Article Australian Journal of Herbal Medicine 2013 25(4)

The alchemy of herbal medicine: spagyric

tinctures, elixirs and the vegetable stone
Justin Sinclair
Endeavour College of Natural Health
Email: jsinclair@eweb.endeavour.edu.au

Abstract: Spagyric tinctures and elixirs represent a traditional herbal manufacturing dosage form that has strong links to alchemy,
which is believed by many historians to be the progenitor of modern chemistry. The first to publish extensively on the topic of
spagyrics was Phillipus Aureolus Theophrastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus), who presented the idea of reincorporating the calcined
herbal marc back into the herbal tincture. This paper seeks to discuss the evolution of spagyrics and its close links to alchemy,
also touching briefly on foundational alchemical concepts to provide a basis of understanding for spagyric development. It will also
highlight certain key manufacturing steps that are required in the making of the spagyric tincture, spagyric elixir and the highly prized
Lapis vegetabilis (vegetable stone).

Introduction for disease and the discovery of a means of indefinitely

Herbal medicine has a long history of use dating prolonging life” (Merriam-Webster 2013).
back approximately 60,000 years (Leroi-Gourhan 1975, Conversely, the definitions as described from actual
Lietava 1992), with actual written evidence documented practising alchemists are quite different. Alchemy
as far back as the Sumerians (ca. 5400BCE) and is defined by Frater Albertus (1974) as ‘the raising
Akkadians (ca. 2270-2083BCE) of ancient Mesopotamia of vibrations…a transmutation’. In the words of
(Sinclair & Hechtman 2011, Estes 1989). During this Paracelsus, alchemy ‘… is to carry to its end something
evolving timeframe, multifarious posological formats that has not yet been completed’ (Jacobi 1979) and is a
of herb delivery have been utilised, from raw crude method for ‘discerning between the true and the false’
herb taken as a powder or burnt and inhaled, to highly (Paracelsus & Waite 1894). Jabir ibn Hayyan (721-
sophisticated standardised extract pro extracts, oxymels, 815CE), known as Geber in the West, states that ‘this
syrups and liquid extracts. Amidst this development, the Science treats of the imperfect bodies of minerals, and
concept of spagyrics was conceived, which represents teacheth how to perfect them’ (Russell 1994). What both
an almost forgotten herbal manufacturing method that ancient and modern interpretations allude to is a single
universal substance which can perfect matter, taking
medieval period writings suggest was first expounded by
something that is vulgar and purifying and perfecting it
Paracelsus (1493-1541CE) at a time in history preceding
into something rarified and special. Alchemists called
the scientific revolution (1550-1700CE).
this alchemical substance lapis philosophorum, more
To understand the historical development of herbal commonly known as the philosopher’s stone. However,
spagyric tinctures and elixirs, one must first explore the application of this knowledge is where modern and
some fundamental philosophies of the ancient science alchemical interpretations divide. Modern authorities
of alchemy. Alchemy has been practised in numerous suggest alchemy simply being used on matter in its
and diverse cultures throughout history, with examples diverse crude physical forms; whereas alchemists agree
of its practice being found in Indian, Greek, Chinese that this can also be taken to refer to the perfection of the
and Arabic literature (Holmyard 1990). It began its human being, therefore also representing a metaphysical
slow infiltration into Europe via the occupation of the or spiritual process toward enlightenment (Eliade 1962,
Iberian Peninsula by the Islamic Moors, and the various Roob 2009).
alchemical treatises were translated into languages other The use of the term ‘science’ in defining alchemy is
than Latin, Arabic and Greek. of great importance, as it posits the use of an evidence-
Alchemy has numerous definitions that encompass based scientific method that the ancients were utilising
various viewpoints depending on the individual centuries before the publication of On the Revolutions of
academic authority. From a modern perspective, alchemy the Heavenly Spheres by Nickolaus Copernicus in 1543,
has been defined as a “medieval forerunner of chemistry, which is cited as being the beginning of what we now
concerned with the transmutation of matter, in particular, call the Scientific Revolution. Modern evidence gives
with attempts to convert base metals into gold…” (Oxford support to this with the testing of medical interventions
2013) or “a medieval chemical science and speculative for efficacy by Avicenna in the 11th century, as discussed
philosophy aiming to achieve the transmutation of the in The Canon of Medicine (Brater & Daly 2000, Daly &
base metals into gold, the discovery of a universal cure Brater 2000), long before the proposed birth of comparable

