Week 1 (November 11-15)

Lesson 1.1 The Formation of the Light Elements in the Big Bang Theory
Nucleosynthesis: The Beginning of Elements
Content: How the elements found in the universe were formed
Guide Question: What elements were produced during the big bang expansion?
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
1. The formation of the elements during the Big Bang and during stellar evolution
2. The distribution of the chemical elements and the isotopes in the universe
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to make a creative representation of the historical development of the atom or the chemical
element in a timeline.
Learning Competencies
The learners give evidence for and explain the formation of the light elements in the Big Bang theory (S11/12PS-IIIa-1)
Specific Learning Outcomes
The learners should be able to
1. Briefly discuss the cosmology of the Big Bang model
2. Provide an overview of the proof for the Big Bang model
3. Write reactions involving the nucleosynthesis of the first elements

Day 1: Orientation
Day 2: Diagnostic Test
Day 3: Lesson 1: Formation of Light Elements Activity 1
Day 4: Activity 2

Week 2 (November 18-22)

We Are All Made of Star Stuff (Formation of the Heavy Elements)

Content: How the elements found in the universe were formed
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
1. The formation of the elements during the Big Bang and during stellar evolution
2. The distribution of the chemical elements and the isotopes in the universe
Performance Standards
Perform correct calculations in nuclear reactions
Learning Competencies
1. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution
(S11/12PS-IIIa-2)
2. Write the nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars that lead to the formation of new elements
(S11/12PS-IIIa-3)
3. Describe how elements heavier than iron are formed (S11/12PSIIIa- b-4)
Specific Learning Outcomes
The learners should be able to:
1. Briefly discuss stellar nucleosynthesis or fusion
2. Discuss other processes that led to other elements
3. Write out fusion reactions involved

Day 1: Lesson 2: Stellar Formation and Evolution Activity 3

Day 2: Lesson 3: Formation of Heavier and Heaviest Elements Activity 4
Day 3: Activity 5
Day 4: Summative Test # 1 (How Elements Found in the Universe are Formed)

Week 3 (November 18-22)

Atomos, Aristotle and Alchemy (Chemistry Before Modern History)

Content: How the idea of the atom, along with the idea of the elements evolved
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
1. How the concept of the atom evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
2. How the concept of the element evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to make a creative representation of the historical development of the atom or the chemical
element in a timeline.
Learning Competencies
1. Describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the atom (S11/12PS-IIIa-b-5)
2. Describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the elements (S11/12PS-IIIab-6)
3. Describe the contributions of the alchemists to the science of chemistry (S11/12PS-IIIb-7)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Discuss key developments in the concept of the atom and element throughout pre-modern history
2. Discuss key developments in the practical application of chemistry throughout pre-modern history.
3. Articulate the contributions of alchemy as a protoscience to chemistry.

Day 1: Lesson 4: Nuclear Model of an Atom Activity 6

Day 2: Lesson 5: Discovery of Atom and its Subatomic Parts Activity 7
Day 3: Activity 8
Day 4: Lesson 6: From Alchemy to Chemistry Activity 9

Week 4 (Nov 25-29)

Day 1: Summative Test # 2 (How the Idea of Atoms along with the idea of Elements Evolved)
Day 2: Performance Task # 1 (The Development of the concept of Atoms and Chemical Elements)

Week 5 (Dec 2-6)

Not Indivisible (The Structure of the Atom)

Content: How the idea of the atom, along with the idea of the elements evolved
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
1. How the concept of the atom evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
2. How the concept of the element evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to make a creative representation of the historical development of the atom or the chemical
element in a timeline.
Learning Competencies
1. Point out the main ideas in the discovery of the structure of the atom and its subatomic particles (S11/12PS-IIIb-8)
2. Cite the contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the
structure of the atom (S11/12PS-IIIb-9)
3. Describe the nuclear model of the atom and the location of its major components (protons, neutrons, and electrons)
(S11/12PS-IIIb-10)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
1. Discuss key developments in the concept of the atomic structure
2. Give brief explanations of each of the models of atomic structure

Week 6 (Dec 9-13)

Corpuscles to Chemical Atomic Theory (The Development of Atomic Theory)

Content: How the idea of the atom, along with the idea of the elements evolved
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
1. How the concept of the atom evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
2. How the concept of the element evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to make a creative representation of the historical development of the atom or the chemical
element in a timeline.
Learning Competencies
The learners to:
1. Point out the main ideas in the discovery of the structure of the atom and its subatomic particles (S11/12PS-IIIb-8)
2. Cite the contribution of John Dalton toward the understanding of the concept of the chemical elements
(S11/12PS-IIIc-13)
3. Explain how Dalton’s theory contributed to the discovery of other elements (S11/12PS-IIIc-14)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
1. Discuss key developments in the concept of the atom and element from Robert Boyle to John Dalton.
2. Discuss the aspects of the Chemical Atomic Theory, and relate its evidence (3 Fundamental Laws) to these aspects.
3. Gain an appreciation of the scientists involved in the development of the science of Chemistry.

