Project 2013-14

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Company Overview

Kochi Refinery, a unit of Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL), embarked

on its journey in 1966 with a capacity of 50,000 barrels per day. Formerly known as
Cochin Refineries Limited and later renamed as Kochi Refineries Limited, the refinery
was originally established as a joint venture in collaboration with Phillips Petroleum
Corporation, USA. Today it is a frontline entity as a unit of the Fortune 500 Company,
BPCL.

Kochi Refinery, located at Ambalamugal near the city of Kochi in Kerala, is one of the
two Refineries of BPCL, presently having a crude oil refining capacity of 9.5 Million
Metric Tonnes per Annum (MMTPA). The product portfolio of the 190,000 barrels
per day refinery today includes petrochemical feedstock and specialty products in
addition to its range of quality fuels.

Crude oil is the major raw material to the company. The company purchases crude oil
from various parts of the world. The feed composition varies according to the
geographical location and many other parameters. Gulf countries are the main source
for the raw materials which mainly include Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iran.

Fuel products of this fuel-based refinery include Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG),
naphtha, motor spirit, kerosene, Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF), High Speed Diesel
(HSD), fuel oils and asphalt. Specialty products for the domestic markets include
benzene, toluene, propylene, special boiling point spirit, poly-isobutene and sulphur

1.2 Propylene

Propylene is the second most important starting product in the petrochemical industry
after ethylene. It is the raw material for a wide variety of products. The dominant
outlet for propylene is polypropylene, films, packaging, caps, closures, acrylonitrile,
propylene oxide, cumene, isopropanol and acrylic acid.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 1 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

The largest source of petrochemical propylene is that produced as the primary

byproduct of ethylene manufacture. Ethylene plants charging liquid feedstock
typically produce about 15wt% propylene and provide almost 70 percent of the
propylene consumed by the petrochemical industry. Petroleum refining, nearly all
from fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), is by far the next largest supplier of propylene,
supplying about 30 percent of the petrochemical requirement. In the U.S., FCC
supplies about one-half of the petrochemical propylene demand.
Propylene demand has been increasing at a faster rate than that of ethylene. Since
steam crackers are limited in the amount of propylene they are able to produce,
alternate sources of propylene are becoming of increased interest, including increasing
production from FCC units.

1.3 Properties

Propylene is an unsaturated organic compound having the chemical formula C3H6. It

has one double bond and is the second simplest member of the alkene class of
hydrocarbons.

At room temperature and atmospheric pressure propylene is a gas. It is also colorless

with a weak but unpleasant smell

Propylene has a higher density and boiling point than ethylene due to its greater mass.
It has a slightly lower boiling point than propane thus more volatile.

Propylene is found in nature and is a by-product of vegetation and fermentation

processes. Propylene has been deducted in trace amounts in the lower atmosphere of
Titans (Satellite of Saturn)

1.4 Sources and Methods of production

Propylene is produced from fossil fuels petroleum natural gas, and to much lesser
extend coal. Propylene is a by-product of oil refining and natural gas processing.
During oil refining ethylene, propylene and other compounds are produced as a result
of cracking larger hydrocarbon molecules to produce hydrocarbons more in demand.
Refinery propylene arises primarily from three refinery processes: fluid catalytic
cracking, visbreaking/thermal cracking and coking. A major source of propylene is
cracking intended to produce ethylene but it is also results from refinery cracking

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 2 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

producing other products. Propylene can be separated by fractional distillation from

hydrocarbon mixtures obtained from cracking and other refining process.

Since propylene is volatile and flammable precautions must be taken to avid fire
hazards in handling of the gas. If propylene is loaded to any equipment capable of
causing ignition, such equipment should be shut down while loading, unloading,
connecting or disconnecting. Propylene is usually stored as liquid under pressure
although it is also possible to store it safely as gas at ambient temperature in approved
containers.

There are three grades of propylene; polymer grade with a minimum purity of 99.5%;
chemical grade with a minimum purity of 93-94%; and a refinery grade with a purity
of around 70% with a minimum of 60%

1.5 Applications
The dominant outlet for propylene is polypropylene (PP), accounting for nearly two-
third of global propylene consumption. Polypropylene is, for example, needed for the
production of films, packaging, caps and closures. Propylene is also used to produce
acrylonitrile (ACN), propylene oxide (PO), a number of alcohols, cumene, isopropanol
and acrylic acid.

Propylene is used in calibration gas mixtures for petrochemical industries;

environmental emission monitoring, industrial hygiene monitors and trace the impurity
analyzers.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 3 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

CHAPTER 2

PROPYLENE PRODUCTION
Propylene recovery units designed to produce 95% purity chemical grade propylene from
cracked LPG. Propylene is a by-product of oil refining and natural gas processing. During
oil refining ethylene, propylene and other compounds are produced as a result of cracking
larger hydrocarbon molecules to produce hydrocarbons. Propylene can be separated by
fractional distillation from hydrocarbon mixtures.

2.1 FCC (FLUIDIZED CATALYTIC CRACKING)

Fluid catalytic cracking is one of the most important conversion processes used in
petroleum refineries. It is widely used convert the high boiling, high molecular weight
hydrocarbon fractions of petroleum crude oils to more valuable gasoline, olefinic and
other products. Cracking of petroleum hydrocarbons was originally done by thermal
cracking, which has been almost completely replaced by catalytic cracking because it
produces more gasoline with a higher octane rating. It also produces by-product gases
that are more olefinic and hence they are more valuable than those produced by
thermal cracking. The feed stock to an FCC is usually that portion of the crude oil that
has an initial boiling point of 340 degree Celsius or higher at atmospheric pressure and
an average molecular weight ranging from about 200-600 or higher this portion of
crude oils is often referred to as heavy gas oil or vacuum gas oil.

In order to maximize the amount of propylene and other light products a high severity
fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) uses traditional FCC technology under severe
conditions (higher catalyst to oil ratios, higher steam injection rates, higher
temperatures etc.).A high severity FCC unit is usually fed with gas oils (paraffin) and
residues, and produces about 20-25% propylene on feed stock together with greater
volumes of motor gasoline and distillate by-products

Olefin cracking includes a broad range of technologies that catalytically converts large
olefins molecules (C4 to C8) into most propylene and small amount of propylene.

In FCC, a feed petroleum fraction such as vacuum gas oil is contacted with particles of
hot, active catalyst at high temperatures and low pressures of about 1-5 atmospheres

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 4 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

absolute in the absence of added hydrogen. The catalyst should be in sufficient

quantity and at a sufficient temperature to vaporize the oil feed, rise the oil feed to a
cracking temperature of about 900( this is deg F !, where from ?) .The oil and catalyst
flow together (concurrently) for a time suffient to carry out the intended conversion.
During the conversion of the heavy petroleum fraction to lighter fractions, coke is lied
down on the catalyst particles thereby deactivating them and thus coked, cooled
catalyst particles, are separated from the cracked petroleum products. The product
recovered and resolved and then cooled, coked catalyst is transported to a separate
regenerator. In the regenerator the coked catalyst is combined with oxygen containing
gas example air, where by coke is burned off the catalyst and the catalyst is then
returned to the mixture with further heavy oil feed, thus completing the cycle.

2.2 PROPYLENE RECOVERY

The LPG from the FCCU contains ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, butane etc.
Distillation is performed in order to extract propylene from the mixture. But complete
isolation cannot be done in a single stage, because propane and propylene have a very
low relative volatility. Hence two distillation columns are used for the production of
chemical grade propylene.

In the first column propane and propylene are separated from the rest of the mixture.
About 30 wt% propylene enters the column and is concentrated to 80 wt%. Propylene
propane mixture collected from the top of the column is fed to the second column. A
pressure of 17 kg/cm2 is maintained.

In the second column, that is the propane – propylene splitter is used to concentrate
propylene to 96 %. This column contains large number of trays and a large reflux ratio
to increase the purity of the top product. The column operates under a pressure of 19
kg/cm2.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 5 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

CHAPTER 3

PROCESS FLOW DESCRIPTION

Propylene recovery units designed to produce 95% purity chemical grade propylene from
cracked LPG. This is achieved in two stages. First, by propane–butane splitter and then by a
propane–propylene splitter.

