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UNIT III

MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

Mobile IP – DHCP – AdHoc– Proactive protocol-DSDV, Reactive

Routing Protocols – DSR, AODV , Hybrid routing –ZRP, Multicast
Routing- ODMRP, Vehicular Ad Hoc networks ( VANET) – MANET
Vs VANET – Security.

3.1 MOBILE IP
 Mobile IP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
standard communications protocol that enhances the existing
IP to accommodate mobility.
 Mobile IP allows mobile computers to stay connected to the
internet regardless of their location & without having to
continually change their IP address.
 Every mobile user needs continuous network connectivity
irrespective of his physical location. The traditional IP does not
support user mobility.
 Mobile IP was created by extending IP to enable users to keep
the same IP address while travelling to different networks.
 Advantages of using Mobile IP :
 It allows fast, continuous low‐cost access to corporate
networks in remote areas where there is no public telephone
system or cellular coverage.
 It supports a wide range of applications from Internet access
and e‐mail to e‐commerce.
 Users can be permanently connected to their Internet
provider and charged only for the data packets that are sent
and received
 It can move from one type of medium to another without losing
connectivity
 Disadvantage of Mobile IP:
 Routing inefficiency problem caused by the “triangle routing”
formed by the home agent, correspondent host, and the
foreign agent.

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 Security risks are the most important problem facing Mobile

IP.
 Problem in making Mobile IP coexist with the security features
within the Internet.

3.1.1 GOALS, ASSUMPTIONS & REQUIREMENTS

 Goal of a mobile IP: Supporting end-system mobility while
maintaining scalability, efficiency, and compatibility in all
respects with existing applications and Internet protocols.
 Requirements of Mobile IP:
 Compatibility: A new standard cannot require changes for
applications or network protocols already in use.
 Transparency: Mobility should remain “invisible” for many
higher layer protocols and applications.
 Scalability and efficiency: Introducing a new mechanism
into the Internet must not degrade the efficiency of the
network.
 Security: All messages used to transmit information to
another node about the location of a mobile node must be
authenticated to protect against remote redirection attacks

3.1.2 MOBILE IP - ENTITIES AND TERMINOLOGIES

 Mobile Node (MN):
 Device that moves from home network to Foreign network
 Node that can change the point of connection to the network
without changing its IP address.
 Example: laptops with antennas or mobile phones
 Home Address:
Permanent address of the MN in its original network i.e., IP
address of MN
 Home Network
Original network the MN was associated with respect to its IP
address before moving to new network. No mobile IP support is
needed within the home network.

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 Home Agent (HA)

 System in the home network of the MN, typically a router.
 Provides several services for the MN :
 Tunnels IP datagrams to the COA.
 Maintains a location registry of MA
 Implementation of an HA:
 Implemented on a router that is responsible for the
home network.
 Implemented on an arbitrary node in the subnet.
Disadvantage: "Double crossing of the router" - A packet for
the MN comes in via the router; the HA sends it through the
tunnel which again crosses the router.
 The HA could be again on the ‘router’ but this time only
acting as a manager for MNs belonging to a virtual home
network.
 Foreign Agent (FA)
 System in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a
router.
 It can have COA
 Provides several services to MN during its visit to the foreign
network:
 Forwards the tunnel datagrams to the MA.
 Provides security services
 Foreign Network
A new network that MN visits and which is not the home
network
 Correspondent Node (CN)
 Communication partner i.e., Node that wants to
communicate with MN
 At least one partner is needed for communication.
 It can be a fixed or mobile node.

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 Care-of Address (COA)

 A new address of MN in the foreign network.
 Two different possibilities for the location of the COA (Types
of COA):
(i) Foreign Agent COA - The static IP address of a foreign
agent(FA) on a visited network
(ii) Co-located COA - Temporary IP address assigned to
the MN.
 Represents the current position of the MN on the Foreign
network & can be used by only one MN at a time.
 A co-located care-of address can be obtained by Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
3.1.3 IP PACKET DELIVERY
(HOW MOBILE IP WORKS?)