Week 7 (Jan 6-10)

Henry Moseley, the Atomic Number, and Synthesis of Elements

Content: How the properties of matter relate to their chemical structure
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
1. How the concept of the atom evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
2. How the concept of the element evolved from Ancient Greek to the present.
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to make a creative representation of the historical development of the atom or the chemical
element in a timeline.
Learning Competencies
1. Cite the contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the
structure of the atom (S11/12PSIIIb-9)
2. Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory (S11/12PS-IIIb-11)
3. Write the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of new elements (S11/12PS-IIIb-12)

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Explain how Moseley discovered the correlation between the atomic number of an element and the wavelengths of
x-rays emitted by the element
2. Discuss how new elements are synthesized

Week 8 (Jan 13-17)

Polarity of Molecules
Content: How the properties of matter relate to their chemical structure
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of how the uses of different materials are related to their properties and
structures.
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to explain how the uses of different materials are related to their properties and structures.
Learning Competencies
1. Determine if a molecule is polar or non-polar given its structure (S11/12PS-IIIc-15)
2. Relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties (S11/12PS-IIIc-16)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Define electronegativity
2. Find the electronegativity of elements in the periodic table
3. Explain the VSEPR theory
4. Draw the geometry of molecules using the VSEPR theory
5. Distinguish between polar and non-polar molecules
6. Relate the properties of molecules to its polarity
7. Provide an overview of the proof for the Big Bang model

Week 9 (Jan 20-24)

Intermolecular Forces
Content: How the properties of matter relate to their chemical structure
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding on how the uses of different materials are related to their properties and
structures.
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to explain how the intermolecular forces relate to the properties, uses and structure of
substance.
Learning Competencies
1. Describe the general types of intermolecular forces (S11/12PS-IIIc-d-17)
2. Give the type of intermolecular forces in the properties of substances (S11/12PS-IIId-e-18)
3. Explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substances (S11/12PS-IIId-e-19)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Describe the general types of intermolecular forces
2. Give the type of intermolecular forces in the properties of substances
3. Explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substances

Week 10 (Jan 27-31)

Structures, Properties, and Uses of Matter

Content: How the properties of matter relate to their chemical structure
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding on how the uses of different materials are related to their properties and
structures.
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to explain how the uses of different materials are related to their properties and structures.

Learning Competencies
1. Explain how the uses of the following materials depend on their properties: (S11/12PS-IIId-e-20)
a. Medical implants, prosthesis
b. Sports equipment
c. Electronic devices
d. Construction supplies for buildings and furniture
e. Household gadgets
2. Explain how the properties of the above materials are determined by their structure (S11/12PS-IIId-e-21)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Explain how the uses of the following materials depend on their properties:
a. Medical implants, prosthesis
b. Sports equipment
c. Electronic devices
d. Construction supplies for buildings and furniture
e. Household gadgets
2. Explain how the properties of the above materials are determined by their structure

Week 11 (Feb 3-7)

Biological Macromolecules
Content: How the properties of matter relate to their chemical structure
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the function and structure of biological
macromolecules
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to distinguish the structures of different biological macromolecules and relate them to their
properties
Learning Competencies
Explain how the structures of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acid and proteins, and determine their properties and
functions (S11/12PS-IIIe-22)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
1. Distinguish between carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
2. Summarize the general characteristics of each biomolecule
3. Relate the structures of the biomolecules with their properties
Week 12 (Feb 10-14)

Chemical Change I
Content: How chemical changes take place
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
1. How fast a reaction takes place
2. How much energy is involved in a reaction
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to propose ways to speed up or slow down chemical reactions.
Learning Competencies
1. Use simple collision theory to explain the effects of concentration, temperature, and particle size on the rate of
reaction (S11/12PS-IIIf-23)
2. Define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rate (S11/12PS-IIIf-24)
3. Recognize that energy is released or absorbed during a chemical reaction (S11/12PS-IIIi-28)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
1. Use simple collision theory to explain the effects of concentration, temperature and particle size on the rate of
reaction.
2. Define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rate.
3. Recognize that energy is released or absorbed during a chemical reaction

Week 13 (Feb 17-21)

Chemical Change II
Content: How chemical changes take place
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of how much reactants are needed and how much products are formed in
a reaction
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to effectively explain the process of calculating the needed reactant and the amount of
product in a reaction, as well as the significance of limiting reactant and percent yield.
Learning Competencies
1. Calculate the amount of substances used or produced in a chemical reaction (S11/12PS-IIIf-h25)
2. Calculate the percent yield of a reaction (S11/12PS-IIIh-26)
3. Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the amount of product formed (S11/12PS-IIIh-27)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
1. Calculate the amount of substances used and produced in a chemical reaction
2. Calculate the percent yield of a reaction
3. Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the amount of product formed

Week 14 (Feb 24-28)

How Energy is Produced and Managed

Content: How chemical changes take place
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of how energy is harnessed from different sources.
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to illustrate how energy is produced and managed from different sources.
Learning Competencies
The learners describe how energy is produced and managed from different sources: (S11/12PS-IIIi-29)
a. Fossil fuels e. Hydroelectric
b. Biogas f. Electrochemical (batteries)
c. Geothermal g. Solar cells
d. Hydrothermal h. Biomass
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a. Describe the different sources of energy
b. Give a brief summary of how energy is produced from different sources
c. Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy
d. Outline the pros and cons of the different sources of energy

Week 15 (March 2-6)