3.1 Feed Surge Drum

Cracked LPG from Fluid Catalyzed Cracking Unit (FCCU) after amine and caustic
treatment is available at the FCCU at a pressure of 11.8 kg/cm 2 and temperature of
42⁰C.Part of this LPG is fed to the feed surge drum under flow control. A shutdown
valve is provided before the flow controller and will cut down the flow to surge drum
when surge drum high level switch activates. The surge drum at 11kg/cm 2 using
control valves working in split range, on vapour to fuel gas line and the vapour line
from C3-C4 splitter reflux drum. When the pressure in the surge drum increases, the
control valve on the fuel gas line opens to release vapors to the fuel gas circuit thereby
lowering the pressure and maintaining the set pressure. However when pressure in the
surge drum decreases the control valve on the vapour line from C3-C4 splitter reflux
drum opens to maintain the set pressure.

Feed LPG from the surge drum is pumped through the feed pumps to C 3-C4 splitter
column under flow control. Flow controller is provided on the column feed line. Flow
controller is cascaded with level controller of the feed surge drum. A low level switch
is also provided which will stop feed pumps when activates. Feed to the column gets
preheated in the feed/bottom exchanger by exchanging heat with the column bottoms

3.2 C3-C4 Splitter Section

The C3-C4 splitter has fifty six (56) single pass high capacity trays. It is an existing
column. Existing conventional valve trays are replaced with high capacity valve trays.
Tray numbering is from bottom to top. Feed to column can be routed to 22nd , 24th,or
26th depending on feed quality.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 6 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Column top pressure is maintained at 17 kg/cm2 using control valves, working in split
range, one on line to C3-C4 splitter reflux drum and another on vapors to fuel gas line.
When the pressure in the column increases the control valve on the line from
condenser to reflux drum opens thereby lowering the level in overhead condenser
which will give more condensing area and hence pressure is decreased. If the pressure
is further increasing, control valve on fuel gas line opens to release vapors to fuel gas
circuit thereby lowering the pressure. A vapors balancing line from reflux drum to
overhead condenser inlet will route uncondensed vapors again to the condenser.

Column bottom temperature is controlled by controlling flow of LP steam entering

into the column reboiler, column bottom temperature can be cascaded to steam flow.
Condensate level in the reboiler is controlled by maintaining level in condensate top
.Condensate from reboiler is routed to existing condensate drum and is discharged to
condensate system under control level

The column bottoms at 106 degree Celsius after exchanging feed in the feed/bottom
exchanger is finally cooled in C4 cooler and sent to LPG storage. A provision is made
so that part of bottom product can be routed to the existing LEFPU1 under flow
control to produce feed stock for PIB(Poly isobutene) .Balance product is directly
routed to existing of site facility(butane storage) under column level control existing.
Column temperature maintained at 450C and vapour from column top are condensated
in C3-C4 splitter condenser by cooling water and routed to the C3-C4 reflux from
.Reflux is pumped back to the column under flow control and overhead product
pumped to C3-C3* double bond splitter column under reflux drum level control.
Column set of pumps are used for reflux as well as product transfer..

Flow controller on the reflux is also cascaded with column 46 th tray temperature. Level
controller of C3-C4 reflux drum is cascaded with flow control on overhead product to

C3-C3* splitter column. A provision head been given to route over head propylene rich
LPG to LEHE header using old control valve.

A reflux ratio of around 3 - 3.6 maintained in the column to achieve product purity of
78.7% propylene. Reflux drum has a boot for separating water from carbon.
Continuous water purging from boot is not necessary but accumulated water if any,
will be drained off to OWS (overhead water storage)

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 7 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

3.3 C3-C3’’ SPLITTER

C3-C3” splitter has 98 2-pass valve tray (PIBU) area. Column is developed with
convectional valve trays. Turn down of this column is will be around 40% of capacity
Tray numbering is from bottom to top

Overhead product of C3-C4 column is pumped into C3-C3* splitter. Under flow
controller is cascaded with level controller of C3-C3* splitter reflux drum. Feed to
column routed to 32nd tray. A few feed nozzles 48th and 64th tray are also provided
(quality). C3-C3* column bottom temperature is controlled by controlling the LP steam
entering to column reboiler. Condensate level in the reboiler is controlling by maintain
level in the condensate pot. Thus condensate collection drum and the flushed vapor
are condensed by means of LP condensate flash condenser .The condensate from
condensate collection drum is routed to the deaerator by means of condensate transfer
pumps under level control. The column bottom at 58 degree Celsius are cooled in C 3-
C3* bottom cooler and routed to LPG pool as lean LPG along with the lean LPG from
C3-C3* column under level control.

Column top temperature is maintained at 47.7 degree Celsius and vapour from column
top are condensed in C3-C3* splitter condenser by cooling water and routed to C3-C3*
splitter reflux drum. Column top pressure maintained at 19kg/cm2 using control valves
working in split range, one online to C3-C3* splitter reflux drum and another on top to
fuel gas line. When the pressuring column increase the control valve in the line from
condenser to the reflux drum opens there by lowering level in overhead condenser
which will give more condensing area and hence pressure decreases if pressure is
further increase after wild opening then control valve on fuel gas line opens to release
vapors to fuel gas circuit there by lowering the pressure. A vapor balancing line from
reflux drum to overhead condenser inlet will root uncondensed vapor again to
condenser.

Reflux is pumped back to the column through propylene reflux drum under flow
control. Controller indicates total flow act as minimum flow controller. A reflux ratio
of 14-15 is maintained in the column to achieve 95% propylene as overhead product.
Product is cooled at 40 degree Celsius in product cooler and routed to chemical
treatment. Product purity is maintained by an online propylene analyser.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 8 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

3.4 PROPYLENE STORAGE

Treated propylene is routed to mounted bullet storage in and this flow is controlled by
flow controller there are two identical mounted bullets. Mounded bullets provide
intrinsically passive and safe environment and eradicates the possibility of boiling
liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEEVE) though handling LPG possesses various
challenges, due to its inherent dangerous properties, modern state of art safety features
is taken into consideration while designing the facilities using various international
codes. Mounded vessels can be used for storage of various gases such as LPG
Mounded vessels, Propylene mounded bullets. The capacity of these tanks range from
50m3 to 5000m3.

3.5 CENTRALISED QUALITY CONTROL LAB

For any product to be sold in a market, it should satisfy some specifications. Kochi
refinery manufactures a number of products. It is therefore essential to have
independent unit for monitoring the product quality via a number of tests.

In case of propylene and LPG, gas chromatography is the major qualitative test
performed. In case of propylene no other test is used as gas chromatography shows the
composition of the mixture tested. For other products such as gasoline, kerosene,
diesel etc tests such as flash and fire point, viscosity, freezing point, octane or cetane
number, pour point etc are performed.

3.6 UTILITIES

The utility plant under consists of Demineralised Water Treatment (DM Plant),effluent
treatment Plant(ETP), Flare Stack, plant air and instrument air.

3.6.1 Demineralised Water Plant

The process water goes to activated Carbon Filter for the removal of Chlorine and
then to Strong Acid Cation (SAC), Strong Basic Anion (SBA) and Mixed Bed (MB)
Units of the Cation (Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, etc) and anions (Sulphates,
Chlorides, Silica, etc). Demineralised water from MB outlet is used in boiler etc.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 9 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

3.6.2 Effluent Treatment Plant

The effluents from PRU, Tank Farm, other plants and boiler are stored in Raw
Effluent and Equalisation Tank (REET), Mixing Tank and treated in the plant using
Primary, Secondary treatment and activated sludge process so that the ETP effluent
meets Kerala State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) norms. Then only the effluent is
stored in fire ponds.

3.6.3 Flare Stack

From the vents of vessels, columns, pressure safety valve outlets, etc, hydrocarbon
vapors/ liquid enters knock out pot at flare stack bottom. Hydrocarbon liquid collected
at knock out bottom is drained to flare pit. Flare pit material is pumped either to heavy
aromatic tank or Drag benzene tank depending upon its analysis. Hydrocarbon vapors
from knock out pot goes upto Flare stack top which is 70 m high from ground level.
Three pilot burners are continuously burning using LPG at Flare stack top.
Hydrocarbon vapors from knock out pot is burnt using the above mentioned pilot
flame.