Steps used in the operation of mobile IP:

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 STEP 1: CN sends the Packet to the IP address(home address)

of the MN
 STEP 2:
 Internet Routes the Packet to the router of the MN’s home
network.
 The HA examines the packet to find whether the MN is
present in its current home network or not.
 If the MN is not present, then the HA encapsulates that
datagram in a new packet.
 STEP 3:
 The encapsulated packet is tunneled to the FA, which act as
the new destination address.
 Then FA performs decapsulation to remove the additional
header
 Then forwards the decapsulated packet to the MN.
 STEP 4: MN after receiving the packet from CN forwards a
reply packet to the CN by specifying its own IP address along
with the address of the CN.
3.1.4. KEY MECHANISMS IN MOBILE IP
(MOBILE IP OPERATION STAGES)
a) Agent Discovery
b) Registration
c) Tunneling & Encapsulation

3.1.4.1 AGENT DISCOVERY

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A MN uses a discovery procedure to identify prospective home

and foreign agents.
 Task of MN to determine its FA & HA:
i) Both HA & FA periodically broadcast Agent Advertisement
message.
ii) A MN must discover a HA before it leaves to a home network.
iii) A MN must also discover a FA after it moved to a foreign
network
 Uses ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP).
ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP) - Enables host to
broadcast or multicast to discover the IP address (i.e., COA)
of their neighbouring routers (i.e., FA)
 Agent Discovery methods:
(i) Agent Advertisement
(ii) Agent Solicitation.
a) Agent advertisement
Functions:
1. It allows the MN to find whether an agent is its HA or a FA.
2. If it is FA then get the COA.
3. It allows the MN to know the type of services provided by the FA.
4. It allows the MN to know about the allowed registration lifetime
or roaming period for visiting foreign network.

NOTE: Upper part represent ICMP while lower part represent

extension needed for mobility.

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b) Agent solicitation:
 Rather than waiting for agent advertisements a MN can sen out
an agent solicitation.
 This solicitation forces any agents on the link to immediately
send an agent advertisement.
 If MN determines that it is connected to a foreign network, then
it obtains a COA.
 Types of COA:
(i) Foreign Agent COA - The static IP address of a foreign agent
(FA) on a visited network
(ii) Co-located COA - Temporary IP address assigned to the
MN.
 Represents the current position of the MN on the Foreign
network & can be used by only one MN at a time.
 A co-located care-of address can be obtained by Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
 Steps:
1. MA (HA, FA) broadcast agent advertisement message at regular
intervals.
2. The MN receiving the agent advertisement message observes
whether the message is from its own HA & determine whether
it is on the home network or on the foreign network.
3. If the MN does not wish to wait for the periodic advertisement,
it can send out agent solicitation message that will be
responded to by a MA.
After these steps of advertisements or solicitations the MN can
now receive a COA, either one for an FA or a co-located COA. The
MN knows its location (home network or foreign network) and
the capabilities of the agent.
The next step for the MN is the registration with the HA if the
MN is in a foreign network

3.1.4.2 REGISTRATION
 If the MN discovers that it is on the home network, then it
operates normally without Mobile IP
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 If the MN has moved to a new network & obtain the COA from
a FA, then this address should be registered with the HA.
 Registration – A MN uses an authenticated registration
procedure to inform the HA of its COA.
 Registration messages uses UDP Protocol.
 Registration can be done in two different ways:
(i) Registration of the MN through FA

If the COA is at the FA;

 MN sends its registration request containing the COA to the
FA which then forward the request to the HA.
 Now HA will do the mobility binding containing the mobile
node’s home IP address and the current COA.
 Then finally the HA Acknowledges via FA to MN.
ii) Directly with HA

If the COA is co-located;

 MN sends the request directly to the HA and vice versa.
 Also, a registration procedure for MNs returning to their home
network.
REGISTRATION PROCESS:

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 The registration process involves the exchange of registration

requests and registration reply messages.
 When the mobile node registers by using a foreign agent, the
registration process takes the following steps, which is shown
in the figure.

1. If MN travels to foreign network, it registers with the FA by

sending a registration request message, which includes
permanent IP address of the MN & IP address of HA.
2. The FA in turn performs the registration process on behalf of
the MN by sending the registration request message to HA,
which includes permanent IP address of the MN & IP address
of FA(i.e., COA)
3. When the HA receives the registration request, it updates the
“mobility Binding Table”.
4. Then HA sends an acknowledgement (registration reply) to the
FA.
5-6. The FA in turn updates its “Visitor list” & relays the reply to
the MN.

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Mobility Binding Table:

 Maintained on HA of MN.

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 Maps MN’s home address with its current COA

Visitor List:
 Maintained on FA.
 Maps MN’s home address with its MAC address (address of
NIC) & HA’s address.

3.1.4.3 TUNNELLING AND ENCAPSULATION

 Tunneling (data transfer) – Mechanism used to forward IP
datagrams from a home address to a care-of address i.e.,
sending a packet through a tunnel
 A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between a
tunnel entry and a tunnel endpoint.
 Two primary functions:
 Encapsulations – Mechanism of taking a packet consisting of
packet header and data and putting it into the data part of a
new packet.
HA encapsulates all the packets addressed to MN & forward
them to FA.
 Decapsulation - The reverse operation, taking a packet out of
the data part of another packet
FA dencapsulates all the packets addressed to MN & forward
them.