Household Chemicals and Personal Care Products

Content: How chemistry contributes to the understanding of household and personal care products
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties and mode of action of the following consumer products:
1. Cleaning materials
2. Cosmetics.
Performance Standards
The learners shall be able to make either a poster, a flyer, or a brochure of a product indicating its uses, properties,
mode of action and precautions.
Learning Competencies
1. Give common examples of cleaning materials for the house and for personal care (S11/12PSIIIi-j-30)
2. From product labels, identify the active ingredient(s) of cleaning products used at home (S11/12PS-IIIi-j-31)
3. Give the use of other ingredients in cleaning agents (S11/12PS-IIIi-j-32)
4. Give common examples of personal care products used to enhance the appearance of the human body
(S11/12PS-IIIi-j-33)
5. Identify the major ingredients of cosmetics such as body lotion, skin whitener, deodorants, and perfume
(S11/12PS-IIIi-j-34)
6. Explain the precautionary measures indicated in various cleaning products and cosmetics (S11/12PS-IIIi-j-35)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
1. Identify active and major ingredients in cleaning and personal care products
2. Explain the mode of action and precautionary measures indicated in various cleaning products and cosmetics
3. Create a set of guidelines in selecting healthy and environmentally safe products
4. Explore and create alternative homemade cleaning and personal care products

4th QUARTER

Week 16 (March 9-13)

Ancient Greek physics and astronomy

Content: How we come to realize that the Earth is not the center of the Universe.
Learning Competencies
The learners should be able to:
1. Recognize(K) different naked-eye astronomical observations on diurnal and annual motions of the sky pattern,
precession and equinoxes as sense data. [IVa-37]
2. Summarize(K) ancient Greek on the three types of terrestrial motion and the perfection of celestial motion. [IVa-36]
3. Enumerate(K) naked-eye astronomical proofs that the Earth is round or spherical. [IVa-38]
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
1. Write a summary of ancient Greek two-domains view
2. Tabulate of the different material elements and motion according to the two-domains view
3. List the naked-eye astronomical proofs that the Earth is round or spherical

Week 17 (March 16-20)

Ancient Greek models of the Universe

Content: How we come to realize that the Earth is not the center of the Universe.
Content Standards
1. Plato’s problem of “saving the appearances”; Allegory of the Cave and the Analogy of the Divided Line
2. Progression of the ancient Greek models of the Universe from Plato to Ptolemy (including, but not limited to that of
Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, and Ptolemy).
3. Discussion of the recorded proposal of Aristarchus and the measurement of the Earth’s circumference by
Eratosthenes.
Learning Competencies
The learners should be able to:
1. Explain (K) how Plato’s problem of “saving the appearances” and the two domain system constrained the Greek
models of the Universe. [IVa-39]
2. Historical models of the Universe from the time of Plato to the time of Ptolemy; contributions from Plato, Eudoxus,
Aristotle, Aristarchus, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy [IVa-40]
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
1. Discuss significance of Plato’s problem of “saving the appearances” to the scientific mindset of the philosophers.
2. Tabulate philosopher name and the proposed model of the Universe and place them in a time line. Connect the
ancient models of the Universe to their proponents and according to the philosophical biases and the motion
of the sky observed.
3. Specify the additional feature of the new models required to match the new observations of the annual motion of
the sky.

Module 1: How the Elements Found in the Universe are Formed

Lesson 1: Formation of Light Elements

Lesson 2: Stellar Formation and Evolution

Lesson 3: Formation of Heavier and Heaviest Elements

Module 2: How the Idea of Atoms along with the Idea of Elements Evolved

Performance Task 1: How the idea of Atom along with the Idea of Elements evolved

Lesson 4: The Nuclear Model of an Atom

Lesson 5: The Discovery and Development of the Concept of Atom and its Subatomic Particles

Lesson 6: From Alchemy to Chemistry to Artificial Transmutation

Please be mindful of the schedule laid out for the next few weeks.
Remember to secure a copy of the handouts and activity sheets beforehand. This ensures smooth
discussion and conduct of activities upon contact time.

Do advance reading if you find the time and please feel free to do additional research.
The class will always be a venue for healthy debates/discussion should we find that there is a
number of contrasting ideas and facts.
 Note down any confusions.
Raising questions during discussions, collaboration and brainstorming with the class is highly
encouraged.
Remember: Do while you can.

Practice Independent Learning

While collaboration and sharing of thoughts and ideas are tolerated during activities, coming up with
your own answer and sticking to it is still much more preferable.
If it's correct, be proud of yourself.
If it's wrong, make sure you do not make the same mistake again.
 The sole purpose of the establishment of this blog is for the students to obtain copies of handouts
independently, and at a time they prefer - whether advanced, or later when they find the need.

Furthermore, the site serves as a guide especially on the flow of lessons, deadlines and
activities to be undertaken during the course of the semester.

The author believes in facilitated instruction and aims to develop independent learning
among students. For this reason, a bulk of the activities used for the development of the lessons are
either Research Work (library/internet) or Reading-and-Answering-the-questions-that-follow type of
activities. These pave the way for collaboration between the students as well as flexibility when it
comes to the range or depth of learning the students want to achieve. Their imagination and
curiosity is their only limit.

The author believes in each of her students. In each of their capabilities.

Module 1: How Elements Found in the Universe are Formed

The first module talks about how elements are formed and it is divided into three lessons:

Lesson 1: The Formation of Light Elements

The following key questions are essential in understanding the origins of the very first
elements formed which occurred as far back as the beginning of time as we know it:
a. What are the light elements?
b. Why are they called light elements?
c. How are they formed?
d. What type of energy was required to form the light elements?
e. Why were heavier elements not formed the same way that the light elements were?

Lesson 1: The Formation of Light Elements

Disclaimer: The article below is derived from an article of another author (reference provided).
For further readings regarding the topic, please search the author whose name is cited in the article.

