
• Status check back of stroke end position, opening / closing, over torque or Motor switch faults.
• Status check back of Motor winding temperature, running torque, maximum torque, heater
element On/Off, Stroke position.
b) Modulating Operation
• Initialisation of actuator from a remote location such as a Control room via the Communication
bus.
• Dead band / Sensitivity adjustment.
• Zero range adjustment
• Adjustment of High & low signal action
In addition to the 2-wire communication, Hardwired connections are also available. Provision on
the actuator for hardwired signals , such as Digital Inputs (DI), Digital Outputs (DO) and Analog
Inputs (AI) are available for status monitoring on the Local Control Panel in the field or Control
room.

OPERATION OF VALVES
Operation of valve involves Local and Remote selection.
• Local Operation by non-Intrusive control switches for Open /Close/ Stop and Local / Remote
selections.
• Remote Operation by user from PLC /DCS for Open /Close/ Stop and Interlock signals.

FEATURES OF ACTUATORS
• The most important feature of these actuators is that the parameter setting is ‘’Non-intrusive ‘’
for eg. limit & torque switch settings can be done with a hand held terminal.
• Actuators have an option of a RS-232 communication port for connecting it to a laptop for
retrieving the operational parameters such as running time, number of switching / starts-stops,
number of faults from the actuator. Similarly the parameters can also be uploaded to the actuator.
• The actuators have an auto commissioning Set Up.
• The conventional mechanical sensors are replaced by electronic sensors (Torque, overload
sensing etc)
• Actuators have the option of communicating via Bluetooth or Internet, thereby offering the
advantages of wireless communication.
• Data Logging facility.
• Actuators are also available with SIL rating for functional safety applications.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
1. Forged ball valve feature
Forged ball valve, the forging material can ensure sufficient rigidity and strength under maximum
rated operation pressure without inherent flaw of cast. Enough wall thickness of separate body
and adaptation of high strength tie bolts are convenient for valve maintenance and sufficient to
bear the stress of pipe.The internal parts of valve are carefully designed and selected to ensure
reliability under all kinds of work condition.
2. Anti-fire safe design
When the trunnion ball valve be used normally,its sealed by seat and ball surface,seat retainer
sealed by O-ring and body,this is soft sealed and reliable sealing.When the seat and O-ring are
burnt,the seat retainer and body will be sealed by expanded graphite.Thus act anti-fire safe
purpose.
3. Anti-static device
In order to prevent friction among ball,stem and PTFE that generates static electricity which may
light the combustibles and explosives that cause an accident,in this ball valve,static-conduction
spring is set between the stem and the ball,the stem and the body.Thus static electricity is
conducted to ground and system safety is secured.
4. Free leakage of body Sealed construction
The connective position of valve body and bonnet is double sealed by gasket and O-ring,on this
base,such factors as fire,high temperature,shock and uneven opening or closing of the torque all
can't induce external leakage.
5. Low torque in operation
The self-lubricated bearings are installed at the friction of stem,resulting in wear
resistance,flexibility of operation and low torque.
6. Double block&bleed(DBB)
When ball is full open or close position,the transmitter substance in center cavity of body can be
released by drainage and emptying devices.In addition,the over loaded pressure in the center
cavity of valve can be released to low pressure end by self relief seat.
7. Emergency sealing
Compound injection holes are designed and compound injection valves are installed at locations of
stem/cap and body support of side valve.When sealing of stem or seat is damaged to induce
leakage,the compound can be used to do the second time sealing.A concealed check valve is
installed in side of each compound injection valve to prevent compound from out flowing due to
the action of transmitter substance.The top of the compound injection valve is the connector for
fast connection with compound injection gun.
8. Extension stem
For the underground installed valve,the stem can be lengthened and for the convenience of
operation the corresponding compound injection nozzle and drainage valve can be extended to
the top of valve.
9. Automatic body cavity relief
When the body pressure going up un-normally as the unstable factor,the trunnion ball valve
downstream seat will be pushed by un-normal pressure,and the release the un-normally pressure
automatically,it doesn't damage to the sealing of upstream seat.
10. Various driving types
The top pad of valve designed according to ISO 5211,which is convenient for connection and
exchange of various drivers.The common driving types are manual,electrical,pneumatic and
pneumatic hydraulic.

11.Blow-out proof stem

For the purpose of preventing the stem from flying off resulting in abnormal rising of the inner
pressure of valve,shoulder is fixed at the lower part of the stem.In addition, in order to prevent
leakage resulting from burnout of packing set of the stem in a fire, thrust bearing is set at the
contact position of the shoulder at lower part of the stem and valve body. Thus an inverse seal
seat is formed which will prevent leakage and avoid accident.
12. VALVE INSPECTION AND TESTING

Certain steps are to be followed to inspect the control valves. These steps vary depending
upon whether it is new valve, defective valve or repaired valve.find below these steps.
How to inspect a new valve

1. Inspect the valve for any mechanical damage that may have occurred during
shipment.
2. Inspect the valve flange faces, beveled ends or threads for mechanical damage and/or
corrosion.
3. Measure bore size per standard.
4. Measure valve wall thickness per standard.
5. Verify that the material used in the manufacture of the valve is the same as originally specified
by the purchase order. If the material of construction is not the same as specified, then report as
Material not in accordance with description.
6. Verify that the valve conforms to all other specifications of the purchase order.