3.7 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

The entire plant is controlled automatically through electronic process control system
from a central control centre. Since the plant involves handling hazardous chemicals,
many safety trip system and online analyzers are employed for preventing hazardous
operations or run away conditions in the process.

3.8 SAFETY
Kochi Refinery is conscious regarding the need for safety. Safety wears are not only
issued to the workers, also the personnel entering the plant area. A well documented
work and safety permit system to undertake maintenance job in the plants have been
introduced.

The major hazard that is likely to be encountered is fire. The company has a fire and
safety department. Fire ponds are also maintained. Each individual in the refinery is
given training on fire fighting. Mock drills are conducted regularly.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 10 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

The use of safety shoes, helmet, ear plug as well as gloves are compulsory for those
who are entering the plant. Personnels are equipped with devices such as toxic gas
detectors in the concerned area. For example, the operators in Sulphur Recovery Unit
are provided with H2S detectors since they are capable of causing fatality.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 11 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

CHAPTER 4

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 12 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

CHAPTER 5

MATERIAL BALANCE FOR THE DESIGN OF PROPYLENE COLUMN

Feed composition - 80% Propylene

20% Propane

Distillate composition - 95 % Propylene

5 % Propane

Residue composition - 20% Propylene

80% Propane

Molecular weight of Propane = 44

Molecular weight of Propylene = 42

Mole fraction of propylene in feed,

80
42
Xf =
( 8042 )+( 2044 )
= .807

Mole fraction of propylene in distillate,

95
42
XD =
( 9542 )+( 445 )
= .952

Mole fraction of propylene in residue,

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 13 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

20
42
Xw =
( 2042 )+( 8044 )
= 0.207

Average molecular weight of feed = (0.807×42+ 0.193×44)

= 42.4 kg/kmol

Feed rate = 8000 kg/hr

= 188.679 kmol/ hr

F - Molar rate of feed, kmol/hr

D - Molar rate of distillate, kmol/hr

W - Molar rate of residue, kmol/hr

Overall balance

F = D+W

F = 188.679 kmol/hr

Component balance

F × Xf = D × XD + W× Xw

D = 152.019 kmol/hr

W = F–D

= 36.697 kmol/hr

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 14 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Average molecular weight of distillate = (0.952×42+0.048×44)

= 42.1 kg/kmol

Average molecular weight of residue = (0.207×42+0.793×44)

= 43.6 kg/kmol

Mass flow rate of feed = 8000 kg/hr

Mass flow rate of distillate = 152.019 × 42.1

= 6400 kg/hr

Mass flow rate of residue = 36.697× 43.6

= 1600 kg/hr

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 15 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

CHAPTER 6

DESIGN OF PROPYLENE- PROPANE SPLITTER

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Propylene – propane splitter contains 98 valve trays. The top pressure of column is
maintained around 19 kg/cm2 through the pressure controller by controlling the flow of
low pressure steam entering into the column reboiler. Condensate level in the reboiler is
controlling by maintain level in the condensate pot. Over pressure in the column drum is
released into the fuel gas header by a pressure control valve. Column bottom temperature
is to be maintained at 580C. A reflux ratio of 14 -15 is maintained in the column to
achieve 95% of propylene overhead product. Column top temperature is maintained at
470C. Product is cooled at 40 degree Celsius in product cooler and routed to chemical
treatment. Product purity is maintained by a online propylene analyzer.

6.2 NUMBER OF TRAYS USING McCABE-THIELE METHOD

T-x-y data of propane - propylene mixture

Temp
46.5 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 54.95
(0C)

X 1 0939 0.812 0.688 0.566 0.447 0.330 0.215 0.103 0

0.369 0.246 0
Y 1 0.949 0.838 0.724 0.608 0.490 0.120

Table 6.1: T-x-y data of propane – propylene mixture

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 16 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Figure 7.1: T-x-y Diagram for Propane – Propylene

Feed temperature = 48 0C
Feed is saturated liquid
q = 1

Slope of q line = ∞

y- intercept of enriching line = xd/(R+1)

= 0.95/(5.28+1)
= 0.15

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 17 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Figure 7.2: McCabe- Thiele method for theoretical trays

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 18 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

To find the number of theoretical trays, x-y diagram is plotted and q line is drawn with a
slope of infinite from (xf,yf). Enriching line is drawn by joining (xd,yd) and the y-intercept.
Stripping line is drawn through the intersection of q line and enriching line. Now total
number of theoretical trays is found out by constructing triangles.

Number of triangles = 57

We are using a total condenser

Total number of theoretical trays = 57-1

= 56

Feed tray location = 31st from bottom

6.3 COLUMN DIAMETER CALCULATIONS

Flow rates in the enriching section,

L = RD

= 5.28 × 152.019

= 802.66 kmol/hr

G = (R+1) D

= 954.679 kmol/hr

Flow rates in the stripping section,

L’ = L+qF

= 802.66 + (1) × 188.679

= 991.339 kmol/hr

G’ = G-(1-q) F

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 19 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= 954.679 - (1- 1) × 188.679

= 954.679 kmol/hr

Top

L (kmol/hr) = 802.66

G (kmol/hr) = 954.679

Average molecular wt (kg/kmol)

L = 0.952 × 42 + 0.048 × 44 = 42.1

G = 0.952 × 42 + 0.048 × 44 = 42.1

L (kg/hr) = 33792 kg/hr

G (kg/hr) = 40192 kg/hr

Bottom

L’ (kmol/hr) = 991.339

G’ (kmol/hr) = 954.679

Average molecular wt (kg/kmol)

L = 0.207 × 42 + 0.793 × 44 = 43.6

G = 0.207 × 42+ 0.793 × 44 = 43.6

L’ (kg/hr) = 43222.41 kg/hr

G’ (kg/hr) = 41624.02 kg/hr

To calculate gas density assuming ideal gas mixture

PM
G = RT

P = pressure
M = molecular wt.
R = gas constant
T = temperature

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 20 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

For enriching section (Top)

Temperature = 321 0C

For stripping section (Bottom)

Temperature = 332 0C

Density of propylene = 542.3 kg/m3

Density of propane = 518.026 kg/m3

Top section

PM
ρG =
RT

= 1863263.5× 42.1/ (8.314 × 103× 321)

= 29.39 kg/m3

ρL = 542.3 × 0.95 + 518.026 × 0.05

= 541.13 kg/m3

Bottom section

ρG’ = 1863263.5 ×43.6/ (8.314×103×332)

= 30.36 kg/m3

ρL’ = 542.3 × 0.2 + 518.026 × 0..8

= 523.05 kg/m3

Consider the section having highest gas flow rate.

Here it is top section.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 21 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

L = 43222.405 kg/hr

G = 41624.019 kg/hr

Assume tray spacing (ts) = 450 mm

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition, pg. 14-37, Eqn.14-89

0.5
L ρG
Flow parameter, FLG = ( )
G ρL

43222.405 30.36 0.5

= ( )
41624.019 523.05

= 0.25

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition, pg. 14-38, fig. 14-31

Figure 7.3: Fair’s entrainment flooding correlation for columns with cross flow trays

Csbf = 0.06

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition, pg. 14-37,

Eqn. 14-91

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 22 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

0.5
σ 0.2 ρ L− ρG
Unf = Csbf × ( ) ( )
20 ρG

σ = 4 dynes/cm

4 0.2 523.05−30.36 0.5

Unf = 0.06 × ( ) ( )
20 30.36

Unf = 0.175 m/s

Now assume 60% of the flood limit.

Actual superficial velocity, Un = 0.6× Unf

= 0.6× 0.175

= 0.105 m/s

Net area, An = G/ (ρG× Un)

= 41624.019/ (30.36× 3600× 0.105)

= 3.627 m2

Net area depends upon weir length (LW)

Let D be the column diameter.