Below is a selection describing the process/es that led to the formation of light elements in the
beginning of time. A link below is provided if you wish to download a printable copy. This is followed
by Activities # 1&2: Formation of Light Elements whose download link for a printable copy is also
provided.
_________________________________________
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: Cooking Up the First Light Elements
derived from an article written by Achim Weiss

The big bang models - the cosmological models based on general relativity - tell us that the
early universe was extremely hot and dense. At the earliest stages that can be modelled using current
physical theories, the universe was filled with radiation and elementary particles - a hot plasma in
which energy was distributed evenly. During the subsequent expansion, this plasma has progressively
cooled down. By examining how the cooling affects the matter content of the universe, one can derive
one of the most impressive testable predictions of the big bang models.

Nuclear Physics in an Expanding Universe

As the universe cools, the matter content changes - new particles are formed out of
the preexisting ones – the protons and neutrons forming out of quarks. From about one second to a
few minutes cosmic time, when the temperature has fallen below 10 billion Kelvin, the conditions are
just right for protons and neutrons to combine and form certain species of atomic nuclei. This phase
is called Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.
While the early universe is totally unlike our everyday world, the basic nuclear physics at the
appropriate energies is well within the range of laboratory experiments. Following such experiments,
the properties of the relevant nuclear reactions are very well known. Physicists can base their
calculations on solid experimental data when they want to describe reactions like the one pictured
here:

The image illustrates two of the nuclear reactions occurring during Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: It
shows protons and neutrons combining to form deuterium nuclei (D, containing one proton and one
neutron), accompanied by the emission of high energy photons (denoted as γ); furthermore, it shows
two deuterium nuclei fusing to produce one nucleus of helium-3 (with two protons and one neutrons)
and one free neutron.
Taking into account a wealth of nuclear reactions similar to the ones pictured on the left, one
can then apply general statistical formula which govern the relative abundances of the different matter
constituents. What nuclei are produced, and in what amounts, is the result of a race between
the various nuclear reactions on the one hand and the inevitable cooling that accompanies the
expansion of the universe on the other.

As it turns out, Big Bang Nucleosynthesis strongly favors the very light elements like hydrogen
and helium - not only standard hydrogen (one proton) and helium (two neutrons and two protons),
but also the isotopes deuterium (one proton, one neutron), tritium (one proton, two neutrons) and
helium-3 (two protons, one neutron). By mass, about a quarter of the nuclei in the universe should be
helium. Deuterium, tritium, helium-3 nuclei should occur in much smaller, but still measurable
quantities.
Trace amounts of Lithium (3 protons and 3 neutrons), Lithium-7 (3 protons and 4 neutrons), Beryllium
(4 protons and 5 neutrons) and Beryllium-7 (4 protons and 3 neutrons) were also produced during the
Big Bang. However, they have relatively short half-lives and could not have survived to the present.
The Lithium and Beryllium found in present-day universe were formed via cosmic-ray collisions, just
like Boron.

Lesson 2: Stellar Formation and Evolution

The next lesson, Stellar Formation and Evolution, as the title suggests, simply discusses the
different stages in the "life cycle" of stars, as well as its different forms. This topic will serve as the
foundation for better and faster understanding of the next lesson.
In this lesson, the following questions will be asked:
a. How are stars "born"?
b. What Nuclear Processes take place in stars?
c. What fuels stars?
d. What is the relationship between surface area, mass, luminosity and lifespan in stars?
e. How do stars "die"?

Lesson 2: Stellar Formation and Evolution

Disclaimer: The article below is derived from an article of another author (reference provided).

The selection below discusses the different stages in the life of a star. This topic is crucial for
understanding the next lesson. A printable copy of the link is provided at the bottom. Unlike the
previous handout, this includes the follow-up questions for the article (Activity # 3: Stellar Formation
and Evolution).
__________________________________
THE LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR
(taken from: http://www.telescope.org/pparc/res8.html)

Outlined below are the many steps involved in a stars evolution, from its formation in a
nebula, to its death as a white dwarf or neutron star.

NEBULA
A nebula is a cloud of gas (hydrogen) and dust in space. Nebulae are the birthplaces of stars.
There are different types of nebula. An Emission Nebula e.g. such as Orion nebula, glows brightly
because the gas in it is energized by the stars that have already formed within it. In a Reflection
Nebula, starlight reflects on the grains of dust in a nebula. The nebula surrounding the Pleiades
Cluster is typical of a reflection nebula. Dark Nebula also exist. These are dense clouds of molecular
hydrogen which partially or completely absorb the light from stars behind them e.g. the Horsehead
Nebula in Orion.
Planetary Nebula are the outer layers of a star that are lost when the star changes from a red
giant to a white dwarf.
STAR
A star is a luminous globe of gas producing its own heat and light by nuclear reactions (nuclear
fusion). They are born from nebulae and consist mostly of hydrogen and helium gas. Surface
temperatures range from 2000⁰C to above 30,000⁰C, and the corresponding colors from red to blue-
white. The brightest stars (high-mass stars) have masses 100 times that of the Sun and emit as much
light as millions of Suns. They live for less than a million years before transitioning to a Supergiant
and exploding as Supernovae. The faintest stars are the red dwarfs, less than one-thousandth the
brightness of the Sun.
The smallest mass possible for a star is about 8% that of the Sun (80 times the mass of the
planet Jupiter), otherwise nuclear reactions do not take place. Objects with less than critical mass
shine only dimly and are termed brown dwarfs or a large planet. Towards the end of its life, a star
like the Sun swells up into a red giant, before losing its outer layers as a Planetary Nebula and finally
shrinking to become a white dwarf.