7. Witness a valve seat tightness test as specified by the Engineer.

8. Record the results of the inspection. Report, in detail, any non-conformance with
specifications. Write an accurate description of material and dimensions in the report. Make
recommendations for corrective action as required.
How to inspect a defective valve

1. Review the plant inspection log and equipment inspection record to determine the
symptoms of the valve failure.
2. Remove any temporary repair materials, such as clamps, bands, plugs, etc., in order to allow
for a complete inspection of the valve.
3. Inspect the valve externally for any signs of corrosion or mechanical damage.
4. Inspect the flange faces for corrosion or mechanical damage.
5. Inspect the packing gland nuts, bolts, and follower for corrosion.
6. Check the adjustment of the packing gland follower. If the follower has been adjusted
nearly all the way down then additional packing may be required.
7. Check the valve for ease of operation. If the valve is difficult to operate then the packing
may need to be replaced. Whenever the packing is replaced be sure to inspect the valve stem in
the area of the packing box for corrosion or possible wire drawing.
8. Check the stem, seats, and gate or disc for mechanical damage or corrosion/erosion.
9. Make sure the gate or disc is properly secured to the stem.
10. Inspect the guides on both gate and body for corrosion or erosion.
11. Inspect the valve body internally for corrosion or erosion. Give particular attention to the area
below the gate in gate valves. This area of the gate valve body is subject to excessive deterioration if
the valve has been used for throttling.
12. Check valves should be inspected to make sure that clappers, hinge pins, bolts, and cotter
pins are free from damage, wear, or corrosion and are functioning properly.
13. After the inspection is complete, analyze the findings and determine the cause of the failure.
14. Record the results of inspection. State the reason for the valve failure and make
recommendations for corrective action.

How to inspect a repaired valve

1. If parts have been replaced, verify that the correct parts have been installed, including correct
metallurgy.
2. Make sure that the valve trim material is correct for the type of service.
(Mark the original trim material on the identification plate)
3. Inspect any weld build-up area of the valve body for quality of workmanship
4. Perform a hydrotest of the valve depending on what repairs are made:
a. Repairs that affect pressure containing ability must be followed by a strength test of the
valve body.
b. A seat test should be performed on valves requiring tight shutoff if the trim has been repaired
or replaced.
c. A tightness (leak) test shall be conducted at operating pressure after gaskets and/or packing
has been renewed.
5. Record the results of your inspection and recommend corrective action if required.
13. VALVES INSTALLATION & MAINTENANCE

Common Valve Maintenance Procedures

Packing Maintenance

Valve packing is one of the more troublesome elements of control valve operation. As a result,
the end user is often faced with the prospect of pulling it out and installing a new set. The best
way to do this is to take the bonnet off of the valve and then push the old packing out from the
bottom, using the following procedure. Note that this procedure covers a sliding-stem globe-style
valve, and, as such, it can be done in line. For rotary valves, the procedure differs in that there
is no bonnet, so the valve has to be taken from the line to extract the packing as below:
1. Apply enough air pressure to the actuator to put the valve in an intermediate position so that
there is no residual stem load. Disconnect the actuator and valve stems. Relieve the air pressure,
and disconnect the actuator supply and any leakoff piping.
2. Remove the yoke coupling, yoke locknut, or the yoke bolting, and remove the actuator
from the bonnet.
3. Loosen the packing flange nuts so that the packing is not tight on the valve plug stem. Remove
any travel indicator disk and stem locknuts from the valve plug stem threads. Safety note: When
lifting the bonnet, be sure that the valve plug and stem assembly remains on the seat ring. This
avoids damage to the seating surfaces as a result of the assembly dropping from the bonnet after
being lifted part way out. The parts are also easier to handle separately. Use care to avoid
damaging gasket sealing surfaces. If the cage cannot be held in the body due to gasket adhesion,
control it so that it will not cause equipment damage or personal injury should it fall
unexpectedly.
4. Unscrew the bonnet bolting and carefully lift the bonnet off the valve stem. If the valve
plug and stem assembly start to lift with the bonnet, use a brass or lead hammer on the end of
the stem and tap them back down. Set the bonnet on a cardboard or wooden surface to prevent
damage to the bonnet gasket surface.
5. Remove the valve plug, the seat ring, and the cage. Note: All residual gasket material must be
removed from the cage gasket surfaces. If the gasket surfaces are scored or damaged during this
process, smooth and polish them by hand, sanding with 360-grit paper and using long, sweeping
strokes. Failure to remove all residual gasket material and/or burrs from the gasket surfaces will
result in leakage.
6. Clean all gasket surfaces with a good-quality degreaser. Remove and residual tin or silver from
all gasket surfaces.
7. Cover the opening in the valve body to protect the gasket surface and to prevent foreign
material from getting into the body cavity.
8. Remove the packing flange nuts, packing flange, upper wiper, and packing follower.
Carefully push out all the remaining packing parts from the body side of the bonnet using a
rounded rod or other tool that will not scratch the packing box wall.
9. Clean the packing box and the related metal packing parts: packing follower, packing box ring,
spring or lantern ring, special washers, etc.
10. Inspect the valve-stem threads for any sharp edges that might cut the packing. A whetstone
or emery cloth may be used to smooth the threads if necessary. They can also be chased with
a die.
11. Remove the protective covering from the body cavity, and install the cage using new top
gaskets. Install the plug and then slide the bonnet over the stem and onto the studs. Lubricate
the stud threads and the faces of the hex nuts. Replace hex nuts and torque the nuts in a
crisscross pattern to no more than one-quarter of the nominal torque value specified. When all
the nuts are tightened to that torque value, increase the torque by one-quarter of the specified
nominal torque and repeat the crisscross pattern. Repeat this procedure until all the nuts are
tightened to the specified nominal value. Apply the final torque value again and, if any nut still
turns, tighten every nut again.
12. Install new packing and the metal packing box parts according to the appropriate
arrangement in the instruction manual. If desired, packing parts may be prelubricated for
easier installation. Slip a smooth-edged pipe over the valve stem, and gently tamp each soft
packing part into the packing box.
13. Slide the packing follower, wiper, and packing flange into position. Lubricate the packing
flange studs and other related parts and the faces of the packing flange nuts. Replace the packing
flange nuts. For spring-loaded TFE V-ring packing, tighten the packing flange nuts until the
shoulder on the packing follower contacts the bonnet. For other standard packing types, tighten
the packing flange nuts to the recommended torque. For high-performance packing sets, adjust
the live-loading springs as indicated in the instruction manual.
14. Mount the actuator on the valve body assembly, and reconnect the actuator and valve
stems according to the procedures in the appropriate instruction manual
15. Cycle the valve 20 to 30 times and recheck packing load.
Packing can be replaced with the valve in the line, but it is not recommended due to the
increased risk of stem or packing box damage. If it must be attempted, follow the above
procedure with the changes noted below:
1. Remove the packing loading parts so that the top of the packing rings can be seen.
2. Very carefully insert a corkscrew packing extraction tool into the packing box and twist it
into the top of the packing until it can be used to pull the top packing ring out.
3. Repeat this procedure until all the upper packing has been removed. If there is a spacer or
bushing below the packing or between the upper and lower packing sets on a double
arrangement, it usually has some type of slot or extraction hole. If it does not, it will have to be
left in place. Assuming that it can be extracted, pull it out, and continue the above process with
any packing left below the spacer.
4. Once all the packing and internal parts have been removed, do your best to clean the box out
and inspect for any signs of damage. This cleaning and inspection will be very difficult to
accomplish with the bonnet in place.
5. Normally you should remove the stem connector and the actuator so the rings can be slid
down over the stem. If this is not possible, split rings can be used, and they can be forced onto
the stem by twisting them until the opening is large enough to slide over the stem. Split rings
are not recommended due to their propensity to leak. If they are used, make sure to stagger the
splits to reduce the potential for leakage.
6. If any damage is found, the valve should be disassembled and the situation corrected at the
first opportunity. Effective corrective action cannot be taken with the bonnet on the valve, and
repacking with the bonnet on the valve will improve packing performance for a limited time, at
best, if the stem or box is damaged in any way.
7. Repack and reassemble as noted above, using split rings if the stem connector was not
removed.