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Fig. IP encapsulation

Steps in Encapsulation:
1. When a HA receives a packet addressed to a MN, it forwards
the packet to the COA using IP -within -IP encapsulation
2. Using IP -within -IP , the HA inserts a new IP header in front
of the IP header of any datagram.
3. Destination address is set to the COA.
4. Source address is set to the HA’s address.
5. After stripping out the 1st header, IP processes the packet
again.
There are different ways of performing the encapsulation. They
are:
1. IP-in-IP Encapsulation
2. Minimal Encapsulation
3. Generic Routing Encapsulation
(1) IP-in-IP Encapsulation:
 This is the mandatory method for Mobile IP.

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 Full IP header added to the original IP packet.

 The inner IP header source and destination address identify the
original sender and the receiver.
 The new(outer) header contains HA address as source & COA
as destination.

(2) Minimal Encapsulation :

 It is an optional method for mobile IP
 In IP-in-IP several fields are redundant.
 Minimal Encapsulation will remove these redundancy.

(3) Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) :

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 Minimal Encapsulation & IP-in-IP only works for IP while GRE

also supports other network layer protocols.
 Allows the encapsulation of packets of one protocol suite into
the payload portion of a packet of another protocol suite.
 The packet of one protocol suite with the original packet
header and data is taken and a new GRE header is prepended.
 Together this forms the new data part of the new packet.
 Finally, the header of the second protocol suite is put in front.
 The outer header is the standard IP header with HA as source
address and COA as destination address.

 key – used for authentication.

 K bit - if set indicates if authentication key is present.
 S bit - if set indicates if the Sequence number field is present.

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 rec – recursion control field. This field represents a counter

that
shows the number of allowed recursive encapsulations.
 rsv – reserved for future use. Must be zero.
 ver = 0 for GRE version.
 Lay 4 protocol specifies the protocol of the packet following
the GRE header.

3.1.5 OPTIMIZATIONS (ROUTE OPTIMIZATION)

 One of the problem with the mobile IP - "Triangular Routing"
 Triangular Routing:
 An inefficient behavior of a non- optimized
mobile IP
 The triangle is made of the three
segments,
 CN to HA
 HA to COA/MN
 MN back to CN.
 Involves two IP routes - Causes unnecessary network traffic
overhead & higher latency
 To optimize the route ;
 Enable direct notification of the CN.HA informs a sender
about the location of MN
 Direct Tunnelling from the CN to MN.
 Binding cache maintained at the CN. Binding cache which
is a part of the local routing table for the CN
 The optimized mobile IP protocol needs four additional
messages:
1. Binding request:
 Any node that wants to know the current location of an MN can
send a binding request to the HA.
 The HA can check if the MN has allowed broadcasting of its
current location.

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 If the HA is allowed to reveal the location it sends back a

binding update.
2. Binding update:
 This message sent by the HA to CNs reveals the current
location of an MN.
 The message contains the fixed IP address of the MN and the
COA.
 The binding update can request an acknowledgement.
3. Binding acknowledgement: If requested, a node returns this
acknowledgement after receiving a binding update message.
4. Binding warning: If a node decapsulates a packet for an MN,
but it is not the current FA for this MN, this node sends a
binding warning to the HA of the MN.

Reverse tunneling is a tunneling from mobile host to home

agent, and makes it possible for the mobile host from foreign
network to communication in the network
3.2 DHCP - DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL

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 DHCP is used to merge the world of mobile phones with the

internet and to support mobility.
 Automatically assigns a unique IP address to each device that
connects to a network.
 Used to simplify the installation and maintenance of networked
computers.
 If a new computer is connected to a network, DHCP can
provide it with all the necessary information for full system
integration into the network, e.g., addresses of a DNS
server and the default router, the subnet mask, the
domain name, and an IP address.
 DHCP is based on a client/server model.

Fig. Basic DHCP Configuration

1. DHCP clients send a request to a server (DHCPDISCOVER)
to which the server responds.
2. A client sends requests using MAC broadcasts to reach all
devices in the LAN.
3. A DHCP relay might be needed to forward requests across
inter-working units to a DHCP server.

Fig. Client initialization via DHCP

 The above figure shows one client and two servers.
1. The client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER into the subnet.
2. Two servers receive this broadcast and find the configuration
they can offer to the client.