Assume

LW = 0.7D

Area = 0.5 × angle in radian × radius2

ɵ = Sin-1 (LW/D)

π D
Area of sector = ɵ× ( ) × ( )2
180 2

Area of triangle = 0.5 × 0.5 × LW× (D2- LW2)0.5

Down comer area,

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 23 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Lw π D
Ad = (Sin -1( )( ) ( )2) - ( 0.5×0.5× LW× (D2- LW2)0.5)
D 180 2

= 0.069D2

Total cross sectional area,

AC = (πD2)/4

Net area, An = Ac-Ad

= ((π/4)-0.069) D2

= 0.716D2

Net area = 3.627 m2

0.717 D2 = 3.627 m2

D = 2.249 m

Ac = (π/4) × 2.2492

= 3.97 m2

Ad = 0.069× 2.2492

= 0.349 m2

Bubbling area, Ab = AC-2Ad

= 3.97-2×.349

= 3.273 m2

Weir length (LW) = 0.7× 2.249

= 1.574 m

Assume weir height, (hw) = 50 mm

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 24 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Here valve trays are used, assume a segmented downcomer rather than circular down
comer.

Assume 15% of active area is the flow area of valve

Flow area, Ap = 0.15Ab

= .49 m2

Assume

Valve diameter, dh = 38.1 mm

Area of one hole = (π/4) dh2

= (π/4) × (38.1× 10-3)2

= 0.00114m2

Number of holes, Np = Ap/Area of one hole

= 0.49/0.00114

= 430

Assume pitch, Pt = 2.5dh

= 2.5× 38.1× 10-3

= 0.09525 m

Assume

Tray thickness = 2.64 mm

0.5 holes occupies one triangle area

Assume equilateral triangular pitch

Triangular area occupied by all holes = (30.5/4) × Pt2× 2× Np

= (30.5/4) × 0.095252× 2× 430

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 25 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= 2.45 m2

Bubbling area  Area occupied by holes

6.4 PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION

Pressure drop is calculated at high gas flow rates

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition, pg. 14-42

Eqn.14-100

ht = hd + hL’

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition, pg. 14-43 Eqn.14-101

hd = K× (ρG/ρL) uh2

K = 58 + 386Af

= 58 + 386×0.15

= 115.9

Ko = 254.5(2.64/tt)

= 254

Kc = 1683

Superficial gas velocity through the holes,

Uh,closed = 1.14(tv(Rvw/Kc)( ρM/ ρc)).5

= 1.14(2(1.23/1683)(8000/ 30.36)).5m/s

= 0.7075 m/s

Uh,open = Uh,closed(Kc/Ko)

= 0.7075(1683/254.5)

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 26 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= 1.819 m/s

hd = 115.9× (30.36/523.05)× 1.8192

= 22.268 mm

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition, pg. 14-44

Eqn.14-106

Pressure drop through aerated liquid,

hL’ = βhds

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition, pg. 14-44

Fig. 14 - 37

β = 0.76

Ub = 41624.02/(3600×523.05×0.49)

= 0.045 m/s

= 0.148 m/s

Fb = Ub(ρG).5

= 0.148(1.89).5

Liquid flow rate, Q = 43222.4/ (523.05× 3600)

= 0.022 m3/s

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition, pg. 14-44

Eqn 14-108

hds = hw+ how+0.5hhg

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 27 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

For valve tray, hhg is negligible

Assume segmented down comer

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th edition, pg. 14-44 Eqn 14-109

how = 664(Q/LW)0.66

= 664× (0.022/1.57)0.66

= 39.82 mm

hds = hw+how

= 50 + 39.82

= 89.82 mm

hL’ = βhds

= 0.75 × 89.82

= 68.259 mm

ht = hd + hL’

= 22.268 + 68.259

= 90.5 mm

6.5 CHECK FOR WEEPING

Weeping from Valve Trays An analysis of weeping from valve trays [Bolles, Chem. Eng.
Progs. 72(9), 43 (1976)] showed that in a well-designed valve tray, the weep point is
below the gas load at which the valves open; and throughout the valve opening process,
the operating point remains above the weep point.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 28 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

6.6 DOWNCOMER BACKUP

Consider the highest gas flow section

hw = 50 mm

how = 39.82 mm

hhg = 0

ht = 90.5 mm

hda = 165.2× (Q/Ada)2

Clearance = hw-seal

= 50-13

= 37 mm

Ada = Lw× clearance

= 1.57 × 37× 10-3

= 0.058

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook 8th edition from page no 14-44 Eqn. 14-112

hda = 165.2 (0.0229/0.0582)2

= 25.65 mm liquid

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook 8th edition from page no 14-39 Eqn. 14-92

hdc = hw+ht+how+hhg+hda

= 50+90.5+39.82+0+25.65

= 205.97 mm liquid

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 29 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

6.7 ACTUAL BACK UP

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook 8th edition from page no 14-39 Table: 14-6

φdc = 0.6 (Fair et al.’s criterion)

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook 8th edition from page no 14-39 Eqn. 14-93

h’dc = hdc/φdc

= 205.97/0.6

= 343.28 mm

If h’dc = tray spacing , flooding occurs

Tray spacing = 450 mm

Since h’dc < tray spacing, downcomer back up flooding does not occur

6.8 ABSOLUTE ENTRAINMENT

It occurs at high gas flow rate

Flooding = 60%

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook 8th edition from page no 14-43; Fig: 14-34

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 30 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Figure 7.4 : Entrainment correlation

L/G(ρG/ρL)0.5 = (43222.4/41624)× (30.36/523.05)0.5

= 0.25

Ψ = 0.0045 moles/moles gross downflow

Ψ = e/(L+e)

L = 82.635 kmol/hr

0.0045 = e/ (82.635+e)

e = 0.3735 kmol/hr

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 31 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

6.9 EFFICIENCY

Efficiency can be taken as 70 % for valve trays which handle low volatile components.
(From Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook 8th edition from page no 14-51 Table 14-12

6.10 COLUMN MECHANICAL DESIGN

Given Data
: 25 kg/cm2
Design pressure
Inside diameter of column : 2.249 m
Design temperature : 800C
Height of the column : 40 m
Weight of column : 1×105 kg
Top tray spacing : 1m
Bottom spacing : 2.5m
Corrosion allowance : 3mm
Tray spacing : 450mm
Tray thickness : 3mm
Weight of tray : 84.869 kg/tray
Weir height : 50mm
Insulation : 50mm Asbestos
Accessories : 37.2 kg/m (One caged ladder)
Material of construction : 11-13% Cr 9% Ni
Density of material : 7800 kg/m3
Density of insulation : 770 kg/m3
Wind Speed : 140 km/hr

Calculations

1. Thickness of shell

For cylindrical shell thickness is given by

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 32 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

p Di
t =
200 f j−P
IS 2825: 1969 equation 3.1
where, f is maximum allowable stress value of material
j is the weld joint efficiency factor
f = 14 kgf/mm2 (11-13% Cr 9% Ni)
IS 2825: 1969 Table A 1.2
j = 0 .7 ( No radiography)
IS 2825: 1969 Table 1.1
25 ×2249
t =
200× 14 ×.7−25
= 29.058mm
t’ = t+C
t’ = 29.058 + 3
= 32.058mm
ts = 36mm
IS 1730: 1989 Table 1

Stress Calculation

1. Stress due to axial pressure

p Di
fap =
4 ( t s −C )
25× 2249
fap =
4 ×33
= 425.9661 kgf/mm2

2. Stress due to dead weight

a) Due to weight of vessel

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 33 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

weig h t of vessel upto X

fds =
sectional areaof s h ell

= ρmat × X
fds = 0.0078 X kgf/mm2

b) Due to insulation
t ins × Dins × ρins × X
fdi =
t × Dm
Dins = Do + 2tins (Diameter of insulation)
= (Di +2t) + 2tins
= (2249+2×36) + 2×50
= 2421.101 mm
Do + Di
Dm = (Mean diameter)
2
2249+2321
= = 2285mm
2
50× 2421.101× 770× X
fdi = ×10-6
33× 2285
= .00123 X kgf/mm2

c) Due to tray liquid

weig h t of liquid upto X
fdl =
π × D m ×t
Weight of liquid = number of trays × Cross Sectional area of
tray × weir height × Density of liquid
Cross Sectional Area = 3.626m2
Density = 369.715 kg/m3 (avg density at 800C)