Lapping the Seats

Lapping is procedure used to provide a better fit and surface finish between the valve plug and
the mating seat. It applies only to metal-to-metal seating and is normally used for Class IV or V
shutoff on control valves. Classes I, II, and III don’t require it and Class VI nearly always requires
soft seats. The plug and seat in their as-machined state do not always fit together perfectly
around their circumference. Imperfections in fit result in excess leakage, so lapping is required to
eliminate these imperfections and to make sure that the two parts fit together as closely as
possible. Lapping should be carried out as follows:
1. Lapping should be done with the standard guiding in place to make sure that the parts are
lapped in the positions that they will be in once the valve is fully assembled. For this reason, it is
normally done with the bonnet in place.

Lapping tool used with spring

2. With the seat ring in place in the body, apply a light coating of coarse grinding ompound
(600 grit) to both the seat ring and the plug. If the seating surfaces are made of stainless steel, use
some white lead in the grinding compound to keep it from tearing or galling. Insert the plug and
stem into the body and assemble the bonnet onto the body opening. The bonnet does not have
to the bolted into place as long as the guiding simulates actual service.
3. Lapping requires that a very light load be applied to keep from tearing the metal, so if the plug
is heavy, a spring should be used to support some of the load. The spring can be inserted over
the stem and then a piece of strap iron can be locked into place on the stem and used as a
grinding handle .
4. Gently rotate the plug and stem four or five times, over about a 45◦ arc. Pick it up and move to
a new position and repeat. Continue this procedure, lapping over the entire circumference at least
once. Pull the assembly apart, clean he surfaces, and look for a fine continuous lap line on both
the plug and the seat. Using a mirror will make the line easier to see on the seat ring inside the
valve body.
5. If the lap lines look good, reassemble and repeat the procedure with a fine grit compound. If
the lap lines are not continuous, repeat with the course compound. If they are still not
continuous, repeat with the course compound. If they are still not continuous, try coining the
surfaces by hitting the top of the stem two or three times with a heavy, but soft hammer, and lap
again. If this still doesn’t provide the desired results, the plug and seat should be remachined to
provide a better initial fit and the process restarted.
6. When the fine grinding is done, thoroughly clean the surfaces and reassemble, torquing the
bonnet in place. If possible, a seat-leak test should then be carried out to ensure tight shutoff.
7. High-temperature valves should be heated, if possible, before beginning this process to
better duplicate actual guiding and fit in service.
8. Double-ported bodies will never seal as well as a single-port design, but they can still be lapped
to improve shutoff. Special considerations for these valves include: The top seat grinds faster than
the bottom. Use a coarser grit on the bottom ring to help correct for this. Never leave one seat
dry while grinding the other one. This will tear the metal and hurt the shutoff. Heavy grinding on
one seat may be required to get the two seats to contact at the same time.
9. Note that despite claims to the contrary, blue-lining to check for seat contact will not provide
the same tight shutoff seen with lapping. Tests have shown that there can still be relatively
large imperfections present even though the blue-line shows continuous contact between the
two surfaces.