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3. Servers reply to the client’s request with DHCPOFFER and

offer a list of configuration parameters.
4. Then the client can choose one of the configurations offered.
5. Then the client in turn replies to the servers, accepting one of
the configurations and rejecting the others using DHCP
REQUEST.
6. If a server receives a DHCP REQUEST with a rejection, it can
free the reserved configuration for other possible clients.
7. The server with the configuration accepted by the client now
confirms the configuration with DHCP ACK. This completes
the initialization phase.
8. If a client leaves a subnet, it should release the configuration
received by the server using DHCP RELEASE.
9. The configuration a client gets from a server is only leased for
a certain amount of time, it has to be reconfirmed from time to
time.

3.3.1 MOBILE AD-HOC (MANET)

 Types of wireless network:

 Infrastructured:
 The MN can move while communicating
 The BSs are fixed
 As the node goes out of the range of a BS, it gets into the
range of another BS.

 Infrastructureless or Mobile ad-hoc (MANET):

 The MN can move while communicating
 There are no fixed BSs.
 All the nodes in the network need to act as routers.

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 Used to simplify the installation and maintenance of

networked computers.
 MANET are formed dynamically by an autonomous system
of mobile nodes that are connected via wireless links.
 No existing fixed infrastructure or centralized
administration
 Mobile nodes are free to move randomly i.e., network
topology changes frequently.
 Each node work as a router.

3.3.2 FEATURES OF MANET

 MANET can be formed without any pre-existing infrastructure.

 It follows dynamic topology where nodes may join and leave the network
at any time and the multi-hop routing may keep changing as nodes join
and depart from the network.
 It does have very limited physical security, and thus increasing security
is a major concern.
 Every node in the MANET can assist in routing of packets in the network.
 Limited Bandwidth & Limited Power

3.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MANET

1. Lack of fixed infrastructure

– bring new n/w designing challenges.

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– Pair of nodes can either communicate directly when they are in within the
range or can communicate via multi-hop communication.
2. Dynamic topologies :
– n/w topology can change unpredictably because of the mobility of devices
in MANET
– Rate of topology change depends on the speed of mobile movement
3. Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity link:
– Wireless link have lower capacity compare to wired link
– Factors affecting Bandwidth: Noise, Interference…….
4. Energy constrained operation:
– Nodes depends on battery power
– Small battery – limited amount of energy
– Need more energy during Routing
– “Energy Conservation” – important objective of MANET routing protocol
5. Increased vulnerability:
– New type of security threats
– Increased the possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, DOS attacks.
– Difficult to identify the attacker because:
• Devices keeps on moving
• Do not have global Identifier

3.3.4 CHALLENGES / CONSTRAINTS / DESIGN ISSUES OF MANET

1) Limited bandwidth:
Limited bandwidth because of the effect of multiple access, fading, noise,
and interference conditions, etc.,
2) Dynamic topology:

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Dynamic topology membership may disturb the trust relationship

among node.
3) Routing Overhead:
Unnecessary routing overhead since nodes often change their location
within network.
4) Hidden terminal problem:
The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a
receiving node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that
are not within the direct transmission range of the sender, but are within
the transmission range of the receiver.

5) Packet losses due to transmission errors:

Much higher packet loss due to factors such as increased collisions due
to the presence of hidden terminals, presence of interference, uni-
directional links, frequent path breaks due to mobility of nodes.

6) Mobility-induced route changes:

The network topology in an ad hoc wireless network is highly dynamic
due to the movement of nodes; hence an on-going session suffers
frequent path breaks. This situation often leads to frequent route
changes.

7) Battery constraints:
Devices used in these networks have restrictions on the power source in
order to maintain portability, size and weight of the device.

8) Security threats:
Brings new security challenges to the network design. As the wireless
medium is vulnerable to eavesdropping.

3.3.5. APPLICATIONS OF MANET

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3.3.6 AD-HOC MOBILE ROUTING PROTOCOLS

 Routing is a process of finding an efficient, reliable and secure path from

a source node to a destination node via intermediate nodes in a network.
 Efficiency of the path is measured in various metrics like, Number of
hops, traffic, security, etc.

3.3.6.1 TRADITIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOLS

• Not suitable for MANET.

• Popularly used in packet switching n/w

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– LSP (Link State Protocol)

– DVP (Distance Vector Protocol)
Both of these needs to find the next hop along the shortest path towards the
destination

 LINK STATE ROUTING

 Link – connection of one router to its neighboring router

 Each router maintains;

 LSPDB (Link State DataBase) - Router store its local connectivity

information & flood this through “Link state advertisement”
 Routing Table

 Content of (LSP) Link Sate Packet or (LSA) Link State Advertisement:

 Identity of the router originating the message

 Identities of all its neighbors
 Delay along various link to its neighbors
 Unique seq.no, which is formed by increasing the count every time the
router forms a new link state advertisement.