πDm t = 258.3901

X−1
fdl = ( +1)×3.626×.05×369.715×10-6
0.45
= 0.0005766 X - 0.0007047

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 34 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

d) Due to attachments
( Wt . of attac h ment upto X )
fatt =
π Dm × t
Head elliptical with ratio 2:1
π 2
Weight of head = 4 Di × th × den ×1.3
= 1449.9943 kg
Weight of ladder up to X = 37.2× X kg
X−1
Weight of tray up to X = 84.869×( +1) kg
.45
fatt = .000874 X -.00521

Stress due to dead weight

fd = fds +fdl+ fdins+ fda
fd = .01048 X + .004496

3. Stress due to wind load

M wx
fw =
Z
where Mw is the bending moment due to wind

Mwx = Plw×H1/2 +Puw × (H1 +H2/2)

Plw = K1 K2 P Dins H1
Puw = K1 K2 P Dins H2
where p1 is wind pressure on lower column
k1 is coefficient depend onshape factor,
k2 is coefficient depend on the period of one
cycle of of vibration of vessel
Do is diameter of column

Wind velocity (Vw) = 140 km/hr

Wind pressure (P) = .05 Vw2
P = 99.898 kgf/m2
K1 = 0.7 for cylindrical vessels
K2 = 1 if T<0.5

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 35 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= 2 if T>0.5
2× π W × H 3 (1/2)
T = 3.53
×(
E× I × g
)

W = 1×105 kg

π
I = D 3 t (Moment of inertia)
8 m
I = 0.168
E = 20700 kgf/mm2
(Young modulus at design temperature)
T = 0.0246
K2 = 1
H1 = 20 m
H2 = (X- 20) m
Plw = 3386.086 kg
Puw = (169.3043X -3386.086) kg
H1 H
Mwx = Plw× + Puw × (H1 + 2 )
2 2
Mwx = 84.652 X2 kgm
π
Z = D 2t (where Z is section modulus of area )
4 m

Z = 0.1147 m3
M wx
fw =
Z
fw = 737.450* 10-6 X2 kgf/mm2

4. Stress due to Seismic load

M sx
fsx =
Z
where Mw is the bending moment due to seismic load

C s ×W × ( 3 H −X ) × X 2
Msx =
3 × X2
Seismic coefficient (Cs) = 0.8
fsx = 0.017 X2 – 0.00014 X3

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 36 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

At base X = 40.4
Then,
fw = 1.2092 kgf/mm2
fsx = 18.515 kgf/mm2
fsx > fw

So,
fap = 425.9661 kgf/mm2
fdx = 0.01048 X + 0.004496 kgf/mm2
fsx = 0.017 X2 – 0.00014 X3
ft max = ( fsx or fw ) + fap –fdx

Upwind side
ft max = 1.3 f
18.2 = 0.017 X2 -.00014 X3 + 425.9661 –
(0.01048X + 0.004496)
0 = 0.00014 X3 -0.017 X2 + 0.01048 X –
407.7616

Solving we get
X1 = 196.48m or X1 = -37.2m

Downwind side
fc max = (fsx or fw) +fdx - fap
t
fc max = 0.125×E ( D )
o

fc max = 40.39

40.39 = 0.017 X2 – 0.00014 X3 + 0.01048 X + 0.004496

0 = 0.00014 X3 – 0.017 X2 -0.01048 X + 466.3516

Solving we get
X1 = -118.08m X1 = 119.75 m

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 37 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Lowest among two are 119.75 m

So, up to 119.75 m 36 mm thickness can be used

6.11 SKIRT SUPPORT

Given data:

Diameter of vessel 2421 mm

Height of vessel 40000 mm
Weight of vessel + attachments (W) 1 x 105 kg
Diameter of straight type skirt (Dosk) 2421 mm
Height of skirt 2m
Wind pressure 99.898 kgf/m2
Seismic coefficient 0.8
Design temperature 80 oC
Allowable stress on bolt material 7.95 kgf/mm2 (IS 2825-1969 Table- A3)
Permissible compressive stress One-third of yield stress of material
Yield stress of material 24 kgf/mm2
Allowable stress on concrete 0.35 kg/mm2
Permissible stress in bending for carbon steel 15.75 kgf/mm2

1. Stress due to dead weight (fdx)

W
fdx =
(3.14 x Dosk x t sk )

105
= ,
(3.14 x 2421 x t sk )
where tsk thickness of skirt

13.15
= kg/ mm2
t sk

2. Stress due to wind load (fw)

Mw
fw = ( where Mw is the bending moment due
Z
to wind )

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 38 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

3.14 x D 2osk x t sk
Z = ( where Z is section
4
modulus of area )

3.14 x 24212 x t sk
=
4

= 4601074.18 x tsk mm3

h1 h2
Mw = Plw + Puw (h1 + )( since H > 20mm )
2 2

where Plw is wind pressure on lower part of vessl

Puw is wind pressure on upper part of vessl

Plw = k1. k2. p1. h1.Do

where p1 is wind pressure on lower column

k1 is coefficient depend onshape factor = 0.7,

k2 is coefficient depend on the period of one
cycle of of vibration of vessel = 1

Do is diameter of column

= 0.7 x 1 x 99.898 x 10−6 x 20 x103 x 2421

= 3385.87 kg

Puw = k1.k2.p2.h2.Do

where p1 is wind pressure on upper column

= 0.7 x 1 x 99.898 x 10−6 x 24 x 103 x 2421

= 4063.13 kg

20000 24000
Mw = 3385.87 + 4063.13(20000+ )
2 2

= 163878.86 x103 ( kgf mm)

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 39 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Mw
fw = 3.14 x D2osk x t sk
4

3.559
= kgf/mm2
t sk

3. Stress due to sesmic load ( fs )

Ms
fs = Ms is bending moment due to seismic
Z

2
Ms = Cs W H
3

where Cs is seismic coefficient

H is height

2
= x 0.8 x 1 x 105 x 44 x103
3

= 2346666667 kgfmm

Z = 4601074.18 x tsk mm3

510.02
fs = kgf/ mm2
t sk

fs > fw

Upwind side

ftensile = fs - f d

510.02 3.559
= –
t sk t sk

496.87
= kgf/mm2
t sk

ftensile = fxJ from page no 13,IS2825-1969

f = 14 from page no115 , IS2825-1969

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 40 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

J = 0.7 ( no radiography)

ftensile = 14 x 0.7

= 9.8 kgf/mm2

496.87
t sk = 9.8

tsk = 50.7 mm

fcompressive = fs + f d = (1/3rd) of yield stress

510.02 3.559
fs + f d = +
t sk t sk

496.87
= kgf/mm2
t sk

(1/3rd) of yield stress = 8 kgf/mm2

tsk = 62.49 mm

Higher value is taken and therefore,

tsk = 62.49 mm

Since,

tsk > 30mm no need to add corrosion allowance

Taking standard thickness,

tsk’ = 63 mm ( from page 2 ,table1.1, IS 1730-1989)

Compressive stress b/w bearing plate & concrete( fc)

[fc should be less than allowable stress on concrete]

W M
fc = + w
A Z

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 41 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

3.14
A = [Dobp2-Dosk2]
4

where Dobp is outer diameter of bearing plate = (Dosk+325) mm

3.14
= [(2421 + 325)2-(2421)2]
4

= 1318230.9 mm2

4 4
3.14 Dobp −D osk
Zskirt = ( )
32 Dobp

3.14 27464 −24214

= ( )
32 2746

= 803173007 mm3

100000 163878.86
fc = +
1318230.9 803173007

= 0.076 kgf/mm2

fc < 0.35 kgf / mm2

So that design is permissible

The thickness of bearing plate is determined by considering it as a uniformly loaded

candiliver with fc as the uniform load. The maximum bending moment occurs at the
junction of the skirt and bearing plate

f c b l2
Mmax =
2

325
where l is difference between outer radius of bearing plate and outer radius of skirt =
2

b is Circumferential length = 3.14 × DObp

Stress for maximum bending moment f = 15.75 (given)