Replacing the Actuator Diaphragm

After isolating the valve assembly from all pneumatic and/or fluid pressures, relieve spring
compression in the spring, if possible. (On some spring and diaphragm actuators for use on
rotary-shaft valve bodies, spring compression is not externally adjustable. Initial spring
compression is set at the factory and does not need to be relieved in order to change the
diaphragm.) Remove the upper diaphragm case. On direct-acting actuators, the diaphragm can be
lifted out and replaced with a new one. On reverse- acting actuators, the diaphragm head
assembly must be dismantled to change the diaphragm.
Most pneumatic spring and diaphragm actuators utilize a molded diaphragm for control valve
service. The molded diaphragm facilitates installation, provides a relatively uniform effective
area throughout the valve’s range, and permits greater travel than could be possible if a flat-
sheet diaphragmwere used. If a flat-sheet diaphragm is used in an emergency repair situation, it
should be replaced with a molded diaphragm as soon as possible.
When reassembling the diaphragm case, tighten the cap screws around the perimeter of the case
firmly and evenly to prevent leakage. Be careful not to tear the diaphragm in the area of the
bolt holes during reassembly. Avoid reusing a diaphragm since they are prone to leak if reused.
Replacing threaded-in seat rings. Threaded-in seat rings are no longer the preferred design for
control valves in the chemical process industry. Nevertheless, this design is encountered fairly
often due to its popularity in the past. The main reason this design has fallen from favor is that
the seat rings can be very diffcult to get out. Adhering to the following recommended practice
should help extract the seat ring with a minimum of effort and risk of personnel:
1. Before trying to remove the seat ring(s), check to see if it has been tack-welded into the
body. If it has, grind out the weld.
2. To make disassembly easier, soak the ring and threads with penetrating oil and allow them to
sit for some time so that the oil can do its job in loosening up the threads.
3. Insert a seat ring puller like that shown in Fig. 54 against the lugs or in the slots of the ring. Be
careful to hold the puller down against the ring while applying torque, and any rounded edges on
the lugs or slots should be corrected to keep the puller from slipping past the lugs or slots.
 Seat ring puller
4. The torque can be applied manually or with the aid of a hydraulic torque wrench. If the
power wrench is used, be extra careful to avoid slippage due to the high torques and the safety
risk to personnel if something slips or breaks. If the valve has been pulled from the line, a
lathe or boring mill may be the easiest way to apply the torque to back the ring out.
5. The bonnet bolting can be used as a reaction point for the torque and to hold the puller
down into the body.
6. On particularly stubborn rings, using an impact wrench can help to break them loose.
7. As the ring starts to come out, the bolts holding the puller in the body must also be
loosened to permit the ring to move up.
8. Once the ring is out, thoroughly clean and chase all threads.
9. Apply a heavy coat of lubricant or pipe compound to all threads and reinstall and torque
to specified levels. The ring may be tack welded in place, as necessary.
10. On double-ported valves, the port the farthest distance from the actuator is the smallest
and needs to be installed first.

Actuators

The diaphragm actuator is a simple mechanical device, completely independent of the valve body.
There are two general types, designated as “Air-to-Push-Down” and “Air-to-Push-Up”.

Air-To-Push-Down Actuator

Figure illustrates this type. When air pressure is applied to the top of the diaphragm, the actuator
stem is pushed down. This motion or force is opposed by the compression of the spring. The
spring is selected so that the actuator stem will start to stroke when the air pressure reaches a
predetermined initial value and will complete its rated stroke with a specified total air pressure on
the diaphragm.
The nominal range of a spring-diaphragm actuator is the air pressure range in pounds per square
inch (psi) for rated stroke under no load. One ISA standard is 3-15 psi. Another range now widely
accepted is 6-30 psi. Other ranges are occasionally used. The spring range is usually marked on
the serial plate. For a 3-15 psi nominal range the rate of the spring is selected so that the stem will
start to stroke when the air pressure reaches 3 psi and complete its rated stroke when the
pressure reaches 15 psi (plus or minus 5%). From the standpoint of satisfactory operation and
maintenance the exact operating air pressure range is not important as long as the rated valve
stroke can be obtained without exceeding the maximum available loading pressure.

The criterion of good actuator performance is response to very small changes in air pressure. It is
therefore necessary to guide the actuator stem to assure proper alignment of the moving parts. In
the actuator illustrated in Fig. 25, the conformation of the molded diaphragm to the diaphragm
plate serves as a flexible upper guide for the stem; the lower guide is a self-lubricated bronze
bearing located in the adjusting screw.
This type actuator is used in general for all air-to-close valves and also for air-to-open valves where
body and plug are invertible; also for air-to-open valves where body and plug are invertible; also
for certain 3-way valves, butterfly types, etc.

The serial plate attached to the yoke contains such valuable information as: (1) nominal air
pressure range; (2) valve action, e.g., air-to-close; (3) supply pressure for actuator; (4) catalog
number; (5) body and trim size; (6) body and trim material; (7) body pressure and temperature
rating; (8) serial number; (9) parts list page number (if special valve, this space marked “Special”);
(1) type and orientation of valve plug.
MAINTENANCE

Maintenance of the actuator is simple and usually requires only attention to the diaphragm and
spring initial adjustment consequent to possible diaphragm replacement.

Diaphragm Replacement:

Before disassembling the diaphragm case, all spring compression should be relieved, by turning
the adjusting screw, to prevent the upper case popping up when the cap screws are removed.
This is especially important on actuators with a high initial spring setting. It is necessary to remove
the stem nut and washer to release the diaphragm. If possible, the replacement diaphragm
should be the molded type supplied by the valve manufacturer, but in a emergency a diaphragm
may be cut from flat sheet stock for actuators up to approximately 18" outside case diameter. To
allow sufficient stroke without restriction, due to the flatness of the diaphragm, the diaphragm
bolt circle diameter should be about 10% greater than that of the diaphragm case.

Spring Adjustment:

An air supply, with a gauge and regulator, should be piped to the diaphragm case for this
adjustment. The adjusting screw should be turned to compress the spring. The spring
compression should then be adjusted so that the stem just begins to move when air pressure
applied to the diaphragm reaches the minimum pressure of the range stamped on the serial plate.
This movement is most easily detected by feeling the stem as air pressure is applied.

Serial Plate:

When a valve is changed in the field to reverse action, install new size trim, etc., it is
recommended that a new serial plate be attached to show the correct data for the valve as
changed. If a new plate is considered impracticable the data which has been voided should be
crossed off or deleted to avoid misleading the service man. If the valve is repainted, the serial
plate should be coated with grease prior to painting. Because of the important basic data it
contains, a check should be made to be sure the plate is firmly attached when installing and when
servicing the valve.