 Procedure:

1. Exchange of HELLO messages to find the neighbors.

2. Compute the cost between the neighbors
3. Build up LSP.
4. Flooding LSP – Broadcast the LSP
5. Compute the new path using Dijkstra’s algorithm

 Exchange of HELLO messages - to learn its direct neighbors

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 Flooding LSP – for example Router E sends its LSP on all its links and
routers D, B and C insert the LSP in their LSDB and forward it over their
other links.

 Link state databases received by all routers- By combining the received

LSPs with its own LSP, each router can compute the entire network
topology.

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 Each router computes the spanning tree by using Dijkstra’s shortest path
algorithm

2. DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (DV) Protocols

• Manipulates vectors (distance, direction) of distances to other nodes in the
network.
• Distance – no. of hops b/w 2 nodes
• Direction – Next hop router to which the packet is forwarded
• Other name: Distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm or RIP(Routing
Information Protocol)

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• Each router maintain routing table.

• All available destination (Dest)
• Next node to reach to destination (Next)
• No. of hops to reach the destination (Metrics)
1. Periodically advertises its routing table to its neighbors
2. Neighbors updates its own routing table by examining the received
information, which in inform its neighbors.
3. Computes shortest path to each host based on the information advertised
by its neighbours.

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3.3.6.2 PROACTIVE PROTOCOLS (Table-driven routing protocol)

 Maintain the global topology information in the form of tables at every node.

 These tables are updated frequently in order to maintain consistent and

accurate network state information.

 EX: DSDV, WRP, and STAR.

DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR ROUTING (DSDV)

 Based on Proactive method

 Enhanced version of the distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm or Distance

Vector(DV) Routing Protocol

 DSDV adds two things to the distance vector algorithm

 Sequence Number:
 Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence number.
 Within ad-hoc networks, advertisements may propagate along many
paths.
 Sequence numbers help to apply the advertisements in correct order.
 This avoid the loops in the network.
 Damping:
 Transient changes in topology that are of short duration should not
weaken the routing mechanisms.
 Unstable changes in the topology are not forwarded

Example Ad-hoc network

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 For each node N1 maintain a table that contain;

 The next hop toward this node
 The metric (number of hops)
 The sequence number
 The time at which the path has been installed first.
 Important steps in the operation of DSDV:
1. Each router(node) in the network collects route information from its
neighbours.
2. After gathering information, the node determines the shortest path to the
destination based on the gathered information.
3. Based on the gathered information, a new routing table is generated.
4. The router broadcasts this table to its neighbours. On receipt by
neighbours, the neighbour nodes recompute their respective routing
tables.
5. This process continues till the routing information becomes stable.
 Advantages
 Simple
 Loop free through destination seq. numbers
 No latency caused by route discovery
 Disadvantages
 No sleeping nodes
 Overhead: most routing information never used
3.3.6.3 REACTIVE PROTOCOLS (On-demand routing protocol)

 They execute the path-finding process and exchange routing information

only when a path is required by a node to communicate with a destination.

 i.e., a route is discovered only when it is necessary.

 Source initiates route discovery

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 2 step process

 Route Discovery

 Route Maintenance

 Route discovery is expensive

 Example: Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Ad hoc On-demand Distance

Vector (AODV)

(a) DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING PROTOCOL (DSR)

 DSR is a source initiated on-demand(or reactive) routing protocol for ad-hoc

network

 Designed to restrict the bandwidth consumed by packets by eliminating the

periodic table-update messages i.e., the nodes do not need to exchange the
routing information periodically, which helps to reduce the bandwidth
overhead.

 Each mobile node participating in the protocol maintains a “routing cache”

which contains the list of all routes that the node has learnt

 DSR works in 2 phases:

(a) Route Discovery:

 Allows any host to dynamically discover the route to any destination in
the ad-hoc network.
 Route Discovery Process takes place by :
1. Broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbours.
 The Route request (RREQ) packet contains the
i) Source address
ii) Request id
iii) Route Record, in which the sequence of hops traversed by the
request packet before reaching the destination is recorded.
2. A node after receiving RREQ
2.i. If the node is an intermediate node then
 If the message has the same ID i.e. has seen it before, then the node
discards this message,
 If not, the node appends its own address to the route record in the
ROUTE REQUEST message then propagates the message to the next
hop neighbours.