RED GIANT
This is a large bright star with a cool surface. It is formed during the later stages of the
evolution of an intermediate-mass star like the Sun, as it runs out of hydrogen fuel at its center. Red
giants have diameters between 10 and 100 times that of the Sun. They are very bright because they
are so large, although their surface temperature is lower than that of the Sun, about 2000-3000⁰C.

RED DWARF
These are very cool, faint and small stars, approximately one tenth the mass and diameter of
the Sun. They burn very slowly and have estimated lifetimes of 100 billion years. Proxima Centauri
and Barnard's Star are red dwarfs.

WHITE DWARF
This is very small, hot star, the last stage in the life cycle of a star like the Sun. White dwarfs
have a mass similar to that of the Sun, but only 1% of the Sun's diameter; approximately the
diameter of the Earth. The surface temperature of a white dwarf is 8000⁰C or more, but being
smaller than the Sun their overall luminosity's are 1% of the Sun or less.
White dwarfs are the shrunken remains of normal stars, whose nuclear energy supplies have
been used up. White dwarf consist of degenerate matter with a very high density due to
gravitational effects, i.e. one spoonful has a mass of several tons. White dwarfs cool and fade over
several billion years.

SUPERNOVA
This is the explosive death of a star, and often results in the star obtaining the brightness of
100 million suns for a short time. There are two general types of Supernova:-
Type I: These occur in binary star systems in which gas from one star falls on to a white
dwarf, causing it to explode.
Type II: These occur in stars ten times or more as massive as the Sun, which suffer runaway
internal nuclear reactions at the ends of their lives, leading to an explosion. They leave behind
neutron stars and black holes. Supernovae are thought to be main source of elements heavier than
hydrogen and helium.

NEUTRON STARS
These stars are composed mainly of neutrons and are produced when a supernova explodes,
forcing the protons and electrons to combine to produce a neutron star. Neutron stars are very
dense. Typical stars having a mass of three times the Sun but a diameter of only 20 km. If its mass is
any greater, its gravity will be so strong that it will shrink further to become a black hole. Pulsars are
believed to be neutron stars that are spinning very rapidly.
BLACK HOLE
Black holes are believed to form from massive stars at the end of
their lifetimes. The gravitational pull in a black hole is so great that
nothing can escape from it, not even light. The density of matter in a
black hole cannot be measured. Black holes distort the space around
them, and can often suck neighboring matter into them including stars.

Lesson 3: The Formation of the Heavier and the Heaviest Elements

Having fully understood the concepts behind stellar energy, this next lesson should be easy
as pea. Similar questions as the formation of light elements will be asked:
a. What are the heavier and heaviest elements?
b. How are they formed?
c. Why were they not formed during the Big Bang?

Lesson 3: Formation of the Heavier and Heaviest Elements

Disclaimer: The article below is derived from an article of another author (reference provided).

Formation of the Heavier and Heaviest Elements

(derived from Science Learning, http://sciencelearn.org.nz)

Our world is made of elements and combinations of elements called compounds. An element
is a pure substance made of atoms that are all of the same type. At present, 118 elements are
known, and only about 90 of these occur naturally.

Elements and the ‘Big Bang’ theory

We already know, through our previous lesson, that during the formation of the universe
some 14 billion years ago in the so-called ‘Big Bang’, only the lightest elements were formed –
hydrogen and helium along with trace amounts of lithium and beryllium. As the cloud of cosmic dust
and gases from the Big Bang cooled, stars formed, and these then grouped together to form galaxies.
The other 86 elements found in nature were created in nuclear reactions in these stars and in
huge stellar explosions known as supernovae.

Elements and our Sun

 For most of their lives, stars fuse elemental hydrogen into helium in their cores. Two atoms of
hydrogen are combined in a series of steps to create helium-4. These reactions called nuclear fusion
reactions account for 85% of the Sun’s energy. The remaining 15% comes from reactions that
produce the elements beryllium and lithium.
The energy from these nuclear reactions is emitted in various forms of radiation such as
ultraviolet light, X-rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves. In addition,
energized particles such as neutrinos and protons are released, and it is these that make up the solar
wind.
Earth is in the path of this energy stream, which warms the planet, drives weather and
provides energy for life. The Earth’s atmosphere is able to screen out most of the harmful radiation,
and the Earth’s magnetic field can deflect the harmful effects of the solar wind.

Dying stars

The eventual end result of a star's life is determined by the mass of the star. The larger the
mass of the star, the more luminous they are. The more luminous they are, the more reactions are
taking place in their cores. And the more reactions are taking place in its core, the faster it consumes
its fuel, which is Hydrogen.
When a star’s core runs out of hydrogen, the star begins to die out. The dying star expands
into a red giant, and this now begins to manufacture carbon and nitrogen atoms through a series of
nuclear reactions using helium, beryllium and lithium.
More massive stars turn into Supergiants and are capable of taking the nuclear reactions
further to produce elements that range from oxygen through to iron.
Eventually, stars will run out of fuel elements and explode. During a supernova, a star releases
very large amounts of energy as well as neutrons, which allows elements heavier than iron, such as
uranium and gold, to be produced. In a supernova explosion, all of these elements are expelled out
into space.

What is the Big Bang theory?