Air-To-Push-Up Actuator

This type actuator (Figure) differs from the air-to-push-down unit (Figure) in that the spring, spring
case and adjusting screw are located above the diaphragm plate and diaphragm, which are
inverted. Air pressure applied to the diaphragm moves the stem upward. A gasket at the joint of
lower diaphragm case and yoke and a packing box around the actuator stem prevent air leakage.
The diaphragm acts as a flexible upper guide, and the packing box assembly as the lower guide, for
the actuator stem.

This actuator is used with non-invertible valve body assemblies such as angle valves and other top
guided designs.

MAINTENANCE

Maintenance for this type actuator is similar to that for the air-to-push-down type, with the
additional item of a packing box.

Diaphragm Replacement:
Procedure is the same as for air-to-push-down unit except that the entire upper case assembly
(including spring barrel, spring and spring button), actuator stem nut and diaphragm plate must
be removed to release the diaphragm.

Spring Adjustment: Procedure is identical with that for air-to-push-down unit.

Packing Box:

Since the packing box is subject to low air pressure only, the maintenance problem is minor. The
packing box nut should be set up lightly. if repacking is required, the actuator must be removed
from the body subassembly in order to insert the preformed ring packing. The replacement
packing ring should be covered with a thin coat of light cup grease before inserting to provide a
seal with minimum bearing pressure.
MAINTENANCE

Disassembly

Before removing the actuator form the bonnet it is necessary to detach the valve stem from the
actuator stem. The stem locknuts are loosened, run down the stem, locked together and used for
wrench flats in turning the valve stem from the actuator stem. The actuator can then be removed
by detaching the dive nut clamp which holds the actuator rigidly to the bonnet.
When removing the bonnet and blind head, precautions should be taken to prevent damage to
the pilot section and plug guide sections. If no new gaskets are available care should also be used
to preserve the old gaskets for reuse.
In removing the plug, careful handling is required to avoid damaging seating surfaces and guide
sections.

Threaded seat rings are set up very tightly when initially installed and are sometimes in service for
years before replacement, so that it is often difficult to remove them. One of the chief problems is
that the wrench will jump the lugs when force is applied. To facilitate removal in such cases, a
special seat ring wrench can readily be made. The wrench is prevented from rising by the tie rod
running through the body. If rings are exceptionally stubborn, the application of heat may assist in
removal.

Seat ring Replacement

Before new rings are installed, the seating surfaces and threads in the body bridge should be
cleaned thoroughly. A thread lubricant, such as John Crane Insoluble Plastic Lead No. 2, should be
applied sparingly to the ring threads. The ring should be brought up tight, using a suitable seat
ring wrench.

Grinding Seats

Dead tight shut-off is seldom required in control valves using metal-to-metal seats. In double
seated valves dead-tight shut-off is virtually impossible under all operating conditions. One reason
is that the seating surfaces of the plug and ring as machined are seldom smooth enough to make a
tight seal.

Also in double seated valves the distance between seats on the plug and between the seat rings
may vary slightly. To correct these conditions insofar as possible a hand operation called “lapping”
is necessary. In order to facilitate this operation the contact surfaces of the seats are kept as
narrow as good machining practice permits.
For the lapping operation a good grade of fine grinding compound, such as Clover Compound No
2A, is required. The compound is applied at several spots equally spaced around the periphery of
the ring. When grinding a double seated plug, compound should be used on both seats at the
same time. Care should be used to avoid getting the compound on the skirt or contoured sides of
the plug, which might wear the lateral surfaces during grinding.

The plug should be inserted carefully until it is seated. The bonnet, fastened temporarily to the
body by two bolts, serves as a guide during the lapping operation. To facilitate grinding a short
rod drilled and tapped to thread onto the top of the valve stem forms a convenient tool; or a T-
handle may be screwed into the bottom of the plug - depending on valve action. The T-handle can
be made by welding a cross piece to a threaded rod. Lapping is accomplished by rotating the plug
in short oscillating strokes. After 8 or 10 strokes, the plug should be lifted slightly from the seat,
before repeating the operation. This intermittent lifting is important in keeping the compound
evenly distributed.

In larger valves, where the weight of the plug is substantial, it is advisable to mix a small quantity
of lubricant, such as graphite, with the grinding compound. This will slow the cutting rate and
avoid tearing the seating surface.

It may, in the case of very large valves, be necessary to support the plug on a hoist to prevent the
entire weight from resting on the seat.

The amount of lapping required depends on the material of construction, condition of the seating
surfaces and accuracy of machining. if a short period of lapping does not visibly improve seating,
there is usually no advantage in continuing as too much lapping may result in rough seats or small
ridges on the plug or rings. Additional lapping only makes these effects more pronounced and the
only remedy is replacement of one or both parts.

Packing Box

Packing box maintenance is one of the principal chores of routine servicing. The box must be
tightened occasionally and kept well lubricated in order to provide an effective seal without
objectionable friction.
Packing material and lubricant should be selected for suitability under the operating conditions.
Some commonly used packing materials are Teflon-asbestos, graphite-asbestos and pure Teflon.
These, as well as other materials, are made in solid and split ring preformed types. Lubricants are
generally divided into two classes: (1) those suitable for petroleum and allied chemicals; (2) those
suitable for water solutions. Several standard lubricants are available, covering a wide range of
operating conditions.

In a majority of cases packing boxes are designed for use with a lubricator (See Figure). The
lubricator is provided with a ball check valve to prevent back flow of the process fluid while
lubricator is being filled. On steel valves an isolating valve is added for positive protection against
back flow. The lubricator should be kept filled with the specified lubricant and turned in firmly but
not tightly. The lubricant is intended as an aid to the packing - not as a packing itself. One or two
turns of the lubricator once every two weeks should suffice to provide the desired seal.
Tightness of the packing box is maintained by the combination of lubricant and packing
compression. Little by little it is necessary to take up on the packing gland until all available
compression is used up. it then becomes necessary to repack the box.