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2.ii. If the node is the Target (Destination) then

 Returns a Route Reply (RREP) message to the sender
 Copies the accumulated route record from RREQ into RREP

Fig. Broadcasting the RREQ packets

Fig. Propagation of RREP packets back to source

(b) Route Maintenance:
 A known route can get broken due to the movement of some node or the
battery of a node getting exhaused.
 Route maintenance : The process of monitoring the correct operation of
a route in use & taking corrective action when needed.
 Steps:
1. When a node detects that one of its next hop neighbour node is not
responding, it sends back a route error(RERR) packet containing its
own address and the address of the hop that is not working
2. As Soon as source node receives the RERR message it deletes the
broken link route from its cache.
3. If it has another route to the destination, it starts to retransmit the
packet using the alternative route.
4. Otherwise it initiates the route discovery process again.
The basic message set consists of:
o RREQ – Route request

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o RREP – Route reply

o RERR – Route error
o HELLO – For link status monitoring
 Advantages:
 A perfect route is discovered always.
 Highly efficient.
 Low bandwidth Consumption.
 Drawback:
 Packet header size (Non Uniform Packet Size) grows when intermediate
node increases.
 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network
(b) AD HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (AODV)

 Based on Reactive method

 DSR vs AODV:
 Major problem of DSR is its non-uniform packet size because it includes
source routes in its packet header which degrades the performance. If a
packet is large, it has to be split into smaller packets.
 The packet size in AODV is uniform unlike DSR.
 AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing tables at the
nodes, so that data packets do not have to contain routes.
 AODV holds the desirable feature of DSR that routes are maintained only
between nodes which need to communicate.
 Route is established only when it is required by a source node for
transmitting data packets
 Make use of hop-by-hop routing, sequence numbers and beacons.
 Steps:
1. The node that needs a route to a specific destination generates a route
request(RREQ).
2. The route request(RREQ) is forwarded by intermediate nodes which also
learn a reverse route from the source to themselves.
3. When the request reaches a node with route to destination, it generates a
route reply(RREP) containing the number of hops required to reach the
destination.
4. All nodes that participate in forwarding this reply to the source node
create a forward route to destination.
5. This route created from each node from source to destination is a hop-
by-hop route.

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 Example: Suppose Node S needs a routing path to Node D

1. Node S creates a RREQ packet & broadcasts to its neighbours.

RREQ [D's IP addr, Seq#, S's IP addr, hopcount]

2. Node A rebroadcasts RREQ to all its neighbours.

3. Since, Node C known a route to Node D

 Node C creates a RREP & unicasts RREP to A.
 Set forward path in C's routing table.

4. Node A creates a RREP & unicasts RREP to S

5. Set forward path in A's routing table

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6. Set forward path in S's routing table

Difference between DSR, DSDV & AODV

Property DSR DSDV AODV

Loop Free Yes Yes Yes
Multicast Routes Yes No No
Unidirectional Link Yes No No
Periodic Broadcast No Yes Yes
Routes maintained Route Cache Route Table Route Table
Reactive Yes No Yes

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3.3.6.4 HYBRID PROTOCOLS

 Combines the best features of both proactive & reactive routing protocols.

 Eg: ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)

ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)

 It is Hybrid Protocol
 Based on the concept of zones.

 A routing zone is defined for each node separately and zones of

neighbouring nodes overlap.

 The routing zone has a radius expressed in hops. i.e., Zone radius: Number
of hops

 Key concept in ZRP to:

 Use a proactive routing scheme within a limited zone

 Use a reactive routing scheme for nodes beyond this zone.

 Routing is divided into two parts:

o Intrazone routing: 1st the packet is sent within the routing zone of
the source node to reach the peripheral nodes

o Interzone routing: The packet is sent from the peripheral nodes

towards the destination node

 In the diagram the routing zone of S includes the nodes A-I, but not K.
 The nodes are divided into peripheral nodes and interior nodes.
 Peripheral nodes: Nodes whose minimum distance is less than the radius.

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 Interior nodes - Nodes A-F

 Peripheral nodes - Nodes G-J
 Node K is outside the routing zone
 Within the zone table driven is used
 Outside the zone On demand Route Discovery is used
 Procedure:
1. The source sends a Route Request packet (RREQ) to the border nodes of its
zone, containing its own address, destination address and the unique
sequence no.
2. Each border nodes checks its local zone for the destination.
3. If the destination is not a member of local zone, then the border node adds
its own address to the route request packet and forwards the packet to its
own border nodes.
4. When the destination node is reached in this process, a route reply (RREP)
is sent on the reverse path back to the source.
5. The source saves the path which is mentioned in Route Reply to send data
packets to the destination
3.3.7 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL
 Multicast is the delivery of a message to a group of destination nodes in a
single transmission.
 Multicast Protocols are
Tree based Protocol and Mesh based Protocol
a) Tree based Protocol
 This establishes a single path between any two nodes in the multicast
group.
 Example: AMRoute, AMRIS
 The tree consists of root node(r), three intermediate nodes (p,s,t) and seven
group members.
 For node u, the packet transmission is relayed through two tree links, that
is, from r to q and then q to u.
o To maintain the tree structure even when nodes move, group members
periodically send Join Request message.