Our world is literally made up of elements formed deep within the cores of stars now long
dead. As Britain’s Astronomer Royal Sir Martin Rees said, “We are literally the ashes of long dead
stars.” When you buy a party balloon that floats in air, it is filled with helium gas – most of which was
created when the universe was only 3 minutes old! Examples of element-making (nucleogenesis) in
helium burning reactions:
• 3 helium atoms fusing to give a carbon atom: 3 @ 4He → 12C
• carbon atom + helium atom fusing to give an oxygen atom: 12C + 4He → 16O
• oxygen atom + helium atom fusing to give a neon atom: 16O + 4He → 20Ne
• neon atom + helium atom fusing to give a magnesium atom: 20Ne +
4He → 24Mg

Module 2: How the Idea of Atoms along with the Idea of Elements
Evolved
The second module talks about the progression of the concept of atoms and elements
from the ancient times (500 B.C.E) to the sudden rise in intellectuals in the golden age (1600's to
1800's). This series of discoveries eventually leads to the branching out of the fields Nuclear
Chemistry and Nuclear Physics, the applications of which in the present day proving to be boundless.
 Like the previous module, this one contains three lessons, their
key questions indicated below as guide:

Lesson 4: The Nuclear Model of an Atom

Merely a review lesson, the aim is to align students' contrasting concepts (if any) about
atoms and correct some misconceptions. Here, the basic chemical concepts involved in chemical
reactions are recalled upon discussion (e.g. atomic number, atomic weight, valence electrons, etc.).
Key Questions are as follows:
a. What are atoms?
b. What are the different subatomic parts? What are their role/function especially in chemical or
nuclear processes?

Lesson 4: The Nuclear Model of an Atom

There have been numerous lessons on atoms in the lower levels, enough to equip
you with skills and concepts vital for understanding the next two lessons in the module, and even the
next two modules. This lesson is merely a review. Please download the worksheet via the link below
and perform the given activity.

Lesson 5: The Development and Discovery of the Atom and its Subatomic Parts
Having aligned our concepts and corrected misconceptions about atoms, the group shall
now find it easier to relate to the discussion about how man's knowledge on atoms evolved from a
mere idea to figuring out its exact structure and nature. Key Questions are as follows:
a. When did the IDEA of atoms first come out? Who introduced it?
b. Were there contrasting beliefs about atoms and elements in the past? Whose?
c. Who discovered the different subatomic particles? How were they discovered?

Lesson 5: The Discovery and Development of the Concept of Atom and

its Subatomic Parts
Disclaimer: The article below is derived from an article of another author (reference provided).

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

(excerpt from “Atoms”; World Book International, 1999)

The idea that everything is made up of a few simple parts originated during the 400’s B.C.
in the philosophy of Atomism. Atomism was founded by the Greek philosopher Leucippus of Miletus,
but his disciple Democritus of Abdera was the one who developed the philosophy more fully. In 465
B.C., Democritus gave his basic principle the name Atomos (now called Atom), meaning
“uncuttable”. He imagined atoms as small, hard particles, all composed of the same substance but of
different sizes and shapes. For example, atoms of water are round so that they can very easily slide
past each other, atoms of salt are pointy and sharp that’s why it feels pointy to the tongue, and
atoms of iron are like hooks so that they can attach to each other and be hard and strong.
 Atoms of Iron are like hooks so that they can
attach to each other and be hard and strong.

During the Middle Ages (around 340 B.C.) however, the idea of atoms was largely
ignored. This neglect resulted partly from the fact that this idea had been rejected by Aristotle, also a
Greek philosopher, whose ideas dominated medieval philosophy and science. His idea of the
composition of matter is that it consists of a little of each of the four elements: Earth, Water, Air and
Fire. For the next 2000 years, this is what people would choose to believe in.

Aristotle believed that substances are made of a little

of each of the four elements Earth, Water, Air and Fire.
The development of the Atomic Theory advanced greatly when chemistry became an
exact science during the late 1700’s. It was around this time that chemists discovered that there are
in fact more elements than Aristotle believed, and that these elements could be combined to form
different compounds. In 1808, John Dalton, a British Chemist, developed an Atomic Theory to
explain this discovery. He conducted the first scientific experiment on atoms and eventually proved
that Democritus was in fact correct. There are such things as atoms although he corrected that
atoms DO NOT come in different sizes and shape. Atoms are all IDENTICAL, and they can be arranged
in different combinations to make different compounds.

Dalton's Model of an Atom

In 1904, Joseph John Thomson, a British physicist, discovered that atoms are actually
“cuttable”. He discovered electrons via his Cathode-Ray Tube experiment and immediately realized
that electrons must be a part of the atom. He then proposed a model of an atom in which negatively
charged electrons were embedded in a positively charged “pudding” or sphere to balance out the
charges. This model became famous as the Plum-Pudding Model. Although Thomson’s description
was far from correct, his work encouraged other scientists to investigate the structure of the atom.
 J.J. Thomson's Plum-Pudding Model of an Atom
In 1911, the British physicist Ernest Rutherford presented his theory of atomic
structure. Rutherford, a former student of Thomson’s, discovered the existence of nucleus via his
gold foil experiment. He declared that all the positive charge of an atom is concentrated in its
nucleus, and this tiny nucleus is surrounded by electrons travelling at tremendous speeds through
the atom’s outer regions. And besides the atom’s nucleus and electrons, it’s pretty much empty
space. This model became widely known as the Nuclear Model and although it did support the
existence of electrons, it did not explain much about its arrangement in the atom.