If the valve was supplied without lubrication, as may be the case in some applications involving
moderate pressures and temperatures, it will be necessary only to back off on the packing gland
and insert one or two rings of split ring packing at the top of the box. If the valve was furnished
with a lubricator (or if the packing is solid ring) it will be necessary to disassemble the valve (as
described previously) and remove the old packing. After valve disassembly; the stem lock nuts and
indicator disk are removed from the plug stem which is then turned out through the packing box.
The packing box flange and gland can then be removed and the old packing and lubricant ring
pushed out by working from the underside of the bonnet. The new packing should be inserted,
first a single ½” ring, then the lubricant ring followed by enough packing rings to fill the box.

Installing New Plug

It is customary to furnish valve plug and stem assembly complete for field replacement in which
case the installation involves no problems. It is necessary only to lap the seats; turn the stem
through the packing box; attach locknuts and indicator disk; connect valve plug stem to actuator
stem and readjust (see “Re-assembly”).

If necessary to assemble plug and plug stem it is better to use a new stem as the original pin hole
in an old stem prevents satisfactory results and might seriously impair the strength of the
assembly. If an old stem must be used the plug end of the stem should be cut off just above the
old pin hole and the stem rethreaded the original amount. This will shorten the stem but there is
usually enough adjustment in the actuator stem to compensate. If, however, the thread
engagement in the actuator stem is less than the diameter of the plug stem, the plug stem should
be discarded.
The old pin may usually be removed by driving it out with a punch . If necessary to drill it out, a
drill somewhat smaller than the pin should be used and then the remainder of the pin driven out.
Care should be used not to mar the guide section of the plug by gripping in the jaws of a vise or by
driving the pin out across the vise jaws. On larger size plugs with relief section in the guide, the
punch used should not be larger than the pin itself.

For drilling, the plug should be placed with the guide sections in two identical V-blocks on the drill
press table. The stem must be screwed into the plug solidly before starting to drill. This can be
checked by measuring the depth of the pilot recess in the plug and making a witness mark on the
stem the same distance from the thread. When properly assembled the witness mark should be
flush with the end of the guide section.

The stem can then be re-drilled through the old hole in the guide section, using first pilot drill of
suitable size and then a reamer drill to bring the hole to required size for the pin. After all burrs
and sharp corners are removed from the edge of the hole, a small amount of grease should be
applied before starting to insert the pin.

The hole should be of such diameter that the pilot end of the pin can be pushed in by hand about
1/8" to 3/16". The pin should be driven in about 1/16" beyond surface of the guide starting on the
side from which the hole was drilled. The pin should be as tight as possible without causing it to
bend or head over in driving. The easiest method of driving is to press it in the jaws of a vise.

Inverting Valve Body and Plug

This procedure is used when converting an air-to-close valve to an air-to-open valve (or vice
versa), using an air-to-push-down actuator. The body is disassembled and plug and stem
removed. The old stem is discarded and a new stem installed in the opposite end of the plug, with
stem and guide section being drilled simultaneously for insertion of the pin. The body is ten
reassembled in an inverted position (see preceding section; also “Reassembly”). Note: Travel
indicator plate on actuator should be removed and reattached in reverse and inverted position to
show correct scale.

Re-assembly

Since the bonnet and blind head are piloted into the body with very close clearance, care should
be taken to prevent damage to the pilot sections. Plug guides should also be protected so that the
plug will move freely when the body is assembled. If new gaskets are used they should be lightly
coated with a sealing compound when bonnet and blind head are reassembled; if the old gaskets
have been preserved they may be reused. If factory supplied gaskets are not available, gaskets
may be cut from sheet stock such as Crane No. 888 or Garlock No. 7022.

As bonnet and blind head flanges are made up, the nuts should be tightened in diametrically
opposite pairs. While tightening the nuts, the valve plug assembly should be moved through its
entire stroke, from time to time, to make sure that it moves freely. Trouble-free operation of the
valve depends upon accurate alignment throughout the entire assembly.
When the body, complete with plug and plug stem, is assembled the actuator is attached by
placing the yoke in position on the bonnet spud and driving the clamping nut up tight. The plug
stem and actuator stem are reconnected by, first, replacing locknuts on the plug stem (with
indicator disk between them) and locking together. The plug stem is then turned into the actuator
stem, using the locknuts for wrench flats. The stem itself should never be grasped by any tool as
the finish would be destroyed, endangering free movement of the stem.

Stem Adjustment

On air-to-close valves using an air-to-push-down actuator, the stem is readjusted as follows:

First: The plug stem is turned into the actuator stem as far as it will go and locknuts run up to
actuator stem and locked.

Second: Air pressure is applied to the diaphragm to move the stem until the indicator dist is at “S”
on the indicator plate; then, the plug stem is turned out of the actuator stem until plug is seated;
diaphragm pressure is relieved, locknuts loosened and plug stem turned out of the actuator stem
1/4 turn; finally locknuts are locked against the end of actuator stem. The indicator disk should be
at “O” on indicator plate. In the event the travel indicator plate setting has been changed from
factory adjustment it should be reset.
On air-to-open valves using an air-to-push-down actuator, a similar procedure is followed except
that:

a) The plug stem is turned into the actuator stem until the plug is seated;

b) Pressure is applied to the diaphragm to move the plug off the seats, and the
plug stem turned 1/4 turn more into the actuator stem;

c) Diaphragm pressure is relieved and locknuts locked at end of actuator stem. The indicator
disk should be at “S” on the travel indicator plate. If it is not, the plate may be reset as described
previously.
Pressure Tests
When there is an industrial standard referenced in the Purchase Order, valves shall be tested to
the requirements of that standard (e.g., API, ANSI, MSS, AWWA). In addition to tests per the
applicable standard, testing shall comply with the following:
 For cast steel valves (all sizes and ratings), the shell hydrostatic test shall consist of three
parts:

a) A primary pressure-holding period of a minimum of 3 minutes.

b) The reduction of the pressure to zero.
c) The secondary pressure-holding period of a minimum of 30 minutes.
 When specified in the Purchase Order, cast steel valves shall be subjected to a pneumatic
high-pressure shell test of 110% above the maximum allowable pressure at 100 oF (38oC) per API
STD 598 paragraph 3.5. The holding time shall be a minimum of 15 minutes and no visible leakage
is allowed.