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b) Mesh Based Protocol

o This establishes a multiple path between source - receiver pair.
o Example: ODMRP, CAMP
o Tree based protocols, may not perform well in the presence of highly mobile
nodes because multicast tree structure is fragile and needs to be frequently
readjusted.
o Each node in a mesh can have multiple parents.
o Multiple links exist and other links are immediately available when the
primary link is broken due to node mobility. This avoids frequent
reconfigurations.
o Sending a Packet from R to U involves three transmissions(R,Q,U) &
fourteen receives(5 neighbours of R,6 neighbours of Q and 3 neighbours of
U).
o For eg, the transmission from node Q is received not only by U but also be
neighbour nodes R,S,T,W and X; the redundant link from Q to W may be
useful when the path from P to W is broken

o Drawback of this scheme is that multiple copies of the same packet are
forwarded through the mesh.

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ON-DEMAND MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL (ODMRP)

 Provides richer connectivity among multicast members using a mesh based

approach.
 Supplies multiple route for one particular destination.
 Helps in case of topology changes & node failures.
 Use the concept of Forwarding Group - A subset of nodes forwards multicast
packets.
 Operation of ODMRP:
1. A sender node wishing to send multicast packets periodically floods a JOIN
REQUEST to entire network.
2. A Node receiving a non-duplicate JOIN REQUEST, stores the upstream node
ID (i.e. backward learning) into routing table & rebroadcasts the packet.

3. A multicast receiver getting the JOIN REQUEST creates or updates the source
entry in its member table.
4. As long as valid entries in receiver's member table, JOIN TABLE are
broadcasted periodically.

5. An intermediate node, receiving the JOINT TABLE, compares it's Node ID with
the entries of that table.

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6. If there's a match, it is a member of the forwarding group. Then it sets FG-

FLAG & broadcasts its JOIN TABLE.
7. This process is going to create a mesh between all forwarding group
members.
8. JOIN TABLE is propagated by each forwarding Group member until it reaches
source via a shortest path.
9. Routes from source to receivers builds a mesh of nodes called "Forwarding
Group"

3.4 TYPES OF MANET

 VANET - VEHICULAR AD HOC NETWORKS: Used for communication between
vehicles and roadside equipment.
 SPANET - SMART PHONE AD HOC NETWORKS : Used to create peer-to-peer
networks without relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points,
or traditional network infrastructure.
 i MANET - INTERNET BASED MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS : Used to link
mobile nodes and fixed Internet-gateway nodes.
 Military / Tactical MANET : Used by military units with emphasis on security,
range, and integration with existing systems.
3.4.1 VANET: VEHICULAR AD - HOC NETWORK
The Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network, or VANET, is a technology that uses moves
cars as nodes in a network to create a mobile network.

Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) are created by applying the principles

of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) - the spontaneous creation of a wireless
network for data exchange - to the domain of vehicles. They are a key
component of intelligent transportation systems (ITS).

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The term VANET became mostly synonymous with the more generic
term inter-vehicle communication (IVC).

VANET is an application of mobile ad hoc network. More precisely a VANET

is self-organised network that can be formed by connecting vehicle aiming to
improve driving safety and traffic management with internet access by drivers
and programmers.

WORKING OF VANET

VANET turns every participating car into a wireless router or node, allowing
cars approximately 100 to 300 meters of each other to connect and, in turn,
create a network with a wide range.

As cars fall out of the signal range and drop out of the network, other cars can
join in, connecting vehicles to one another so that a mobile Internet is created.

It is estimated that the first systems that will integrate this technology are police
and fire vehicles to communicate with each other for safety purposes.

COMMUNICATION IN VANET

Two types of communication are provided in the VANET.

 First a pure wireless ad hoc network where vehicle to vehicle without
any support of infrastructure.
 Second is communication between the road side units (RSU), a fixed
infrastructure, and vehicle.

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ARCHITECTURE OF VANET

Each node in VANET is equipped with two types of unit i.e. On Board
Unit(OBU) and Application Unit (AU). OBU has the communicational
capability whereas AU executes the program making OBU‘s communicational
capabilities. An RSU can be attached to the infrastructure network which is
connected to the Internet.

TECHNOLOGY USED IN VANET

 To establish a VANET, IEEE has defined the standard 802.11p or 802.16

(WiMax). A Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) is proposed
which is operating on 5.9GHz band and uses 802.11 access methods.
 It is standardized as 802.11p which provides short range communication
with low latency.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VANET

 High Mobility: The nodes in VANETs usually are moving at high speed.
This makes harder to predict a node’s position and making protection of
node privacy

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 Rapidly changing network topology: Due to high node mobility and

random speed of vehicles, the position of node changes frequently. As a
result of this, network topology in VANETs tends to change frequently.