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 42 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

M max
F =
b t 2B

where tB is bearing plate thickness ,b is circum ferential length

3 f c l2
f =
t 2B

3× 162.52 × 0.076
15.25 =
t 2B

tB = 19.56 mm

Anchor bolt design

Minimum stress between bearing plate and the concrete foundation will be

W min M
(fc ) min = + w
A Z

Wmin = weight of empty vessel = 95% of total

= 95000 kg

95000 163878.86
(fc ) min = +
1318230.9 803173007

= 0718 kgf / mm2

Since (fc ) min is +ve. It is necessary to find coefficient of stability Y

W min × R
Y =
Mw

where R is arm of force of weight of vessel = 0.42 x Do = 0.42 × 2421 = 1016.82

95000 ×1016.82
Y =
163878.86

= 589.44

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 43 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Since (fc)min > 0 & Y > 1.5 , vessel is need not be anchored in this case the bolts are used
only for fixing the vessel to the foundation

Dsk
No of bolts n =
600

Where Dsk = skirt diameter (outer) & n should be a multiple of of 4

2421
n =
600

n = 4 (it should be a multiple of 4)

In general diameter should be at least (db) 24mm

3.14 ×24 2
Area of bolts Ab =
4

= 452.16 mm2

Approximate value of load on each bolt Pbolt ( load on one bolt)

f c min A b
Pbolt =
n

0.0718× 1318230.9
=
4

= 23682.76 kgf

P bolt
Stess on one bolt,fbolt =
Ab

23682.76
=
452.16

= 52.37 kgf / mm2

Since f > allowable stress on bolt material (6.5 kgf / mm2 ,given ) increase no of bolts

Again, assume n = 32

0.0718× 1318230.9
Pbolt =
32

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 44 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= 2960.345 kg

2960.345
fbolt =
452.16

= 6.5 kgf / mm2

Here, fbolt is less than allowable stess on bolt material

Number of bolts is n = 32

6.12 DESIGN SUMMARY

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 45 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Column diameter 2.249 m

Weir length 1.574 m

Weir height 50 mm

Valve diameter 38.1 mm

Pitch 0.09525 m

Tray spacing 450 mm

Tray thickness 3 mm

Theoretical stages 56

Actual stages 80

Percentage flooding 60

Absolute entrainment .3735 kmol/hr

Pressure drop 90.5 mm

Efficiency 70%

Shell thickness 36 mm

Height of the column 40 m

Height of the skirt 2m

Skirt diameter 2421 mm

Skirt thickness 63 mm

Thickness of bearing plate 20 mm

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 46 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Number of bolts 32

Table 7.2 Design Summary

CHAPTER 8

REBOILER DESIGN
8.1 INTODUCTION

The function of a reboiler is to enhance the vapour traffic in the stripping section of the
distillation column. Here, the liquid from the stripping section of the propylene-propane
splitter is fed into a thermosyphon reboiler which constitutes propane at its bubble point.
Steam is used to vapourise the liquid propane and the vapours are fed back to the column.
The vapour flow rate to the column must be specified based on which the design
considerations are made.
In thermosyphon reboilers, performance is determined by the interrelated thermal and
hydraulic characteristics, of the reboiler and the interconnecting piping. Circulation is
established through the reboiler by the difference between the hydraulic head of the
liquid in the column and of the two phase mixture in the reboiler. Raising the liquid level
in the column, relative to the reboiler increases this difference in hydrostatic head and
thus increases the rate at which the fluid to be vaporized flows through the reboiler.
Hence the hydraulic characteristics as well as heat transfer must be taken into the
consideration while designing the reboiler.

8.2 ENERGY BALANCE

Inlet temperature of liquid = 58.5 ⁰C

= 331.5 K

Steam temperature = 139 ⁰C

= 412 K

Mass flow rate of feed, m = 41622.41 kg/h

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 47 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= 11.56 kg/s

Mass flow rate of steam, ms = 3352.5 kg/h

= 0.93 kg/s

Properties of Propane

Enthalpy of vapour, Hv = 25.73 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of liquid, HL = 16.046 kJ/mol

Latent heat (λ) = (Enthalpy of vapour, Hv) – (Enthalpy of liquid, HL)

= 25.73 kJ/mol - 16.046 kJ/mol

= 9.684 kJ/mol

= 220.0909 kJ/kg

Heat duty, Q = mλ

= (11.56)× 220.0909

= 2544 kW

Properties of Steam

Latent heat (λs) = 2732.5 kW

Heat duty, Q = ms λs

= (0.93)×( 2732.5)

= 2544 kW

8.3 PROCESS DESIGN

Temperature difference(ΔT) = 80.5 K

Assume , U = 131 Btu/⁰Fft2h

= 131 ×5.6783

= 743.85 J/Km2s

Q
Area, A =
U ∆T

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 48 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

2544640
=
687.07 ×80.5

= 42.49 m2

Assuming tube size

Outer diameter, do = 1 inch

= 1 × 0.0254

= 0.0254 m

Inside diameter, di = 0.834 inch

= 0.834 × 0.0254

= 0.0211 m

Assume length, l = 8 ft

= 8 × 0.3048

= 2.43 m

Heat Transfer Area = Nt × π × Outer diameter × length

Heat Transfer Area

Number of tubes, Nt =
Outer diameter ×length

42.49
=
0.0254 ×2.43

= 218.5

= 219 tubes

Assume triangular pitch

Pitch, P = 0.0317 m

C = -21.3

(Perry’s handbook Eqn 11-74a, Pg no: 11-43)

Bundle diameter, Db = 0.497 m

(Perry’s handbook , Pg no: 11-43)

Assume clearance, c = 0.015 m

Shell diameter, Ds = Db + 2c

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 49 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= 0.497 + 2 × 0.015

= 0.527 m

L
Recirculation ratio, R =
V

where, L is the liquid leaving reboiler

V is the vapor leaving reboiler

Assume, R = 4

V = 41622.41 kg/h = 11.56 kg/s

L = VR

= 41622.41× 4

= 166489.6 kg/h = 46.24 kg/s

Liquid density, ρl = 523.05 kg/m3

Vapour density, ρv = 36.69 kg/m3

Specific volume of inlet, vi = 1/ ρl

= 1/523.05

= 0.001912 m3/kg

V L
Specific volume of outlet, vo = ( )( )
ρv
+
ρ1
V +L

= ( 11.56178
36.69 ) +(
46.24
523.05 )
11.5617 + 46.24

= 0.0069 m3/kg

V0
Average density, ρavg =
ln
( )
Vi
V o −V i

0.0069
=
ln ( 0.001912 )
0.0069−0.001912

= 255.49 kg/m3

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 50 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Average Pressure drop,ΔPavg = l( ρl- ρavg) g

= 3.6576×(523.05-255.49) ×9.81

= 6399.99 Pa

Tube side Pressure drop

Viscosity, µ = 66.78×10-6 Pas

π 2
Flow area,at = ×d N
4 i t

π
= ×0.0212× 219
4

= 0.07 m2

L+V
Mass velocity,G =
at

46.24+ 11.56
=
0.08

= 749.3 kg/m2s

di× G
Reynold’s number, NRe =
µ

0.021× 749.3
=
66.78 × 10−6

= 238095.25

Fanning friction factor, f = 0.25×(0.79×lnNRe-1.64)-2

= 0.25×(0.79×ln(238095.25)-1.64)-2

= 0.003

4 G2
Tube side pressure drop, ΔP = Np¿+ )
2 gc ρ

= 6304.15 Pa

Here Np denotes the number of tube passes = 1

Since there is no much difference between ΔPavg and ΔP the recirculation ratio is fixed.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 51 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Tube side heat transfer coefficient

Specific heat,Cp = 0.146174 kJ/molK

= 3322.13 J/kgK

Thermal conductivity, k = 0.079

Prandtl number, NPr = Cp µ/k

= (3322.13×66.67×10-6)/ 0.079

= 2.79

Nusselt number, NNu = 0.0015NRe0.62 NPr0.33

(Perry’s handbook Eqn 5-95, Pg no: 5-15)