 For steel valves nominal pipe size (NPS) 14 and above, a high-pressure hydrostatic seat test
and a low-pressure 60-100 psig pneumatic seat test shall be conducted, regardless of pressure
rating.

 For metal-seated ball valves and metal-seated high performance butterfly valves, the
maximum allowable leakage rates for closure tests shall be in accordance with the requirements
of API STD 598. The maximum allowable leakage rates for metal seated through conduit gate
valves shall be specified in the Purchase Order.
 Regardless of size, valves specified for flare system isolation service shall receive low-
pressure pneumatic seat tests at 5.0 psig. This test shall be performed in lieu of the 60-100 psig
test mentioned above.
 When there is a governing industrial standard, but it does not specify test durations or
leakage acceptance criteria, API STD 598 requirements for durations and leakage shall apply (See
Figure).
 When there is no referenced governing industrial standard, valve testing shall be in
accordance with the following requirements:
 Valves NPS 2 and smaller, and non-metallic valves, shall be tested per Vendor's procedure
as approved by the Valve Standards Committee Chairman.
 Metallic valves larger than NPS 2 shall be tested in accordance with API STD 598
requirements for shell tests and closure tests.
In addition, the Inspector verifies that all resilient soft-seated valves to have zero leakage as
demonstrated by hydrostatic seat valve.
Valve leakage tests per API 598.
Frequently Occurring Problems

When inspecting a valve, the inspector should be alert to the following problems which commonly
occur.
 Leaks (Leaking of the process material into the environment)
 General corrosion (Uniform loss of the original surface)
 Pitting corrosion (Highly localized loss of the original surface)
 Stress corrosion cracking (Small cracks caused by a combination of stress and corrosion acting
on a material)
 Weld metal zone attack (Local corrosion of welds next to base metal)
 Liquid/vapor transition corrosion (Corrosion in the area where a liquid changes to vapor)
 Erosion (Surfaces altered mainly by mechanical means such as abrasion, turbulent flows and
impingement)
 Bulging, distortion, and mechanical damage
 Broken valve hand wheel or handle
 Damaged disc or seats
 Stem broken internal to the valve
 Damaged flange gaskets or flange face
 Foreign material in the valve seating area or upper part of bonnet.

Other Problems

A common reaction to a leaky valve is to apply extra force in closing it, but this may damage the
valve. For example, a valve is leaking by the disc. If additional force is applied to stop the leakage,
the disc and seat would be jammed together, creating excessive pressure on the yoke bushing and
bonnet threads. Forcing the valve closed could cause galling of the valve seats.
Moreover, if the valve were made of brass or any other soft metal, forcing it closed could not only
damage the seat and disc, it could also cause the stem to be bent or the bonnet threads to be
stripped.
Generally, leaking from a valve may be of less concern if it is coming from the stem. Usually,
change of the packing is all what is required.
Leakage through the packing gland is the most common type of valve leakage. The packing inside
the valve stuffing box is compressed by adjusting the packing gland, to repair this type of leak. If
adjusting the packing gland does not stop the leakage, the valve must be re-packed.
The stem should be inspected for damage. A bent or worn stem can cause leakage even though
the packing is properly adjusted. The stem can be inspected by opening and closing the valve. The
stem should be observed to see if it wobbles back and forth, which may be an indication that it is
bent. On a rising stem valve, it is important to look for signs of damage or corrosion when the
valve is fully open. If there is no apparent damage, the packing should then be adjusted.
Seat leakage may be caused by:
o Improper seat interface.

o Cracked seating surfaces.

o Incomplete valve closure.

o Operator error.

When examining the seating surfaces of butterfly valves, the most vulnerable point for leakage is
opposite the hinges of the disc.
Ball valves that operated for extended period in the partially opened position can develop leak
paths, cavitation damage and erosion. Cavitation occurs when bubbles form in a liquid product
and extend until the cavity collapses.
Pitting corrosion can be initiated by restricted fluid access. This form of pitting corrosion is also
called localized corrosion.
Embrittlement can occur when in the presence of a severe metal ductility loss due to in-service
environments.
Water hammer can also cause damage to valve and valve components. Water hammer is caused
by an abrupt flow change.
When inspecting gate valves that have been used for throttling measure the wall thickness at the
bottom of the valve between the seats. This is an area where serious deterioration can occur
because of turbulence. This is a particularly weak point because of the wedging action of the disc
when the valve is closed.
Visually inspect the seating surfaces for defects, which might cause a "passing" leak when the
valve is closed. These inspection areas are pointed out in Figure.
Inspect the wedge guides in gate valves for corrosion and erosion both on the wedge and in the
body.
 14. CONTROL VALVE TROUBLESHOOTING FLOW CHARTS
TROUBLE SHOOTING

MALFUNCTION

ACTION LEAKAGE OTHERS

INSTABILITY CYCLIC MOTION VIBRATION (NOISE) DULL RESPONSE NOT WORKING

HUNTING HUNTING At any vlv At specific

(At any vlv opening) (Near to vlv close posn) opening vlv opening

High Stem Friction Oversizing Flow to Close Poor Increse Resonance of Resonance
flow direction Piping Support Vibration Noise
of vlv plug