188 © National Herbalists Association of Australia 2013

Article Australian Journal of Herbal Medicine 2013 25(4)

randomised clinical trials in 1747 by James Lind (Jallion the Circulatum minus (Lesser Circulation: Spagyrics).
2007). If science is defined as ‘the intellectual and The Greater Circulation was focused primarily on the use
practical activity encompassing the systematic study of of minerals and metals and was fundamentally concerned
the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural with the manufacture of the Lapis philosophorum and
world through observation and experiment’ (Oxford other medicinal and transformative substances; whereas
2013), such a definition either narrows the gap between the Lesser Circulation was based upon the exclusive use
what we call ‘traditional’ and ‘scientific’ evidence, or of plants and animal products for therapeutic benefit
blurs the lines which divide them. in health. It was believed by many alchemists that the
Circulatum minus was a precursor or primer to work in
Etymology
the more dangerous kingdom of minerals and metals;
There currently exist two major theories as to the therefore, until mastery of this had been achieved (which
etymology of the word alchemy. Goddard (1999) posits
was set out as producing a lapis vegetabilis or vegetable
that the Arabic definite article ‘Al’ was combined with the
stone), the mineral kingdom was closed. Our modern
word ‘Khem/Chem’, an ancient name for Egypt which
understanding of toxicology specifically associated with
literally translates as ‘black earth’ or ‘black land”. This
minerals and metals such as antimony, lead and mercury,
reference was to the black fertile soil of the Nile delta,
gives credence to this understanding, and it is well
which made Egypt a trading and agricultural juggernaut
known that many naïve and ill-prepared alchemists met
at the time. In contrast, the Oxford dictionary (2013)
an untimely demise due to dabbling in the Great Work
postulates that the Greek terms ‘Khemia’ or ‘Chumeia’
(χυμεία) has links to ancient pharmaceutical practices (another name for alchemy).
and the ‘art of transmuting metals’. Whilst these theories
posit on the etymology of the term ‘alchemy’, they do
not prove that either of these cultures can lay claim to its
genesis.

History of alchemy
Of particular interest are the many learned people
that have studied alchemy throughout the ages, many
of whom laid the foundation for the modern sciences as
we currently know them. A short list of key alchemical
practitioners is highlighted below in Table 1.
Worthy of note here is Paracelsus, considered a father
of modern toxicology; Robert Boyle, considered the
father of modern chemistry, inventor of Boyle’s Law
and author of the Skeptical Chymist; Hennig Brandt who
Figure 1: Diagrammatic representation of the major & minor
discovered phosphorus, and Sir Isaac Newton, who wrote Circulations.
extensively on the topic of alchemy. This fascination
with alchemy led the economist J.M. Keynes, who
held the largest privately owned collection of Newton’s Both alchemy and spagyrics relied heavily on
‘Chymical’ writings, to say that Newton ‘was not the first symbolism and allegory as a way of both expressing
of the Age of Reason. He was the last of the magicians’ complex procedures and philosophies and also of
(Royal Society 1946). protecting these procedures and philosophies from those
considered unworthy of the knowledge. Alchemists went
The Circulations to great lengths to protect this arcane wisdom, which
In alchemy, there exist two major arms of practice: The is largely why many worked in solitude and in secret.
Circulatum majus (Greater Circulation: Alchemy) and An example of this is a postulated theory behind the

Table 1: Table of noted alchemists through history

Wei Boyang (ca.142CE) Paracelsus (1493–1541)
Maria Prophetissa (ca.300CE) Basilius Valentinus (ca. 15th century)
Zosimos of Panopolis (ca. 300CE) Dr John Dee (ca. 1527–1609)
Jabir ibn Hayyan “Geber” (721–815CE) Robert Boyle (1627–1691)
Muhammad ibn Zakariya Razi (864–930CE) Hennig Brandt (ca. 1630–1710)
Abu Abdallah ibn Sina “Avicenna” (980–1037CE) Sir Isaac Newton (ca. 1642–1727)
Roger Bacon (ca. 1214-1294CE) Fulcanelli (ca. 20th century)

© National Herbalists Association of Australia 2013 189

Article Australian Journal of Herbal Medicine 2013 25(4)

etymology of the word ‘gibberish’ (meaning meaningless The Tria Prima suggests that all herbal substances can
or unintelligible speech or writing) which is attributed be broken down into three basic components –sulphur,
to the alchemist Geber, and referred to the almost mercury and salt. These essentials represent both
indecipherable technical jargon he used in concealing the metaphysical aspects within the herb and more practical
Great Work in his writings. phytochemical aspects of the plant material. Please see
Figure 2 below for a basic review of this information.
The Tria Prima – the three essentials In modern herbal medicine, the sulphur and mercury
In alchemy, the concept of the duality of opposites is of the plant is obtained from judicious use of a balanced
a very important philosophical underpinning, and gives menstruum to extract the ‘soul’ and ‘spirit’, however, the
rise to the concept of the Two Principles. Examples of marc is discarded and viewed as having little therapeutic
this duality include terms used in alchemical literature benefit. Spagyric tinctures and elixirs re-incorporate the
describing the ‘Sun and the Moon’ or the ‘King and the marc back into the herbal product in the form of an ash to
Queen’, and it is a similar duality that is observed in other assist in ‘fixing’ the more ethereal and volatile components.
ancient paradigms such as the symbol of the Tao (Yin /
Yang) in traditional Taoist philosophy. The idea of the Spagyrics
Two Principles was based originally upon Aristotelian The term spagyrics comes from the Greek spao
concepts in trying to explain the formation of metals and meaning ‘to tear apart’ or ‘draw out’ and ageiro meaning
their transitions from an elemental perspective (Cotnoir ‘to gather, to bind or to join’ (Junius 1979, Cotnoir 2006).
2006). The Sufi alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) It was first coined by Paracelsus and represents the key
developed further upon this concept and identified that alchemical premise of solve et coagula – ‘separate and
it was a matter of balancing the two forces within the recombine’. This concept of separating and purifying a
metals (the sulphur and the mercury) to transmute it to its substance and then bringing the purified parts back into
most purified and highest state (Cotnoir 2006). combination into a new highly energised and potentised
Over six centuries later, Paracelsus contributed further form suggests that the alchemists did not believe that
to this idea of Geber’s by stating that the ‘salt’, or body, Nature was perfect, but needed assistance to raise it to a
was needed to be added to the Two Principle theory to new level of exaltation.
bring solidity and stability. This gave birth to the Tria According to a spokeswoman for the Therapeutic
Prima, which has been the dominant thought in spagyrics Goods Administration, spagyric tinctures have been
since its inception and is the major differentiation included in the code tables of the Australian Register of
between the two alchemical circulations. Therapeutic Goods (ARTG) in association with herbal
The author wishes to make it very clear that whenever ingredients since July 2002 (Personal communication
you see the terms “sulphur”, “mercury” or “salt” in 2013), yet many naturopaths and herbalists are unaware
this article, it is never suggesting the modern chemical of their existence as a potential herbal dosage form. This
meaning or structure (e.g. brimstone, quicksilver or could be due to both a lack of education in this particular
common table salt [NaCl]); it is only talking about their field of manufacturing in the tertiary academic setting,
specific ‘spagyric’ or ‘alchemical’ meanings which and an almost non-existent presence within the herbal
are expanded upon below. These terms have both marketplace. The requirement of specialist equipment,
metaphysical and physical meanings that are sometimes manufacturing expertise and the fact that it is a time
used interchangeably and can represent a trap for the consuming method could also be drivers for lack of
uninitiated. interest.

Sulphur – Soul – Masculine principle Mercury – Spirit – Female principle Salt – Body

• In spagyrics – volatile principles / oils • In spagyrics – a liquor / spirit or • That which is solid, a
of the plant tincture of the plant vehicle, that which fixes,
• That which is active, formative, • That which is passive, ethereal, an alkali / salt
aggressive vitalistic
• Consciousness • Life (vital) force - Prana

Figure 2: Metaphysical & physical aspects of the Tria Prima, taken from Junius 1979; Cotnoir 2006; Albertus 1974.

190 © National Herbalists Association of Australia 2013

Article Australian Journal of Herbal Medicine 2013 25(4)

The spagyric tincture cycles are also important, with waxing and waning moons
Qabalah and astrology feature prominently in causing different outcomes to the spagyric product, and
alchemical and spagyric practice. In short, Qabalah new and full moons being seen as more advantageous
is considered to be a system of esoteric knowledge and propitious. Such use of astrology is not unknown in
and practices that stemmed from the Jewish tradition. herbal medicine, with noted herbalists such as Culpeper
Over the centuries this practice has evolved to include utilising this extensively in his publications.
associations with alchemy, divination, hermeticism and Three major steps are required in the manufacturing
other non-conventional practices that veered away from of the herbal spagyric tincture, including separation,
traditional Judaic philosophy. Qabalah is centred on the purification and cohobation.
philosophy of the Etz Chayyim, or Tree of Life, which is
believed to be symbolic of the spiritual evolution of man 1. Separation
and the essence of divinity and creation. Fortune (2000) Separation involves capturing the sulphur and mercury
describes the Tree of Life as “representing the cosmos in of the plant with a menstruum of water and alcohol. The
its entirety and the soul of man as related thereto”, which alcohol used where possible should be spiritus vini, more
provides credence to the idea that the alchemical arts were commonly known as rectified spirit of wine. Alchemists
not merely a materialistic pursuit, but a spiritual one also. believed that the ethanol obtained from grapes has a higher
Astrology, which is defined as the study of the celestial energetic level and contains more vital force than that
movements and positions of the planets and stars and derived from grains. The herb is then ground to a suitable
how they can have a “supposed influence on events and size (comminution) with a mortar and pestle; however,
on the behaviour of people” (Merriam-Webster 2013) machinery to reduce the herb to a smaller particle size
was also an important pillar on which alchemical and may be needed for the tougher morphological parts of
spagyric belief was built. Not only could this be applied certain plants, such as the bark or roots. The appropriate
to the individual being treated from a constitutional menstruum for the herb is selected based on chemistry;
perspective, but it could also highlight specific times however, many traditional alchemists such as Frater
that are considered auspicious for manufacturing. For Albertus utilised a 66% ethanol to 33% (2/3:1/3) water
example, each weekday represents a ruling planet to ratio regardless of the herb being used. Other authors
which certain herbs or metals correspond (see Figure state that a 50:50 ratio is best (Cotnoir 2006).
3). Therefore, if a spagyric of German chamomile was The herb is then incorporated with the menstruum in
desired, one would start the process of manufacturing a sealed glass vessel, wrapped in aluminium foil or kept
on a Sunday. Furthermore, specific hours within the day in a dark place and digested for a philosophical month
would also be adhered to. As each 24-hour period can be (40 days), being agitated several times daily. The term
broken into planetary rule, so the correct day and hour digestion denotes the gentle application of heat, with
would be observed to start the specific project. Lunar a temperature generally not exceeding 40°C so as to

Figure 3: A table of selected herbal medicines based on their ruling planets (Albertus 1974, Junius 1979, Cotnoir 2006).

© National Herbalists Association of Australia 2013 191

Article Australian Journal of Herbal Medicine 2013 25(4)

avoid damaging the heat sensitive constituents. Ancient corresponding day of the week, is a tradition which is
alchemists believed it should be no hotter than was needed seen as an initiatory practice of the Lesser Circulation.
to hatch a chicken egg (approximately 37.5C). Digestion For example, on Monday upon rising, 5 mL of a tincture
can take place in a gentle sand bath, which represents an of cleavers would be consumed, followed by 5 mL of
excellent apparatus for low heat applications. After the hawthorn tincture on the Tuesday, and so on in a process
appropriate duration, the tincture was strained, pressed that would continue for an entire year. This process was
and set aside in a sealed glass vessel, but the marc was thought to bring balance to the body and its various organ
not discarded. systems, maintaining health and vigour.

2. Purification The spagyric elixir

The herbal marc is allowed to dry naturally, and then The next level of plant mastery was the spagyric elixir.
incinerated to ash in a crucible or other fire resistant This process was seen as the next level of elevation in
vessel. This can be done in a muzzle furnace or other high the vegetable kingdom, producing a more powerful and
temperate athanor. This is a progressive process, as once purified substance. Manufacturing the elixir involves the
all of the herbal material has been incinerated; it will still separation of the plant matter into its three distinct Tria
be largely dark grey to black in colour. The ash is now Prima, unlike the spagyric tincture that incorporated the
transferred to a mortar and pestle and ground incredibly sulphur and mercury together (essential oil and tincture)
fine. Certain Chinese alchemical literature discusses the with the inclusion of the salts.
grinding of the alchemical material for up to 6 months,
taking it to a state of impalpable fineness, which modern 1. Separation
science can now confirm is likely to have taken the Herbs of high volatile oil content are excellent for
particulate matter down to a nanoparticle size (less than elixirs, particularly rosemary and fennel. Using fennel as
a micron in diameter). This process is likely to greatly an example, the whole plant (fresh, not dried) is allowed
increase the surface area and reactivity so that reactions to grow until it goes to seed. The seed is then harvested
are more complete and occur faster. Pharmacokinetic and gently dried. After being bruised with a mortar and
parameters such as absorption may also occur faster pestle, it is placed in a distillation apparatus and the oils
with the material having higher bioavailability within are separated. Once all of the oils have come over in the
the biological system. This may be the basis as to why condenser and been collected in the separating funnel,
spagyric tinctures are considered more potent than other they are isolated and stored in an amber glass bottle and
equivalent preparations, albeit this is only anecdotal saved for the cohobation phase.
evidence with no quantitative analytical evidence to
substantiate it. Once ground finely, the ash is returned 2. Fermentation
to a crucible and fired once again to higher and higher The fennel stalks and leaves are now cut finely and
temperatures, with continued grinding in between firings placed within a large glass (15-20 L) demi-john or
as needed, until it takes on a white colour, showing the fermentation vessel. Water is added along with brewing
highest level of purification. All of the dross and detritus yeast (such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and a small
has been burned away once the white ash has been amount of sugar to give a more stable fermentation. The
obtained, leaving the purified salts of the herb. Once this vessel is sealed with an airlock and kept at a constant
has been achieved, the salts are set aside in a glass jar. temperature of around 25-27°C using heating mats if
required. After 24-48 hours, the fermentation process
3. Cohobation will commence and alcohol is made from the herbal
The sulphur and mercury (tincture) is now combined material. Once the fermentation process has stopped,
with the salts (ash) in glass vessels known as ‘pelicans’ the mixture is distilled at 78°C (being careful to discard
and allowed to cohobate. The process of cohobation, also anything that came over before this temperature). The
known as circulation, is said to allow the ‘elevation’ and process is completed 7 times to produce approximately
‘expansion’ of the tincture, making it more powerful. The 96% pure alcohol. In spagyrics, the signature of the plant
process is conducted again for a philosophical month and is believed to be ‘imprinted’ into the alcohol, which after
is digested in a sand bath. Daily agitation is not essential being purified is set aside and labelled.
as the gentle application of heat ‘circulates’ or moves the
fine particulate ash throughout the tincture. Once this 3. Purification
process is complete, it is poured into a storage bottle and The marc from the fermentation (stalks and leaves)
labelled, ready for use. The average dose of a spagyric and the seeds from the distillation are dried and then
tincture would be similar to other modern day tinctures incinerated and calcined into a fine white ash in exactly
based on the herb’s pharmacology; however, alchemists the same process as was outlined for the spagyric tincture.
and spagyrists consume these tinctures quite differently. The three essentials (volatile oil, alcohol and salts) are
The manufacture of the ‘Planetary 7’, that is, 7 different then recombined in equal proportions into a glass bottle
herbal spagyric tinctures, each coinciding with a and labelled. Alternatively, this can then undergo a

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Article Australian Journal of Herbal Medicine 2013 25(4)

further process of cohobation if desired. Dosage of the and cheese, but rather simply represent differing ends
spagyric elixir is drop dose only (literally 1-2 drops of of the same spectrum we call ‘evidence’. You cannot
elixir) due to the toxicity profile of the purified essential have one without the other. Each one drives the other,
oils and should certainly not be consumed in the amounts enriches the other, teaches the other and even supports
outlined for the spagyric tincture. the other. Science is knowledge, but tradition represents
wisdom – both important attributes in either practitioner
The lapis vegetabilis (vegetable stone) or paradigm. The profession cannot forget or disregard
The vegetable stone represents the first historical our traditional evidence or we may risk losing our own
evidence of what in modern pharmacology is known identify in a near frenzied push for acceptance by a modern
as a soft extract. The vegetable stone was perceived as medical model that developed out of our own tradition.
the pinnacle of achievement in the Circulatum minus Conversely, we cannot cling to certain traditional beliefs
and represents one of the strongest forms of medicine in that have been proven incorrect by science.
the spagyric realm. The lapis vegetabilis is notoriously Based on our evidence, what does it mean to be a
time consuming and laborious to manufacture, with a herbalist or naturopath in this day and age? How far
time frame spanning from 10 – 18 months to complete, removed are we from our traditional roots? How much
although numerous ‘short-cuts’ have been proposed by tradition should we cling to? Should scientific advances
more modern practitioners. Traditionally, large amounts in herbal medicine theory and usage supersede our
of the Tria Prima, generally an essential oil rich plant, traditional evidence on a hierarchical scale of importance
are required to start this process. Certain amounts of all for us as practitioners, or for the teaching of current
three essentials are placed into a specialised flask which students, who are our profession of the future?
is then hermetically sealed and deposited in a sand bath at
Whilst our continued growth and evolution as a
40°C. As the salts (purified ash) take up the sulphur and
profession is assured, it is now time to set in motion
mercury (essential oil and alcohol) it starts to congeal
this discussion so we may thoughtfully and diligently
and thicken, at which time more sulphur and mercury
consider the importance of where we have come from,
may be added in small amounts. This process of ‘feeding’
and where we are going…
the stone can take months until eventually it cannot take
anymore in and the process has been completed. Recommended Readings
Albertus F. 1974. The Alchemist’s handbook: Manual
Conclusion
for Practical Laboratory Alchemy. Boston MA: Weiser
Herbal medicine, as well as modern sciences like Books.
chemistry, can claim a direct lineage to alchemical and
Cockren A. 2007. Alchemy rediscovered and restored.
spagyric practices. Whilst no direct scientific evidence
New York, NY: Cosimo Classics.
exists within the literature regarding spagyric tinctures,
Cotnoir B. 2006. The Weiser Concise Guide to
elixirs or the vegetable stone, this should not necessarily
Alchemy. San Francisco CA: Weiser books.
discount their relevance as a traditional dosage form.
Holmyard EJ. 1990. Alchemy. New York, NY: Dover
The author would strongly advise caution before
publications Inc.
attempting the manufacture of any of these dosage forms
without first seeking appropriate training in the requisite Junius MM. 1979. Spagyrics: The Alchemical
use of laboratory glassware, spagyric manufacturing Preparation of Medicinal Essences, Tinctures and
methods and safety in handling of the various chemicals Elixirs. Rochester VT: Healing Arts Press.
and solvents. State and federal laws for owning such Reference List
glassware, chemicals and stills are also in effect Albertus F. 1974. The Alchemist’s handbook: Manual for Practical
nationwide and should be respected. A recommended Laboratory Alchemy. Boston MA: Weiser Books.
reading list has been included for those who wish to learn Brater DC, Daly WJ. 2000. Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages:
more about these dosage forms. Principles that presage the 21st century. Clinical Pharmacology &
Therapeutics 67:5;447-50.
In finishing, of particular relevance in this paper was Daly WJ, Brater, DC. 2000. Medieval contributions to the search for
the alchemical concept of the duality of opposites, a topic truth in clinical medicine. Perspectives in Biology & Medicine
quite pertinent in the herbal and naturopathic profession 43:4;530-40.
at present. This duality represents a philosophical one as Cotnoir B. 2006. The Weiser concise guide to alchemy. San Francisco
Ca: Weiser books.
our profession continues to evolve its expanding evidence Eliade M. 1956. The forge and the crucible: the origins and structures
base, and a schism appears to be growing between our of alchemy. 2nd Ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
more traditionally trained practitioners and those that Estes JW. 1989. The medical skills of Ancient Egypt. Canton: Science
embrace a more modern and scientific approach. History Publications.
Fortune Dion. 2000. The mystical Qabalah. San Francisco: Wesier Books
The profession is currently going through its own
Goddard D. 1999. The tower of alchemy. Boston MA: Weiser books.
transmutation of sorts, our own evolutionary change, Holmyard EJ. 1990. Alchemy. New York: Dover Publications Inc.
and the question that remains to be answered is what Jaillon, P. 2007. Controlled randomised clinical trials. Bull Acad Natl
will come of it? Tradition and science are not chalk Med 191:4-5;739-56.

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Article Australian Journal of Herbal Medicine 2013 25(4)

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Jacobi J. 1979. Paracelsus. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. the science and nature of alchemy. Kessinger Publishing.
Junius MM. 1979. Spagyrics: the alchemical preparation of medicinal Paracelsus College. http://homepages.ihug.com.au/~panopus
essences, tinctures and elixirs. Rochester VT: Healing Arts Press. Personal communication. 2013. Therapeutic Goods Administration.
Leroi-Gourhan A. 1975. The flowers found with Shanidar IV: A Media unit. Department of Health and Ageing.
Neanderthal burial in Iraq. Science. 190 pp. 562 – 564 Roob A. 2009. Alchemy & mysticism. Los Angeles: Taschen Publishers
Lietava J. 1992. Medicinal plants in a middle Paleolithic grave: Royal Society. 1946. Newton tercentenary celebrations. Cambridge:
Shanidar IV. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 35;263-6. Cambridge University Press pp. 27–34.
Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 2013. Merriam-Webster Inc. Accessed 8 Russell R (Transl). 1994. The alchemical works of Geber. New York:
January 2013. <http://www.merriam-webster.com> Samuel Weiser Inc.
Oxford Dictionary. 2013. Oxford University Press. Accessed 28 June Sinclair J, Hechtman L. 2011. Herbal medicine cited in Hechtman,
2013 <http://oxforddictionaries.com> L Clinical Naturopathic Medicine. Sydney: Churchill Livingstone
Paracelsus, Waite AE (Trans). 1894. The book of vexations concerning Elsevier.

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