= 4.53

Nusselt number, NNu = (f/2)(NRe-1000)(NPr)/(1+12.7(f/2)1/2(Pr2/3-1)

(Perry’s handbook Eqn 5-48, Pg no: 5-9)

= 813.68

4.53+813.68
Average Nusselt number =
2

= 409.11

NNu = hdi/k

h = (NNu×k)/di

= (409.11×0.079)/ 0.021

= 1531.95 W/m2K

Shell side calculation

Since steam is the shell side fluid, the heat transfer coefficient for the shell side is taken
as 6000 W/m2K (from Chemical Process Design and Integration – Robin Smith, pg no.
344)

Shell side heat transfer coefficient,

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 52 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

hs = 6000 W/m2K

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

xw = (do-di)/2

= (0.0254-0.021)/2

= 0.0021

Thermal conductivity ,kw = 16.29 W/mK

Mean diameter,dm = (do+di)/2

= 0.023 m

1 1 d0 xw do
= + + + Rd
U new hs hi d i kw dm

= 0.00117 m2k/W

Unew = 848.5 W/m2K

Q
Anew =
U new ΔT

2544.64 ×1000
=
848.5 ×80.5

\ = 37.25 m2

Here , Anew corresponds to the required area and A corresponds to the provided area.

From the above calculation, it is evident that the provided area is greater than required
area.

Shell side pressure drop calculation

Take pressure drop as 50 per cent of that calculated using the inlet flow and neglecting
viscosity correction

D s L G2 µ w 0.14
ΔPs = 0.5×8fs ( )
De B 2 ρ µ

From Coulson and Richardson, pg 675, equation - 12.26

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 53 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Equivalent diameter, De = 4rH

flow area
= 4×
wetted perimeter
2
√ 3 p2 − π d 0
t
4 8
= 4×
π d0
2

= 0.0184 m

L = 2.43 m

Viscosity, µs = 13.6 × 10-6

Density, ρs = 1.91 kg/m3

Reynold’s number = 22566.5

0.227
Fanning friction factor,fs =
N 0.193
ℜ

0.227
=
22526.50.193

= 0.03

Baffle spacing, Bs = 0.528 m

Clearance between tubes,c1 = P-do

= 0.03175-0.0254

= 0.00635m

Shell side cross flow area, as = (c1DsBs)/P

= (0.00635×0.528×0.528)/0.0317

= 0.055 m2

ms
Mass Velocity, Gs =
as

0.93
=
0.055

= 16.6 kg/m2s

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 54 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Substituting the above values, the shell side pressure drop

ΔPs = 1143.2 Pa

8.4 DESIGN SUMMARY

Recirculation ratio - 4

Design Heat transfer Coefficient - 848.5 W/m2K

Tube side ΔP - 6304.15 Pa

Shell side ΔP - 1143.2 Pa

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 55 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

CHAPTER 9
COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
9.1 Cost estimation

A preliminary economic analysis is performed for the overall plan. Due to lack of recent
data, different cost estimates are done based on cost indices and capacity. However, the
present analysis will give a fair idea about the profitability of the plant.

Since the exact cost of the plant is not found, the calculations are done based on the
purchased equipment cost. We have the total purchased equipment cost of Rs.389985200 for
the year 2007.

Marshall & Swift Equipment cost Index

Year 2007 2013

Cost Index 1373.3 1558.7

Table 9.1: Marshall & Swift Equipment cost Index:

Total purchased equipment cost for the year 2007 = 389985200

1558.7
Total purchased equipment cost for the year 2013 = 389985200×
1373.7

= 449890782.8

Estimation of Capital Investment Cost:

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 56 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

I. Direct Costs: material and labour involved in actual installation of complete facility
(70-85% of fixed-capital investment)

A. Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation

+painting (50-60% of Fixed-capital investment)

1. Purchased equipment cost (PEC): (15-40% of Fixed-capital investment)

Total Purchased Equipment Cost(P.E.C): Rs. 449890782.8

2. Installation, including insulation and painting:

(25-55% of purchased equipment cost (PEC))
Consider the Installation cost = 45% of Purchased equipment cost
= 45% of Rs. 449890782.8
= 0.45 × 449890782.8
= Rs.202450852.3

3. Instrumentation and controls, installed:

(6-30% of Purchased equipment cost.)
Consider the installation cost = 20% of Purchased equipment cost
= 20% of 449890782.8 = 0.20 × 449890782.8
= Rs. 89978156.56

4. Piping installed: (10-80% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the piping cost = 60% Purchased equipment cost
= 60% of Purchased equipment cost
= 0.60 × 449890782.8
= Rs. 269934469.7

5. Electrical, installed: (10-40% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider Electrical cost = 20% of Purchased equipment cost
= 20% of 449890782.8
= 0.20 ×449890782.8
= Rs. 89978156.56

B. Buildings, process and Auxiliary: (10-70% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider Buildings,
Process and auxiliary cost = 40% of PEC

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 57 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= 40% of 449890782.8
= 0.40 ×449890782.8
= Rs. 179956313.1

C. Service facilities and yard improvements:(40-100% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the cost of service
Facilities and yard improvement = 70% of PEC
= 70% of 449890782.8
= Rs. 314923548

D. Land: (1-2% of fixed capital investment or 4-8% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the cost of land = 6% PEC

= 6% of 449890782.8

= Rs.26993446.97
Thus,
Direct cost = A+B+C+D
= Rs. 1624105726

II.Indirect costs: expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of
actual installation of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital investment)

A. Engineering and Supervision: (5-30% of direct costs)

Consider the cost of engineering
and supervision = 10% of Direct costs
= 10% of 1624105726
= Rs. 162410572.6

B. Construction Expense and Contractor’s fee: (6-30% of direct costs)

Consider the construction expense
and contractor’s fee = 15% of Direct costs
= 15% of 1624105726
= Rs. 243615858.9

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 58 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

C. Contingency: (5-15% of Fixed-capital investment or 20% to 40% of PEC)

Consider the contingency cost = 30% PEC
= 30% of 449890782.8
= Rs. 134967234.8
Thus,
Indirect Costs = A+B+C
= Rs. 540993666.3

III. Fixed Capital Investment:

Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs

= 1624105726 + 540993666.3
i.e., Fixed capital investment = Rs. 2165099392

IV. Working Capital: (10-20% of Fixed-capital investment)(FCI)

Consider the Working Capital = 15% of Fixed-capital investment

i.e., Working capital = 15% of FCI

= 15% of 2165099392
= Rs. 324764908.9

V. Total Capital Investment (TCI):

Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital
= 2165099392 + 324764908.9
i.e., Total capital investment = Rs. 2489864301

Estimation of Total Product cost:

Note that all the percentages are expressed on an annual basis.

I. Manufacturing Cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead cost.

A. Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)

1. Depreciation: (depends on life period, salvage value and method of

calculation-about 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3% for
Building Value for Buildings

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 59 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Consider depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment

and 2% building Value for Buildings
i.e., Depreciation = (0.10 ×2165099392) + (0.02×153876207.8)
= Rs. 219587463.4

2. Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the local taxes = 3% of fixed capital investment
= 0.03× 2165099392
= Rs. 64952981.76

3. Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the Insurance = 1.0% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Insurance = 0.01 × 2165099392
= Rs. 21650993.92

4. Rent: (8-12% of value of rented land and buildings)

Consider rent = 10% of value of rented land and buildings
= 10% of 23081431.2
= 0.10× 23081431.2
Rent = Rs. 2308143

Thus,
Fixed Charges = 219587463.356+ 64952981.76+ 21650993.92+
2308143
= Rs. 308499582.036

B. Direct Production Cost: (about 60% of total product cost)

Let Rs. X be the total product cost.

i. Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of raw materials = 30% of total product cost

Raw material cost = 30% of X

Raw material cost = Rs.0.3X

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 60 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

ii. Operating Labour (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of operating labour = 15% of total product cost

Operating labour cost = 10% of X

Operating labour cost = Rs. 0.10X

iii. Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour (DS & CL): (10-25% of OL)