Other Find
To Check Reduce dP Change source Increase Change
Gland Packing Flow dir. pipe support plug
profile
Plug guide Replace
Increase Use Smaller wear & tear with new Throtle pump Change
Actuator Cv valve discharge Cv value
valve

Check Vlv
Guiding

MALFUNCTION

ACTION LEAKAGE OTHERS

CYCLIC MOTION

Drift of Hunting of Hunting of

air sup pr. Sig air pr. Vlv stem

Too much air Trouble in Control loop Trouble in Positioner Shift in plug
consumption AFR Resistance Controller loop hunting reaction force
in other line

Enlarge Check AFR Insert vol tank Check Check posn Decrease dP
compressor & restriction to Controller parts friction
capacity air signal loop

Exclusive Check posn Higher size

compressor pilot relay Actuator
 Trouble Shooting

MALFUNCTION

ACTION LEAKAGE OTHERS

CYCLIC MOTION DULL RESPONSE NOT WORKING

Travel Not Travel Not

smooth smooth
(In both dir) (In one dir)

Leak in Leak from

Slurry/sludge Actuator Change Gland pkg Change Actuator Act. stem
in vlv guide piston ring Piston ring hardened gland pkg diaph. seal
wear & tear

Change Change
Dissemble & diaph. stem seal
Clean

Use dust
Enlarge seal bellow
guide ring
bleeder hole

Provide
flashing port

Use jacketed
vlv body

Use rotary
or angle type
valve

Trouble Shooting

MALFUNCTION

ACTION LEAKAGE OTHERS

CYCLIC MOTION DULL RESPONSE NOT WORKING

No signal & No signal pr. No sup. pr. Posn O/P Nil Actuator not
supply pr. sup pr. avl Signal pr. avl working with
air sup.

Trouble in Trouble in Check AFR Clean Trouble in Check Stem/guide Disassemble

air source controller Controller contamination Filter posn pilot galling / jamming & check
relay

Trouble in Control sig Check Pn tubing Check Tubing Act diaph Change Foreign particle Disassemble
electric source leakage air tubing Leakage (mainly air air leak parts in vlv port & check
conn.)

Leakage from Act diaph Change parts Trouble with Check Stem Bend Change
tubing air leak AFR AFR parts

Check comp. Positioner Change bellow Trouble in Check

elec source & air leak or diaph Actuator Act Stroke
Main air tubing
 MALFUNCTION

LEAKAGE OTHERS

Seat Leak Gland Leak Rangeability narrowed

because of
control position
changed

Valve Closed Valve not Insufficient Corrosion / erosion

able to close pkg nut tight of plug or S. ring

Corrosion & erosion Corrosion & erosion Leakage Too high dP Galling on Tighten Change seat ring
of vlv seating of seat ring thread thro' inner guide or port pkg. nut or plug
surface or gasket vlv body wall

Pkg Lub
Remachine & Lap Change seat Tack weld Reduce dP Check for missing
seat surface & seat gasket defect area Foreign parts

Change Check Change vlv Increase Remachine

seat & plug seat design body Actuator size galling portion Provide
lub or chg pkg.

Wear & tear

of pkg

Change
pkg

Damage of stem
surface

Change parts
or remachine

Use dust seal

bellows

Corrosion/erosion
of seat gasket
surface

Examine part MOC

Change gasket
15. VALVE STANDARDS

Following is an indicative list of various international standards related to ON-OFF and

MODULATING Valves.

International Standard Title of the Standard

API 6D Specification for Pipeline Valves

API RP 553 Refinery Control Valves

API RP554 Process Instrumentation & Control

ASME B16.5 Pipe Flanges and Flange Fittings (for steel, nickel- based alloys, and other alloys)

ASME B16.10 Face-to-Face and End–to-End Dimensions of Valves

ISO 5208 Pressure Testing of Valves

ASME B16.34 Valves – Flanged, Threaded & Welding End

NACE MR0175 / ISO 15156 Petroleum & Natural Gas Industries - Material for Use H2 S-Containing
Environments in Oil & Gas Production

NACE MR0103 Materials Resistant to Sulphide Stress Cracking in Corrosive Petroleum

Refining Environments

IEC 60534.1 Control valve terminology and general considerations

IEC 60534.2.1 Flow capacity - Sizing equations for fluid flow under installed conditions

IEC 60534.2.3 Flow capacity - Test procedures

IEC 60534.2.4 Flow Capacity - Inherent flow characteristics and rangeability

Flow capacity - Sizing equations for fluid flow through multistage control
IEC 60534.2.5 valves with inter stage recovery

Face-to-face dimensions for flanged, two-way, globe-type, straight

IEC 60534.3.1 pattern and centre-to-face dimensions for flanged, two-way, globe-type,
angle pattern control valves

IEC 60534.3.2 Face-to-face dimensions for rotary control valves except butterfly valves

Industrial Process Control Valves – Aerodynamic Noise Prediction

IEC 60534.8.3

Industrial Process Control Valves – Prediction of Noise Generated by

IEC 60534.8.4 Hydrodynamic Flow

IEC 60529 Degrees of Protection provided by enclosures

Following is an indicative list of various international standards related to PRESSURE RELEIF
Valves.

API RP 520 Part 1 - Design

API RP 520 Part II - Installation

API STD 526 Flanged Steel Pressure Relief Valves

API STD 527 Seat Tightness of Pressure Relief Valves

Standard for Safety Relief Valves Nameplate Nomenclature

API STD 528

API STD 576 Inspection of Pressure Relieving Devices

Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks (non-refrigerated and

API STD 2000
refrigerated)