Rutherford revised Thomson's Model

following his discovery of the nucleus.
In 1913, a description of the electron structure was proposed by Niels Bohr, a Danish
physicist who had worked with Rutherford. He suggested that electrons could travel only in a certain
set of orbits around the nucleus and each orbit/level has a limit as to how many electrons it can
carry. Although Bohr’s model of an atom was inadequate, many of the ideas behind it proved correct
and this model is still used in the present to explain many chemical concepts.

Bohr suggests that electrons have "orbits"

Rutherford would come out again with his proposition of the protons. Protons had
been identified in 1902, but it was Rutherford who proved that protons form part of the nucleus
since the nucleus has a positive charge. And so in 1914, he officially declared that protons exist in
the nucleus, and not anywhere else in the atom.
 Rutherford discovered that within the nucleus are protons.
Further studies about the structure of the atom was conducted by various scientists and
by 1928, a correct description of the arrangement of electrons had been obtained with the help of
Austrian physicist Erwin Schrodinger. He built upon the thoughts of Bohr and proposed the Quantum
Mechanical Model of an Atom. This model states that, contrary to Bohr’s “orbit”, the exact path of
an electron cannot be determined. However, we can determine where the electron has probably
been and where it is likely to be going. So atoms basically have a tiny nucleus surrounded by a
sphere of electron cloud – a region where electrons are widely spreading and moving around.

Erwin Schrodinger's Electron Cloud;

notice that the nucleus still didn't contain neutrons
Although physicists have fully understood the motions of electrons by 1928, the nucleus
remained largely a mystery. They realized that the nucleus could not possibly consist of only protons
because like-charges (positive and positive) repel. Then in 1932, a British physicist named James
Chadwick discovered that the nucleus also contains uncharged particles called neutrons. He made
this discovery via an experiment he conducted which is similar to that of Rutherford’s gold foil; but
instead of using gold foil, he used boron foil.

Chadwick discovers neutrons

And so Atomic models often seen in present-day textbooks are somewhat a crossover
between that of Bohr’s and Schrodinger’s, where a nucleus is surrounded with electrons in different
levels, moving around in an imaginary region called the electron cloud.
 "Textbook" Atom
__________________________________________________

Lesson 6: From Alchemy to Chemistry

Understanding the structure of the atom eventually led to discovering its vast range of
applications. Key Questions are as follows:
a. How did Alchemy springboard the branch of science called Chemistry?
b. How are they similar?
c. How did Dalton's Atomic Theory help understand the concepts behind chemical elements?

Lesson 6: From Alchemy to Chemistry to Artificial Transmutation of

Elements
Disclaimer: The article below is derived from an article of another author (reference provided).

From Alchemy to Chemistry to Artificial Transmutation of Elements

(derived from “From Alchemy to Chemistry” by Michelle Feder, pp.3-11)

Understanding Alchemy

Many of the earliest chemists, physicians, and philosophers were also alchemists. Alchemy
was an early philosophical and spiritual field of study that combined chemistry with metalwork. But
it was also an investigation of nature. The goals of Alchemy were:

a. To find the “elixir of life”. It was thought that this magical elixir would bring wealth, health and
eternal life.
b. To find or make a substance called the “Philosopher’s stone.” When heated and combined with Cu
or Fe, it would turn into Au, which was once thought to be the highest and purest form of matter.

c. To discover the relationship of humans to the cosmos and use that understanding to improve the
human spirit.

The roots of Alchemy are difficult to track down. In the East, in India and China, alchemy
started sometime before the Common Era (B.C.E). They began with meditation and medicine
designed to purify the spirit and body to thereby achieve immortality. In the West, alchemy probably
evolved from Egyptian metallurgy as far back as the fourth millennium B.C.E.

Let’s start at a time and with a person we are most familiar with and that is Aristotle in the
early 300 B.C.E. Recall that in the previous lesson, it was discussed that Aristotle believed that all
matter was made of the four elements Earth, Water, Air and Fire. He was prominent and what he
declares matters.

Robert Boyle

Roughly 2,000 years later, in the golden age, a natural philosopher by the name of Robert
Boyle (1627–1691) came up with what we call today as the “Boyle’s Law”. It states that the volume
of a gas decreases as the pressure on it increases.

The focus of Boyle’s study was the Transmutation of elements. He claimed to have changed
Au into Hg by means of “quicksilver”, the ingredients of which he did not reveal. Central to Boyle’s
efforts was his “corpuscular hypothesis”. He believed that all matter consisted of arrangements of
tiny identical particles called corpuscles. Transforming Cu to Au seemed to be just a matter of
rearranging the pattern of its corpuscles into that of gold.

Aristotle’s Four-Element theory was still around and Boyle sought to overthrow it. He
recognized that certain substances decompose into other substances. At some point though, there
are substances that cannot be broken down any further. For instance, water decomposes into H and
O when it is shot through with electricity. But H and O cannot be broken down into anything smaller.
These fundamental substances that couldn’t be broken down further, he called Elements. His claims
were backed by experimentations and a more scientific Chemistry branched out from the more
spiritual Alchemy.
 Antoine-Laurent Laviosier and Dmitri Mendeleev

Among the most significant of the post-alchemical chemists were Frenchman Antoine-Laurent
Laviosier (1743-1794) and Russian Dmitri Mendeleev (1843-1907).

In 1789, Laviosier wrote the first true chemistry textbook. Here, he made a list of metallic and non-
metallic elements. For this, among many more contributions in the field of chemistry, he earned the
nickname “Father of Modern Chemistry”.