 Unbounded network size: VANET can be implemented for one city,

several cities or for countries. This means that network size in VANET is
geographically unbounded.

 Frequent exchange of information: The ad hoc nature of VANET

motivates the nodes to gather information from the other vehicles and
road side units. Hence the information exchange among node becomes
frequent.

 Wireless Communication: VANET is designed for the wireless

environment. Nodes are connected and exchange their information via
wireless. Therefore some security measure must be considered in
communication.

 Time Critical: The information in VANET must be delivered to the nodes

with in time limit so that a decision can be made by the node and perform
action accordingly.

APPLICATIONS OF VANET

Safety Related Application:

These applications are used to increase the safety on the roads. These
applications can be further categorised in following way.

 Collision Avoidance: If a driver gets a warning message on time then the

collision can be avoided.

 Cooperative Driving: Drivers can get traffic related warning signals & these
signals can co-operate the driver for an uninterrupted and safe driving.

 Traffic optimization: Traffic can optimized by the use of sending signals

like jam, accidents etc. to the vehicles so that they can choose their alternate
path and can save time.

User Based Application:

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These applications provide the user infotainment. A VANET can be utilised to

provide following services for the user apart from safety:

 Peer to peer application: These application are useful to provide services

like sharing music, movies etc. among the vehicles in the network.

 Internet Connectivity: People always want to connect with the Internet all
the time. Hence VANET provides the constant connectivity of the Internet
to the users.

 Other services: VANET can be utilised in other user based application such
as payment service to collect the tall taxes, to locate the fuel station,
restaurant etc.

CHALLENGING ISSUES IN VANET

 Network Management: Due to high mobility, the network topology and

channel condition change rapidly.

 Congestion and Collision Control: The unbounded network size also

creates a challenge. The traffic load is low in rural areas and night in even
urban areas. In rush hours the traffic load is very high and hence network is
congested and collision occurs in the network.

 Environmental Impact: VANETs use the electromagnetic waves for

communication. These waves are affected by the environment.

 MAC Design: VANET generally use the shared medium to communicate

hence the MAC design is the key issue.

 Security: As VANET provides the road safety applications which are life
critical therefore security of these messages must be satisfied

SECURITY ISSUES IN VANET

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 Lack of physical boundary: Each mobile node functions as a router &

forwards packets from other nodes. AS a result, network boundaries become
blurred. So it is difficult to deploy firewalls or monitor the incoming traffic.

 Low power RF transmission: It if possible for a malicious node having high

power RF transmission capability to continuously transmit & monopolise
the medium & cause its neighbouring nodes or the entire targeted MANET
to wait endlessly for transmitting their messages. Also signal jamming can
lead to denial-of-service(DOS) attack.

 Limited computational capabilities: Nodes in an ad hoc network usually

have limited computational capabilities. It therefore becomes difficult to
deploy compute-intensive security solutions such as setting up a public-key
cryptosystem. Inability to encrypt messages invites a host of security attacks
such as spoofing as well as several other forms of routing attacks.

 Limited power supply: Since nodes normally rely on battery power, an

attacker might attempt to exhaust batteries by causing unnecessary
transmissions to take place at the targeted node or might cause excessive
computations to be carried out by the targeted nodes.

 Real time Constraint: VANET is time critical where safety related message
should be delivered with 100ms transmission delay. So to achieve real time
constraint, fast cryptographic algorithm should be used. Message and entity
authentication must be done in time.

 Data Consistency Liability: In VANET even authenticate node can perform

malicious activities that can cause accidents or disturb the network. Hence a
mechanism should be designed to avoid this inconsistency. Correlation
among the received data from different node on particular information may
avoid this type of inconsistency.

 Low tolerance for error: Some protocols are designed on the basis of
probability. VANET uses life critical information on which action is
performed in very short time. A small error in probabilistic algorithm may
cause harm.

MANET Vs VANET

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MANET VANET
Collection of mobile nodes that Nodes(vehicles) can communicate
communicate with each other over with certain roadside infrastructures
bandwidth constrained wireless links or base stations.
without any infrastructure support.
The node movement is more random The node mobility is constrained to
in nature the road topologies.
Power is a major constrained The battery power available in a
vehicle is quite adequate.
Cost of production is cheap Expensive
Change in network topology is slow Frequent & very fast
Node lifetime depends on power depends on lifetime of vehicles
resource
Multi-hop routing is available. Weakly available.
Attribute based addressing scheme Location-based

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