Consider the cost for Direct

supervisory and clerical labour = 20% of OL

= 20% of 0.15X

= 0.2×0.15X

Direct supervisory and

clerical labour cost = Rs. 0.03X

iv. Utilities: (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Utilities = 15% of total product cost

Utilities cost = 10% of X

i.e., Utilities cost = Rs. 0.10X

v. Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the maintenance

and repair cost = 5% of fixed capital investment

= 0.05×2165099392

= Rs. 108254969.6

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 61 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

vi. Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)

Consider the cost of

Operating supplies = 10% of M & R

Operating supplies cost = 10% of 108254969.6

= 0.10 × 108254969.6

Operating supplies cost = Rs. 10825496.96

vii. Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of OL)

Consider the Laboratory charges = 15% of OL

Laboratory charges = 15% of 0.15X

= 0.15×0.15X

Laboratory charges = Rs. 0.0225X

viii. Patent and Royalties: (0-6% of total product cost)

Consider Patent and royalties = 5% of total product cost

Patent and Royalties = 5% of X

Patent and Royalties cost = Rs. 0.05X

Thus, Direct Production Cost = Rs. 0.6025X + 119080466.56

C. Plant overhead Costs (50-70% of Operating labour, supervision, and maintenance or

5-15% of total product cost); includes for the following: general plant upkeep and
overhead, payroll overhead, packaging, medical services, safety and protection,
restaurants, recreation, salvage, laboratories, and storage facilities.

Consider the plant overhead cost = 10% of total product cost.

Plant overhead cost = Rs. 0.1X

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 62 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Thus,

Manufacture cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead costs.

Manufacture cost = 0.6025X +119080466.56 + 308499582.036 + 0.1X

Manufacture cost = Rs. 427580048.6 + 0.7025X

II. General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs

+ research and development costs

A. Administrative costs: (about 15% of costs for operating labour, supervision, and
maintenance or 2-6% of total product cost); includes costs for executive salaries, clerical
wages, legal fees, office supplies, and communications.

Consider the Administrative costs = 4%TPC

Administrative costs = 0.04X

Administrative costs = Rs. 0.04X

B. Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); includes costs for sales
offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.

Consider

Distribution and selling costs = 10% of total product cost

Distribution and selling costs = 10% of TPC

Distribution and selling costs = 0.1X

C. Research and Development costs: (about 5% of total product cost)

Consider

Research and development costs = 5% of total product cost

Research and development costs = 5% of X

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 63 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Research and development costs = 0.05 × X

Research and Development costs = Rs. 0.05X

Thus, General Expenses = Rs. 0.19X

III. Total Product cost = Manufacture cost + General Expenses

X = 427580048.6 + 0.7025X + 0.19X

X = 3977488824.18

Total product cost = Rs.3977488825

IV. Gross Earnings/Income:

Gross earnings or gross income = total income – total product cost

Estimation of total income:

Wholesale selling price of propylene per ton = Rs. 93620

For a 335 working days we have:

Annual propylene production = 50000 ton

Total Income = Selling price × Quantity of product(tons)

= 93620 × 50000

Total Income = Rs. 4681000000

Gross income = Total Income – Total Product Cost

= 4681000000 – 3977488825

Gross Income = Rs. 703511175

Let the Tax rate be 40% (common)

Taxes = 40% of Gross income

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 64 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= 40% of 703511175

Taxes = Rs. 281404470

Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes

= Gross income × (1- Tax rate)

Net profit = Rs. 703511175 × 0.6

= Rs.422106705

(a) Rate of Return:

Net profit ×100

Rate of return =
Total Capital Investment

422106705 ×100
Rate of Return =
2489864301

Rate of Return = 16.95%

(b) Break even Analysis:

Data available:

Annual Direct Production Cost = Rs. 2386493295

Annual Fixed charges, overhead and

general expenses = Rs. 12529,81,754

Total Annual sales = Rs. 3639475049

For a 335 working days we have:

Annual propylene production = 50000 tonne

Average Direct production cost per

238649325
tonne of product =
50000

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 65 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

= Rs. 47729.86 per ton.

Let ‘n’ be the production rate of propylene

Number of tons needed for a break-even point is given by

Fixed charges + direct charges = selling cost

308499582.036+ (47729.86 x n) = (n x 93620)

n = 6722.57 tons/year (propylene)

n = 6722.57 TPA propylene

Hence, the break even production rate is 13.45% of the considered plant capacity.

(c) Profitability Analysis:

Finding payback period:

Time (end of After Tax Depreciation Cash Cumulative Cash

year) Profit(Rs) (Rs) Flow(Rs) Flow(Rs)
0 -2489864301 0 -2489864301 -2489864301
1 422106705 219587463.4 641694168.4 -1848170133
2 422106705 219587463.4 641694168.4 -1206475964
3 422106705 219587463.4 641694168.4 -564781795.8
4 422106705 219587463.4 641694168.4 76912372.6
5 422106705 219587463.4 641694168.4 718606541
Table 9.1: Finding payback period

Therefore the payback period is in between 3rd and 4th year.

Payback period = 3.85 years

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 66 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Figure 9.1 Cash flow diagram

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 67 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

CHAPTER 10
PLANT LAYOUT

Plant location refers to the choice of the region and the selection of a particular site for setting up
a business or a factory. But the choice is made only after considering cost and benefits of
different alternative sites. It is a strategic decision that cannot be changed once taken. If at all
changed only at considerable loss, the location should be selected as per its own requirements
and circumstances. Each individual plant is a case in itself.

Plant layout is often a compromise between a number of factors such as:

 The need to keep distances for transfer of material between plant storage units to a
minimum to reduce costs and risks.
 The geographical limitations of the site.
 Interaction with existing or planned facilities on site such as roadways, drainage etc.
 Interaction between other plants on site.
 The need for plant operability and maintainability.
 The need to locate the hazardous materials as far as possible from site boundaries and
people living in the neighborhood.
 The need to prevent confinement where release of flammable substances occurs.
 The need to provide emergency escape routes for on-site personals.
 The need to provide acceptable working conditions for the operators.

The most important factors of plant layout as far as safety aspects are concerned are those to:

 Prevent, limit and/or mitigate escalation of adjacent events (domino effect).

 Ensure safety within on-site occupied buildings.
 Control access of unauthorized personnel.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 68 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

 Facilitate access for emergency services.

The lay out is provided in the subsequent page.

The main raw materials required for the manufacture of high-quality (industrial) bitumen
(also known as asphalt bitumen) are crude oil, water and electricity. Crude oil is mainly obtained
from Kuwait or Iran and would be transported in bulk quantities through container ships mostly.
In this aspect if we desire to locate our plant in Kerala, the best place would be in Ernakulam as
there is high load of electricity required for pre-heating the feedstock and to run high-capacity air
compressors which can be easily acquired in the Udyogmandal region of Kalamassery in
Ernakulam because of the already established industries located there such as Hindalco
Aluminum Smelters which requires a high amount of electricity. Therefore no new facility has to
be made for obtaining electricity. In the case of water, the presence of river in the nearby
Ambalamugal furnishes all the needs of the water.

The products and byproducts obtained during the manufacture are of high demand
in the adjoining units of Kochi Refineries Limited in Ambalamugal especially for the production
of exclusive products such as rubberized bitumen which is useful in construction of roads of
world-class standards. The main customers of such types of blended bitumen are the construction
companies.

Therefore it would be at the best interest of the company both economically and
strategically to locate itself in the Ambalamugal area as the transportation charges and product
sales can be easily achieved and a strategic upper hand in the sales of the product can also be
maintained.

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 69 GEC Kozhikode

 Project 2013-14

Fig 10.1 Plant Layout

1. Security office 2. Time office 3. Front office 4. Parking 5. Administrative block 6. Garden 7.
Cafeteria 8.auditorium 9.warehouse and maintenance 10.dispensary 11.crude oil storage tank
12.vaccum residue storage tank 13.cooled water plant 14.charge stock plant 15.pump house
16.FCCU 17.control room 18.mounted bullets 19.Centralized quality control lab 20.employee
rest house 21.electrical substation 22.site office 23.fire station 24.flare stack 25.effluent
treatment plant

Dept. Of Chemical Engg. 70 GEC Kozhikode