By the late eighteenth century, the field of chemistry had fully separated from traditional
alchemy- with the help of Dalton’s Atomic Theory of course- and more elements were discovered
and studied.

In 1869, with 63 known elements, Mendeleev showed that these elements could be arranged
in a periodic relationship (regular and recurring) to each other. This became the first Periodic Table
of Elements. It was compiled on the basis of arranging the elements in ascending order of atomic
weight and grouping them by similarity of properties. He left space for new elements yet to be
discovered.

With the empty spaces in Mendeleev’s periodic table, the discovery of more elements
became much easier and more targeted. However, a dilemma later arises: “Several elements appear
to be misplaced. Their properties are not aligned as predicted.” When Mendeleev died, chemists
were sure that, contrary to Mendeleev’s arrangement, Iodine followed Tellurium in the Periodic
Table. There was something odd about their relative atomic masses.
 Henry Moseley

Henry Moseley (1887-1915), a British chemist, studied under Rutherford and brilliantly
developed the application of X-ray spectra to understand atomic structure. Recall that Rutherford
was known to have discovered the nucleus of an atom, as well as the protons in it. He was in
collaboration with other scientists and one of those was Henry Moseley.

What exactly did Moseley do? He measured the frequency of the X-rays given off by different
elements. Each element gave a different frequency and he found that this frequency was
mathematically related to the position of the element in the Periodic Table – he could actually
measure atomic number. And atomic number was actually the number of protons! In 1913, he
published the results of his study. This resulted in a revised, more accurate positioning of elements in
the Periodic Table, which is arranging it by increasing atomic number.

TRANSMUTATION

So now that we have established the facts about atomic number and the role it plays in an
element’s identity, we can talk about transmutation. Artificial Transmutation, to be exact.

Transmutation is the act of changing a substance, tangible or intangible, from one form or state into
another. To the alchemists of old, this meant the conversion of one physical substance into another,
particularly base metals such as lead into valuable silver and gold. To the modern scientists, this
means the transformation of one element into another by one or a series of nuclear decays or
reactions. Is this possible? We now know that it is.

Because each element has a different but fixed number of protons in the nucleus of the atom,
which is the atomic number, the transmutation of one chemical element into another involves
changing that number. Such a nuclear reaction requires millions of times more energy than was
available through chemical reactions. This massive amount of energy required to alter an atomic
nucleus came in the form of Particle Accelerators (more commonly referred to as Atom Smashers).

Artificial Transmutation of elements involves either of the two nuclear process namely:
Nuclear Fusion (a heavier atomic nucleus is made from two smaller atomic nuclei) and Nuclear
Fission (an atomic nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei of roughly equal mass). A Nuclear Chain
Reaction could involve both.
 Over the second half of the twentieth century, the artificial transmutation of one element into
another has become commonplace. In fact some two dozen synthetic elements have been produced
so far by nuclear transmutation reactions. The artificial elements include the elements technetium
(atomic number Z = 43), promethium (Z = 61) and the transuraniums (Z > 92).

In chemistry, transuranium elements, also known as transuranic elements, are the chemical
elements with atomic numbers greater than 92, which is the atomic number of uranium. These
elements were produced by bombarding a heavy atomic nucleus with a smaller ionized particle via
particle accelerator.

-------------------------------------------------------------

Performance Task 1: How the Idea of Atoms along with the Idea of
Elements Evolved
 In a 1/8 Illustration Board, make a creative representation (e.g. timeline, graphic organizer, etc.) of
the historical development of the Atom, paralleled with the development of the concept of chemical
elements.

Express your creativity and utilize materials of your choice. Maintain size.

***Cut out the Rating Sheet below and glue it to the back of your output. Fill in Name and Section
Tabs.

Performance Task # 1
How the Idea of Atoms along with the Idea of Elements Evolved
Performance Rating Sheet
Name: Section:
Category Exceeds Meets Approaches Does not meet
Expectations Expectations Expectations Expectations Score
(4 pts) (3 pts) (2 pts) (1 pt)
Title The timeline has a The timeline has an The timeline has a The title is missing or
creative title that effective title that title that is easy to difficult to find.
accurately describes accurately describes find.
the material and is the material and is
easy to find. easy to find.
Content and Facts and Facts and Facts and Facts and
Facts descriptions were descriptions were descriptions were descriptions were
accurate for all accurate for almost accurate for most often inaccurate for
events reported on all events reported (~75%) of the events events reported on
the on the reported on the the
timeline. Included a timeline. Included a timeline. Included timeline. Timeline
comprehensive and good collection of most important dates omitted a number of
varied collection of important dates and and relevant events. important dates and
important dates and relevant events. events.
relevant events.
Dates An accurate, An accurate, An accurate date has Dates are inaccurate
complete date has complete date has been included for and/or missing for
been included for been included for most events; most several events; many
each event; all dates almost every event; dates are in dates are not in
are in chronological all dates are in chronological order. chronological order.
order. chronological order.
Spelling, Spelling, grammar Spelling, grammar There are a number There were many
Grammar and and capitalization are and capitalization are of spelling, grammar spelling, grammar
Capitalization correct throughout. mostly correct. and capitalization and capitalization
errors throughout. errors that affect the
ability to understand.
Creativity The overall The overall The timeline is The timeline is
and appearance of the appearance of the relatively readable. difficult to read.
Appearance timeline is pleasing timeline is somewhat
and easy to read. pleasing and easy to
read.

Total/Accumulated Points: