Chorioretinitis
Chorioretinitis
Introduction
Chorioretinitis is a type of uveitis involving the posterior segment of the eye, which includes
inflammation of the choroid and the retina of the eye. Though the term uveitis means inflammation of
the uveal tract (iris, ciliary body, and choroid), it can involve the adjacent structures like the retina,
retinal vessels, vitreous, optic nerve head, and sclera. The Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature
(SUN)[1] consensus conference workshop classified uveitis into anterior (iritis, iridocyclitis, anterior
cyclitis), intermediate (pars planitis, posterior cyclitis, hyalitis), posterior uveitis (choroiditis,
chorioretinitis, retinochoroiditis, retinitis, and neuroretinitis) and panuveitis based on the anatomical
location. Uveitis also classifies as granulomatous or nongranulomatous, acute, chronic or recurrent,
insidious, or sudden, based on criteria like appearance, duration, or type of onset. Chorioretinitis is a
type of posterior uveitis. The choroid is the vascular layer of the eye, which lies between the retina
and the sclera. Since the choroid is responsible for the vascular support of the outer layers of the
retina, inflammation of these layers can lead to vision-threatening complications.
Etiology
Uveitis correlates with a wide range of underlying causes. Based on the etiology, posterior uveitis can
classify as infectious or noninfectious.[2] Infection can be congenital or acquired. It can be idiopathic
or associated with trauma.
Infectious causes include[3][4][5][6]:
Toxoplasmosis
Viruses like cytomegalovirus (CMV), herpes simplex, rubella, lymphocytic choriomeningitis
virus, West Nile virus,
HIV related eye diseases
Tuberculosis
Toxocara
Syphilis
Bartonella
Fungal infections caused by Candida spp.
Coccidioidomycosis[6] histoplasmosis
Noninfectious etiology with systemic association:
Sarcoidosis
Behcets disease
Noninfectious etiology without any systemic association:
Multifocal choroiditis and panuveitis
Punctate inner choroidopathy
Multiple evanescent white dots syndrome
Unilateral acute idiopathic maculopathy
Birdshot choroidopathy
Serpiginous choroidopathy
Other conditions are malignancies like lymphoma masquerading as uveitis, cancer-associated
retinopathy.[7] Sympathetic ophthalmia and Vogt Koyanagi Harada syndrome have choroidal
inflammation as a part of panuveitis. Posterior scleritis may also simulate choroiditis, but posterior
scleritis is associated with severe pain and on ultrasound shows subtenon fluid (T sign).
Epidemiology
The epidemiological data from various studies showed that uveitis occurs between 52 and 341 per
100000 person-years in the US.[8][9] It is responsible for 2.8 to 10% of blindness cases in the United
States.[10] Toxoplasma chorioretinitis is the most common cause of posterior uveitis worldwide. It
has a higher prevalence in tropical countries with hot and humid climates. It accounts for 25% of
cases of posterior uveitis in the US.[11] In the United States, antibodies to Toxoplasma are present in
nearly 20% of people. It is a major opportunistic pathogen in AIDS.[12] Increased age was associated
with a higher incidence of uveitis.[13] It is responsible for an estimated 30000 new cases of legal
blindness annually in the USA and accounts for about 10 to 15% of all cases of total blindness in the
country.[14] Ocular inflammatory disorders affect women more than men, and the majority of
affected women are of childbearing age.[15][16]
Pathophysiology
Chorioretinitis is usually due to an infectious etiology. The extent of ocular involvement varies
depending on the organism. Toxoplasma gondii is the most common cause of infectious posterior
uveitis worldwide. Infection usually occurs by either consumption of tissue cysts present in raw or
undercooked meat or by ingesting oocysts in the feces of cats. It can be transmitted transplacentally.
[17] It can cause severe infection in immunosuppressed individuals and pregnant women.
Congenital Toxoplasmosis: In congenital toxoplasmosis, the mother is often asymptomatic or has
mild constitutional manifestations. The severity of fetal involvement is related to the gestational
period at which infection occurred, with more severe in early trimesters, when fetal death may result.
In the first trimester rate of transmission to the fetus is around 10 to 25%, in the third trimester the
transplacental transmission is approximately 60 to 80%. However, fetuses infected in early pregnancy
are more likely to show clinical signs of infection.[18] The presence of chorioretinitis, intracranial
calcifications, and hydrocephalus are considered the classic triad of congenital toxoplasmosis.
[19] Congenital toxoplasmosis is associated with retinochoroidal lesions in 80% of infected
newborns. It can be bilateral. Typical features are excavated macular lesions with associated
pigmentation.
Acquired Toxoplasmosis: Most infections are thought to occur congenitally and can remain
asymptomatic for several years and can become clinically evident commonly in the second through
fourth decades. In the inactive stage, it can present as quiescent atrophic chorioretinal scars, which
appear as pigmented lesions in clusters. In 70 to 80% of cases, it can occur as a unilateral focal
chorioretinal lesion.[20] In the active phase, it occurs as necrotizing chorioretinitis with overlying
vitritis. On fundoscopy, it can appear as a yellow-white lesion with indistinct margins, often described
as a “headlight in a fog” appearance. The 'fog' is due to the vitritis, which causes vitreous haze, and
the lesion of chorioretinitis appears as a focal area of yellow/whitish-yellow lesion ('headlight').
Lesions can be solitary, multiple, or satellite to an old chorioretinal scar. Numerous or bilateral active
lesions are present in immunocompromised patients. In immunocompromised patients, it can mimic
severe acute retinal necrosis (ARN).
In immunocompetent patients, the parasite can occur as a tissue cyst and can cause chronic infection.
In patients with HIV, toxoplasmosis reactivation occurs when cell-mediated immunity fails. In HIV
patients, with CD4 count less than 100, cotrimoxazole or dapsone and pyrimethamine can be given for
six months.[21]
Congenital CMV: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is the most common congenital viral infection in the
United States. Congenital CMV infection presents with ocular manifestations like chorioretinitis,
cataract, and optic atrophy along with jaundice, petechiae, hepatosplenomegaly, hearing loss,
periventricular calcifications, ventricular calcifications, and microcephaly.[22][23] The majority of
children with congenital CMV have asymptomatic infection. Chorioretinitis and/or optic atrophy is
present in 10% of symptomatic infants with CMV.
CMV retinitis occurs in severely immunocompromised AIDS patients, with a CD4 lymphocyte count
less than 50cells/micro L. CMV can cause necrotizing retinitis, retinal vasculitis, and optic
neuropathy, with minimal vitritis. The characteristic fundus appearance of white retinitis lesions with
hemorrhages is called "pizza-pie" appearance. It can cause anterior uveitis in healthy adults.
Ocular toxocariasis: It results from the nematodes Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. It usually
affects young patients. It is unilateral in 90% of cases. The child can have leukocoria, eye pain,
strabismus, and profound monocular loss of vision. It commonly causes chronic endophthalmitis,
granulomas in the posterior pole, or peripheral retina. Tractional retinal detachment can occur in these
patients. Atypically it can cause diffuse chorioretinitis. It can be diagnosed based on the history of
contact with pets and the characteristic ocular features. Retinoblastoma is an important differential
diagnosis to be considered, which has a similar presentation. Serological tests like ELISA for the
detection of anti-Toxocara excretory-secretory antigen IgE levels can confirm the diagnosis.[24]
[25] The use of anti-helminthic drugs is limited. Systemic steroids are given to treat severe
inflammation.
Ocular syphilis: It has earned the name the great masquerader as the clinical presentation is diverse,
with various inflammatory presentations such as iritis, chorioretinitis, vitritis, scleritis, neurosyphilis
with Argyll Robertson pupil, and panuveitis. The most common presentation is iritis or iridocyclitis.
In syphilis patients with HIV, placoid lesions have been described called acute syphilitic posterior
placoid chorioretinitis.[26][27] It can occur in secondary or tertiary syphilis. Treatment is the same as
neurosyphilis. The diagnosis should be suspected in patients with high-risk sexual behavior or with a
history of other sexually transmitted diseases.
Ocular Tuberculosis (TB) is extrapulmonary tuberculosis commonly seen in endemic countries like
India. The presentation can be variable, with lesions involving any layer of the eye. It can present as
granulomatous anterior uveitis. Posterior segment manifestations including retinal vasculitis,
multifocal serpiginous choroiditis, multifocal choroiditis, choroidal tubercles, tuberculoma, subretinal
hypopyon, and subretinal abscesses are present.[28][29][30][29][28] Serpiginous like choroiditis may
be associated with tuberculosis. Choroidal tubercles, tuberculoma, and choroidal abscess are generally
considered as direct infection by tuberculosis bacillus. However, whether other manifestations are
caused by infection (which needs antitubercular therapy/ATT) or by a hypersensitivity reaction
(which is treated by steroids and/or immunosuppressive therapy) is controversial.[31] Mantoux test,
interferon-gamma release assay/IGRA, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from the intraocular
specimen can suggest the diagnosis, though confirmation of direct causation by the bacteria is
difficult. In most of the cases, the diagnosis is presumptive.[32] In low and middle-income countries,
the World Health Organization's policy statement concluded that 'Neither IGRAs nor the TST should
be used for the diagnosis of active TB disease.'[33] Ascertaining which cases need ATT, is difficult;
this is important as ATT might have serious adverse effects also. Ocular tuberculosis is usually treated
with ATT of at least nine months and oral steroids if needed. Healed ocular tuberculosis may be
associated with a choroidal neovascular membrane, which might respond well with anti-vascular
endothelial growth factor agents.[34][35]
Ocular histoplasmosis syndrome occurs in regions endemic for Histoplasma capsulatum. It can
present with asymptomatic chorioretinitis, discrete oval–round whitish lesions less than 400
micrometers in diameter that may develop into classic punched out histo spots or choroidal
neovascular membrane, which can cause central vision loss.[36]
Chorioretinitis has also been described in congenital infections with the Zika virus, rubella, and
varicella-zoster virus.[37][38][39][40][41][40][38][42]
Zika virus is a neurotropic virus that can cross the placenta and infect the fetus. Classical findings
include microcephaly, ventriculomegaly, cerebellar hypoplasia, lissencephaly with hydrocephalus,
and fetal akinesia deformation sequence called arthrogryposis. Infants with the Zika virus have vision-
threatening fundus abnormalities like macular chorioretinal atrophy, focal pigmentary changes, and
optic nerve abnormalities. Diagnostic confirmation is by Zika RNA with PCR.
Congenital Varicella-Zoster virus infection can cause microphthalmia, chorioretinitis, and cataract in
44 to 52% of cases.[43]
EBV (Epstein Barr virus) uveitis: EBV uveitis can present as iritis, whereas posterior segment
involvement may include multifocal choroiditis with punched-out areas of pigment epithelial changes
and vitritis.[44] Reports exist of chorioretinitis with West Nile virus infection.[45] The chorioretinitis
associated with the West Nile virus is typically linear, which might be related to the organization of
the retinal nerve fiber layer.[46]
Non-infective posterior uveitis with systemic illness:
Sarcoidosis: It is a multi-system disease characterized by noncaseating granulomas in tissues, with a
high incidence reported in African American women. It can cause granulomatous anterior uveitis,
periphlebitis, with candle wax drippings and yellow waxy spots, vitritis, snowball opacities, and
snowbanking. Chorioretinal granulomas, placoid lesions, and optic nerve head granuloma are
presenting features.
Bechet’s disease presents with recurrent anterior and posterior uveitis, recurrent oral or genital ulcers,
and skin lesions. Ocular manifestation can be seen in 70% of cases of Behcets disease and is one of
the main diagnostic criteria of the disease. It can cause nongranulomatous anterior uveitis. Posterior
segment involvement characteristically shows by vitritis/media haze, retinal vasculitis, hyalitis,
necrotizing retinitis, and chorioretinitis.[47][48]
Non-infective posterior uveitis without systemic illness (white dot syndromes)
Common non-infective posterior uveitic entities include the white dot syndromes (WDS), named
according to their clinical appearance and behavior. Laboratory investigations are not routinely
needed for their diagnosis. Fundus fluorescein angiogram (FFA), indocyanine green angiogram
(ICGA), optical coherence tomography (OCT), and multimodal imaging are used to evaluate WDS.
Birdshot chorioretinopathy (BSCR)/vitiliginous choroiditis: More than 90% of the patients with
BCR are HLA-A29 positive. The term “birdshot” is because the lesions scattered around the optic
disc and radiate to the equator resembling the shotgun scatter of birdshot.[49]
Acute Posterior Multifocal Placoid Pigment Epitheliopathy (APMPEE): It is a bilateral
inflammatory retinal/choroidal disease characterized by a sudden loss of vision caused by the sudden
appearance of multiple yellow-white, flat inflammatory lesions lying deep within the sensory retina,
Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the choriocapillaris. The lesions of APMPPE are unique but
may be confused with viral retinitis, syphilis, serpiginous choroiditis, and toxoplasma
retinochoroiditis. In APMPPE, lesions are flat, and there is no significant vitritis. Fundus Fluorescein
Angiography (FFA) shows an early hypofluorescence of the white placoid lesions with late staining.
Multiple Evanescent White Dot Syndrome (MEWDS): MEWDS is an inflammatory
chorioretinopathy characterized by the presence of white/gray lesions deep in the retina. It is a rare
disorder seen in healthy young women. It can also demonstrate optic disc edema, mild vitritis,
panuveitis, diffuse choroidal thickening. A characteristic granular appearance of the fovea is present.
Contrary to other white dot syndromes, it is usually unilateral. FFA shows early and late
hyperfluorescence at the lesions.
Serpiginous Choroiditis (SC): It is a rare progressive recurrent bilateral disease that affects the outer
retina, retinal pigment epithelium, choriocapillaris, and inner choroid. The lesions are gray or gray-
yellow areas that begin either in the peripapillary region or macula. FFA demonstrates early
hypofluorescence and late hyperfluorescence of active lesions.
Multi-Focal Choroiditis/Punctate Inner Choroidopathy (MFC and PIC): They occur
predominantly in myopic women, usually involving both eyes. The presence of cystoid macular
edema /choroidal neovascular membrane is associated with poor visual prognosis.
Masquerade syndromes: Malignancies like intraocular lymphoma and leukemia can present with
uveitis. Choroidal melanoma and cancer-associated retinopathy must be ruled out in non-resolving
and atypical presentations of uveitis.[50]
Histopathology
Histopathologically, diffuse or focal inflammatory infiltrates appear in the retina and choroid. With
active ocular toxoplasmosis, a focal retinochoroiditis with necrotizing granulomatous inflammation of
the retina is present. Parasites may appear as free tachyzoites, or tissue cysts with mononuclear
inflammatory infiltrates surrounding retinal blood vessels.
Evaluation
The approach to the uveitis patient must be comprehensive, as it may be associated with multiple
systemic conditions. The diagnosis can be made mostly clinically by direct and indirect
ophthalmoscopy, based on the characteristic fundus findings. The method of developing and
narrowing the differentials has been called naming and meshing based on the clinical presentation.
[51] The condition requires a targeted approach where investigations get tailored to each patient
depending on the history and clinical features and the differentials generated. Ancillary investigations
like fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA), Indocyanine green angiography (ICG), B scan
ultrasonography, Optical coherence tomography (OCT), Fundus autofluorescence can help in the
diagnosis.
Fundus Fluorescein Angiography (FFA): It provides fundus photographs for diagnosis,
documentation as well as monitoring the progress of the disease. It can detect whether a lesion is
active or inactive, active lesions will show late hyperfluorescence on FFA. It can also detect
neovascularization, vasculitis, areas of capillary nonperfusion, and cystoid macular edema.
Indocyanine Green Angiography (ICG) is more helpful in the case of white dot syndromes and other
choroidal pathologies, which FFA cannot detect. It can provide additional information in diagnosis
along with FFA. The infrared light in indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) penetrates the pigments
in the retinal pigment epithelium. So it is better than FFA in delineating choriocapillaris.
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a noninvasive imaging technique using near-infrared light
interferometry used to evaluate pathological macular changes like cystoid macular edema, subretinal
fluid, choroidal thickening, and epiretinal membrane.
B scan ultrasonography for ultrasound imaging of the posterior segment, when the view becomes
obscured by small pupillary size or poor view of the fundus due to the opacity of the media.
The basic workup for uveitis depends on the history, clinical features, and anatomical location of the
lesion. Always exclude syphilis and sarcoidosis. Lab investigations include intraocular fluid
evaluation for polymerase chain reaction or the parasite DNA and serum antibody titers. It aids in
differentiating infectious from noninfectious etiology. Serum antibodies can detect whether the
infection is recent or chronic. Anti-Toxoplasma Ig M antibodies appear in the first week of infection
and then decline in the next few months. Toxoplasma IgG appears within 1 to 2 weeks of infection,
peaks within 1 to 2 months, and will remain detectable for the lifetime of the patient. The positive
predictive value of the IgG Toxoplasma antibody is low. A rise in titer in Toxoplasma IgG over three
weeks has been useful as an indicator of a recent infection. For detection of infection in the newborn,
Ig A or IgM antibodies are used. Maternal IgG antibodies present in the newborn reflect past or recent
infection in the mother. In babies, maternally transmitted IgG will disappear within 6 to 12 months.
[52]
Treatment / Management
The goal of the treatment is to preserve visual function. Treatment is directed at the
elimination of infection if present and suppression of host inflammatory response. In
infective conditions, the specific antimicrobial therapy gets coupled with anti-inflammatory
agents, which are started 48 to 72 hours after the initiation of anti-infective agents. Treatment
of noninfectious posterior uveitis is mainly corticosteroids and immunosuppressive agents.
Therapy administration can be via multiple routes, including topical, periocular, and
intraocular injections or systemic. It is essential to treat the underlying systemic disease, as
well.
Ocular Toxoplasmosis: Treatment is a combination of antiparasitic drugs with systemic
corticosteroids. Pyrimethamine, which is a folic acid antagonist, gets administered as a
loading dose of 75 to 100 mg for 1 to 2 days, followed by 25 to 50 mg daily for four weeks. It
is combined with oral folinic acid 5 mg three times a week to prevent folate
deficiency. Sulfadiazine 1 g four times daily for 3 to 4 weeks is usually in combination with
pyrimethamine. Systemic steroids are typically started 72 hours after the initiation of
antimicrobial therapy.
In the case of allergy to sulfonamides, clindamycin 300 mg four times daily or azithromycin
250 to 500 mg/day are therapeutic options. Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim 800 mg/160 mg
is another combination given. Atovaquone 750 mg four times daily can be dosed for 4 to 6
weeks. Spiramycin 2 g/day is the safest antiparasitic in pregnancy.
Systemic steroids serve as the mainstay of therapy in non-infective posterior uveitis. Oral
Prednisolone is the most commonly given steroid at a dose of 1 to 1.5 mg/kg body weight.
Vision-threatening lesions, such as those with optic nerve head or macular/foveal
involvement, will require administration of intravenous methylprednisolone 1 g daily for
three consecutive days should be administered, followed by oral prednisolone in tapering
doses.
Steroid sparing immunomodulatory agents are useful in steroid-resistant cases or cases of
complications from long term use of steroids. Systemic cyclosporine, azathioprine,
mycophenolate mofetil, methotrexate may be administered. Immunomodulators like tumor
necrosis factor-alpha inhibitor like adalimumab or infliximab are also options when first-line
agents fail.[53]
Treatment of complications like choroidal neovascular membrane includes anti-VEGF agents
such as bevacizumab, ranibizumab, local and systemic corticosteroids, photodynamic
therapy. Surgical treatment like pars plana vitrectomy, cryotherapy, laser photocoagulation is
for treatment of complications.[54]
Differential Diagnosis
The clinical presentation of the various clinical entities causing posterior uveitis can overlap.
Sometimes lesions of age-related macular degeneration, multiple leaking central serous retinopathy,
posterior scleritis, intraocular malignancies can be confused with lesions of posterior uveitis. The
infective chorioretinitis lesions can be distinguished from white dot syndromes by their fundus
appearance, and ICGA and FFA give conclusive evidence in most cases. In newborns with congenital
infection, exclude TORCHeS. Other less common congenital infections simulating toxoplasmosis
include West Nile virus fever, acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis, and, more recently, Zika virus, the
latter particularly in the setting of microcephaly. Tumors such as retinoblastoma and congenital
anomalies of the retina or choroid such as retinochoroidal coloboma and persistent hyperplastic
vitreous are also considerations in the differential diagnosis in children.
Complications
Uveitis can cause visual loss and blindness due to a variety of causes, including secondary
complications like cataract, secondary glaucoma, choroidal neovascularization cystoid macular
edema, optic neuropathy, retinal detachment, retinal vascular occlusion, hemorrhage, and phthisis.[57]
[58] Cystoid macular edema (CME) is the most common complication in noninfectious posterior
uveitis.
CME is common in birdshot chorioretinitis, sarcoidosis, and other uveitis, which cause extensive
vitreous inflammation. Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is seen more with choroidal involvement
and disruption of the Bruch's membrane. Causes of CNV include presumed ocular histoplasmosis
syndrome, multifocal choroiditis and panuveitis, serpiginous choroiditis, and punctate inner
choroidopathy.
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Korioretinitis
Ragi Geetha; Koushik Tripathy.
pengantar
Chorioretinitis adalah jenis uveitis yang melibatkan segmen posterior mata, yang meliputi peradangan
koroid dan retina mata. Meskipun istilah uveitis berarti peradangan pada saluran uveal (iris, ciliary
body, dan choroid), ia dapat melibatkan struktur yang berdekatan seperti retina, pembuluh retina,
vitreous, kepala saraf optik, dan sklera. Standarisasi Uveitis Nomenklatur (SUN) [1] lokakarya
konferensi konsensus mengklasifikasikan uveitis menjadi anterior (iritis, iridosiklitis, anterior
cyclitis), intermediate (pars planitis, posterior cyclitis, hyalitis), uveitis posterior (choroiditis,
chorioretinitis, retinochoroiditis, retinitis, dan neuroretinitis) berdasarkan panuveitis berdasarkan
lokasi anatomi. Uveitis juga diklasifikasikan sebagai granulomatosa atau nongranulomatosa, akut,
kronis atau berulang, berbahaya, atau mendadak, berdasarkan kriteria seperti penampilan, durasi, atau
jenis onset. Chorioretinitis adalah jenis uveitis posterior. Koroid adalah lapisan pembuluh darah mata,
yang terletak di antara retina dan sklera. Karena koroid bertanggung jawab atas dukungan vaskular
dari lapisan luar retina, radang lapisan ini dapat menyebabkan komplikasi yang mengancam
penglihatan.
Etiologi
Uveitis berkorelasi dengan berbagai penyebab yang mendasarinya. Berdasarkan etiologinya, uveitis
posterior dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai infeksius atau tidak infeksius. [2] Infeksi dapat bersifat
bawaan atau didapat. Ini bisa idiopatik atau terkait dengan trauma.
Penyebab infeksi meliputi [3] [4] [5] [6] :
Toksoplasmosis
TBC
Toxocara
Sipilis
Bartonella
Coccidioidomycosis [6] histoplasmosis
Penyakit Behcets
Birdoid choroidopathy
Koroidopati serpih
Kondisi lain adalah keganasan seperti limfoma yang menyamar sebagai uveitis, retinopati terkait
kanker. [7] Oftalmia simpatik dan sindrom Vogt Koyanagi Harada memiliki peradangan koroid
sebagai bagian dari panuveitis. Scleritis posterior juga dapat mensimulasikan koroiditis, tetapi
skleritis posterior berhubungan dengan nyeri hebat dan pada USG menunjukkan cairan subtenon
(tanda T).
Epidemiologi
Data epidemiologis dari berbagai penelitian menunjukkan bahwa uveitis terjadi antara 52 dan 341 per
100.000 orang-tahun di AS. [8] [9] Ia bertanggung jawab atas 2,8 hingga 10% kasus kebutaan di
Amerika Serikat. [10] Toxoplasma chorioretinitis adalah penyebab paling umum dari uveitis posterior
di seluruh dunia. Ini memiliki prevalensi lebih tinggi di negara-negara tropis dengan iklim panas dan
lembab. Ini menyumbang 25% dari kasus uveitis posterior di AS. [11] Di Amerika Serikat, antibodi
terhadap Toxoplasma hadir pada hampir 20% orang. Ini adalah patogen oportunistik utama dalam
AIDS. [12] Peningkatan usia dikaitkan dengan insiden uveitis yang lebih tinggi. [13] Ia bertanggung
jawab atas sekitar 30000 kasus baru kebutaan hukum setiap tahun di AS dan menyumbang sekitar
10 hingga 15% dari semua kasus kebutaan total di negara ini. [14] Gangguan peradangan mata
mempengaruhi wanita lebih banyak daripada pria, dan sebagian besar wanita yang terkena adalah usia
subur. [15] [16]
Patofisiologi
Korioretinitis biasanya disebabkan oleh etiologi infeksi. Tingkat keterlibatan okular bervariasi
tergantung pada organisme. Toxoplasma gondii adalah penyebab paling umum dari uveitis posterior
infeksius di seluruh dunia. Infeksi biasanya terjadi dengan konsumsi kista jaringan yang terdapat
dalam daging mentah atau kurang matang atau dengan menelan ookista di dalam kotoran kucing. Ini
dapat ditransmisikan secara transplasenta. [17] Hal ini dapat menyebabkan infeksi parah pada orang
yang mengalami imunosupresi dan wanita hamil.
Tokenoplasmosis Bawaan: Pada toksoplasmosis bawaan, ibu sering asimptomatik atau memiliki
manifestasi konstitusional ringan. Tingkat keparahan keterlibatan janin terkait dengan periode
kehamilan di mana infeksi terjadi, dengan lebih parah pada trimester awal, ketika kematian janin
dapat terjadi. Pada trimester pertama tingkat penularan ke janin sekitar 10 hingga 25%, pada trimester
ketiga penularan transplasenta sekitar 60 hingga 80%. Namun, janin yang terinfeksi pada awal
kehamilan lebih cenderung menunjukkan tanda-tanda klinis infeksi. [18] Kehadiran chorioretinitis,
kalsifikasi intrakranial, dan hidrosefalus dianggap sebagai trias klasik toksoplasmosis
kongenital. [19] Toksoplasmosis kongenital dikaitkan dengan lesi retinochoroidal pada 80% bayi baru
lahir yang terinfeksi. Itu bisa bilateral. Gambaran khasnya adalah lesi makula yang digali dengan
pigmentasi terkait.
Acquired Toxoplasmosis: Sebagian besar infeksi diperkirakan terjadi secara kongenital dan dapat
tetap tanpa gejala selama beberapa tahun dan dapat menjadi bukti klinis secara umum pada dekade
kedua hingga keempat. Pada tahap tidak aktif, ini dapat hadir sebagai bekas luka chorioretinal atrofi
diam, yang muncul sebagai lesi berpigmen dalam kelompok. Pada 70 hingga 80% kasus, ini dapat
terjadi sebagai lesi chorioretinal focal unilateral. [20] Pada fase aktif, terjadi korioretinitis nekrotikans
dengan vitritis di atasnya. Pada fundoscopy, itu dapat muncul sebagai lesi kuning-putih dengan
margin tidak jelas, sering digambarkan sebagai penampilan "headlight in a fog". 'Kabut' disebabkan
oleh vitritis, yang menyebabkan kabut vitreous, dan lesi chorioretinitis muncul sebagai area fokus lesi
kuning / keputihan-kuning ('lampu utama'). Lesi bisa soliter, multipel, atau satelit ke bekas luka
chorioretinal lama. Banyak lesi aktif atau bilateral hadir pada pasien immunocompromised. Pada
pasien immunocompromised, itu dapat meniru nekrosis retina akut yang parah (ARN).
Pada pasien imunokompeten, parasit dapat terjadi sebagai kista jaringan dan dapat menyebabkan
infeksi kronis. Pada pasien dengan HIV, reaktivasi toksoplasmosis terjadi ketika imunitas yang
dimediasi sel gagal. Pada pasien HIV, dengan jumlah CD4 kurang dari 100, kotrimoksazol atau
dapson dan pirimetamin dapat diberikan selama enam bulan. [21]
CMV Bawaan: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) adalah infeksi virus bawaan yang paling umum di Amerika
Serikat. Infeksi CMV kongenital datang dengan manifestasi okular seperti chorioretinitis, katarak, dan
atrofi optik bersama dengan penyakit kuning, petekia, hepatosplenomegali, gangguan pendengaran,
kalsifikasi periventrikular, kalsifikasi ventrikel, dan mikrosefalus. [22] [23] Mayoritas anak-anak
dengan CMV bawaan memiliki infeksi tanpa gejala. Chorioretinitis dan / atau atrofi optik ditemukan
pada 10% bayi dengan gejala CMV.
Retinitis CMV terjadi pada pasien AIDS yang sangat lemah sistem imunnya, dengan jumlah limfosit
CD4 kurang dari 50 sel / mikro L. CMV dapat menyebabkan retinitis nekrotikan, vaskulitis retina, dan
neuropati optik, dengan vitritis minimal. Penampilan fundus khas lesi retinitis putih dengan
perdarahan disebut penampilan "pizza-pie". Ini dapat menyebabkan uveitis anterior pada orang
dewasa yang sehat.
Toxocariasis okular: Ini hasil dari nematoda Toxocara canis dan Toxocara cati . Ini biasanya
mempengaruhi pasien muda. Ini unilateral dalam 90% kasus. Anak tersebut dapat menderita
leukocoria, sakit mata, strabismus, dan kehilangan penglihatan monokuler yang dalam. Ini biasanya
menyebabkan endophthalmitis kronis, granuloma di kutub posterior, atau retina perifer. Ablasi retina
traksional dapat terjadi pada pasien ini. Secara atipik dapat menyebabkan chorioretinitis difus. Hal ini
dapat didiagnosis berdasarkan riwayat kontak dengan hewan peliharaan dan fitur okular yang
khas. Retinoblastoma adalah diagnosis banding yang penting untuk dipertimbangkan, yang memiliki
presentasi serupa. Tes serologis seperti ELISA untuk mendeteksi level antigen IgE ekskretoris
sekretori anti- Toxocara dapat mengkonfirmasi diagnosis. [24] [25] Penggunaan obat anti-cacing
terbatas. Steroid sistemik diberikan untuk mengobati peradangan parah.
Sifilis okuler: Ini telah mendapatkan nama masquerader besar sebagai presentasi klinis beragam,
dengan berbagai presentasi inflamasi seperti iritis, chorioretinitis, vitritis, scleritis, neurosifilis dengan
Argyll Robertson pupil, dan panuveitis. Presentasi yang paling umum adalah iritis atau
iridosiklitis. Pada pasien sifilis dengan HIV, lesi plasoid telah dideskripsikan disebut chorioretinitis
plasoid posterior sifilis akut. [26] [27] Ini dapat terjadi pada sifilis sekunder atau
tersier. Pengobatannya sama dengan neurosifilis. Diagnosis harus dicurigai pada pasien
dengan perilaku seksual berisiko tinggi atau dengan riwayat penyakit menular seksual lainnya.
Tuberkulosis Okular (TB) adalah tuberkulosis ekstrapulmoner yang umum dijumpai di negara
endemik seperti India. Presentasi dapat bervariasi, dengan lesi yang melibatkan lapisan mata apa
pun. Dapat muncul sebagai uveitis anterior granulomatosa. Manifestasi segmen posterior termasuk
vaskulitis retina, koroiditis serpiginous multifokal, koroiditis multifokal, tuberkel
koroid, tuberkuloma, hipopion subretinal, dan abses subretinal
hadir. [28] [29] [30] [29] [28] Serpiginous seperti choroiditis dapat dikaitkan dengan
tuberkulosis. TBC koroid, TBC, dan abses koroid umumnya dianggap sebagai infeksi langsung oleh
tuberculosis bacillus. Namun, apakah manifestasi lain disebabkan oleh infeksi (yang membutuhkan
terapi antitubercular / ATT) atau oleh reaksi hipersensitivitas (yang diobati dengan steroid dan / atau
terapi imunosupresif) masih kontroversial. [31] Tes Mantoux, uji pelepasan interferon-gamma /
IGRA, reaksi rantai polimerase (PCR) dari spesimen intraokular dapat menyarankan diagnosis,
meskipun konfirmasi penyebab langsung oleh bakteri sulit. Dalam sebagian besar kasus, diagnosis
adalah dugaan. [32] Di negara-negara berpenghasilan rendah dan menengah, pernyataan kebijakan
Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia menyimpulkan bahwa 'Baik IGRA maupun TST tidak boleh digunakan
untuk diagnosis penyakit TB aktif.' [33] Memastikan kasus mana yang membutuhkan ATT, sulit; ini
penting karena ATT mungkin memiliki efek samping yang serius juga. TBC mata biasanya diobati
dengan ATT minimal sembilan bulan dan steroid oral jika diperlukan. TBC okular yang sembuh dapat
dikaitkan dengan membran neovaskular koroid, yang mungkin merespons dengan baik dengan agen
faktor pertumbuhan endotel anti-vaskular. [34] [35]
Sindrom histoplasmosis okular terjadi di daerah endemik untuk Histoplasma capsulatum. Ini dapat
hadir dengan chorioretinitis asimptomatik , lesi keputihan oval-bulat diskrit dengan diameter kurang
dari 400 mikrometer yang dapat berkembang menjadi bintik histo klasik atau membran neovaskular
koroid, yang dapat menyebabkan kehilangan penglihatan sentral. [36]
Chorioretinitis juga telah dijelaskan pada infeksi bawaan dengan virus Zika , rubella, dan virus
varicella-zoster. [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [40] [38] [42]
Virus Zika adalah virus neurotropik yang dapat melintasi plasenta dan menginfeksi janin. Temuan
klasik termasuk mikrosefali, ventrikulomegali, hipoplasia serebelar, lissencephaly dengan
hidrosefalus, dan sekuens deformasi akinesia janin yang disebut arthrogryposis. Bayi
dengan virus Zika memiliki kelainan fundus yang mengancam penglihatan seperti atrofi korioretinal
makula, perubahan pigmen fokus, dan kelainan saraf optik. Konfirmasi diagnostik dilakukan
oleh Zika RNA dengan PCR.
Infeksi virus Congenital Varicella-Zoster dapat menyebabkan microphthalmia, chorioretinitis, dan
katarak pada 44 hingga 52% kasus. [43]
Uveitis EBV (Epstein Barr virus): uveitis EBV dapat muncul sebagai iritis, sedangkan keterlibatan
segmen posterior mungkin termasuk kororoiditis multifokal dengan area menekan perubahan epitel
pigmen dan vitritis. [44] Ada laporan chorioretinitis dengan infeksi virus West
Nile. [45] Chorioretinitis yang terkait dengan virus West Nile biasanya linier, yang mungkin terkait
dengan pengorganisasian lapisan serat saraf retina. [46]
Uveitis posterior non-infeksi dengan penyakit sistemik:
Sarkoidosis: Ini adalah penyakit multi-sistem yang ditandai dengan granuloma non-kantung pada
jaringan, dengan insiden tinggi yang dilaporkan pada wanita Afrika-Amerika. Hal ini dapat
menyebabkan uveitis anterior granulomatosa, periphlebitis, dengan tetesan lilin lilin dan bintik-bintik
kuning lilin, vitritis, kekeruhan bola salju, dan bank salju. Granuloma korioretinal, lesi plasoid, dan
granuloma kepala saraf optik menunjukkan gambaran.
Penyakit Bechet muncul dengan uveitis anterior dan posterior rekuren, ulkus oral atau genital
rekuren, dan lesi kulit. Manifestasi okuler dapat dilihat pada 70% kasus penyakit Behcets dan
merupakan salah satu kriteria diagnostik utama penyakit ini. Ini dapat menyebabkan uveitis anterior
nongranulomatosa. Keterlibatan segmen posterior secara karakteristik ditunjukkan oleh vitritis / kabut
media, vaskulitis retina, hyalitis, retinitis nekrotikans, dan chorioretinitis. [47] [48]
Uveitis posterior non-infektif tanpa penyakit sistemik (white dot syndromes)
Entitas uveitik posterior non-infektif yang umum termasuk white dot syndromes (WDS), dinamai
sesuai dengan penampilan dan perilaku klinis mereka. Investigasi laboratorium tidak secara rutin
diperlukan untuk diagnosis mereka. Fundus fluorescein angiogram (FFA), indocyanine green
angiogram (ICGA), optical coherence tomography (OCT), dan pencitraan multimodal digunakan
untuk mengevaluasi WDS.
Birdshot chorioretinopathy (BSCR) / choroiditis vitiliginous : Lebih dari 90% pasien dengan BCR
adalah HLA-A29 positif. Istilah "birdshot" adalah karena lesi yang tersebar di sekitar cakram optik
dan menjalar ke ekuator menyerupai hamburan senapan shotshot dari burung. [49]
Epiteliopati Pigmen multifokal Plasoid Posterior Akut (APMPEE) : Ini adalah penyakit radang
retina / koroid bilateral yang ditandai dengan hilangnya penglihatan secara tiba-tiba yang disebabkan
oleh kemunculan tiba-tiba beberapa lesi kuning-putih, peradangan datar yang terletak jauh di dalam
retina sensorik, epitel pigmen retina (RPE) dan choriocapillaris. Lesi-lesi APMPPE adalah unik tetapi
mungkin dikacaukan dengan retinitis virus, sifilis, koroiditis serpiginosa, dan toksoplasma
retinochoroiditis. Pada APMPPE, lesi datar, dan tidak ada vitritis yang signifikan. Fundus Fluorescein
Angiography (FFA) menunjukkan hipofluoresensi awal dari lesi plasoid putih dengan pewarnaan
lanjut.
Multiple Evanescent White Dot Syndrome (MEWDS) : MEWDS adalah korioretinopati inflamasi
yang ditandai oleh adanya lesi putih / abu-abu di dalam retina. Ini adalah kelainan langka yang terlihat
pada wanita muda yang sehat. Ini juga dapat menunjukkan edema diskus optik, vitritis
ringan, panuveitis, penebalan koroid yang difus. Penampilan granular karakteristik fovea
hadir. Berlawanan dengan sindrom titik putih lainnya, biasanya bersifat unilateral. FFA menunjukkan
hiperfluoresensi awal dan akhir pada lesi.
Serpiginous Choroiditis (SC) : Ini adalah penyakit bilateral berulang progresif yang jarang yang
mempengaruhi retina luar, epitel pigmen retina, choriocapillaris, dan koroid bagian dalam. Lesi
adalah daerah abu-abu atau abu-abu kuning yang dimulai baik di daerah peripapillary atau
makula. FFA menunjukkan hipofluoresensi awal dan hipofluoresensi lambat dari lesi aktif.
Multi-Focal Choroiditis / Punctate Inner Choroidopathy (MFC dan PIC) : Mereka terjadi
terutama pada wanita rabun, biasanya melibatkan kedua mata. Adanya edema makula sistoid /
membran neovaskular koroid dikaitkan dengan prognosis visual yang buruk.
Sindrom Masquerade : Keganasan seperti limfoma intraokular dan leukemia dapat muncul dengan
uveitis. Melanoma koroid dan retinopati terkait kanker harus disingkirkan dalam presentasi uveitis
yang tidak terselesaikan dan atipikal. [50]
Histopatologi
Secara histopatologis, infiltrat inflamasi difus atau fokal muncul di retina dan koroid. Dengan
toksoplasmosis okular aktif, retinochoroiditis fokal dengan inflamasi granulomatosa nekrotikan retina
hadir. Parasit dapat muncul sebagai tachyzoit bebas, atau kista jaringan dengan infiltrat inflamasi
mononuklear yang mengelilingi pembuluh darah retina.
Perawatan / Manajemen
Tujuan dari perawatan ini adalah untuk mempertahankan fungsi visual. Pengobatan diarahkan
pada penghapusan infeksi jika ada dan menekan respon inflamasi inang. Dalam kondisi
infektif, terapi antimikroba spesifik digabungkan dengan agen anti-inflamasi, yang dimulai
48 hingga 72 jam setelah dimulainya agen anti-infeksi. Pengobatan uveitis posterior
noninfeksi terutama kortikosteroid dan agen imunosupresif. Pemberian terapi dapat melalui
berbagai rute, termasuk injeksi topikal, periokular, dan intraokular atau sistemik. Penting juga
untuk mengobati penyakit sistemik yang mendasarinya.
Toxoplasmosis Okular: Pengobatan adalah kombinasi obat antiparasit dengan kortikosteroid
sistemik. Pirimetamin, yang merupakan antagonis asam folat, diberikan sebagai dosis
pemuatan 75 hingga 100 mg selama 1 hingga 2 hari, diikuti oleh 25 hingga 50 mg setiap hari
selama empat minggu. Ini dikombinasikan dengan asam folinat oral 5 mg tiga kali seminggu
untuk mencegah defisiensi folat. Sulfadiazin 1 g empat kali sehari selama 3 hingga 4 minggu
biasanya dalam kombinasi dengan pirimetamin. Steroid sistemik biasanya dimulai 72 jam
setelah mulai terapi antimikroba.
Dalam kasus alergi terhadap sulfonamid, klindamisin 300 mg empat kali sehari atau
azitromisin 250 hingga 500 mg / hari adalah pilihan terapi. Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim
800 mg / 160 mg adalah kombinasi lain yang diberikan. Atovaquone 750 mg empat kali
sehari dapat dipakai selama 4 hingga 6 minggu. Spiramycin 2 g / hari adalah antiparasit
teraman dalam kehamilan.
Steroid sistemik berfungsi sebagai terapi andalan pada uveitis posterior non-
infektif. Prednisolon oral adalah steroid yang paling umum diberikan dengan dosis 1 hingga
1,5 mg / kg berat badan. Lesi yang mengancam penglihatan, seperti yang memiliki kepala
saraf optik atau keterlibatan makula / foveal, akan membutuhkan pemberian metilprednisolon
intravena 1 g setiap hari selama tiga hari berturut-turut harus diberikan, diikuti oleh
prednisolon oral dalam dosis peruncing.
Agen imunomodulator hemat steroid berguna dalam kasus resisten steroid atau kasus
komplikasi akibat penggunaan steroid jangka panjang. Siklosporin sistemik, azatioprin,
mikofenolat mofetil, metotreksat dapat diberikan. Imunomodulator seperti tumor necrosis
factor-alpha inhibitor seperti adalimumab atau infliximab juga menjadi pilihan ketika agen
lini pertama gagal. [53]
Pengobatan komplikasi seperti membran neovaskular koroid termasuk agen anti-VEGF
seperti bevacizumab, ranibizumab, kortikosteroid lokal dan sistemik, terapi
fotodinamik. Perawatan bedah seperti pars plana vitrectomy, cryotherapy, laser
photocoagulation adalah untuk perawatan komplikasi. [54]
Perbedaan diagnosa
Presentasi klinis dari berbagai entitas klinis yang menyebabkan uveitis posterior dapat tumpang
tindih. Kadang-kadang lesi degenerasi makula terkait usia, retinopati serosa sentral bocor multipel,
skleritis posterior, keganasan intraokular dapat dikacaukan dengan lesi uveitis posterior. Lesi
chorioretinitis infektif dapat dibedakan dari sindrom titik putih dengan penampilan fundus mereka,
dan ICGA dan FFA memberikan bukti konklusif dalam banyak kasus. Pada bayi baru lahir dengan
infeksi bawaan, tidak termasuk TORCHeS. Infeksi bawaan yang kurang umum lainnya yang
mensimulasikan toksoplasmosis termasuk demam virus West Nile, limfositik koriomeningitis akut,
dan, yang lebih baru, virus Zika , yang terakhir khususnya dalam pengaturan mikrosefali. Tumor
seperti retinoblastoma dan anomali kongenital retina atau koroid seperti retinochoroidal coloboma dan
vitreous hiperplastik persisten juga menjadi pertimbangan dalam diagnosis banding pada anak-
anak .
Komplikasi
Uveitis dapat menyebabkan kehilangan penglihatan dan kebutaan karena berbagai penyebab,
termasuk komplikasi sekunder seperti katarak, glaukoma sekunder, neovaskularisasi koroid cystoid
edema makula, neuropati optik, pelepasan retina, oklusi pembuluh darah retina, perdarahan, dan
phthisis. [57] [58] Cystoid macular edema (CME) adalah komplikasi paling umum pada uveitis
posterior tidak menular.
CME sering terjadi pada chorioretinitis pada burung, sarkoidosis, dan uveitis lainnya, yang
menyebabkan peradangan vitreous yang luas. Neovaskularisasi koroid (CNV) lebih terlihat dengan
keterlibatan koroid dan gangguan pada membran Bruch. Penyebab CNV termasuk dugaan sindrom
histoplasmosis okular, koroiditis multifokal dan panuveitis, koroiditis serpiginosa, dan koroidopati
punctate dalam.
Referensi