RELIGIONS

OF THE
WORLD

BUDDHISM

CHRISTIANITY

CONFUCIANISM

HINDUISM

INDIGENOUS RELIGIONS

ISLAM

JUDAISM

NEW RELIGIONS

SHINTO

SIKHISM

TAOISM
 RELIGIONS
OF THE
WORLD

BUDDHISM
Leslie D. Alldritt
Associate Professor of Religion and Philosophy
Northland College

Series Consulting Editor Ann Marie B. Bahr

Professor of Religious Studies,
South Dakota State University

Foreword by Martin E. Marty

Professor Emeritus,
University of Chicago Divinity School
FRONTIS: There are approximately 360 million Buddhists worldwide, most
living on the continent of Asia. The countries with the largest per-capita
population of Buddhists are Thailand (95 percent) and Cambodia (90 percent).

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Alldritt, Leslie D.
Buddhism /Leslie D. Alldritt.
p. cm.—(Religions of the world)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7910-7855-8 (alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7910-8354-3 (pbk.)
1. Buddhism. I. Title. II. Series.
BQ4012.A55 2004
294.3—dc22
2004011864

All links and web adresses were checked and verified to be correct at the time
of publication. Because of the dynamic nature of the web, some addresses
and links may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid.
 CONTENTS
Foreword by Martin E. Marty vi
Preface by Ann Marie B. Bahr xi
1 Introduction 2
2 Foundations 18
3 Scriptures 39
4 Worldview 73
5 Worship 84
6 Growing Up Buddhist 95
7 Cultural Expressions 112
8 Holidays 127
9 Memories 141
10 Buddhism in the World Today 154

Chronology and Timeline 168

Notes 1 72
Glossary 1 76
Bibliography 180
Further Reading 186
Websites 191
Index 192
 Foreword
Martin E. Marty

n this very day, like all other days, hundreds of millions

O of people around the world will turn to religion for
various purposes.
On the one hand, there are purposes that believers in any or
all faiths, as well as unbelievers, might regard as positive and
benign. People turn to religion or, better, to their own particu-
lar faith, for the experience of healing and to inspire acts of
peacemaking. They want to make sense of a world that can all
too easily overwhelm them because it so often seems to be
meaningless and even absurd. Religion then provides them
with beauty, inspires their souls, and impels them to engage in
acts of justice and mercy.
To be informed citizens of our world, readers have good
reason to learn about these features of religions that mean so
much to so many. Those who study the faiths do not have to
agree with any of them and could not agree with all of them,
different as they are. But they need basic knowledge of religions
to understand other people and to work out strategies for
living with them.
On the other hand—and religions always have an “other
hand”—believers in any of the faiths, and even unbelievers who
are against all of them, will find their fellow humans turning
to their religions for purposes that seem to contradict all those
positive features. Just as religious people can heal and be healed,
they can also kill or be killed in the name of faith. So it has been
through history.

vi
 Foreword vii

This killing can be literal: Most armed conflicts and much

terrorism today are inspired by the stories, commands, and
promises that come along with various faiths. People can
and do read and act upon scriptures that can breed prejudice
and that lead them to reject other beliefs and believers. Or
the killing can be figurative, which means that faiths can be
deadening to the spirit. In the name of faith, many people are
repressed, oppressed, sometimes victimized and abused.
If religion can be dangerous and if it may then come with
“Handle with Care” labels, people who care for their own
security, who want to lessen tensions and inspire concord,
have to equip themselves by learning something about the
scriptures and stories of their own and other faiths. And if
they simply want to take delight in human varieties and
imaginings, they will find plenty to please them in lively and
reliable accounts of faiths.
A glance at television or at newspapers and magazines on
almost any day will reveal stories that display one or both sides of
religion. However, these stories usually have to share space with
so many competing accounts, for example, of sports and enter-
tainment or business and science, that writers and broadcasters
can rarely provide background while writing headlines. Without
such background, it is hard to make informed judgments.
The series RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD is designed to provide
not only background but also rich illustrative material about
the foreground, presenting the many features of faiths that
are close at hand. Whoever reads all the volumes in the series
will find that these religions have some elements in common.
Overall, one can deduce that their followers take certain things
with ultimate seriousness: human dignity, devotion to the sacred,
the impulse to live a moral life. Yet few people are inspired
by religions in general. They draw strength from what they
hold particularly. These particulars of each faith are not always
contradictory to those of others, but they are different in
important ways. It is simply a fact that believers are informed
and inspired by stories told in separate and special ways.
viii Foreword

A picture might make all this vivid: Reading about a religion,

visiting a place of worship, or coming into the company of those
who believe in and belong to a particular faith, is like entering a
room. Religions are, in a sense, spiritual “furnished apartments.”
Their adherents have placed certain pictures on the wall and
moved in with their own kind of furnishings, having developed
their special ways of receiving or blocking out light from such
places. Some of their figurative apartments are airy, and some
stress strength and security.
Philosopher George Santayana once wrote that, just as we do
not speak language, we speak particular languages, so we have
religion not as a whole but as religions “in particular.” The
power of each living and healthy religion, he added, consists in
“its special and surprising message and in the bias which
that revelation gives to life.” Each creates “another world to
live in.”
The volumes in this series are introductions to several spiritual
furnished apartments, guides to the special and surprising
messages of these large and complex communities of faith, or
religions. These are not presented as a set of items in a cafeteria
line down which samplers walk, tasting this, rejecting that, and
moving on. They are not bids for window-shoppers or shoppers
of any sort, though it may be that a person without faith might
be drawn to one or another expression of the religions here
described. The real intention of the series is to educate.
Education could be dull and drab. Picture a boring professor
standing in front of a class and droning on about distant realities.
The authors in this series, however, were chosen because they
can bring readers up close to faiths and, sometimes better, to
people of faith; not to religion but to people who are religious
in particular ways.
As one walks the streets of a great metropolis, it is not
easy and may not even be possible to deduce the faith-
commitments of those one passes unless they wear a particular
costume—some garb or symbol prescribed by their faith.
Therefore, while passing them by, it is not likely that one
 Foreword ix

can learn much about the dreams and hopes, the fears and
intentions, of those around them.
These books, in effect, stop the procession of passersby and bid
visitors to enter those sanctuaries where communities worship.
Each book could serve as a guide to worship. Several years ago,
a book called How to Be a Perfect Stranger offered brief counsel
on how to feel and to be at home among worshipers from other
traditions. This series recognizes that we are not strangers to
each other only in sanctuaries. We carry over our attachments
to conflicting faiths where we go to work or vote or serve in the
military or have fun. These “carryovers” tend to come from the
basic stories and messages of the several faiths.
The publishers have taken great pains to assign their work to
authors of a particular sort. Had these been anti-religious or
anti – the religion about which they write, they would have
done a disservice. They would, in effect, have been blocking
the figurative doors to the faiths or smashing the furniture in
the sanctuaries. On the other hand, it would be wearying and
distorting had the assignment gone to public relations agents,
advertisers who felt called to claim “We’re Number One!”
concerning the faith about which they write.
Fair-mindedness and accuracy are the two main marks
of these authors. In rather short compass, they reach a wide
range of subjects, focusing on everything one needs to advance
basic understanding. Their books are like mini-encyclopedias,
full of information. They introduce the holidays that draw
some neighbors to be absent from work or school for a day
or a season. They include galleries of notable figures in each
faith-community.
Since most religions in the course of history develop different
ways in the many diverse places where they thrive, or because they
attract intelligent, strong-willed leaders and writers, they come up
with different emphases. They divide and split off into numberless
smaller groups: Protestant and Catholic and Orthodox Christians,
Shiite and Sunni Muslims, Orthodox and Reform Jews, and many
kinds of Buddhists and Hindus. The writers in this series do
x Foreword

justice to these variations, providing a kind of map without which

one will get lost in the effort to understand.
Some years ago, a rabbi friend, Samuel Sandmel, wrote a
book about his faith called The Enjoyment of Scripture. What
an astonishing concept, some might think: After all, religious
scriptures deal with desperately urgent, life-and-death-and-
eternity issues. They have to be grim and those who read them
likewise. Not so. Sandmel knew what the authors of this series
also know and impart: The journeys of faith and the encounter
with the religions of others include pleasing and challenging
surprises. I picture many a reader coming across something on
these pages that at first looks obscure or forbidding, but then,
after a slightly longer look, makes sense and inspires an
“aha!” There are many occasions for “aha-ing!” in these books.
One can also wager that many a reader will come away from
the encounters thinking, “I never knew that!” or “I never
thought of that before.” And they will be more ready than they
had been to meet strangers of other faiths in a world that so
many faiths have to share, or that they get to share.

Martin E. Marty
The University of Chicago
 Preface
Ann Marie B. Bahr

he majority of people, both in the United States and around

T the world, consider religion to be an important part of their
lives. Beyond its significance in individual lives, religion also plays
an important role in war and peace, politics, social policy, ethics,
and cultural expression. Yet few people feel well-prepared to
carry on a conversation about religion with friends, colleagues, or
their congressional delegation. The amount of knowledge people
have about their own faith varies, but very few can lay claim to a
solid understanding of a religion other than their own. As the
world is drawn closer together by modern communications, and
the religions of the world jostle each other in religiously plural
societies, the lack of our ability to dialogue about this aspect of
our lives results in intercultural conflict rather than cooperation.
It means that individuals of different religious persuasions
will either fight about their faiths or avoid the topic of religion
altogether. Neither of these responses aids in the building of
healthy, religiously plural societies. This gap in our knowledge is
therefore significant, and grows increasingly more significant as
religion plays a larger role in national and international politics.
The authors and editors of this series are dedicated to the task
of helping to prepare present and future decision-makers to deal
with religious pluralism in a healthy way. The objective scholar-
ship found in these volumes will blunt the persuasive power of
popular misinformation. The time is short, however. Even now,
nations are dividing along religious lines, and “neutral” states as
well as partisan religious organizations are precariously, if not

xi
xii Preface

always intentionally, tipping delicate balances of power in favor

of one religious group or another with doles of aid and support
for certain policies or political leaders. Intervention in the affairs
of other nations is always a risky business, but doing it without
understanding of the religious sensitivities of the populace
dramatically increases the chances that even well-intentioned
intervention will be perceived as political coercion or cultural
invasion. With such signs of ignorance already manifest, the day
of reckoning for educational policies that ignore the study of the
world’s religions cannot be far off.
This series is designed to bring religious studies scholarship to
the leaders of today and tomorrow. It aims to answer the questions
that students, educators, policymakers, parents, and citizens might
have about the new religious milieu in which we find ourselves.
For example, a person hearing about a religion that is foreign to
him or her might want answers to questions like these:
• How many people believe in this religion? What is its
geographic distribution? When, where, and how did
it originate?
• What are its beliefs and teachings? How do believers
worship or otherwise practice their faith?
• What are the primary means of social reinforcement?
How do believers educate their youth? What are their
most important communal celebrations?
• What are the cultural expressions of this religion? Has
it inspired certain styles of art, architecture, literature,
or music? Conversely, does it avoid art, literature,
or music for religious reasons? Is it associated with
elements of popular culture?
• How do the people who belong to this religion remember
the past? What have been the most significant moments
in their history?
• What are the most salient features of this religion today?
What is likely to be its future?
 Preface xiii

We have attempted to provide as broad coverage as possible of

the various religious forces currently shaping the planet. Judaism,
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism,
Sikhism, and Shinto have each been allocated an entire volume.
In recognition of the fact that many smaller ancient and new
traditions also exercise global influence, we present coverage
of some of these in two additional volumes titled “Indigenous
Religions” and “New Religions.” Each volume in the series
discusses demographics and geography, founder or foundational
period, scriptures, worldview, worship or practice, growing up
in the religion, cultural expressions, calendar and holidays,
history, and the religion in the world today.
The books in this series are written by scholars. Their approach
to their subject matter is neutral and objective. They are not
trying to convert readers to the religion they are describing.
Most scholars, however, value the religion they have chosen to
study, so you can expect the general tone of these books to be
appreciative rather than critical.
Religious studies scholars are experts in their field, but they
are not critics in the same sense in which one might be an art,
film, or literary critic. Religious studies scholars feel obligated
to describe a tradition faithfully and accurately, and to interpret
it in a way that will allow nonbelievers as well as believers to
grasp its essential structure, but they do not feel compelled to
pass judgment on it. Their goal is to increase knowledge and
understanding.
Academic writing has a reputation for being dry and uninspir-
ing. If so, religious studies scholarship is an exception. Scholars of
religion have the happy task of describing the words and deeds of
some of the world’s most amazing people: founders, prophets,
sages, saints, martyrs, and bodhisattvas.
The power of religion moves us. Today, as in centuries past,
people thrill to the ethical vision of Confucianism, or the dancing
beauty of Hinduism’s images of the divine. They are challenged
by the one, holy God of the Jews, and comforted by the saving
promise of Christianity. They are inspired by the stark purity of
xiv Preface

Islam, by the resilience of tribal religions, by the energy and

innovation of the new religions. The religions have retained such
a strong hold on so many people’s lives over such a long period
of time largely because they are unforgettable.
Religious ideas, institutions, and professions are among the
oldest in humanity’s history. They have outlasted the world’s
great empires. Their authority and influence have endured far
beyond that of Earth’s greatest philosophers, military leaders,
social engineers, or politicians. It is this that makes them so
attractive to those who seek power and influence, whether such
people intend to use their power and influence for good or
evil. Unfortunately, in the hands of the wrong person, religious
ideas might as easily be responsible for the destruction of the
world as for its salvation. All that stands between us and that
outcome is the knowledge of the general populace. In this as in
any other field, people must be able to critically assess what
they are being told.
The authors and editors of this series hope that all who seek
to wield the tremendous powers of religion will do so with
unselfish and noble intent. Knowing how unlikely it is that that
will always be the case, we seek to provide the basic knowledge
necessary to critically assess the degree to which contemporary
religious claims are congruent with the history, scriptures, and
genius of the traditions they are supposed to represent.

Ann Marie B. Bahr

South Dakota State University
1

Introduction

All that we are is the result of what we have thought:

it is founded on our thoughts.
If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought,
pain follows him, as the wheel follows
the foot of the ox that draws the carriage.
—The Buddha, “The Twin-Verses”
 Introduction 3
IMPRESSIONS OF BUDDHISM
hat do you think of when you hear the word Buddhism? Do
W you think of places in Asia, such as China or Japan? Maybe you
think of martial arts, such as karate or kung fu. Until very recently,
these were the impressions many people in the United States
had of Buddhism. However, Buddhism is now becoming better
known and different images of Buddhism may come to mind.
Perhaps you have heard of the Dalai Lama, the Nobel Peace
Prize winner and great advocate for human rights. Maybe you
have seen movies that featured Buddhism such as Kundun or
Little Buddha, which starred Keanu Reeves as the Buddha. If
you have visited a bookstore recently, you may have encountered
a section that contained books on Asian thought and marveled
at the many books on the shelves. You might even know that
some famous people are Buddhists, such as Richard Gere, Steven
Seagal, Tina Turner, and members of the music group the Beastie
Boys. You may actually know someone or even have a friend
who is a Buddhist.

DEMOGRAPHICS AND DISTRIBUTION

Buddhism is considered a “world religion” because it has spread
all over the globe. Listed below are the five most populous
religions in the United States, by number of devotees, and changes
from 1990 to 2000:
RELIGION 2001 EST. PERCENT OF PERCENT
POPULATION U.S. POP., CHANGE
2000 1990–2000

Christianity 159,030,000 76.5% +5%

Nonreligious 27,539,000 13.2% +110%

Judaism 2,831,000 1.3% -10%

Islam 1,104,000 0.5% +109%

Buddhism 1,082,000 0.5% +170%

(Source: adherents.com, ARIS )

4 BUDDHISM

The fact that there are approximately as many Buddhists as

Muslims in the United States is surprising to many, and so is the
fact that Buddhism is increasing more rapidly as a percentage of
the United States’ population than any other group listed. The
growth in the number of Buddhists has come from two sources:
(1) Buddhists who have immigrated to the United States from
other countries, and (2) people already residing in the United
States who have converted to Buddhism or been raised Buddhist.
The above data underscore the importance of learning about
other religious traditions. While Christianity dominates the
religious sphere in the United States, the substantial percentage
increase of Muslims and Buddhists should encourage us to study
these traditions. Some estimates of the number of Buddhists who
reside in the United States actually range up to three million,
which, if true, would mean that more self-identified Buddhists
live in the United States than self-identified Jews!
There are approximately 360 million Buddhists worldwide,
making Buddhism the fourth-largest religion in the world after
Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. The countries with the largest
per-capita population of Buddhists are all found in Asia:
COUNTRY PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION
THAT IS BUDDHIST

Thailand 95%
Cambodia 90%
Myanmar 88%
Bhutan 75%
Sri Lanka 70%
Tibet 65%*
Laos 60%
Vietnam 55%
Japan 50%*
Macau 45% (below 50 percent but with
a substantial population)
Taiwan 43%
(Source: adherents.com. * The accuracy of the data on Tibet and Japan is
questionable; this point will be taken up later in the text.)
 Introduction 5
We have now seen that there are millions of Buddhists in the
West and hundreds of millions of Buddhists in the world. The
next logical questions might be, “Where did Buddhism begin?”
and “When did it arrive in all of these other countries?”

HISTORY OF BUDDHIST EXPANSION ACROSS ASIA

India
Buddhism began in India around 500 B.C.E., where it grew and
flourished. The three major types of Buddhism (Theravâda,
Mahâyâna, and Vajrayâna) had their beginnings in India. In
the third century B.C.E., India’s Emperor Aśoka (Ashoka) sent
Buddhist missionaries to surrounding areas and countries. The
first set of Buddhist scriptures, the Pali Canon, was composed in
India. Great monastic universities were built, and scholars
from the rest of Asia traveled to India to learn in these universi-
ties. Buddhist art and philosophy originated in India. However,
after the thirteenth century C.E., Buddhism almost disappeared
from India, leaving only small remnant Buddhist communities
in the land of its birth.

Sri Lanka
In the middle of the third century B.C.E., Emperor Aśoka sent
Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka, where the king was converted
to Buddhism. By the second century B.C.E., Buddhism had
become the dominant religion in Sri Lanka. The form of Buddhism
that flourished here is called Theravâda Buddhism. Sri Lanka was
a center of Buddhist culture and scholarship in the first centuries
of the Common Era. Buddhism never died out in Sri Lanka, as it
had in India, but it suffered periods of decline. The most recent
of these occurred under Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonial
rule. However, a successful movement to revive Buddhism in
Sri Lanka began in the latter half of the nineteenth century;
this movement bore fruit that is still evident today.

Central Asia
Emperor Aśoka also sent missionaries to the northwest, into
 6 BUDDHISM

The three major branches of Buddhism—Mahâyâna, Theravâda,

and Vajrayâna—all originated in India. Today, the largest branch is
Mahâyâna Buddhism, with 185,000,000 adherents worldwide.

present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. This region, which

straddled the ancient trade routes, became another center of
Buddhist learning. Two giant Buddha statues were carved out of
a mountain in Afghanistan between the second and the fifth
centuries C.E., and destroyed by the Taliban in February–March
2001. The Buddhists had left the area by the fifteenth century,
 Introduction 7
but long before that occurred the Chinese were exposed for
the first time to Buddhism as they traveled along these central
Asian trade routes.

China
The Han dynasty extended its power into Central Asia in the
first century B.C.E., and the Chinese people learned about
Buddhism, most likely from the monks dwelling in the cave
monasteries located along the trade routes. A community of
Chinese Buddhists existed by the middle of the first century C.E.
The first major task of Chinese Buddhism was the translation
of texts from Indian languages into Chinese. As Buddhism grew
in importance, a number of different schools developed. After
a persecution by a Taoist emperor in the middle of the ninth
century, the different schools of Buddhism were combined, and
this combined form of Buddhism has continued to the present
day in China.

Korea
A Chinese monk introduced Korea to Buddhism in the second half
of the fourth century C.E. Shortly after, a monk from Central Asia
arrived in a different part of what is today Korea, but the Central
Asian influence quickly died out. Korean Buddhism derived from
Chinese Buddhism; many Korean monks traveled to China to
study. Buddhism enjoyed royal support in Korea until the four-
teenth century. From the end of the fourteenth century to the
beginning of the twentieth century, Confucianism was the only
official religion in Korea. Buddhism was forcibly suppressed during
this period, but it clung to life. Following the Japanese annexation
(1910) and subsequent occupation of Korea, Buddhism was
allowed to grow, and the revival has continued to the present time.
Today, Buddhism is once again an important influence in Korea.

Japan
In the sixth century C.E., Buddhism was introduced to Japan by
a Korean king, who sent images of the Buddha and Buddhist
8 BUDDHISM

texts as a way of establishing peaceful relations between the two

kingdoms. Prince Shotoku, a devout Buddhist who extended
royal patronage to the religion, did much to promote Buddhism’s
growth in the early seventh century. During his reign, monks
were sent to China to study Buddhism. Beginning in the Nara
period (eighth century), Chinese monks brought many Chinese
Buddhist schools to Japan. Japanese monks continued to enjoy
royal patronage, and they served in administrative positions
and performed other government roles. When political power
was transferred to the samurai warriors at the close of the
twelfth century, Buddhism continued to be treated favorably
by the new rulers for several centuries. During this period,
distinctly Japanese forms of Buddhism arose. From the
sixteenth to the nineteenth century, Buddhism fell out of
favor with the military rulers. In the twentieth century, many
new religious movements developed out of the older forms of
Buddhism. The older forms continued to grow and develop
alongside the newer forms of Buddhism.

Southeast Asia: Myanmar/Burma, Thailand, Cambodia,

Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia
By the early centuries of the Common Era, both Hindu and
Buddhist merchants from India had established trading stations
in Southeast Asia. Various forms of Indian Buddhism were
established in these countries. Sometimes there was also an
infusion of Chinese forms of Buddhism. The type of Buddhism
that eventually came to dominate in each of these countries is
listed below:
Myanmar/Burma Theravâda
Thailand Theravâda
Cambodia Theravâda
Laos Theravâda
Vietnam Mahâyâna
Malaysia and Indonesia Mahâyâna
 Introduction 9
As you can see, Theravâda Buddhism is the most prevalent form
of Buddhism in Southeast Asia. With the exception of Sri Lanka,
this form of Buddhism does not dominate in any Asian country
outside of Southeast Asia.

Tibet
Tibet lay beyond the main trade routes between China and
present-day Afghanistan. Even though Buddhists lived in other
places in Central Asia by the beginning of the Common Era,
Buddhism did not enter Tibet until much later. King Srong-tsan-
gam-po united the warring Tibetan clans for the first time in the
seventh century. His two wives, one from China and the other
from Nepal, were both Buddhists. Before long, the king had
adopted the faith. Tibet’s Buddhism developed through contact
with India. Tibetan kings invited famous Indian scholars and
meditation masters to come to Tibet. After Buddhism faded in
India, Tibetan Buddhism kept many Indian traditions alive, and
used them to develop its own unique form of Buddhism. In the
sixteenth century, the institution of the Dalai Lama was officially
recognized for the first time. In the middle of the twentieth cen-
tury, Tibet came under the control of the Communist leaders of
the People’s Republic of China, and Buddhism was suppressed.
By the seventh century C.E., Buddhism had spread across
Asia. It had subdivided into various schools and made its
home among numerous nationalities. Is there anything that all
these people who practiced Buddhism had in common? What
distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist? Or, in other
words, who is a Buddhist?

WHO IS A BUDDHIST?
What makes a person a Buddhist? While this book will try to
answer this question in more detail over the course of its pages,
it is useful to offer a short definition. A Buddhist is a person who
believes in the major tenets of Buddhist thought as articulated
by the respective traditions of the school of Buddhism that the
believer follows.
10 BUDDHISM

What are the major tenets of Buddhism? All Buddhists look to

Gautama Buddha as the founder of their religion. Importantly,
Buddhists do not claim that the Buddha was a god but only a
human being. This view will be made more complex when we
briefly examine Buddhist history and learn that most Buddhists
are devotional (they worship a deity). Nonetheless, Buddhists
view the founder of their religion as a human rather than a god.
As we will learn, there is not a single sacred book in Buddhism
that would offer an exact parallel to the Jewish Bible, the Christian
Bible, or the Qur’an of Islam. There is a textual tradition in
Buddhism, but Buddhists differ on the importance of one book
or sutra over another. Some schools assert that one sutra is more
complete than others, while others are adherents of a series of
texts, and still others argue for not following any texts.
Buddhists follow an ethical code that includes many of the
same ethical priorities found in other religious traditions: do not
murder, lie, steal, etc. Buddhists apply their ethical code to their
words as well as their deeds. They believe in acting in ways that
are consistent with benevolence and love. A Buddhist views
another person as identical with her or his own self and thus
attempts to treat people and other sentient (conscious) life with
high regard. Correspondingly, many Buddhists may not engage
in such activities as hunting, military service, or eating meat;
however, this is not true for all Buddhists.
Buddhists, with some notable exceptions, are not aggressive
proselytizers. While they do believe that Buddhism is the
correct path, and they furthermore believe that it is an act of
compassion to acquaint others with the dharma (Buddhist
truth or Buddhist teaching), they also acknowledge that some
people may not be ready to pursue the path at this point in their
lives, at least not exclusively. In religious studies, we sometimes
speak of the three “missionary” traditions of Christianity, Islam,
and Buddhism—all three have intentionally spread throughout
the world. Yet, of these three, the global migration of Buddhism
has not been as exclusivist or extensive (or, for that matter, as
bloody) as has the spread of Islam or Christianity. That is not to
 Introduction 11
say, as is sometimes suggested, that Buddhist history is without
its violent episodes and periods of oppression. As with Islam
and Christianity, it is a religion that promotes both peace and
traditions of peace, but it has fallen short of its authentic message
at times.
Most Buddhists are devotional Buddhists: They pray or chant
to a deity similar to the way in which a Christian, Jew, Muslim,

LOVE IN BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY

Love is an important term in every religion in the world. The Christian
theologian, Paul Tillich, regards love as the “drive towards the reunion
of the separated.” Tillich considers the criterion and corrective of
every act of love to be the distinctively Christ-like love called agapê.
Agapê is God’s love for humans in spite of their unworthiness. While
the love between God and the human person can be a very close
relationship, even to the extent of Christ being “in” the believer and
the believer being “in” Christ, the distinction between the believer
and either God or Christ remains. In this kind of love, the “reunion of
the separated” is a participatory love, with the one participating in
the life of the other. It is not, however, a non-dual love because the
distinction between the divine and the human person remains.
Using Tillich’s definition, the Buddhist experience of Awakening
might be described as “Fulfilled Love” because in it the separated are
reunited through the realization that there is no other apart from
oneself. Or, in other words, love arises at the same time as one realizes
the non-dual nature of the Universe. In Awakening to Fulfilled Love,
all obstacles to love are, at last and evermore, overcome.
Love in Buddhism is not simply self-denial for the sake of the other,
for as long as there is a “self” to be denied and an “other” to be
served, one is still living in duality. As long as there is duality (self
and other), the taint of self-interest (hubris) can be mitigated but
not extirpated. Buddhism proposes that genuine love transcends all
dualities and retains no vestige of self-interest.
One might say that as agapê is love “in spite of [our unworthiness],”
Buddhist love is love “just because of [our identity, our non-duality].”
While the theistic traditions focus on a participatory love,
Buddhism proposes what we might call an identity-participatory love
because it includes both the lover and loved in a dynamic, synergistic
at-one-ment.
12 BUDDHISM

or Hindu might. While meditation is an important Buddhist

practice, not as many Buddhists actually meditate as the stereo-
typical portrayal of Buddhism would suggest.
The Buddhist place of worship is called a temple. In addition
to attending worship services, Buddhists will also visit the temple
for special occasions, such as weddings, funerals, or festivals, and
for special blessings. Many Buddhists also practice at home.
They have small altars in their residence, which serve as the focal
point for their prayers or other rituals.
In terms of its social structure, Buddhism is more like Catholic
or Orthodox Christianity than it is like Protestant Christianity.
Buddhism has monks and nuns, that is, it divides the Buddhist
community up into monks, nuns, and laypeople. In Theravâda
Buddhism,1 sangha refers only to those who have chosen a
monastic lifestyle. In Mahâyâna Buddhism, sangha often
means the entire Buddhist community, including monks, nuns,
and laypeople. Buddhist monks and nuns frequently live in
temples and are financially supported by the laypersons. The
laypersons, usually called “householders” in Buddhist literature,
gain merit for this good deed, and receive services from the
monastery (e.g., sermons, performance of rituals) in return for
their economic support. Buddhist temples can vary widely in
scale and design—from simple houses to elaborate multiacre
properties with many subtemples contained within the walls
that enclose the perimeter of the property.
In sum, many of the ethical precepts and even much of the
social structure of Buddhism is very similar to what one might
find in other religious traditions, even Western traditions. When
we turn to consider the worldview of Buddhism, we will find less
similarity with Western religions (although some remains) and
more similarity with Hinduism. Hinduism and Buddhism both
participated in the ancient South Asian worldview. (The two
religions eventually separated geographically and, as they did so,
their worldviews correspondingly diverged.) Ancient Buddhism
was different from ancient Hinduism exactly to the extent that
the Buddha’s teachings differed from the teaching of his Hindu
 Introduction 13
contemporaries. In other words, what distinguished the first
Buddhists was that they were disciples of the Buddha. And what,
exactly, were or are the teachings of the Buddha? The answer to
that question depends on which subgroup of Buddhists you are
asking, and therefore a full explanation will have to wait until a
later chapter. At this point, however, I will touch briefly on a few
teachings that apply to all Buddhists.

KARMA AND REBIRTH

Perhaps one of the most common ideas that people in the
West associate with Buddhism is karma. Buddhists do believe
in karma, but they are not the only ones. All the major religions
born in the South Asian cultural realm—not only Buddhism
but also Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism—share the doctrine
of karma.
Since the word has entered Western vocabulary, you may
already have some idea of what karma means. Karma is the
principle of return: What you give you receive back. So, if I kick
a dog this morning and in the afternoon that dog bites me (or
maybe some other misfortune besets me), that is karma playing
itself out. Contrary to this example, the action that led to the
result is usually unknown, but Buddhists will still say, “It is his
good [or bad] karma that has brought this on,” when something
either positive or negative happens to a person.
Karma literally means “action,” but it is action as accompanied
by the consequences of the action for the doer of the action.
Buddhism is primarily concerned with the moral character of
actions. In every action, there is a moral element that determines
whether it is a good or bad deed. That moral element is deter-
mined not by the results but by the motive of the action. If you
intend to do good but your action has bad results (e.g., if you
hold a door for someone to walk through and they inadvertently
trip and break an ankle), your karmic accumulation for that
deed is good not bad.
The doctrine of karma provides a sense that we live in a world
where justice is done, where bad deeds are punished, and good
14 BUDDHISM

deeds are rewarded. In retributive fashion, karma is at work.

Some people also like the idea of karma because it suggests that
there is a reason for everything that happens—the universe is
not chaotic but logical. Others may be attracted to karma
because judgment isn’t necessarily handed down at death but
rather during one’s life.
However, if we take karma without the idea of rebirth, then
we really don’t have an accurate picture. According to Buddhist
thought, rebirth is the lot of all humans.2 We have all lived many
lives before, and we will live many lives in the future until we
gain release from this cycle of birth-death-rebirth (samsara)
through Awakening.
What determines the conditions in which we will live our
next life is the karma we have accrued over this and previous
lifetimes. For a Buddhist, then, the idea is to do as much good
as one can from right intentions, thereby accumulating good
karma, which will result in a favorable rebirth. And, hopefully,
one of these rebirths will be such that it will result in the state
of Awakening after which no karma will be accumulated and
therefore no subsequent rebirth experienced.
Allow me to underline that last point: Continuous rebirth is
not desirable in Buddhism. The goal is to escape from this cycle.
This is different from how Westerners sometimes perceive
reincarnation. They like the idea of multiple births and deaths,
but this is not a Buddhist attitude.
After hearing an explanation of karma-rebirth, people fre-
quently ask, “If people are continuously reborn, how do we
account for the number of people who are currently alive as
opposed to those who existed before? If there are no new souls
who enter the universe, then how can Buddhism account for the
increase in the world’s population?”
The question may be answered several ways (including the
answer that it truly doesn’t benefit the Buddhist practitioner to
be concerned with this problem), but the most common answer
appeals to the idea of lokas. Lokas are other levels of sentient
existence (deities, animals, hungry ghosts, etc.). A being can
 Introduction 15
enter the human realm from any other loka. Human life is the
preferred form of existence; only a human can reach Awakening
and be released from continued rebirth. Yet, although Buddhism
does proffer an answer to this question—one that may help to
make numerical sense of the doctrine—in the end the Buddhist
simply takes it on faith that the doctrine of karma-rebirth is
operative in his or her life and that this will be confirmed at the
moment of Awakening.

THE BUDDHIST IDEA OF AWAKENING

The idea of “Awakening” is another essential aspect of Buddhism.
It was previously noted that Awakening is the goal of Buddhism
and that it marks the end of the karma-rebirth cycle.
As you read how various Buddhists define this term, you may
associate it with beliefs from other religious traditions, and
appropriately so, as one could argue that the Hindu idea of
moksha, the Taoist idea of realizing the Tao, or even the descrip-
tions of Christian, Muslim, or Jewish mystics seem similar. So,
while arguably the Buddhist endpoint or solution to life’s dilem-
mas may not be unique to Buddhism, it is an essential part of
Buddhist belief.
The Buddhist Awakening is often referred to by different
terms, including nirvana, enlightenment, and satori. As with the
term karma, nirvana has come to be widely used in American
popular culture. There was, of course, a famous rock band of
that name, but you also find the term used in newspapers and
popular magazines to connote something that is mystical or a
peak experience (a “nirvana-like experience”). (The Japanese
Buddhist term Zen is used in almost the same fashion and with
a similar meaning in popular publications.) Nirvana is defined
in a dictionary as follows:

1) Hinduism a blowing out, or extinction, of the flame of life

through reunion with the Brahma 2) Buddhism the state of
perfect blessedness achieved by the extinction of individual
existence and by the absorption of the soul into the supreme
16 BUDDHISM

spirit, or by the extinction of all desires and passions 3) any

place or condition of great peace or bliss.3

The third definition is the one that likely applies to the popular
usage of the term nirvana. The definition ascribed to Buddhism
(#2) is actually a conflation of Hindu and Buddhist ideas. Two of
the terms, namely the “soul” and the “supreme spirit,” find no
place in Buddhism, although they would be acceptable transla-
tions for the Hindu concepts of the Atman and the Brahman,
respectively. So, the first thing we can learn from this definition
is the importance of seeking expert advice and double-checking
the accuracy of anything you read about Buddhism! However,
the remainder of the definition (“the state of perfect blessedness
achieved by the extinction of individual existence . . . or by the
extinction of all desires and passions”) does provide an adequate
provisional idea of what nirvana actually means for a Buddhist.
All Buddhists strive to reach nirvana, if not in this life, then in
their next life. Buddhism differs from those religions that place
the resolution of life’s drama postmortem; it insists that nirvana
can be attained prior to death. However, nirvana can only be
attained by a human being. It cannot be attained from either
a subhuman or a superhuman realm of existence. Buddhism
strongly encourages believers to strive for nirvana in this very
lifetime. After all, due to the effects of karma-rebirth, one may
not be born human in the next life or, even if born human, one
may not come to encounter Buddhist thought at all.
Though all Buddhists strive to reach nirvana, they do so in
different ways. Some forms of Buddhism teach that only monks
can hope to attain nirvana. Laypersons try to accumulate as
much positive karma as possible in this life in anticipation of a
next life where they may be better placed to pursue monastic
practice. Other Buddhists believe that it is through devotion to a
Buddha that one can be delivered at death into a “pure land” of
Awakening (this will be elaborated on later in the text). Still
other forms of Buddhism teach that even laypersons who work
diligently at it may experience Awakening prior to death.
 Introduction 17
What is the actual experience of Awakening? This will require
a detailed explanation, but for now we can say that Awakening
is not the same as understanding. That is, I can read and intellec-
tually understand Buddhist thought, but this is not what is meant
by Awakening. Awakening is an actualization, a realization of
the authentic nature of existence, including one’s own existence.
Without experiencing Awakening, the person remains in ignorance
(avidya) and suffering (dukkha).
Let’s turn now to the life story of the Buddha and his first
teaching. In the discussion of his first teaching, we will better
come to understand why Buddhists believe that we are currently
living an inauthentic existence, as well as why they believe that
Awakening is the ultimate answer for all human beings.
2

Foundations

The story of the Buddha’s personal life . . . is the

story of someone who attained full enlightenment
through hard work and unwavering dedication.
—Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in The World of Tibetan Buddhism
 Foundations 19
he name of the founder of Buddhism was not, as many people
T think, Buddha. “Buddha” is a title, not a proper name. It means
“the Awakened One.” As we look at the biography of the Buddha,
it is important to remember that there are disagreements about
the particulars of his birth, life, and death, and there are legendary
elements entwined with historical memories. Although the
Buddha’s story was lovingly and faithfully transmitted from
generation to generation, the concern of the storytellers was not
historical accuracy but rather the importance of his life as a
model for Buddhist life. In this chapter, I will follow the lead of
those ancient storytellers and seek to answer this question: What
was it about the Buddha’s life that enabled an entire religion to
be built upon his experiences?

THE BUDDHA’S EARLY LIFE

According to the story, the Buddha was born in Lumbinî, in
what is now Nepal. The most commonly conjectured year of his
birth is 563 B.C.E. His family name was Gautama, and his given
name was Siddhartha, which means “he who has achieved his
goal.” 4 He was also called Sâkyamuni, meaning “sage of the
Sâkyas” (his father’s clan and therefore his clan). His ancestral
home was Kapilavastu, a nearby town.
Siddhartha was born into a royal family (his father was a local
chieftain) and grew up as a prince. His birth was miraculous. His
mother, Queen Mâyâ, gave birth to Siddhartha while standing
up and holding to a branch of a tree. It was not a normal birth;
instead, the infant emerged, painlessly, from his mother’s side.
Interestingly, as author John Strong notes in his excellent
account, The Buddha: A Short Biography, “This lack of passing
through the birth canal is often said to reflect a concern for
purity, but it may also be connected to a pan-Indian tradition
that asserts that the trauma of vaginal birth is what wipes out
the memory of previous lives.” 5 Strong’s point is important
because, according to the doctrine of transmigration or rebirth,
Siddhartha would have experienced multiple births prior to the
one in which he became the Buddha. The Buddhist tradition
20 BUDDHISM

recounts some of these previous lives in texts called Jâtakas

(“birth stories”). Siddhartha was subsequently able to recall
all of his previous lives as a result of attaining the Awakening
experience. A week after giving birth to Siddhartha, Queen Mâyâ
died and the king married her sister, Prajâpatî.
The accounts of Siddhartha’s birth include indications of his
coming auspiciousness. Some accounts say that he immediately
stood up and walked and talked, declaring that this would be
his last birth, and that he would bring others to liberation.
Siddhartha’s father, King Suddhodana, had several holy men
predict his son’s future through a process called divination. In
examining the child’s body, they found thirty-two physical
manifestations that indicated the infant would grow up to be
either a great king or a great spiritual leader and teacher.
Suddhodana wanted his son to succeed him on the throne.
Determined that Siddhartha should become a great king,
Suddhodana surrounded his son with the pleasures of life, hop-
ing thereby to deter him from developing any interest in religion.
In this way, Siddhartha grew up to become a young man, married
a princess named Yaśodharâ, and had a son named Râhula
(which means “to fetter,” perhaps indicating that Siddhartha
felt confined). It seemed that Suddhodana had successfully
steered his son toward kingship and away from religious life.
However, it was not to be. Siddhartha lived a very sheltered
life, secluded in a castle and showered with all of life’s luxuries.
He eventually grew bored and wanted to travel beyond the
castle walls to a beautiful park he had heard about. His father
granted him this wish but had his subjects prepare the road
that Siddhartha’s chariot would take so that there would be no
distractions. At twenty-nine years of age, the prince stepped into
his chariot with his charioteer and embarked on a trip that
would change the world forever.
As Prince Siddhartha was traveling on the road, he encoun-
tered an old man who piqued his interest. Due to his father’s
protection, he had never seen a person slowed by extreme age.
Siddhartha asked Chandaka, his charioteer, to explain the man’s
 Foundations 21
condition. Chandaka replied, “Old age, it is called, the destroyer
of beauty and vigor, the source of sorrow, the depriver of
pleasures, the slayer of memories, the enemy of sense organs.
This man has been ruined by old age. He too in his infancy has
taken milk and, in due time, had crawled on the ground; he then
became a handsome youth, and now he has reached old age.” 6
Siddhartha very naturally then asked whether this condition
is unique to this person or if all humans grow old. Chandaka
retorted, “Advanced age will certainly come upon you through
the inescapable force of time, no matter how long you may live.
People in the world are aware of old age, yet they seek [pleasures].” 7
The prince, learning that he too would grow old, was shaken,
and decided to forego the anticipated pleasantness of the park
and return at once to the protection of the castle. The castle did
provide physical protection for the prince but his mind was no
longer protected, and he began to think deeply about the idea of
aging, which troubled his thoughts. But he shared his unease
with no one.
Soon he decided to travel once again from the castle and
asked his father for permission to visit the park he failed to reach.
The king, unaware of any consternation in his son, granted his
wish and prepared the road as before to be free of distraction
or disturbance.
Again, the prince set out in his chariot for the park and, again,
the path provided a lesson as the prince this time came upon a
novel sight: a man who appeared very ill. As he had with the old
man, Siddhartha queried his driver about the situation and
learned that the man was sick. Siddhartha asked if he too might
suffer a similar fate at some point in his life. The charioteer
assured the prince that he would at some time fall prey to sickness
saying, “Prince, this evil is common to all; yet the world filled with
suffering seeks enjoyment, however oppressed it is by disease.” 8
The prince became agitated and fled back to the castle fraught
with concern over his inevitable fate. Siddhartha did not know
where to turn. What had been a sheltered world was turned
upside down, and the corporeal pleasures of food, fine clothes,
22 BUDDHISM

and viewing dancing girls were becoming pointless. He reasoned,

“If one inevitably falls prey to sickness and age, what is the point
in the pleasures of the day?”
A third trip eventually followed in which Siddhartha witnessed
the most sobering sight of all: a funeral where he saw the body
of a dead man. “This is the last state of all men. Death is certain
for all; whether they be of low, middle, or high degree,” 9 averred
his charioteer.
This sight shook the prince to his very core and robbed him,
once and for all, of satisfaction with his life of privilege and
position. He could no longer stand to live and returned to the
palace to contemplate his ultimate fate.
Fortunately, he encountered a fourth sight. He saw a holy
man, a Hindu saddhu. This encounter, though, was different: It
did not represent a problem for Siddhartha but a solution. The
holy man seemed to have found peace despite the sickness, old
age, and death that awaited him. The saddhu told Siddhartha,
“In this world which is characterized by destruction, I eagerly
search for the blessed and indestructible state.” 10 Hearing this,
Siddhartha knew what he had to do . . . and he conspired to leave
the only world he had ever known and seek the truth of his
human existence.
One night, after furtively kissing his wife and son good-bye, he
snuck away into the woods and took up the life of a wandering
holy man, just like the one he had encountered.
In Buddhism, the four events Siddhartha witnessed—sick
man, old man, dead man, and the holy man—are referred to as
the Four Passing Sights. “The Great Renunciation” refers to the
night when Siddhartha fled the palace to begin his new life.
Siddhartha spent the next few years studying and practic-
ing with the most esteemed Hindu holy men of his time. In
Hinduism, someone who renounces the world to spend all his
time seeking truth is called a sannyasin. The sannyasin, or world-
renouncer, removes himself from life to devote all his efforts to
freeing himself from the bonds of karma and attaining the
deathless state.11
 Foundations 23
Yet, despite or perhaps because of these efforts, Siddhartha
still felt that the basic problem of human existence was not
answered to his satisfaction. This part of his story serves to
illustrate Siddhartha’s great determination, and also to show
that Hinduism did not provide the answer he sought. He had to
traverse a new path.
In desperation, he took a severely ascetic12 approach, which
meant he practiced extreme breath control and lived on small
amounts of water and food. These were time-honored yogic
practices employed by ascetics at that time. They were used to
generate certain mental and spiritual states. Siddhartha subjected
himself to a fast so severe that he became emaciated and almost
died. While Siddhartha was not impressed with the results of
this course of action, others admired his strong will and ascetic
proficiency. He became the recognized leader of a small band
of five ascetics.
When he found himself at the brink of death from starvation,
Siddhartha realized that the life of deprivation was no more
valid than the life of excess that he had enjoyed as a prince.
Surely, he thought, a middle way was best. He decided to eat
again, beginning with an offering of milk-rice from a passing
local woman named Sujâtâ, and his health was soon restored.
One of the consequences of his abandonment of extreme
asceticism in favor of the “middle way” was that his five ascetic
companions became alienated and then left him in disgust.
(According to Buddhist tradition, these five ascetics would
subsequently return to listen to the Buddha’s first sermon and
become his first disciples.)
Siddhartha then took a fateful step: He sat down under a fig
tree with the firm intent of not moving until he had realized
authentic truth. “My body may shrivel up, my skin, my bones,
my flesh may dissolve, but [I] will not move from this very seat
until I have obtained enlightenment.” 13
Settling himself under the tree, he meditated and waited. Over
the course of a momentous night, he withstood the attempts of
Mâra, the Great Tempter, to dissuade him from his mission.
24 BUDDHISM

Mâra was a liar and a deceiver, a sort of Buddhist version of the

devil. He tried to distract Siddhartha by parading voluptuous
goddesses before him, by pelting him with fiery missiles, and
by impugning his moral right to pursue Awakening rather
than fulfilling his roles in society. Siddhartha steadfastly contin-
ued to meditate. At last, as dawn broke, Siddhartha experienced
Awakening. He is said to have gained knowledges, both mundane
and divine.
The knowledge Siddhartha gained as part of his Awakening
included supernormal powers (he was able to hear all sounds
and could recall all of his former lives) as well as the founda-
tional dharma or truth of Buddhism.14 His search had taken six

THE BUDDHA’S SECOND SERMON

Studies of Buddhism usually emphasize the Buddha’s First Sermon
after his Awakening as it is said to encapsulate the primary teaching of
Buddhism. There is some truth to the claim, but the Buddha’s second
sermon, preached at Benares (in modern-day northern India), is also
worthy of special consideration.
In his second sermon, the Buddha connected his discourse on the
nature of suffering to two other important doctrines: non-self
(anâtman) and impermanence (anitya). Along with dukkha, these
three comprise what are called the Three Marks of Existence.
Non-self is a challenging concept, even for someone who has studied
Buddhism for many years. The idea is not that one has no self or that
one does not exist, as Westerners often understood it when they
first learned of this doctrine. It is rather that this ordinary self, this
collection of physical and mental aggregates, is impermanent, relative,
and nonexistent in and of itself. One suffers or is unsatisfied because
of a failure to fully realize this limited nature of the self. We do not
know that this is the reason for our suffering, however, and therefore
we look outside the self for answers to our problems.
Zen Buddhism speaks of the realization of the True Self. The True
Self sees the nondual nature of the Self as naturally as he or she
previously viewed the inauthentic self. The True Self is grounded in a
permanent, absolute, and ever-existing reality. It was as a result of
this teaching, and by profoundly experiencing this truth, that the five
ascetics that the Buddha was teaching attained Awakening.
 Foundations 25
full years; he was thirty-five years old when he at last became
a Buddha (an Awakened One).

LIFE AS THE BUDDHA AND PARINIRVÂŅÂ

Siddhartha began to teach, and to attract followers, beginning
with the five ascetic companions who had left him. His teach-
ing career lasted approximately forty-five years. The Buddha’s
converts included mainly members of the lower classes but also
some Brahmins and Kshatriyas, and also many members of
his own family. (Brahmins and Kshatriyas were members of
the highest social classes, including priests, teachers, rulers,
and warriors.)
Why was the Buddha able to attract so many followers? One
reason was that Buddhism was a religion that intentionally
tried to spread its message. The sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E.
were a period of religious ferment in ancient India; many people
were looking for spiritual solutions to life’s problems. Some
holy men waited for seekers to come to them and beg to be
taught their wisdom, while others used their homeless state as
an opportunity to travel and preach their message. The Buddha
was one of the latter—he and his band of monks traveled the
roads of India, preaching and teaching. Buddhism later became,
along with Islam and Christianity, one of the world’s three large
missionary religions.
Another reason for the popularity of the new religion was
Buddhism’s relatively progressive social attitude. Buddhism
offered women an independent spiritual path, one in which
they were not dependent on their husbands or fathers. (We will
discuss the addition of women to the sangha later in the text.)
Buddhism accepted the second son in a family, even though
second sons were not usually included in the inheritance, and
therefore did not bring any wealth into the sangha. It even
accepted the so-called outcastes, the poorest of India’s poor.
Perhaps a third reason for Buddhism’s popularity was that it
retained some of the essential teachings of Hinduism (karma
and rebirth), and it had a “guru” (spiritual teacher) in the person
26 BUDDHISM

of the Buddha. In other words, there was some common ground

between the two faiths, making conversion from Hinduism to
Buddhism less dramatic and traumatic than conversion to a
Western religion. Finally, the strength of the Buddha’s message
and the fact that he was a charismatic teacher also contributed
to the rapid spread of Buddhism.
Prior to his death, the Buddha and his closest disciple and
cousin, Ânanda, traveled throughout India delivering messages
that focused on the continued existence of the sangha after
the Buddha’s death. Although he was eighty years old and ill, the
Buddha was still able—due to his strength of mind—to forestall
death and continue to impart dharma (the Buddhist teaching).
He traveled to Pâpâ, a small town where he was provided a
meal by Cunda, a devotee and a blacksmith by trade. The tradi-
tional accounts of this meal and its resulting effects upon the
Buddha are inconclusive, but it is often conjectured that he ate
tainted food, which contributed to his death, though it is quite
likely that the Buddha was near death prior to the visit. Some
sources have suggested the meal contained pork, others mush-
rooms or other foods. The Buddha did praise the food and
Cunda was able to receive only positive karmic benefit from
feeding the Buddha and his party.
The Buddha finally returned to the outskirts of Kuśinagarî,
which was to be the site of his parinirvâņâ. He lay down on his
side in what has become known as the position of parinirvâņâ.
Others assembled around him and various encounters ensued,
but the time finally arrived for his death. He then uttered his
final words: “Now monks, I declare to you: all conditioned
things are of a nature to decay—strive on untiringly.” 15
The Buddha is said to have passed into parinirvâņâ, the state
beyond Awakening. He was therefore released from the cycle
of birth and rebirth (samsara). At the Buddha’s departure,
an earthquake occured. The monks and others near to him
mourned his death and preparations followed for handling his
body and cremation. As in Hinduism, the Buddhist tradition is
to cremate the body rather than to bury it.
 Foundations 27
GAUTAMA’S FIRST TEACHING:
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
Upon finally achieving Awakening, the question Siddhartha
was required to answer was, “What am I to do with this wisdom,
this bodhi ?” His initial thought was to keep this knowledge
to himself, fearing misunderstanding and negative reprisals,
but he ultimately decided that he should tell others of this
experience and help them realize the same reality. After all, not
only wisdom but compassion as well was at the heart of the
Buddha’s Awakening experience.
The Buddha then traveled to Sarnath, where he found his five
former ascetic companions, and expounded the first teaching
of Buddhism before them. This incident is sometimes called
the Sermon at Deer Park. This first teaching is critical to an
understanding of Buddhism because it describes the fundamental
tenets of the religion. Every Buddhist believes in the Four Noble
Truths, which is the name given to the content of the Buddha’s
first sermon.
The first Noble Truth taught that human life is suffering
(dukkha). The second Truth is that this suffering is caused by
craving or desire (tanha). The third is that this craving or desire
can be made to cease. And the fourth is the Eightfold Path, the
way to make the craving cease. A way to explain these four Truths
is that the first is the nature of human existence, the second
the problem with human existence, the third the answer to the
problem, and the fourth the way to solve the problem. Since the
Four Noble Truths are the core of Buddhist teaching, under-
standing them will make the rest of our study of Buddhism easier.

The First Noble Truth

Since Buddhist teaching begins with the statement that life is
suffering, some people immediately conclude that Buddhists are
pessimistic, that is, negative in their outlook. Not being interested
in anything negative, they may end up dismissing Buddhism.
However, it is important to remember that many of the world’s
religions would agree that there is something radically wrong
28 BUDDHISM

with the world, though they have a different term for it: original
sin, ignorance, selfishness, impurity, etc. These religions would
further agree that the radical wrong in the world is responsible for
the sufferings we endure: Original sin leads to death—ignorance
to going ’round and ’round in the world as it is, rather than
finding and grasping salvation, selfishness to alienation from
other people, impurity to alienation from the sacred, and so
forth. Religious thought points out the radical wrong and offers
a way to avoid the suffering it entails. Buddhist doctrine states
the same thing: Human life without realizing the Buddhist
answer is a life of suffering.
However, is life really suffering? We usually say that if something
isn’t broken, don’t fix it. Sure, there is unpleasantness in life
but generally I am not in pain, hungry, or thirsty. Actually, I am
much better off than most people! Why should I complain and
see my life as suffering? A Buddhist may answer that this is true
for you. You may be a fortunate person who, for the most part,
is able to minimize or forestall suffering in your life. However,
Buddhism would go on to suggest that your peaceful life might
not be absent of suffering after all.
For one thing, as Prince Gautama realized, sickness, old age,
and death lie in wait for all of us and all those we know. Though
one may enjoy youth, wellness, and life for now, this will not last.
Sickness or death may be only minutes away, rather than, as we
like to think, in some distant future.
Another way to think about dukkha is to translate it, not as
suffering but as dissatisfaction. In this case, the First Noble Truth
states that life is unsatisfactory. We tend to live our lives from peak
experience to peak experience, almost biding time in between.
When an eagerly anticipated experience actually occurs, it often
seems not to live up to its advance billing. Almost immediately
after attaining what you desired, you begin to wonder what the
excitement was about. Then, almost by impulse, you begin to
look forward to another event or thing. From a Buddhist
perspective, it is the nature of ordinary human consciousness
that we tend to never be satisfied with what we have. We seemingly
 Foundations 29
always want something more or different, which leads us to the
Second Noble Truth: Suffering is caused by craving.

The Second Noble Truth

The doctrine of dependent co-arising (pratîtya-samutpâda)
illustrates how the relationship between craving (tanha) and
suffering (dukkha) works in human life. Briefly stated, samsara is
characterized by a cause-and-effect cycle perpetuated by ordinary
consciousness. Trapped in this cycle of births and deaths, we travel
from life to life, always craving, always suffering. Each time we
are born, we are born in ignorance of the true reality that is
illuminated only by Awakening. The unawakened consciousness
works in ignorance (avidya) and therefore it generates karma.
This generation of karma results in a continuation of ordinary,
samsaric consciousness, both in this life and the next. So, we are
born in ignorance and generate karma because we are ignorant,
and this karma then leads to a new birth in ignorance. It is a
perpetual cycle; for as long as the self continues to exist it moves
around this circle from birth to death to birth again.
What is ordinary consciousness? It is samsara. It is conscious-
ness that perceives objects, good or bad feelings, and the self.
The self is the subject; the self is “I”—not the “I” made into
an objective, visible self (as when I look in a mirror, or describe
myself), but the subjective “I,” the “I” that sees everything else
but cannot see itself because the subject-I (as versus the object-I)
is invisible. The subject-I is not what is seen but what sees; it
is not what is spoken about, but what speaks; not the action
but the actor. Invisible, not able to be described because it is
not an object, this “I” is nonetheless assumed as the center of all
perception, expression, or action. Without it, nothing is seen,
said, or done.
In addition to the self, objects are another part of ordinary
consciousness. The two poles of ordinary consciousness are the
subject-I and objects. We see everything as an object, even
though we presume that other persons are subjects just as the
“I” is a subject. What is the source of the objects that we perceive
30 BUDDHISM

in the world? Buddhists believe that the source of these objects

is the mind. The world is a seamless whole, but in order to
understand the world we need to break it down into smaller
parts, parts that we can name and manipulate. We fragment the
world into objects for our conscious apprehension.
The third element of ordinary consciousness (in addition to
the subject-I and objects) is the feelings that are generated as we
come in contact with objects. In apprehending objects, we utilize
our senses, and our senses rely on our body and consciousness
to function. This functional, sensory engagement with the world
inexorably brings feelings into our consciousness, which are
distinguished as good or bad feelings, desirable or undesirable.
We seek to attain the objects that we view as good or desirable,
and we seek to avoid the objects that we consider bad or unde-
sirable. This craving or grasping after those objects that we deem
desirable does NOT lead to relief from suffering or dissatisfaction
(although we think it will). Rather than release us from the
fundamental ignorance from which we began, it simply leads us
to a death that results in a rebirth that only lands us back in a
new cycle of ignorance. Release from the round of births and
deaths requires a fundamental change in consciousness (Awaken-
ing), whereas craving is only ordinary consciousness. So craving
only lands us back in suffering.
This is a difficult concept, so let’s back up and have another go
at the Second Noble Truth from another direction. In the second
noble truth, the assertion is made that our suffering or dissatis-
faction is caused because we crave or desire. In our discussion of
the First Noble Truth, it was pointed out that we never seem to
reach an end in our desires. We wish for a new car, a date with that
handsome boy or beautiful girl, or perhaps even for spiritual
gain. Buddhism argues that this is the basic human problem: We
are egocentric human beings who strive to feel satisfied but are
ultimately unable to achieve fulfillment, and this results in pain
and anxiety.
One way to understand how this problem works in Buddhism
is to consider the way we encounter the world. Take a look
 Foundations 31
around you. What do you see? Perhaps you see a desk, another
person, a pencil, and certainly you see this book in front of you.
In ordinary speech, we call these things objects. There are many
objects around you that you can see, touch, taste, smell, or hear.
To engage these objects, you have to have an objectifier. That
is, you have to have a person who sees these things as objects.
A pencil is not a “pencil” until someone sees it as an object that
has that meaning for the objectifier. So, in order to have an
object, you need a subject (the objectifier). In seeing the pencil,
this book, or any object, you are necessarily involved as the
objectifier. You are not an object—but a subject—so we can call
you the subject-I.
Normally human consciousness posits a self, that is, it includes
self-consciousness. Just because my consciousness functions
the way it does, I believe I have a self, even though I can never
see the self directly. Consciousness works by using a subject-
object polarity, and the self is consciousness’ subject. With the
self occupying the role of the subject, everything else, including
other persons, becomes an object.16 This subject-object view of
the world is our ordinary way of seeing and being in the world
and so it is not considered unusual or strange. However, for
Buddhists, this way of seeing and being in the world is the cause
of craving.
Buddhists would say, as you are a subject-I and everything and
everyone else is an object, you will, by necessity, need to relate to
the world. In relating to the people in the world, you may realize
that you cannot get beyond thinking of all persons as objects
even though you know that they must be subjects too—subjects
who correspondingly regard you as an object-you. So, how can
you regard a person both as a subject and an object? Buddhism
would say that we cannot until we gain Awakening. Until then, we
cannot really know a person completely, not even our spouse or
child, because as hard as we try, we cannot penetrate our limita-
tion of engaging them only as objects. There is then, a split, a gap
between what they really are (both subject and object) and what
I can relate to them as (only an object).
32 BUDDHISM

So, too, even when I think of myself, I objectify myself. That is,
in stating, “I am Leslie,” I am at once saying there is a subject
(“I”) asserting an object (“Leslie”). If I try to get to the “I”
(subject-Leslie), I only end up saying something like, “I am
asserting I am Leslie.” Every time I try to get to the subject of
another or myself, I inevitably end up objectifying and so creating
an ever-regressing distance from the subject. This incompleteness
in my engagement with myself is the source of suffering and
dissatisfaction, or as Buddhist theologian Masao Abe puts it:

Self-estrangement and anxiety are not something accidental

to the ego-self, but are inherent to its structure. To be human
is to be a problem to oneself, regardless of one’s culture, class,
sex, nationality, or the era in which one lives. To be human
means to be an ego-self; to be an ego-self means to be cut off
from both one’s self and one’s world; and to be cut off from
one’s self and one’s world means to be in constant anxiety.
This is the human predicament.17

For Buddhism, our root problem is that we do not see either

ourselves or others completely or authentically. Our ordinary
self-consciousness does not allow us to do so. Unlike many
religions and philosophies that would agree with this analysis
but not find it a problem, Buddhism believes it is the root cause
of unhappiness. As the Oracle of Delphi admonished, “Know
thyself.” If to know oneself is the purpose of all humans, as
long as we are limited by our ordinary consciousness, we will
never be able to fulfill this purpose. Buddhism does suggest an
answer and that is the Third Noble Truth.

The Third Noble Truth

That Buddhism provides an answer to the human problem
counters the charge that Buddhism is pessimistic. If it were truly
pessimistic, Buddhism would tell you that you have a problem
and not give you any answer!
The answer that Buddhism provides is the Third Noble Truth,
which states that craving and consequently suffering can be made
 Foundations 33
to cease. This is realized when the person gains Awakening.
What is Awakening?
We mentioned Awakening in passing in the opening chapter
but let’s expand upon those comments. In Buddhist literature,
you will not find a solid definition of Awakening. This may be
frustrating to us—if it is so important and the “secret” to being
fully a human person, then why doesn’t Buddhism tell us all
about it!
Buddhism has good reasons for not spelling out the answer.
First, if Buddhism simply supplied the answer then it wouldn’t
be our discovery. As you know, any religion that simply tells you
what you should believe does not automatically make you
believe. As in studying math, if the teacher provides you the
answer to a problem, it does not mean you know the math. That
is why your teacher always wants you to “show your work” and
prove that you understand the way to solve the problem. So,
too, for the Buddhist teacher who says, “Show me how you get
Awakening rather than me telling you what it is like.”
Still, we want to know what Awakening is and, as with the
math example, it may help us show our work if we know what
answers we are supposed to get. So, can we better understand
the Buddhist Awakening?
It is first important to emphasize again that intellectually
understanding Buddhism is not the answer. You can read
every book on Buddhism ever written (which would take you
a long time) but that will not help you achieve the Buddhist
experience of Awakening. What is needed is an actualization
rather than simply an understanding. That is, you need to
experience Awakening yourself.
Remember that the problem of craving and its resulting suffer-
ing came from our ability to see the world only as objects. The
answer then, for Buddhism, is to see the world completely, as
subjects and objects, which Buddhism declares is the true picture of
the world. Awakening to the True Self, the genuine way of being in
the world, is analogous to waking from a dream that seemed real and
is only dispelled as a dream when we awake and discover that it
34 BUDDHISM

was only a dream. When Awakened, one can see the objects of
the world and oneself as complete and total. The Chinese Zen
Master Ch’ing-yüan Wei-hsin wrote the following quatrain that
may help us better understand:

Thirty years ago, before I began the study of Zen, I said,

“Mountains are mountains, waters are waters.” After I got an
insight into the truth of Zen through the instruction of a
good master, I said, “Mountains are not mountains, waters are
not waters.” But now, having attained the abode of final rest
[that is, Awakening], I say, “Mountains are really mountains,
waters are really waters.”18

In the first line, we see again the subject-object distinction of

ordinary consciousness. Mountains are seen as objects, that
is, as discrete from waters (rivers), and I am, as the viewer of
both, acting as a subject-I, looking at mountains and waters
as objects.
Wei-hsin then states that after he received an insight in Zen,
the “mountains were now waters, the waters mountains.” Clearly
in this second stage, there is a negation of the first consciousness,
or as Masao Abe puts it, “we realize there is no differentiation, no
objectification, . . . no duality of subject and object.” 19
Abe goes on to argue that there are two aspects to this second
stage realization: first, that it marks an end to the ever-regressing
objectification of self and other—the ordinary self has “died” (Zen
Buddhism refers to this point as the “Great Death”) and what one
might call an onto-existential “block” (in Zen terminology, a
“great doubt block”) has been manifested as a self that has
“come to a deadlock, and collapse through the total realization of
endlessness and unattainability with its whole body and mind.” 20
The second aspect is that although the ordinary self and its
objectifying nature have been extirpated and its dualistic matrix
of subject-object voided, there still persists a dualistic framework
between the first stage (dual) and the newly emerged second
stage (nondual). In order to attain a completely nondual posi-
tion, there needs to be a third movement into a consciousness
 Foundations 35
that includes dual and nondual, difference and nondifference.
We see this completely nondual stage in the third statement of
the passage, which states, “But now, having attained the abode
of final rest [that is, Awakening], I say, ‘Mountains are really
mountains, waters are really waters.’ ” Or, as we may render it,
mountains are mountains and mountains are waters, waters are
waters and waters are mountains, or, if one wishes to speak
about persons, I am I and I am you [and every other thing]. This
posits Awakened consciousness as a paradoxical nondualistic-
dualistic consciousness, a selfless-self-consciousness that is
viewed as the True Self by Zen Buddhist thought. Turning again
to Masao Abe:

Thus in the Zen Awakening attained by Wei-hsin, on the one

hand, mountains are really mountains in themselves, waters
are really waters in themselves—that is, everything in the
world is real in itself; and yet, on the other hand, there is no
hindrance between any one thing and any other thing—
everything is equal, interchangeable, and interfusing.21

This may not clear up what Buddhism means by Awakening, and

you may now see why the Buddhist tradition has avoided an
explanation of the term. Explanations can become complicated
when one tries to explain what can really only be experienced
for oneself. Yet, perhaps an intellectual explanation may still be
useful to us, as it may be useful to a Buddhist practitioner as long
as he or she does not mistake having an intellectual understand-
ing with having the actualization of Awakening. As a Zen phrase
puts it, one should not mistake a finger pointing to the moon
with the moon itself.
With the Great Wisdom (Mahâprajnâ) that is Awakening
comes Great Compassion (Mahãkaruna). What is this Great
Compassion? How can it help us to understand the Buddhist
Awakening?
The previous discussion on Awakening used the idea of
subject and object to typify ordinary consciousness. That is to
say, as we engage another person, we engage that person as an
36 BUDDHISM

object to our consciousness. Certainly we may have different

associations with that person, depending on who he or she is
and how well we know him or her but nevertheless, he or she
remains an object to our consciousness. The Buddhist analysis
would argue that no matter how close we may get to that person
in a love relationship, there still is a gulf between us. We may
have moments of what one may call a nondualistic or “at-one”
feeling with this other person, but these feelings do not last and
fade away since they are conditioned by the separateness that
typifies the subject-object matrix.
When one is Awakened, this separateness no longer typifies
human relationships. It is replaced with a constant nondualistic
engagement of the other that can be rendered as “fulfilled love.”
A love that is defined as both dual and nondual—one where
the lover and the loved are both one and two, both the same yet
distinct. No longer estranged from the other, the Awakened
person opens his or her eyes in the morning to a unification of
all things bright and beautiful. Buddhism argues that this is the
desideratum for all humankind as it is the fulfillment of who we
truly are as humans.

The Fourth Noble Truth: The Eightfold Path

The Buddha replied, “Subhadda, it is not important whether

they are fully enlightened. The question is whether you want
to liberate yourself. If you do, practice the Noble Eightfold
Path. Wherever the Noble Eightfold Path is practiced, joy,
peace, and insight are there.” (Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Digha
Nikaya, 16)22

Now that Buddhism has revealed the answer, it needs to tell us

how to get to the answer. This is called the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path can be rendered in different ways, but it
basically follows a pattern like this:

1) Right View
2) Right Intention
 Foundations 37
3) Right Speech
4) Right Action
5) Right Effort
6) Right Livelihood
7) Right Concentration
8) Right Mindfulness

Let’s briefly examine each of these steps on the path, remem-

bering that these are not to be approached one at a time, as if one
were ascending a ladder but should rather be viewed holistically
as if each were the ladder itself. As Thich Nhat Hanh put it, “Each
limb contains all the other seven.” 23
Right View means that the person believes in the Buddha and
his teachings. This is a very important first step because Buddhism
is a religion of faith. A Buddhist needs to believe he or she too
can realize an Awakening that is not a hair’s difference from
the experience of the Buddha. A novice practitioner takes
refuge in the “Three Jewels,” namely, the Buddha, the Dharma,
and the Sangha.
Right Intention means that the Buddhist is practicing Buddhism
for the right reasons and is not being forced to, or does not have
bad motives for following the path.
Right Speech is one of the ethical (sila) steps in the Eightfold
Path and it holds, as the name implies, that one should tell the
truth, not gossip or engage in empty talk but rather try to speak
positively and affirmatively about oneself and others.
Right Action is another ethical step. It states that the Buddhist
should not engage in harmful actions such as murder, stealing,
or violence of any sort. A Buddhist should seek out people of
peace and seek to make peace with all living things.
Right Effort is necessary because the actualization of Awaken-
ing is a difficult task. A Buddhist must strive vigilantly, with a
positive attitude and tireless resolve.
Right Livelihood means that one’s job should be consistent
with the Buddhist path. This step is closely connected with Right
38 BUDDHISM

Action. A Buddhist should not cause any sentient (conscious) being

to suffer violence. This generally means a Buddhist will not hold
a job as a butcher, a hunter, or a fisherperson. Nor will a Buddhist
serve in the military in a role that involves harming anyone.
Right Concentration relates to Buddhist practice, specifically
to the discipline of the mind. A Buddhist works to concentrate
on present reality and not dwell on past events or anticipate
future events. Another name for this is mindfulness. It means
being fully present to each moment as one lives it. A Buddhist
strives diligently to develop good concentration skills, because
they are crucial to moving closer to Awakening.
Right Mindfulness occurs contemporaneously with Awaken-
ing. Until there is Awakening, one is not truly able to practice
right mindfulness.
 3

Scriptures

The definitive sutras [scriptures] are the wisdom sutras,

such as the Heart of Wisdom (Prajñāpāramutāahrdaya),
in which the Buddha spoke of the ultimate nature of all
phenomena: that form is emptiness and emptiness is
form, and apart from form, there is no emptiness.
—Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in The World of Tibetan Buddhism
40 BUDDHISM

EARLY BUDDHIST WRITINGS

uring the Buddha’s lifetime, no Buddhist texts were created.
D It wasn’t until he passed into parinirvâņâ that the sangha
became very concerned about continuing the teachings. A short
time later the leaders of the Buddhist community got together in
a great meeting to share the teachings and begin to write down
what they had learned.
These texts allowed Buddhism to persist even though its
founder was no longer living. Furthermore, once a tradition
has a written record, it becomes easier for it to move to other
countries where it will be translated into other languages, thus
enabling people to read the texts in their own language and offer
their own interpretations of them.
Buddhism began to spread ever further as the timeline on the
following page indicates. As Buddhism spread to other countries,
different understandings of the Buddha’s teachings emerged.
With these different understandings came the birth of different
types of Buddhism. Although there are many smaller subdivi-
sions, the two primary branches of Buddhism are Theravâda
Buddhism and Mahâyâna Buddhism.

THERAVÂDA AND MAHÂYÂNA BUDDHISM

The moments surrounding the death of the founder of a religion
are always critical; the Buddha’s parinirvâņâ forced the sangha
to determine how the movement would carry on. While still
alive, the Buddha had given indications that the movement
was to rely on his teachings and the discipline that had been
established for the sangha.
The sangha convened in two important councils: the first in
Râjagraha soon after the Buddha’s death and the other a hundred
years later. The task in Râjagraha was to determine the exact
teachings and discipline that Buddhists were to follow and to
codify them. The tradition describes this meeting as a debriefing
of Ânanda and Upâli, two of the leading disciples, informing
them of what the monks remembered the Buddha to have taught
with respect to both doctrine and practice. These reports were
 THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
Euro-America
Mongolia
Burma
Thailand
Tibet
Japan
Java, Sumatra
Korea
China
Central Asia
Sri Lanka
Kashmir
Nepal
India

500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
B.C.E. C.E.
TIME SCALE (spans approximate)
Scriptures

This graph shows the spread of Buddhism, beginning in India approximately 500 B.C.E. and continuing to the
41

present day in Europe and the Americas.

42 BUDDHISM

passed down over time and ultimately became the Buddhist

scriptures known as the Tripitaka (“Three Baskets”). The Tripitaka
consists of three collections: the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutra Pitaka,
and the Abhidharma Pitaka.
The Vinaya Pitaka is basically a book of Buddhist discipline. It
provides guidance on how both monastics (monks and nuns)
and laypersons are to conduct themselves.
The Sutra Pitaka contains the discourses of the Buddha. In
them, the Buddha discusses the main ideas of Buddhism with
his followers. The Socratic question-and-answer form is seen
throughout these sutras.24
The Abhidharma Pitaka comprises the philosophical or
scholastic part of the collection. Although the Buddhist tradition
ascribes this text to the recitation of Ânanda at the first council,
Western historians say that it really evolved over time and only
began to be composed in the fourth century B.C.E.
How does this textual history relate to the differences between
Theravâda and Mahâyâna? Perhaps it isn’t surprising that disagree-
ments arose among members of the sangha in regard to the texts
and their interpretation. The second council, this one in the city of
Vaiśâlî, was called to deal with these disagreements, which were
probably already long-standing at that time. Ultimately there was a
schism of the Buddhist sangha, dividing it into two factions: the
sthaviras (“seniors”) and the mahâsañghika (“great community”).
The sthaviras formed Theravâda Buddhism and the second
group is connected with Mahâyâna Buddhism.
We turn now to consider the differences between the two primary
branches of Buddhism. It is important to remember, however, that
Theravâda and Mahâyâna have more similarities than differ-
ences. All Buddhists believe in the same basic Buddhist teachings
(dharma) and in the importance of nirvana or Awakening.

THE BASIC TENETS OF MAHÂYÂNA BUDDHISM

If you are able to travel to East Asia and visit Japan, Korea, or
Taiwan, you will undoubtedly see many temples that belong to
Mahâyâna Buddhist sects. As you enter these temples, you will
 Scriptures 43
encounter statues that supposedly represent the Buddha but may
look very different from one another. Statues of the Buddha not
only vary widely in appearance, but they also have many different
names associated with them. The sightseer may conclude that
Buddhism is as polytheistic as Hinduism! Or, is it that all of these
are representations of the Buddha but with different names?
To answer this question, we need to examine what transpired
as Mahâyâna Buddhism began to develop. As we have men-
tioned, there was a schism or split in the Buddhist community
that resulted in factions, one being the Mahâsañghika. Buddhist
scholars used to maintain that this movement gave birth to the
Mahâyâna movement but as Donald Mitchell notes:

. . . more recent scholarship has noted that perhaps the

Mahâyâna writings and practices actually influenced
Mahâsañghika positions. In fact, there is evidence that
Mahâyâna was not originally associated with just one sect but
was a kind of “esoteric” spirituality of interest to persons in
many schools.25

Mahâyâna literally means “great vehicle.” Its viewpoint has

been shaped over many centuries and many writings. For the
Mahâyâna sect, the writings contained in the Tripitaka, though
critically important, were not the only acceptable texts. They
believed that additional texts could be canonical and important
for guiding the sangha. Mahâyâna Buddhists came to see these
texts as the culmination of the earlier texts and differing sub-
groups came to extol some texts or sutras above others. These
texts contained ideas that are seminal to Mahâyâna Buddhism,
and by examining a few of these ideas we can better define this
type of Buddhism. The ideas we will examine are the doctrine of
Trikâya and the bodhisattva ideal.

THE DOCTRINE OF TRIKÂYA

The Buddha passed into parinirvâņâ and no longer continued
his cycle of birth and rebirth. One might ask, however, why
he did not return in a different body to help bring others to
44 BUDDHISM

Awakening. Mahâyâna Buddhist texts answered this question

with the doctrine of Trikâya.
The doctrine of Trikâya posits that the Buddha actually
exists in three bodies (Tri=three, kâya=body)—the body of
essence (Dharmakâya), the body of bliss (Sambhogakâya), and
the body of transformation (Nirmânakâya). This last body was
the body that the Buddha manifested during his corporeal life
on earth. However, even while in this body, there were two
other levels that the Buddha simultaneously inhabited. The
Sambhogakâya was the next level; on this level the Buddha
dwelt in a sort of everlasting heaven. This idea expanded to

THE DHAMMAPADA
One of the most popular Buddhist texts is the Dhammapada. The title
means “the path of dharma.” The book is composed of a little more
than four hundred verses on how to live a Buddhist life. It is part of
the Sutra Pitaka and was presented at the First Council by Ânanda.
Translations of this Theravâda text date back to the beginning of
the Common Era. A few sample verses may serve to demonstrate the
flavor of this text:

The quivering, wavering mind,

Hard to guard, hard to check,
The sagacious one makes straight,
Like a fletcher, an arrow shaft. (verse 33)
[A fletcher is someone who makes arrows]

By standing alert, by awareness,

By restraint and control too,
The intelligent one could make an island
That a flood could not overwhelm. (verse 25)

Engage not in unawareness,

Nor in intimacy with sensual delight.
Meditating, the one who is aware
Attains excessive ease. (verse 27)
 Scriptures 45
include numerous bliss bodies that inhabit a higher plane, and
that is how the various Buddhas and bodhisattvas (see follow-
ing section) with their differing looks and attributes developed
in Buddhism. For example, there is Amitâbha Buddha (Skt.)*,
the Buddha venerated by Pure Land Buddhists (see page 54),
and Avalokiteśvara (Skt.), the bodhisattva of compassion.
Avalokiteśvara, also known as Kuan-yin (Ch.) and Kannon
(Jp.), is often portrayed with many arms to better assist
petitioners with their many tasks. Tibetan Buddhism considers
the Dalai Lama to be a manifestation of this bodhisattva. It was
the Sambhogakâya doctrine that allowed for the development

Let one tell the truth, let one not be angry.

Asked, let one give even when one has but little.
By these three factors,
With these three factors,
One would go into the presence of the gods. (verse 224)

Refraining from all that is detrimental,

The attainment of what is wholesome,
The purification of one’s mind:
This is the instruction of the Awakened Ones. (verse 183)

When a need has arisen, friends are a blessing,

A blessing is contentment with whatever [there be],
A blessing is the wholesome deed at the end of life,
A blessing it is to relinquish all sorrow.
A blessing in the world is reverence for mother,
A blessing, too, is reverence for father . . .
A blessing is virtue into old age,
A blessing is faith established,
A blessing is the attainment of insight-wisdom,
A blessing is to refrain from doing wrongs. (verses 331–333,
abridged)
(All translations are from John Ross Carter, Mahinda Palihawadana’s translation,
New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.)
46 BUDDHISM

of theistic Buddhism and its veneration of various Buddhas and

bodhisattvas. In Theravâda Buddhism no attempt was made
to contact the Buddha or to pray to him after his death. No
one imagined him as dwelling in a heavenly realm. Theravâda
Buddhism did not encourage speculation as to what happened
to a Buddha after death.
The Dharmakâya was even further removed from the other
bodies and was depicted as omnipresent and the substrate of the
universe. The Dharmakâya, in other words, is the essence of
Buddha-nature that resides in all things, animate and inanimate.
* Skt. = Sanskrit, Ch. = Chinese, Jp. = Japanese, K. = Korean

THE BODHISATTVA IDEA

A central doctrine that distinguishes Mahâyâna from Theravâda
Buddhism is the idea of the bodhisattva. Bodhisattva literally
means something like “being of wisdom (Awakening).” So, a
bodhisattva is a being that is Awake. The bodhisattva is the ideal
person in Mahâyâna Buddhism.
The Mahâyâna Buddhists forwarded the concept of the
bodhisattva in opposition to the Theravâdan notion of the
arhat. The arhat was the Theravâdan ideal person—he was
someone who had burned off all his karma, like a fire burns
fuel, and is then extinguished. The arhat has entered into
nirvana and will never enter samsara again. The Mahâyânists
thought this was a selfish way of approaching the bliss of
nirvana, lacking in the Buddhist virtue of compassion. The
arhat also displayed a lack of wisdom,26 they thought, because
he seemed to view entering nirvana as an individual enterprise,
thereby displaying a belief in the permanence of the self.
Mahâyâna depicted the arhat as a pratyeka-buddha, a person
who has gained Awakening but does not communicate his or
her Awakening to others. Consider this exchange between
Gautama and one of his disciples Shâriputra:

What do you think, Shâriputra? Do any of the disciples and

private buddhas [pratyeka-buddha] ever think: “After we have
 Scriptures 47
gained full enlightenment, we will bring innumerable beings
. . . to complete Nirvâna?”
Certainly not, Lord!
But, said the Lord, the bodhisattva [has this resolve] . . . A
firefly . . . doesn’t imagine that its glow will light up all India
or shine all over it, and so the disciples and private buddhas
don’t think that they should lead all beings to Nirvâna . . .
after they have gained full enlightenment. But the disc of the
sun, when it has risen, lights up all India and shines all over it.
Similarly the bodhisattva . . . when he has gained full enlight-
enment, brings countless beings to Nirvâna.27

You may recall that the term Buddha means “one who is
Awake.” What, then, is the difference between a bodhisattva (a
being who is Awake) and a Buddha? The answer that is usually
given is that a Buddha is fully Awakened and a bodhisattva is
Awakened but has foregone complete Awakening and, due to his
or her great compassion (mahâkaruna), stays among ordinary
human beings and helps guide them to Awakening. I believe it is
more accurate to say that there is no distinction—Mahâyâna
Buddhism used the term bodhisattva to underline the importance
of the great compassionate nature of the Awakened person.
Since compassion is a defining characteristic of Awakening,
certainly Buddhas must have this great compassion as well.
A bodhisattva takes a vow to lead all beings to Awakening, no
matter how long it takes, and no matter how often he or she
needs to be reborn in samsara in order to accomplish this task.
The practice of a bodhisattva focused on the Mahâyâna virtues
known as the Six Perfections (pâramitâs): giving (dâna), morality
(sila), patience (ksânti), striving (virya), meditation (dhyâna),
and wisdom (prajñâ).

RELIGIO-PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENTS
IN MAHÂYÂNA
Even as Mahâyâna Buddhism developed the new interpretations
of the dharma that allowed theistic Buddhism to develop and
48 BUDDHISM

flourish, it also gave rise to new philosophical treatments of

Buddhism. In the remainder of this chapter, I will describe some
important Buddhist schools and the most important ideas found
in the scriptures of those schools. I will begin in India, followed
by East Asia, then Southeast Asia, and finally Tibet. The two most
important Mahâyâna philosophical systems to develop in India
were those of the Mâdhyamika and the Yogâcâra schools.

Mâdhyamika
The major progenitor of the Mâdhyamika position was one
of the greatest Buddhist thinkers in history, Nâgârjuna (ca. C.E.
150–250). Nâgârjuna posited that objects, as we perceive them in
ordinary consciousness, make up a provisional reality and that,
in authentic reality, all objects are emptiness (śûnyatâ).
What is emptiness? It is a doctrine that takes early Buddhist
philosophy to its logical conclusion. Early Buddhism stressed that
everything is impermanent. The Abhidharma philosophers inter-
preted the doctrine of impermanence to mean that everything
was composed of real elements that continuously originated and
were continuously destroyed. Nâgârjuna taught that the elements
were not just impermanent, but that they lacked any real being at
all. Because everything is empty of real being, Nâgârjuna’s view of
the world is called emptiness. Emptiness is not the same thing
as nihilism (the view that existense is senseless and useless). It is
closely associated with the Buddhist philosophy of the “middle
way,” which stated that one should steer away from extremes.
Existence is one extreme, nonexistence is the other extreme.
Emptiness is neither; rather, it is a teaching that demonstrates
why claims to either existence or nonexistence are wrongheaded.
Another way to look at emptiness is to see it as an example
of dependent co-arising (pratîtya-samutpâda). Everything arises
dependent on causes and conditions, so nothing has “own-being”
(independent existence). Objects only exist interdependently
with all existence. Or, to use the language we have been using, all
things are existent and nonexistent, dual and nondual simulta-
neously. Therefore, it is not a simple nonexistence set against
 Scriptures 49
existence that Nâgârjuna is elucidating here but a complete
notion of emptiness that paradoxically includes both existence
and nonexistence.
This kind of reasoning had implications for the traditional
way in which Buddhism had opposed nirvana and samsara.
These, too, were opposite extremes, just like existence and non-
existence were opposite extremes. They, too, could only exist
simultaneously and interdependently. Hence the Mahâyâna
teaching that nirvana is samsara, and samsara is nirvana. These
were not two separate places, but two levels of truth.
Nâgârjuna’s aim was to disassemble other arguments that were
prevalent in his day, including the nihilistic argument. He taught
that it was critical to distinguish between conventional truth and
absolute truth in order to reach the experience of śûnyatâ.
His theoretical writings supported developments in Buddhist
logic and directly influenced Ch’an Buddhism (Japanese Zen
Buddhism). Zen’s emphasis on nonattachment to intellectual
positions is a corollary of Nâgârjuna’s philosophy of the two
levels of truth: conventional truth and absolute truth.

Yogâcâra
Yogâcâra Buddhism taught the philosophy of “mind-only,”
which is often described as a form of idealism that asserts that
mind or consciousness is the only reality. Yogâcâra philosophers
asserted that the phenomenal world only exists in the con-
sciousness of the perceiver. That is, if you remove the perceiver,
the world does not exist.
The most significant architects of this school of thought
were Maitreyanântha (ca. C.E. 270–350), the Asanga brothers
(ca. 310–390), and Vasubandhu (ca. 320–400). How is it, they
asked, that many different people can have the same percep-
tions? Furthermore, how can we explain internal visualizations
like dreams that seem so real even though they are not real?
The Yogâcâra view was that there must be a common place
from which these perceptions are drawn, a “storehouse” of per-
ceptions (âlaya-vijñâna) that persons are able to access. Objects
50 BUDDHISM

in this “storehouse” are similarly perceived by similar beings.

As was the case with the Mâdhyamika, the Yogâcâra school of
philosophy also stated that there was an authentic reality that
transcended this proto-reality of perceived objects. They termed
this authentic reality “suchness” (tathatâ).
In Yogâcâra philosophy, Awakening was said to occur when
the duality between the “storehouse” perceptions and suchness
was extirpated. Meditation and visualizations were used to
achieve this nonduality.

EAST ASIAN MAHÂYÂNA BUDDHIST SCHOOLS

Buddhism in China
Although it is difficult to determine precisely when Buddhism
came to China, it probably arrived in the first century of the
Common Era. Its arrival presented some interesting challenges
for China and for Buddhism as well.
Gautama Buddha was embraced by the Chinese court as an
Indian deity and placed alongside the Taoist figure Lao-tzu.
However, the relationship between the Confucian and Buddhist
traditions was more challenging.
Buddhists constructed temples that were tax exempt. As these
temples became more influential, native opposition and resent-
ment grew. Buddhism had a monastic tradition, and its monks
were celibate. Confucian thought, which was very family centered,
disapproved of the monastic lifestyle. The Chinese took a dim
view of the monks’ shaven heads. Buddhist belief in rebirth
was contrary to the ancestor veneration of the Chinese. The
Buddhists were thoroughly imbued with the Indian virtue of
ahimsa (non-harm, non-injury) and therefore did not join the
military at a time when all Chinese men were subject to military
duty.28 Although the Taoists were more receptive to Buddhism,
their emphasis on attaining physical immortality led them to
hope that Buddhist medical knowledge would aid in that
endeavor. They were disappointed that Buddhist medical
knowledge did not tend in that direction. It is important to
note, however, that the knowledge of herbs and healing that the
 Scriptures 51
Buddhists brought with them from India was and is a significant
part of their success in gaining converts.
Buddhism changed as it settled into China. Even to translate
Buddhist texts into the Chinese language required knowledge of
Chinese religious and cultural traditions. The translation project
was monumental and continued in earnest for several centuries.
By then, Buddhists were becoming Chinese as much as China
was becoming Buddhist. Consequently, new forms of Buddhism
developed in China.
The Chinese Buddhist schools were the heirs of the transla-
tions project. They were the new interpreters of Mahâyâna
Buddhism, and they shaped both doctrine and practice in
unique ways. The Chinese Buddhist schools set the stage for the
advent of the Korean and Japanese schools.

Chinese Buddhist Schools

T’ien-t’ai School
The T’ien-t’ai (“Heavenly Terrace”) school is sometimes referred
to as the Lotus school. T’ien-t’ai Buddhists look to the Lotus Sutra
as their primary text, and they consider it to be the highpoint of
the Buddhist sutra tradition. Chih-i (C.E. 538–597) is extolled as
the foremost interpreter of this text. The school derives its name
from a mountain in Chekiang Province where Chih-i taught.29
T’ien-t’ai doctrine, which is Mahâyâna in flavor, stressed the
importance of both meditation and philosophy. This school
attempts to elucidate the “threefold truth.”
The first truth is that all things are empty, including the self.
The second truth states that all things have a relative or tempo-
rary reality. The third truth states that the “two realities” (the
relative as discerned by ordinary consciousness and the absolute
as discerned by the Awakened consciousness) are in fact one.
The “threefold truth” is another way of stating the “samsara is
nirvana, nirvana is samsara” argument. It also echoes our earlier
description of the nondualistic-dual nature of reality.
The lokas (or levels of sentient existence—deities, animals,
hungry ghosts, and so forth), which were mentioned in the
52 BUDDHISM

karma and rebirth discussion in Chapter One, derive from

T’ien-t’ai’s elaboration of the relative realm of reality. More
importantly, T’ien-t’ai is responsible for breaking down the
Awakened-Unawakened duality by positing that all sentient
beings have the Buddha nature. The claim is not simply that
each person has the potential to actualize the Awakened Mind
but that we all are, in fact, Awakened. As important as the dis-
tinction between the ordinary mind and the Awakened Mind
is, it is a conceptual structure that posits a duality. (This is true
of all conceptual structures.) Because Mahâyâna stresses the
importance of nonduality, all such conceptual structures must
be jettisoned once they have made their point. Beyond the duality
of conceptual structures, the T’ien-t’ai Buddhist seeks tathatâ
(“suchness”), which is the Awakened Consciousness in play. The
methodology employed by T’ien-t’ai is actually a combination
of meditation and devotionalism.
T’ien-t’ai is considered the first “indigenous” school of Chinese
Buddhism. It subsequently was carried to Korea, where it is
known as Ch’nt’ae, and to Japan, where it is called Tendai.
Tendai’s headquarters on Mount Hiei, just outside of Kyoto,
were established by the eminent Japanese monk, Saichô.

Hua-yen School
The “Flower Garland” school of Chinese Buddhism recognizes
two people as being most instrumental in its formation: Tu-Shun
(557–640) and Fa-tsang (643–712). The latter played the leading
role in the shaping of Hua-yen thought.
The Hua-yen school has much in common with the T’ien-t’ai
school: It argues that all things are codependent, coarising,
and so ultimately one. While attempting to introduce China’s
Empress Wu to Hua-yen philosophy, Fa-tsang used the metaphor
of a golden lion. Gold, he said, has no self-nature; it is only the
fact that it exists in the form of a lion that makes it something.
Likewise, the form of the lion has no own-being; it is dependent
upon the substance of gold to actually exist. Thus, it is only
because of the interdependence between the form (“lion”)
 Scriptures 53
and the substance (gold) that the golden lion exists as a golden
lion. Neither of the elements (form or substance) can manifest
without the other. Everything in the world is like the golden
lion, according to Hua-yen. It has no being within itself, but
only arises because of mutually arising codependent causes.
The causes do not have own-being either, because neither can
manifest without the other.
As we pursue this and ask, “What is the lion?” we must answer
that it is gold in the shape of a lion but that materially, there is
only gold. The shape of the lion does not actually exist except
due to our senses of perceiving the object and our knowledge of
what a lion looks like, or as Professor Donald Mitchell extols:

[8] The lion is spoken of to demonstrate the result of

ignorance, while its golden essence is spoken of in order to
make clear its true nature . . . . [9] This lion is a created
dharma, arising and passing away in every moment . . . Yet,
since the different periods of time are formed dependent
on one another, they are merging harmoniously and
mutually penetrating together without obstruction in
each moment of time . . . [10] The gold and the lion may
be hidden or manifest . . . but neither has any own-being.
They are constantly being evolved through the transfor-
mation of the mind.30

If we consider the gold as emptiness and the form of the lion

as the cosmos, Fa-tsang’s metaphor can be extended to explain
that emptiness and form arise together and this coexistence
results in distinct forms. Though distinct, all forms also inter-
penetrate one another, influencing and conditioning each other.
Hua-yen uses the image of Indra’s Net to explain this mutual
interpenetration. Indra’s Net is a spiderweb-like net with
mirrors set at each point of intersection of the threads. These
mirrors reflect endlessly into and out of each other. The idea is
that everything is limited in itself but simultaneously reflects
all other realities.
54 BUDDHISM

Similarly, consider a wave on the ocean. Although the wave may

seem only a small part of the ocean, a small and transient part
that rises and falls, it holds within it both emptiness and form.
The Awakening comes when one sees that all phenomena are
causally determined and ultimately empty. The Hua-yen school
suggests meditation as the most likely means of facilitating such
an Awakening.

Pure Land School

Today the Pure Land school is the most popular type of Buddhism
in China, and its counterparts in Japan and Korea are the most
popular schools of Buddhism in those countries. It is a devo-
tional form of Buddhism, emphasizing faith and devotion as
vehicles to liberation rather than meditation or philosophy.
The Chinese name for this school is Ching-t’u. A particular
Buddha named Amitâbha stands at the center of Ching-t’u’s
belief system. The Pure Land Scripture tells the story of
Amitâbha, once a bodhisattva named Dharmâkara. En route
to his Awakening, Dharmâkara took forty-eight vows. The
eighteenth vow reads:

If, O Blessed One, when I have attained enlightenment,

whatever beings in other worlds, having conceived a desire for
right, perfect enlightenment, and having heard my name,
with favorable intent think upon me, if when the time and
moment of death are upon them, I, surrounded by and at the
head of my community of mendicants, do not stand before
them to keep them from frustration, may I not, on that
account, attain to unexcelled, right, perfect enlightenment.31

As Dharmâkara did in fact become a Buddha, the recitation of

his name became the primary practice of Buddhists in this
school. Anyone seeking to join Amitâbha in the Pure Land
(which is also called the Western Paradise) is to recite “A-mi-t’o-fo”
(in Chinese).
Since Buddhism began as a movement emphasizing monasti-
cism, meditation, and philosophy, why is it that the most popular
 Scriptures 55
form of Buddhism today emphasizes none of those things but
only faith and devotion? Buddhists have their theories as to why
this has happened. Believers in Mahâyâna Buddhism frequently
hold that the dharma is strongest when a Buddha is present on
Earth, but after the Buddha leaves there is a period of degenera-
tion in the dharma. During Siddhartha Gautama’s lifetime, the
dharma was at its pinnacle and many people were able to reach
nirvana. Now, however, we are in the final degenerative phase of
the dharma, referred to in Japanese as the mappô. Given these
circumstances, the only real chance that believers have to attain
nirvana is to generate faith in Amitâbha’s beneficence and call on
his name.

Ch’an: The Meditation School

In the West, one of the best-known Buddhist schools is that of Zen
Buddhism; however, Zen traces its heritage back to the Chinese
meditation school known as Ch’an. Ch’an means “meditation,”
as does dhyana and Zen. So, not surprisingly, the primary practice
of Ch’an Buddhist believers is meditation.
Meditation had been a spiritual practice in Asia for many
centuries; dating back at least as far as the earliest beginnings
of Hinduism. A stone stamp with the unmistakable image of
a person in the lotus meditation position (both legs folded
over one’s thighs in a seated position) has been traced to the
Indus Civilization that predates the Aryan incursion into India
(ca. 1500 B.C.E.). Yoga as it subsequently developed in India main-
tained the use of seated meditation as part of a spiritual practice.
Among the Buddhist schools, it was Ch’an Buddhism that
elevated meditation to the position of being its central practice.
Meditation was given a status even higher than that of the
scriptures. Indeed, Ch’an is often described as:

A special transmission outside the scriptures;

With no dependence upon words and letters;
A direct pointing into the mind;
Seeing there one’s own nature and attaining Buddhahood.32
56 BUDDHISM

Ch’an Buddhism places utmost importance on the master-

student relationship. The master stands as the living expression
of Awakening and he or she drives and verifies the student’s
advancement toward the realization of a mind that is and yet is
not different from the master’s mind. In Ch’an Buddhism, the
journey toward Awakening is a mind-to-mind transmission that
is not scripturally derived or sanctioned.
Different methodologies are employed by Ch’an teachers to
move the student from an unawakened state to Awakening.
One of the best known is the kung-an (Jp.: koan). The kung-an
(literally, “public record or case”) has been defined many ways
but perhaps most directly by Richard DeMartino, who said, “A
koan is a Zen presentation in the form of a Zen challenge.” 33
Over time, encounters between Ch’an masters and their
students began to be recorded. By the eleventh century, written
collections of these encounters were being used and commented
on by masters and students.34 It was through the teachings of
such masters as Dahui (1089–1163), Daitô (1282 –1336), and
Hakuin (1686 –1769), that koans came to be seen as the major
element in instruction in Ch’an Buddhism in China and Zen
Buddhism in Japan.
Ch’an traces the history of the koan and its contextual mondo
(dialogue between a master and a student) all the way back to
Gautama Buddha and the “exchange” he had with one of his
foremost students, Kashyapa, on Vulture Peak. It seems that an
audience had gathered and was waiting for the Buddha to
speak. The Buddha did not say a word but merely held up a
flower. In response, Kashyapa smiled, and the Buddha knew he
had understood. The Buddha’s Awakening had been passed on
to Kashyapa.35
This is regarded as the first transmission of the Ch’an lineage.
The Ch’an lineage became a patriarchal tradition in China and
subsequently an organizational lineage. Ch’an masters trace
their linage, their dharma transmission, back to this patriarchal
lineage. This structure acts to legitimize the master’s Awakening
experience and provides an organizing framework for Ch’an.
 Scriptures 57
As Ch’an continued to develop in China, a Southern school
and a Northern school emerged, giving rise to two different
types of Ch’an. The Southern school eventually gave rise to a
school that prized silent, seated meditation (the Ts’ao-tung
school). In Japan, this school was popularized by Dôgen
(1200–1253), where it became known as Sôtô Zen Buddhism.
The Northern School gave rise to the Lin-chi school, founded
by Lin-chi (d. 867). This school was renowned for its use of
koans. Lin-chi influenced the Korean school called Son. Eisai
(1141–1215) brought the version known as Rinzai Buddhism
to Japan.

Buddhism in Korea
Buddhism officially entered the Korean Peninsula in the fourth
century (although there is a good possibility that Buddhism was
unofficially present prior to that time). In the fourth century,
Korea consisted of three kingdoms: Koguryô, Paekche, and Silla.
Korea and China had fashioned a pact, and Shun-tao, a Chinese
Buddhist monk, took advantage of the new relationship between
the two countries and traveled to Koguryô.
Buddhism arrived in Paekche in C.E. 384 and was adopted as
the state religion of Silla in 527. In the seventh century, the king-
dom of Silla conquered both Koguryô and Paekche, inaugurating
a unification that would last until 918. This political stability
assisted in the development of Korean Buddhism; devotional
Buddhism in particular increased in popularity.
The development of Korean Buddhism took an interesting
path. Five Buddhist schools were established: three transplanted
Chinese schools and two indigenous Korean schools. Ch’ont’ae
(T’ien-t’ai), Son (Ch’an), and tantric practices were present
as well. Despite the presence of all these various forms of
Buddhism, Korea strove for unification of Buddhism within
its borders. In the eleventh century, Uich’on, a notable scholar,
worked toward such a unification. Perhaps the preeminent
Buddhist figure in Korean history, Chinul (1158–1210), should
also be mentioned for his contributions to unification.
58 BUDDHISM

Chinul was a religious reformer. He entered a Son Buddhist

monastery as a novice when he was young. However, Chinul basi-
cally educated himself in the sutras and the practice of meditation.
Chinul longed to create a sangha where a purer form of
Buddhism could be practiced. Over his lifetime, he worked toward
that goal. In a series of Awakening experiences, Chinul’s vision
of this sangha gained increased clarity. He shaped an approach
to Buddhism that combined meditation and sutras, utilized the
hwadu (Jp.: koan) methodology, and supported the growth of
Pure Land Buddhism in Korea. His vision greatly affected the
development of Buddhism in Korea; his influence continues to
this day.

Buddhism in Japan
Buddhism came to the Japanese Islands approximately in the
middle of the sixth century via Korea. Japan presented Buddhism
with a new and a very different situation than what it had seen in
India or in China. Japan had an indigenous religious tradition,
Shinto, but it lacked a textual tradition and many other
attributes of the Indian and Chinese civilizations. In fact,
Buddhism brought tremendous change to Japan, not only in
religion, but by introducing myriads of forms of culture and art,
primarily of Chinese origin. The entirety of the Japanese aesthetic,
from architecture to the language, was affected dramatically.
As Buddhism spread from country to country, whether or
not it was adopted or not often depended largely on whether
it was able to attract the sponsorship of an influential leader.
Japan was no exception: Prince Shôtoku (574–622) was the
figure who stood at the forefront of Buddhist history in
Japan. In his famed “Seventeen Article Constitution,” he
implored all Japanese to revere the “Three Treasures” 36 of
Buddhism.
Prince Shôtoku authored commentary on Buddhist sutras
and was responsible for building the first significant Buddhist
temples in Japan. One of these is Horyûji (607) in Nara, where
one can still see incredible examples of Buddhist art, including
 Scriptures 59
the Kudara Kannon. The Kudara Kannon has been designated a
national treasure. It is a carving of the bodhisattva of mercy
(Kannon). We do not know who created it, or when it was
carved, but it is called the Kudara Kannon because a legend says
that it came from the ancient Korean kingdom of Kudara
(Paekche). The nearby Chûgû-ji monastery (a women’s
monastery) houses a Miroku (Skt.: Maitreya) that still attracts
many Buddhist pilgrims. Maitreya is the future Buddha, who
many believe will arrive on earth after Gautama Buddha’s teach-
ings have disappeared. Maitreya is derived from the Sanskrit
maitri, meaning “universal love.”

Japanese Buddhist Schools

The expansion of Buddhism into Japan occurred during several
active periods. The early establishment of Buddhist schools
occurred during the Nara period (710–784), so-called because
Nara was the capital at the time. Six schools (Kusha, Jôjitsu,
Ritsu, Sanron, Hossô, and Kegon) established their residency
there. All six were based on Chinese schools. The great temple
complex, Todaiji, was also built at this time (we will examine
Todaiji more closely when we examine Buddhist temples in
Chapter Five). During the Nara period, Japan also made its
first connections with other Buddhist schools that would prove
to be more enduring and influential—the Tendai and Zen
schools. It was in the subsequent Heian period (794–1185),
when the capital of Japan was moved from Nara to nearby Kyoto,
that there was a rich development of the Tendai and Shingon
schools. During the third period of note, the Kamakura period
(1185–1333), the Pure Land, Zen, and Nichiren schools flour-
ished. It might be argued that post-World War II Japan
merits consideration as a fourth period, because it has seen the
growth of newer expressions of Buddhism such as the Sôka
Gakkai movement.
We lack the space to consider all the Japanese Buddhist schools,
but, in order to get the flavor of Japanese Buddhism, let’s look
briefly at the Shingon, Pure Land, Zen, and Nichiren schools.
60 BUDDHISM

Shingon School
Atop Mount Kôya in Japan, one can walk through the darkened
forest of immense cypress trees—with thousands of tombs
on either side of the stone path—toward the tomb of Kûkai
(774–835). His tomb, called the Gobyô, lies at the end of the path
behind the Tôrô-dô Hall, a temple lit with hundreds of lamps. It
is said that Kûkai retreated to this cave and still resides there in
meditation rather than death. Pilgrims and tourists travel from
all over Japan to visit this sacred spot and even Japanese people
who do not follow Shingon Buddhism know very well the name
of Kûkai. Who was this man and what is Shingon?
Kûkai, who was posthumously given the honorary title Kobô
Daishi (“propagator of the dharma”), developed the Shingon
school. His own studies led him to the conclusion that Japanese
Buddhism of his day was not satisfactory and that a modifica-
tion was necessary. He traveled to China where he was trained
in tantric37 practice and was ordained to teach. He returned
to Japan (806) and ultimately was allowed by the emperor to
build a temple on Mount Kôya.
Shingon (literally,“True Word”) is an esoteric tradition. It claims
that its teachings come from the Dharmakâya Buddha, whereas
other forms of Buddhism receive their teachings from Siddhartha
Gautama, the Nirmânakâya Buddha (see “The Doctrine of
Trikâya” on pages 43–46). In Shingon Buddhism, the Dharmakâya
Buddha is called Vairocana. Recall that the Dharmakâya is the
essence of Buddha nature that resides in all things.
This leads to the central teaching of Shingon, which is that
one becomes a Buddha with one’s current physical body. One
does not become a Buddha after one has died, nor does one
become a Buddha through one’s mind alone, but rather this
present living, physical body is able to attain Buddhahood. We
see here the influence of Tantrism, which underscores the
utility of the passions in attaining nirvana. When one becomes
a Buddha in this very body, one’s body becomes the body of the
Buddha, one’s speech becomes the speech of the Buddha, and
one’s mind becomes the mind of the Buddha. In Shingon
 Scriptures 61
Buddhism, the Mahâyâna teaching of nonduality is used to
argue that human beings are not distinct from the Buddha. We
all have the Buddha nature.
Tantric practices are used to realize one’s own Buddha-nature.
These include the use of mandalas, mantras, and mudras. A
mandala is a picture or any symbolic representation of the universe
(or a part of the universe). It is used in meditation. Shingon
reveres two mandalas that were brought to Japan from China by
Kûkai. Both contain all of the buddhas meditated on in Shingon
Buddhism, with Vairocana Buddha at the center. Each mandala
is a schematic portrait of the world as seen with the eyes of
perfect wisdom. A mantra is a verbal formula. Magical proper-
ties are often ascribed to mantras. Mudras are hand positions
used in meditation and in iconography. The point is to use these
instruments to penetrate the Dharmakâya, the enveloping
Awakened nature of the universe, so that the person meditating
can dissipate the erroneous belief that his or her Buddha nature
is different from the reality of Dharmakâya (Vairocana Buddha).
As with all tantric practice, the believer requires the guidance of
a tantric master who can introduce rituals at an appropriate
level as the believer progresses on the path.
The Shingon sect is not one of the larger Buddhist sects, but
the Japanese people know the name of Kûkai due to his skill at
calligraphy (Jp.: Shôdo), poetry, and his overall learnedness.
Many of them live near one of the countless wells or springs
ascribed to Kûkai’s mystical power to produce water by striking
the ground with his staff in thanksgiving for a drink of water
given when he was thirsty. In Japan, Kûkai has been the subject
of countless biographies and folklore.

Pure Land School

As we have seen, Pure Land Buddhism originated in China. Its
primary orientation, devotion to Amitâbha Buddha (Amida
Buddha in Japanese), persisted when it spread to Japan. There
were several notable contributors to the development of the
Pure Land school (Jp.: Jôdo) in Japan, including such luminaries
62 BUDDHISM

as Kûya (903–972), Ryûnin (1072–1132), and Geshin (942–1017).

But inarguably the two dominant personalities of Pure Land
Buddhism in Japan were Hônen (1133–1212) and his disciple,
Shinran (1173–1263).
Hônen argued that Pure Land was superior to all other forms
of Buddhism. In Japanese, the difference between Pure Land and
other Buddhist sects can be rendered as the difference between
depending on the power of the self (jiriki) as opposed to the
power of the other (tariki). Pure Land was the latter, for a Pure Land
believer relied entirely upon Amida for his or her salvation. Hônen
did advocate the use of the nembutsu, which is the repetition of
Amida’s name (Namu Amida Butsu—Praise Amida Buddha). As
Hônen wrote in a final note two days before his death:

The method of final salvation that I have propounded is

neither a sort of meditation, such as has been practiced by
many scholars in China or Japan, nor is it a repetition of the
Buddha’s name by those who have studied and understood
the deep meaning of it. It is nothing but the mere repetition
of the “Namu Amida Butsu,” without a doubt of His mercy,
whereby one may be born into the Land of Perfect Bliss.38

Shinran was a disciple of Hônen. Both had suffered persecu-

tion due to their teachings, including banishment. Shinran’s
mission was to carry out what his master had started, but he was
willing to reach even further than Hônen in order to spread their
teachings to the ordinary person.
Shinran taught that the efficacy of the Nembutsu resides not
in the numerous repetitions of the words but in the earnestness
of the speaker. He inveighed against the presumed usefulness of
honoring other Buddhas and bodhisattvas and the monastic
path. He initiated the practice of allowing monastics to marry;
a practice that persists in Japan today.

Zen School
As mentioned previously, Zen is the Japanese term for medita-
tion. This Japanese school derives from Indian and Chinese
 Scriptures 63
sects. In the West, Zen is much better known than Ch’an, because
it was Japanese teachers who brought this form of Buddhism to
the West. As was the case with Pure Land, there are once again
two dominating personalities in the development of Japanese
Zen. They are Eisai (1141–1215) and Dôgen (1200–1253).
Eisai began his study of Buddhism at Mount Hiei among
the Tendai practitioners. He determined that a trip to China
was vital to his development as a monk, and in fact he traveled
there twice. Since the Ch’an school was the only school of note
at the time in China, he studied in a Ch’an temple. He returned
in 1191 as an ordained Ch’an teacher in the Lin-chi school
(Jp.: Rinzai).
Eisai did much to popularize Zen in Japan. He accomplished
this by aligning himself with the power of the shogun 39 and
by upsetting the political tactics of the competing twelfth-
and thirteenth-century Buddhist schools. The Rinzai school
employed the koan method along with strict discipline to
support the monks’ quest for Awakening.
Dôgen’s early life was a mixture of good fortune and tragedy.
He enjoyed a privileged birth into an aristocratic family and
received a corresponding education that prepared him well for a
life of study. Unfortunately, he suffered the loss of both of his
parents—his father at the age of two, his mother at the age of
seven—and this likely played a large part in his decision to seek
a religious life.
Like Eisai, he became a monk and studied at Mount Hiei. He
found it wanting and unable to answer his questions, so he left
the Tendai sect. Dôgen sought out Eisai at Kennin-ji Temple just
down the mountain from Hiei in Kyoto. He was struck by Eisai’s
teachings but Eisai died the following year. So Dôgen studied
with Myôzen, one of Eisai’s students who had received the
transmission of the dharma from his master. It was with
Myôzen that Dôgen, at age twenty-three, journeyed to China
to seek further training. He even studied at the temple
(T’ien-t’ung) where Eisai had labored in China but still
remained dissatisfied. Fortunately, a new master came to this
64 BUDDHISM

temple, Ju-ching (1163–1228), and it was this relationship that

proved the catalyst for Dôgen’s Awakening.
Dôgen subsequently returned to Japan in 1227 and estab-
lished the Sôto Zen school there. He carried on a teaching
career until he passed into parinirvâņâ. He authored several
notable writings, his most famous work being the Shôbôgenzô
Zuimonki. He also established the major training temple for the
sect at Eihei-ji, a temple compound in Fukui-ken.
Dôgen’s methodology can be distinguished from that of the
Rinzai school by its pronounced use of shinkan-taza, which
simply means to sit. The koan system was not employed system-
atically within the Sôto school. As Dôgen wrote, “In the pursuit
of the Way [Buddhism] the prime essential is sitting (zazen) . . . ” 40

Nichiren School
Unlike the other Japanese Buddhist schools we have considered,
Nichiren Buddhism has no predecessors in China or India. The
school is named after its founder, Nichiren (1222–1282), who,
like the founders of the other Japanese schools we have consid-
ered, studied at Mount Hiei. Nichiren did not view himself as
the progenitor of a new form of Buddhism but as someone who
was attempting to restore a Japanese Buddhism that had strayed.
Nichiren asserted that the key text for Buddhist revival was the
Lotus Sutra. Correspondingly, the operative mantra should be,
Namu Myôhô Renge Kyô, which means, “Praise the mysterious
law of the Lotus Sutra.” This claim for the Lotus Sutra, which
reflected the Tendai position, was not well received by the clerical
and martial powers of the time. Nichiren was persecuted and
ultimately banished. The fact that he was confrontational about
his beliefs did not help his situation.
Nichiren espoused three other important ideas: (1) that Japan
occupied a central place in redemption for the world, (2) that we
were indeed in mappô, a period of degeneration of the dharma
that could only be combated by drastic, immediate action, and
(3) that he had a mission to be a prophet to the masses. Nichiren
Buddhism persists in Japan today, most obviously in the form of
 Scriptures 65
new religious movements like Sôka Gakkai (“Value-creating
Society”) and Risshô Kôsei-kai (“Society for the Perfection of
the Nation and of the Community of Believers in Accordance
with Buddhist Principles”).

THERAVÂDA BUDDHISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Theravâda Buddhism is found today in such countries as
Myanmar, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Laos, and Thailand. According
to the Tripitika, Gautama Buddha said that Buddhism was to
spread throughout the world. This validated the sending of
Buddhist missionaries to regions outside of Northeast India.
The Indian King Aśoka sent missionaries to the west and, in
approximately C.E. 247, he sent some to Sri Lanka. This began
the eastward migration of Theravâda Buddhism and it was also
the advent of Buddhism as a world religion.
Theravâda Buddhism understands itself to be the original,
unchanged form of Buddhism. Theravâdans assert that their
teachings and practice are exactly as Gautama Buddha intended.
This form of Buddhism looks to the Tripitaka alone for its
guidance and eschews the addition of other canonical texts.
As we discussed in the Eightfold Path, the elements of
morality, concentration, and wisdom are the larger categories.
The Theravâdan believer works within the three important
areas of morality, concentration, and wisdom to bring about
his or her Awakening. Morality includes right action, right
speech, and right livelihood, all of which are part of the Noble
Eightfold Path. There are precepts forbidding harming life,
lying, stealing, sexual immorality, and consuming forbidden
substances like alcohol. The application of these precepts
differs depending upon whether one is a monk or a layperson.
For example, monks must practice celibacy whereas layper-
sons must limit their sexual relations to their marital partner.
For the Theravâdan (and for a Mahâyâna Buddhist as well),
the culmination of living morally occurs when one instinc-
tively acts ethically. At that point, one no longer requires a
rigid code of conduct with implicit or explicit threats of
66 BUDDHISM

punishment for transgressions, but rather one naturally does

what is right.
Likewise, the closer one draws toward Awakening, the more
natural the practice of concentration and wisdom becomes.
However, the development of these virtues requires long and
strenuous practice. For that reason, Theravâda Buddhists
maintain that the monastic life, which allots a large proportion
of time to meditation and study of the scriptures, is most
conducive to the development of concentration and wisdom.
Only monks are expected to attain Awakening in their current
lifetime, but laypersons are encouraged to build good karma so
that they may perhaps become monks in their next lifetime.

VAJRAYÂNA BUDDHISM
Over the past several decades, Westerners have shown an
increasing interest in Vajrayâna Buddhism. The plight of the
Tibetan refugees, led by their popular spokesman, the Dalai
Lama, has certainly played a large role in this expanded interest.
The Dalai Lama and also many other lamas (teachers) from
Tibet have visited one or more of the Western nations and
established a following. Some have promulgated Vajrayâna
teachings and practices by writing books in English. Consequently,
Westerners now have more access to information about
Vajrayâna Buddhism than in any previous period in history.
Increased access has certainly helped to promote increased
interest in Vajrayâna, but another reason for Western curiosity
about this form of Buddhism is the fact that it has secret rituals,
some of which involve activities normally forbidden by the
Buddhist moral code (more about this in a while).
Vajrayâna is also sometimes called Tibetan Buddhism because
that is the country with which it is most closely associated. Some
religious studies scholars classify it as a type of Mahâyâna
Buddhism, because it accepts additional scriptures beyond the
Tripitaka, embraces the ideas of the trikâya and the bodhisattva
and is in other ways similar to Mahâyâna. However, other
scholars consider it to be in a category all its own because of
 Scriptures 67
its unique geographic setting (Tibet rather than East Asia), and
because of its many distinct beliefs and practices, as will be
explained below.

Schools of Vajrayâna Buddhism

Buddhism arrived relatively late in Tibet as compared with
the rest of Asia. With the coming to power of Songtsen Gampo
(ca. 617–649), Buddhism had an opportunity to gain a foothold.
The first Buddhist temple in Tibet was constructed during his
reign. In the same time period, linguistic and scholarly efforts
that would allow Buddhist texts and ideas to be transmitted to
the Tibetan people were promoted.
Under Songtsen Gampo, Tibet expanded in all four directions
and became an important Asian power. This king was Tibet’s
first lawgiver, handing down ten moral rules and sixteen rules of
public conduct. He sent seventeen Tibetans to India to learn
Sanskrit and Buddhism. The most famous of these, Thonmi
Sambhota, created the Tibetan alphabet and grammar on the
basis of two Indian scripts and translated several important
Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan.
Songtsen Gampo was married to two foreign princesses, one
from Nepal and the other from China, both of whom brought
with them a treasured statue of Gautama Buddha. The Govern-
ment of Tibet in Exile is very proud that both of these statues have
been preserved, although one had to be repaired. Considering
that Tibet had more than six thousand monasteries prior to the
Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)—during which China attempted
to suppress Tibetan nationalism—and of those only thirteen
survived the revolution, it is indeed amazing that both statues
dating from Songtsen Gampo’s seventh-century court survived.
Trisong Detsen (ca. 742–798), who came to power in 755, was
also a patron of Buddhism. He invited famous Indian Buddhist
teachers to Tibet, and with their help he had Tibet’s first Buddhist
monastery built at Samye (consecrated 775). He presided over
debates between Indian and Chinese Buddhist scholars and
decided who had won. During his reign, many more Buddhist
68 BUDDHISM

texts were translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan and the first
Tibetan Buddhist monks were initiated.
Lang Dharma (r. 841–846) provides an example of a Tibetan
king who opposed Buddhism and worked to suppress it. His
reign culminated in a domestic upheaval that fragmented Tibet.
Buddhism emerged diminished but still vital.
Over a century later, Buddhism’s second opportunity for
growth in Tibet was led by the esteemed Indian scholar, Atiśa
(982–1054). Atiśa combined elements of Theravâda, Mahâyâna,
and Tantrism. His approach proved to be very popular and dra-
matically shaped the distinctive character of Tibetan Buddhism.
Atiśa’s formulation of Buddhism led to the initial Tibetan
school of Buddhism, Kadam. Two other schools soon followed,
the Sakya and Kagyu. The latter was founded by another notable
educator, Marpa (1012–1096), who was the teacher of the even
more famous Milarepa (1040–1123).
A fourth school, Nyingma, was an orthodox response to the
formation of these “new” schools. It based its teachings and
practice on ancient texts. (Nyingma means “Ancient School.”)
With the development of internal schools and the compila-
tion of the Tibetan canon, Buddhism was firmly established in
Tibet. Perhaps you are wondering to which of these four schools
the Dalai Lama belongs. The answer is that he belongs to none
of them. There is yet one more school to be considered—the
Dalai Lama’s school.

The Geluk School

Tsong Khapa (1357–1419) was a follower of the Kadam school
but as a result of his own Awakening experience, he worked to
create a new school that would articulate a syncretistic vision for
Buddhism. (Recall that Atiśa had done something similar.)
Initially called “New Kadam,” this school was eventually renamed
the Geluk school.
Tsong Khapa’s successor was Gendün Drubpa (1391–1474).
Drubpa is believed to have transmigrated as Gendün Gyatso
(1475–1542). Gyatso subsequently was reborn as Sönam Gyatso,
 Scriptures 69
who, in an encounter with the Mongol warlord Altan Khan,
received the Mongolian name “Dalai,” which means “ocean”
and implies deep wisdom. As Sönam Gyatso was viewed as the
third rebirth, he is referred to as the third Dalai Lama. The
current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, is the fourteenth Dalai
Lama. That is to say, the current Dalai Lama is considered the
transmigration of the first Dalai Lama who has continued
through many lives. The Dalai Lama is also believed to be an
emanation of Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion.
Following the bodhisattva ideal, the Dalai Lama continues to
return to the human realm in order to assist all sentient beings
to reach Awakening.

Vajrayâna Methodology
Vajrayâna Buddhism is distinguished by its emphasis on
Tantrism. You may have heard this term before. Forty or fifty
years ago, there was a great flurry of interest in Tantrism as
people associated it with esoteric sexual practices. One can still
find books extolling the virtues of tantric sexual practice. The
connection between Tantrism and sexual practices is not entirely
wrong, but it is important not to form a one-sided image of
Tantrism. Rather than being one-dimensional, Tantrism is a
system of great complexity and depth.
The term tantra (Tibetan: rgyud) refers to systems of practice
and meditation derived from esoteric texts emphasizing cognitive
transformation through visualization, symbols, and rituals. 41
The different schools of Tibetan Buddhism mentioned previ-
ously have their own versions of tantric elements.
It is important to remember that tantric practices are esoteric
(meaning “private,” “secret,” or “confidential”). They are private
practices that are given to a student by a master only when the
student is thoroughly prepared. They are therefore not to be
used by everyone or without the supervision of a qualified
teacher. Given this, one can immediately see that the popular-
ization of Tantrism in the West poses a problem for genuine
Tantrism. Although credible masters have written books
70 BUDDHISM

describing tantric practices for the layperson, some of the tantric

practices are in fact dangerous to practice apart from the guidance
of a gifted teacher. Perhaps the best one can say is that it is a
changing situation, and one wonders what the implications are
for Tantrism’s future. As Professor John Powers wisely remarked:

Although tantra is generally considered in Tibet to be the

culmination of Buddhist teachings, it is not suitable for
everyone. Tantric practice is a powerful and effective means of
bringing about spiritual transformation, but for this very reason
it is also thought to be dangerous. Thus Tibetan teachers
contend that it is only suitable for certain exceptional individ-
uals, while others should follow the slower but less dangerous
path of the Mahâyâna sutra system or Hinayâna.42

The general organizing principle of Tantrism is inspired by

the experience of Awakening. As all things are ultimately the
same, and samsara is not different from nirvana, all efforts
to separate practice from attainment, sacred from secular,
and delusion from Awakening are necessarily wrongheaded.
Better to incorporate the perceived antithetical elements into
one’s practice than to perpetuate their perceived independ-
ent reality. Furthermore, every action, whether it be as noble
as a heroic deed or as mundane as going to the bathroom,
can be incorporated into tantric practice. How, then, does
one practice Tantrism?
It is very important to understand that genuine tantric practice
depends upon the involvement of a teacher who has been
trained in a recognized spiritual lineage. The teacher guides the
student through stages in his or her practice, beginning with
initiation. The primary purpose of initiation is to establish a
strong bond between the teacher and the student. An initiation
ritual should only be undertaken by a serious-minded student
who is able to keep the details of the initiation ritual secret.
Other “preliminary practices” include the taking of refuges
(“I take refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the dharma, I
take refuge in the sangha”), prostration, and meditation:
 Scriptures 71
Tantric initiation is often a complex ritual involving detailed
visualizations, prayers and supplications, offerings, special
ritual implements and substances. The purpose is to establish
the initiate in the proper frame of mind, forge a karmic bond
with the lama [teacher] and meditational deity, purify defile-
ments, grant permission to practice a particular tantra, and to
give instruction concerning how this should be done.43

In the quote above, a meditational deity was mentioned. A

meditational deity is a central element in deity yoga, an
important tantric practice. Deity yoga involves a practitioner
visualizing him or herself as an Awakened deity, such as
Avalokiteśvara (Tibetan: Chenrenzig). Buddhists ascribe great
power to the mind—one becomes what one thinks about or is
influenced by. As the student meditates on Avalokiteśvara and
learns to habitually think in this way, the consciousness of
the visualizer (the person meditating) and the visualized
(Avalokiteśvara) become one.
There are four types of tantric practice: action, performance,
yoga, and highest yoga. These types can be said to constitute a
progression toward nonduality. In action Tantrism, one visual-
izes oneself as the servant of the deity; in performance, as the
friend or companion of the deity; and yoga and highest yoga
involve actual nondualistic consciousness with the deity.
The use of sexuality in Tantrism deserves a further word. A
few rituals prescribe the use of a partner, a “seal.” The practi-
tioner and partner are visualized “as specific deities, and one’s
sexual union is used as a way of generating very subtle minds.” 44
This practice is reserved for very advanced practitioners who
have attained a higher level in the yoga tantras. In certain ritual
practices, the “seals” used are imaginary and in others they are
actual persons.

SYMBOLS OF TANTRISM
In our previous discussion on Shingon, I mentioned the tantric
elements of mandalas, mantra, and mudra. Some of these
72 BUDDHISM

mandalas, or symbols of Tantrism, are becoming more familiar

in the West. In the Minneapolis Museum of Art, one can find
a sand mandala preserved in a case. Increasingly, one sees
mandalas represented on posters or in books.
A mandala is “a diagram used in tantric meditation as an aid
to visualization, which represents the residence and perfected
attributes of a Buddha.” 45 The tantric practitioner uses the
mandala to strengthen the awareness of his or her own spiritual
identity by concentrating on this articulated celestial realm. The
purpose of this practice is to overcome the dualistic distinction
between the visualized and the visualizer.
The mantra serves a similar purpose. Perhaps you have heard
of the Hindu syllable “Om”—this is a mantra that has gained
some degree of recognition in the West. Whereas the mandala is
a visual aid, the mantra is a verbal aid. It is a spoken or chanted
formula that invokes a deity. Once again, the idea is to overcome
the misperceived distinction between the deity and oneself.
The mudra is a body movement or gesture. For example, in
many Buddhist statues one will see the deity with a raised palm.
This gesture, termed abhaya mudra, is meant to convey peace
and it carries the meaning “Fear not!” There are many other
gestures, and seated and standing positions, that convey a certain
meaning. In tantric practice, the person will use these movements
ritually. In fact, the practitioner often combines the mudra,
mantra, and mandala in one ritual thereby unifying the body,
speech, and mind.
There are other notable symbols of tantric practice that are
used in Tibet as well as in esoteric Chinese and Japanese sects.
One of these is the symbol that gives Vajrayâna Buddhism its
name: a thunderbolt-scepter that Tibetans call a vajra. The vajra
“symbolize (as absolute weapons) the victorious power of
knowledge over ignorance, of the spirit over the passions . . .
They are considered to annihilate spiritual poisons and to be an
effective weapon against evil thoughts and desires.” 46 One can
find the vajra represented with different numbers of points
(there is a three-pointed vajra and also a five-pointed vajra).
 4

Worldview
He who takes refuge with Buddha,
the Law, and the Church;
he who, with clear understanding,
sees the four holy truths:
pain, the origin of pain,
the destruction of pain,
and the eight-fold holy way that
leads to the quieting of pain;
—that is the safe refuge,
that is the best refuge;
having gone to that refuge,
a man is delivered from all pain.
—The Buddha, “The Buddha—Awakened”
74 BUDDHISM

uddhism developed in South Asia, so it is not surprising that

B Buddhism adopted some South Asian religious ideas. Karma,
rebirth, ahimsa—all of these ideas existed prior to the time of
Siddhartha Gautama. Hinduism and Jainism were the two most
significant pre-Buddhist religions to use these ideas.
Buddhism also developed some notions that were uniquely
its own—the concepts of anatman (no-self ), of śûnyatâ
(emptiness), of Awakening, and of the Buddha may serve as
examples of these. As is the case in most religions, some of
Buddhism’s key concepts are unique and some are shared.
The distinctively Buddhist worldview contains some of both
types of concepts. In this chapter, we examine some of the
distinguishing features of Buddhism that collectively shape its
view of the world.

THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF EXISTENCE

Buddhism speaks of the three characteristics or marks of exis-
tence. These are: 1) impermanence (anicca), 2) suffering (dukkha),
and 3) no-self (anatman). We have mentioned these terms
before, but let us take a moment to underscore the significance
of each to the Buddhist worldview.

Life Is Suffering
Recall from our discussion of the Four Noble Truths that
dukkha means suffering or unsatisfactoriness. The idea that
there is something “wrong” with life is certainly not unique
to Buddhism. All religions are transformative, that is, they try
to move us from an imperfect present condition to a better
future condition. If something were not wrong—if we were
not sinners, or ignorant, or mortal, or suffering, etc.—there
would be no reason to get started on a religious path. But,
even though Buddhism’s emphasis on the trouble with life is
not unique, it is a very important and pervasive part of the
Buddhist worldview.
Buddhism shares Hinduism’s belief that every thought or
action arises because of desire. “Desire makes the world go
 Worldview 75
’round” could be the theme song of both of these religions. But
whereas Hinduism sees this world as a “middle place,” with some
pleasure and some pain, Buddhism underscores the connection
between desire and suffering. The very fact that we desire, rather
than feel contentment or fulfillment, indicates that something is
not right. This insight, which grounds the Buddhist worldview,
provides a powerful incentive to get started on the Buddhist path
so that things might improve.

Impermanence, Emptiness
Early Buddhism underscored the impermanence of all elements
of existence, and Mahâyâna stressed the “emptiness” or lack of
“own-being” of all phenomena. Both are ways of pointing to
Buddhism’s conviction that there is no changeless, permanently
enduring reality. Everything comes into being, reaches a point of
fullest development, and then fades out of existence. Or, as this
truth is otherwise stated, everything arises depending on causes
and conditions and does not persist in the absence of those
causes and conditions.
Unlike many other religions, Buddhism does not posit any
unchanging reality. It has no unchanging God or eternal soul.
Buddhism offers no base on which we might affix a permanent
identity for ourselves or for anything else. For this reason, there
is no reason to get “attached” to anything. Buddhists attempt to
act mindfully in the moment; they do not attempt to secure a
permanent future state. Life, for a Buddhist, can only be mean-
ingfully lived in the here and now. If we try to live in the past
or for the future, we are not paying attention to the only reality
we can really have, and that is the reality that is right here and
right now.

Anatman (No-Self )
The Buddhist notion of no-self is not only a central doctrine of
Buddhism but also one that is frequently misunderstood. As
we study the idea of no-self, reflect back on our discussion of
Awakening and the subject-object dilemma.
76 BUDDHISM

When non-Buddhists learn that Buddhism argues that there is

no self, they are invariably confused. Such questions arise such
as, “How can Buddhism assert there is no self when clearly I am
conscious of my-self?” “How can Buddhism believe there is no
self and yet have a doctrine of rebirth—that is, what is it exactly
that moves from birth to death to birth again?” Let’s address
each of these questions and in so doing perhaps clarify what
Buddhism means by “no-self.”
To say one doesn’t have a self seems contradictory; that is,
don’t I need a self to say there is no self ? Someone familiar with
the history of Western philosophy would recall Descartes’
assertion, “Cogito Ergo Sum” (I think, therefore I am). To
formulate a Buddhist answer to this question, we need to go
back to the idea of “self.”
Buddhism recognizes the difficulty with defining the “self ”
and actually offers its own attempt. Gautama asserted that
the “self ” is made up of five parts or aggregates, in Sanskrit, the
five skandhas. The five skandhas are the form or body (rûpa),
sensations (vedanâ), perceptions (samjñâ), mental formations
(samskâra), and consciousness (vijñâna).47
Buddhism answers the question “What is the self?” with the
proposal that the self is an aggregate of body, sensations, per-
ceptions, mental formations, and consciousness. The idea
that I am the sum of all my “parts” seems like a reasonable
solution, and one with which many people might willingly
agree. Gautama Buddha once compared the individual human
life to a river:

O Brâhmana, it is just like the mountain river, flowing far

and swift, taking everything along with it; there is no
moment, no instant, no second when it stops flowing, but it
goes on flowing and continuing. So Brâhmana, is human life
like a river.48

The Buddha goes on to state that each of these skandhas is

impermanent and that this results in suffering, demonstrating
how all three marks of existence are interconnected.
 Worldview 77
Many people would agree that the body is not permanent, but
could one not claim that the body is not the self, and therefore
there could still be a permanent self ? One might argue, for
example, that consciousness persists after death. In terms of
this argument, it matters little whether one believes in heaven
or in reincarnation—either way, consciousness could be said to
continue after death.
Further, why did the Buddha say that the impermanence of
the skandhas produces dukkha for the human person? In fact,
his assertion was in the strongest possible form: “these five
Aggregates together,” he said, “which we popularly call a ‘being’,
are dukkha itself.” 49
Of the five skandhas, body and sensations appear to be
physical. We can acknowledge the impermanence of physical
phenomena, and we can also acknowledge that their imperma-
nence brings with it some degree of anxiety and dissatisfaction
with this state of affairs. But what about the other three skandhas?
Perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness are not
physical. Perceptions and mental formations are actually part
of consciousness, so perhaps that is where we should focus
our examination—what is consciousness and how does it
relate to dukkha?
Recall our discussion on the nature of consciousness in the
section on the Four Noble Truths. Our ordinary consciousness,
we said, bifurcates the world into subject and object, I and others.
Ordinary consciousness is dualistic, that is, it divides the world
into an inner awareness of myself as a subject and an outer
awareness of things and other persons as objects. According to
Japanese philosopher Keiji Nishitani, who was also trained in
Western philosophy, “This standpoint of separation of subject
and object, or opposition between within or without, is what we
call the field of ‘consciousness.’” 50 Consciousness as the fifth of
the five aggregates simply is this underlying division between
inner and outer, subject and object, self and others. Existence
bears this same fundamental division, as existence is simply what
consciousness is conscious of. The root of suffering is inherent
78 BUDDHISM

in this dualistic structure of consciousness and existence: I can

never fully know either self or other because it is impossible to
look at the subject-I objectively and it is impossible to look at
others and objects subjectively and still maintain my normal
mode of consciousness. That can only happen when the ordinary
structure of consciousness is sundered in the experience of
Awakening.
Recall, however, that Buddhism teaches that all sentient beings
have the Buddha nature. This Buddha nature is not the self
posited by ordinary consciousness, but the genuine self or the
selfless-self. No-self does not simply point to the impermanence
of the self or the invisibility of the self, but most importantly
(at least for Mahâyâna) it points to the nondual nature of both
Truth and Reality. Highest truth is nondual, and therefore it is
nonconceptual and unspeakable. Absolute reality is nondual,
and therefore distinct selves and others do not exist there. The
genuine self or the selfless-self transcends the ordinary conscious-
ness of self to include both self and not-self.
In regard to the question of what transmigrates at death,
the Buddhist could then argue it is the self (atman) that moves
until its no-self (anatman) is realized in Awakening. Historically,
one of the most important differences between Hinduism and
Buddhism has been with respect to the notion of the atman.
Hinduism teaches that the atman is permanent and that it is
the same as Brahman, Atman-Brahman being the Self-Universe.
Buddhism has argued for the nonpermanence of the self as
distinct from the universe. The contention here is that the
difference is a linguistic one rather than an existential one. For
Buddhism, the ordinary self will continue to transmigrate until
Awakening occurs whereupon the cycle ends:

Faced with the mortal illness of the problematic self, the only
cure is radical surgery. The entire dualistic consciousness must be
uprooted and “replaced” with an Awakened consciousness that
is not simply nondualistic but rather a nondualistic-dualistic
consciousness, or, more succinctly rendered, a selfless self.51
 Worldview 79
This is the Mahâprajnâ (Great Wisdom) that a Buddhist
expects to experience when he or she is finally Awakened. The
time of Awakening is also the point when Mahâkarunâ (Great
Compassion) comes into being. How does great compassion or
love manifest as a result of Awakening?
The Buddhist Awakening results in a state of nonduality
between self and other, where the one is truly seen as the other
and the other as the self. When the reality of “I am I and I am
not-I” or “I am I and I am the Universe” is experienced, the
obstacle of egocentricity that taints all interpersonal relation-
ships is extirpated and unobstructed compassion; regard for the
other is lucidly manifest. This is the Buddhist understanding of
Mahâkarunâ or love.

AHIMSA (NON-HARM)
Ahimsa is a Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist principle. It precludes the
causing of suffering to any being, whether human or animal. The
causing of any type of pain—psychological or financial as well as
physical—is forbidden. The principle of ahimsa often, though
not always, leads to the adoption of a vegetarian diet, or at least to
the perception that that would be the ideal diet from a spiritual
perspective. It also often leads to a refusal to engage in military
combat or even in sports that intentionally hurt or kill animals.
You might be wondering what harm a little more harm could
do, since Buddhists believe that life is already full of suffering.
In the face of a life of suffering, why not espouse a “tough guy”
attitude as the best way to cope? Buddhists believe that compas-
sion and empathy are part of our original nature. They believe
that no one harms another living being except out of hatred,
greed, or ignorance. Hatred, greed, and ignorance disappear
with Awakening, and our original nature, which is the Buddha
nature, manifests in their stead. In other words, although
Buddhists believe that suffering is ubiquitous, they do not
believe that it is natural. We are not doomed to suffering and
harm but capable of following a path (the Buddhist path) that
leads to wisdom and compassion.
80 BUDDHISM

However, this line of reasoning leads to further questions. If

Buddhists believe that our original nature is compassion and
love, why are there Buddhist monks? Why do some Buddhists
avoid romantic and family attachments? Are not monks choos-
ing lives of dispassion rather than compassion?

NONATTACHMENT
Buddhists believe that what we normally call love is really
attachment. In its grossest form, it is attachment to pleasure, the
pleasure of being with and enjoying a sexual or romantic partner.
In its subtler forms, it is attachment to a parent, a child, a
spouse, or a friend. As our ordinary way of referring to such
relationships reveals, they are more a matter of emotional
dependence and social status than they are a matter of altruistic
compassion. Such relationships form a “larger self ” but only
to the extent that the participants think in terms of “us”
versus “you” rather than in terms of “I” versus “you.” Even more
revealing is the fact that we speak of “having a friend,” “having a
wife (or husband),” “having children,” and even “having sex.”
When we are dependent on something or someone, we want to
“have” it, that is, to control or possess it. When we love someone
without ego involvement, we want to free that person rather
than control her or him. Buddhist compassion is a matter of
liberating others, not forming dependent relationships with
them. The monastic lifestyle, rightly lived, is a matter of freedom
from such attachments.
However, a householder can be further along the Buddhist
path and closer to nirvana than someone who lives in a
monastery. That is because real relationships don’t work very
well when they are a matter of attachments and dependencies.
The relationship itself can be a guide to freeing love rather than
attached love, to genuine overcoming of dualistic thought and
action rather than a furthering of our tendency to want to grasp
at things and persons and “have” them.
As in all religions that have both monastic and family
lifestyles, the monastics embody the principle of liberation
 Worldview 81
from the ordinary, deluded ways of the world, while those who
live in the world without succumbing to its ways embody the
nonduality of freedom from the world and compassionate
commitment to it.

TIBETAN BUDDHIST VIEW OF

TRANSMIGRATION AT DEATH
You may have heard of The Tibetan Book of the Dead. It has
been available in translation in the West for several decades and
was a popular book on college campuses in the 1960s. This book
describes what happens when a person dies, according to
Tibetan Buddhism. Because the book serves as a manual to assist
in both the process of living and the process of dying, Sogyal
Rinpoche has called it the “Tibetan Book of Living and Dying.” 52
I close this chapter with The Tibetan Book of the Dead because
it provides an example of how Buddhist teachings and Buddhist
beliefs about karma and rebirth are applied at this important
time in a person’s life. It provides an example of how the Buddhist
worldview works in practice.
The book describes the stages of the dying process. Even as
one is dying, a certain consciousness is still active. Therefore,
we experience different things at each stage. Tibetan Buddhist
scholar Robert Thurman presents the eight stages of death in
this fashion:
THE STAGES OF DEATH: DISSOLUTION AND EXPERIENCES 53
DISSOLUTION EXPERIENCE
1. earth to water mirage
2. water to fire smokiness
3. fire to wind fireflies in the sky
4. wind to consciousness clear candle flame
5. gross consciousness to luminance clear moonlit sky
6. luminance to radiance clear sunlit sky
7. radiance to imminence clear pitch-darkness
8. imminence to translucency clear light of clear predawn sky
82 BUDDHISM

THE TIBETAN ART OF DYING

The Tibetan Book of the Dead describes what the transmigrating self
experiences postmortem. As Robert Thurman notes, this text is
known in Tibet as The Great Book of Natural Liberation through Under-
standing in the Between. It provides guidance to help people deal with
the death of others close to them. It is, in a sense, a map of human
dying and death.
To use the book as it is designed to be used one needs to be a
believer and to work under the guidance of a qualified teacher. However,
for our purposes we can examine the book as an argument for a
certain view of death. The book attempts to provide its readers with a
clear view of what happens when one dies and how one should prepare
for the inevitableness of death.
According to Thurman, the book argues for two levels of prepara-
tion for death: ordinary and extraordinary. We will deal only with
ordinary preparation here. Ordinary preparation can be subdivided
into five areas of preparation: informational, imaginational, ethical,
meditational, and intellectual.
Informational means to inform oneself about the interior physical
aspects of death by studying the Tibetan (and Western scientific)
views of what happens when one dies. Imaginational means to use
one’s imaginative powers to visualize death and positive realities
such as parinirvâņâ. Asian art and story are replete with examples of
positive realms that one might encounter after death. One should
study the sutras that describe these lands of bliss or, if one is a
Westerner, one can read of the visions of the mystics in such traditions
as Christianity, Judaism, or Islam for guidance.
According to Thurman, the most important ethical practices are
generosity, compassion, and tolerance. It is also important to infuse
one’s life with an awareness of the transitoriness of life; this will
temper one’s greed, selfishness, and tension.
Meditational preparation involves doing contemplative practices
that induce calm, fire the imagination, generate loving-kindness, and
stimulate mindfulness. It is important to note that these preparations
are not anti-intellectual but rather are supported by one’s intellectual
interest and drive to understand.
For the components of extraordinary preparation, the interested
reader is encouraged to consult Thurman’s book (The Tibetan Book of
the Dead, Bantam Doubleday Dell, 1994) and others that relate to the
Tibetan art of dying.
 Worldview 83
The purpose of The Tibetan Book of the Dead and several other
Vajrayâna Buddhist practices is to enable the dying person to
retain lucidity and recognize the various stages as he or she pro-
gresses through them. Although one’s physical body moves into
death at stage four, one’s consciousness persists. Consequently,
the dying person is able to continue to benefit from his or her
practice and instruction while alive. He or she can also benefit
from oral instructions provided by a trained teacher who sits
with the dying person. Robert Thurman writes:

The meditative practices associated with between-state

training are crucial for sharpening attention so you can
become aware of the process, slow down the transitions, and
remain lucidly aware of the changes as they occur.54

The goal of The Tibetan Book of the Dead is to bring the dying
person into Awakening and not have him or her transmigrate
into a new life.
If one has been trained properly and has the guidance of a
trained lama, one may still gain release from samsara even
postmortem. If not able to gain this eleventh-hour release, then
one moves into the next life.
Tibetan Buddhists use this book to prepare for the experi-
ence of death. Rather than fearing death, they want to use the
dying experience to consolidate their spiritual prowess so that
Awakening will ensue. The Tibetan Book of the Dead is a fascinat-
ing treatise that challenges the dominant Western view of what
happens when we die.
5

Worship
In a quiet and untrammeled spot the practitioner
should resplendently arrange a single chamber
to use as the ritual sanctuary [daochang]. . . .
A fine altar-piece should be installed in the sanctuary
and on it placed a single copy of the Lotus Sūtra.
There is no need to enshrine any
other images, relics, or scriptures.
—From Fahna sanmei chanyi,
ed. Junjirō Takakusu and Watanabe Kaigyoku,
Tokyo: Taisho issai-kyō kankō-kai,
1914–1922, no. 1941: 949–954, vol. 46.
 Worship 85
Buddhist place of worship is called a temple. Most of the large
A temples built in one of the classical architectural styles are
located in Asia, but there are Buddhist temples all over the
world, including in major metropolitan areas in the United
States and Europe. Wherever you live, you are most likely within
a few hours of a Buddhist place of worship.
Simply because Buddhist temples are found everywhere, it
is difficult to generalize about their appearance, furnishings,
and services. That said, there are some elements that appear
in most Buddhist temples. In the following section, I will
describe some of those common characteristics. Later in this
chapter I will describe some specific temples in Japan and in
the United States.

THE STRUCTURE OF A BUDDHIST TEMPLE

The Temple Complex
The Buddhist temple has historically been not only a place of
worship but also a center for learning, healing, and celebrations.
Not infrequently it also served as a monastic residence (a
monastery). The monks, as custodians of society’s knowledge,
doled out what was often the only type of medical help available.
Because a Buddhist temple fulfills many purposes, it is almost
invariably a set of buildings located on a large parcel of land. In
other words, temples are not usually single buildings but an
entire complex of structures and the land on which they are
located (the temple grounds).
Most Buddhist temples have an entrance gate that provides
access to the temple grounds. However, in smaller temples with
only a single building, this may not be the case. There will be a
sign in front indicating the name of the temple and perhaps its
school or affiliation.
Two buildings commonly found on the temple grounds are
the main hall and a lecture hall. The main hall contains objects
used in worship, such as statues. Lecture halls may also display
objects of worship, but their primary purpose is to serve as the
site for meetings and lectures.
86 BUDDHISM

Upon entering the main hall, the worshipper may be asked to

remove his or her shoes. If so, it will be clearly evident that this
is the expectation. The purpose of shoe removal is to maintain
the cleanliness or purity of the temple. It is also easier to sit in
prayer or meditation if one is not wearing shoes. A third reason
for removal of shoes is to protect the sometimes fragile materials
used in the construction of the worship space. For example, the
straw mats (Jp.: tatami) used for flooring in Japanese temples are
easily damaged by shoes.

Buddhist Altars
Every worship space has at least one altar present somewhere in
the room. There may be several altars in one room or in several
different buildings, if the temple is a compound made up of
several buildings.
Buddhist altars vary greatly in design, but one will usually
find some representation of a Buddha or bodhisattva, perhaps
represented in a statue, painting, scroll, etc. The Buddhist figure
represented may indicate with which sect of Buddhism the temple
is associated. For example, in a Pure Land temple a representa-
tion of Amida Buddha will be on the main altar.
Often there is a main altar flanked by side altars on either
side. The side altars will be smaller, but they will also contain a
Buddhist figure, perhaps a Buddha, bodhisattva, or the founder
of the sect.
Candles or incense are customarily placed on the altar or in
the area around it. In some cases, the worshipper is invited to
light the candles or incense. There may be a small coin box
present, in which case the worshipper may put a coin in, take a
candle or stick of incense, and place it in the appropriate place.
The incense might be placed in an incense burner that, when
filled with burning sticks, gives rise to a cloud that fills the air.
The altar and its contents are usually made of natural materials,
such as wood or metals. The altar may include candles or cande-
labras that are lit and maintained by the devotees who live at the
temple. Fruit, flowers, or other objects that have been donated to
 Worship 87
the temple by believers will be placed on the altar. One may also
find prayers, fortunes, portions of sutras, and other instructional
material near the altar.

Temple Art
In many temples, the visitor finds artistic representations
intended for pedagogical or instructional purposes. These may
include paintings, quotations, and even gardens, such as the
famous rock gardens associated with certain Japanese Zen
Buddhist temples.
Vajrayâna temples often have prayer wheels. These are cylin-
drical drums that have prayers written on them. When a
believer spins the prayer wheel with his or her hands, the prayer
is symbolically sent to the wind and so out into the world to
benefit others. Sometimes there will be a long row of prayer
wheels, enabling the worshipper to walk down the path and
spin many prayer wheels in a very short amount of time.

Temple Visitors and Residents

Of course, when one visits a Buddhist temple, one also will see
Buddhist practitioners, both lay and monastic. The layperson
may be there for individual prayer or meditation, to attend a
regularly scheduled service, or perhaps for a special service or
ceremony that was arranged on his or her behalf. Examples of
special services would be a birth ceremony, a wedding, a funeral,
or a commemoration on the anniversary of a death.
Often a believer will pause in prayer before the altar. He or she
may intone a set prayer or devise one of his or her own. The
believer may also choose to chant a mantra or sutra before the
altar. Many Buddhists employ a rosary (Skt.: mala), which is a set
of prayer beads. A rosary will often have 108 beads (representing
the 108 human passions or worldly desires). It should be noted,
however, that rosaries do differ in number of beads and in the
materials of which they are made.
Monks or nuns are present to take care of the temple, to preside
over the ceremonies, and to provide other services to laypersons.
88 BUDDHISM

In return for these services, laypersons donate time and money

to the temple for its upkeep and expenses. Many Buddhist temples
are also monasteries, but not all Buddhist temples have monks
or nuns who live in the temple.

Other Items Found in Temples

The lotus is a common Buddhist symbol. Within a temple, a
statue of the Buddha or a bodhisattva might be sitting or stand-
ing on a lotus. The lotus usually symbolizes purity. The lotus
plant grows in water; the leaves extend out of the water and so
are not touched by any dirt in the water. The lotus symbolizes
the Buddhist practitioner, who is in the world but also
untouched—unsullied by the world. In some Buddhist inter-
pretations, the lotus is a symbol of the feminine principle or the
female sex organ.
The temples of Tibetan Buddhist sects, and also of esoteric
sects in China and Japan, might contain a vajra. The vajra is a
thunderbolt-like symbol that may appear in pictures or be cast
in metal. The vajra is a symbol of the knowledge and power
needed to overcome spiritual ignorance and bad thoughts. It
sometimes symbolizes the male sex organ and in such cases it
might accompany the lotus.
Very often a bell will be found at a Buddhist temple. In Japan,
you may find a separate belfry with a bell so large that a large log
on a chain is used as the clapper. These bells were used for time
keeping, in ceremonies, and for maintaining the daily schedule
of the temple.
The wheel is a common symbol of Buddhism. It represents
Buddhist teaching, which may be referred to as “the turning of
the wheel of the law (dharma).” Other items that might be found
at a Buddhist temple include vases, mirrors, books of Buddhist
sutras, and a reliquary known as a stûpa.
A stûpa is a dome-shaped structure that may be quite large
or quite small. It is a symbolic burial mound; in ancient India
the cremated remains of great kings were enshrined in stûpas.
In some cases, Buddhist stûpas may actually contain a relic of
 Worship 89
Gautama Buddha, such as a lock of hair or a tooth. Whether they
contain an actual relic or not, stûpas are sites where offerings
and devotions take place.

A BUDDHIST TEMPLE IN JAPAN

There are thousands of temples in Japan, ranging from large
temple complexes to smaller, single edifices. Indeed, even a single
large city, like Kyoto, may have several thousand temples, while
almost every smaller city has at least one temple.
One of the most-visited Buddhist temples in the world, Todaiji
is a temple of the Kegon sect of Buddhism. It is most famed
for the great statue of the Buddha that resides in what is said
to be the world’s largest wooden building, the Great Buddha
Hall. Originally built in the eighth century C.E., the building was
burned twice (1180, 1567) as well as being reconstructed in the
early eighteenth century.
Visitors to Todaiji are struck by the presence of people and
of deer. The park where the temple is located is called Deer Park
(in recognition of Deer Park at Sârnâth, the location of Gautama
Buddha’s first sermon) and deer freely amble around begging food
from the tourists and pilgrims. The popular temples in Japan also
have a large number of stalls lining the paths, where merchants
sell everything from film, toys, and postcards to Buddhist articles.
The entrance to Todaiji is through the great south gate (Daimon)
that permits passage into the sacred space within. Two enormous
guardians stand on either side of the gate protecting all within
from evil spirits.
Once through the gate, the pilgrim approaches the inner
temple through a side door that requires an admission fee. The
popular temples in Japan frequently charge an admission fee to
help cover their costs. Stepping through the side door, one is
immediately struck by the size of the large temple building that
houses the great Buddha, the Daibutsu.
An immense incense urn, consistent with the scale of the
temple building, stands in the middle of the path close to the
temizuya, the purification basin that pilgrims and tourists alike
90 BUDDHISM

use to ritually purify themselves before approaching the altar.

After the optional purchase of an incense stick, the pilgrim
ascends the great staircase of the main hall.
To the right of the massive doorway stands a weathered
Yakushi, a so-called Medicine Buddha. Petitioners approach to
ask for healing. The person generally places a few coins in the
coinbox at the base of the altar, touches the part of the seated
statue that corresponds to the part of his or her own body that
requires healing, and ties a mikuji (fortune) on the banister
behind them.
Stepping over the threshold into the main hall, one is imme-
diately struck by the immensity of the Buddha figure who rises
up out of the dim light. The Daibutsu, ordered by Emperor
Shômu to be constructed in 743, is a representation of Vairocana
Buddha. The casting of the statue actually began early in 747 and
was finally dedicated on April 9, 752. Work continued even after
this on the statue’s pedestal and aureole (ring of light, halo). One
of the devotional pictures that one can buy at Todaiji states that
“more than ten thousand priests and musicians from India,
China and Korea as well as Japan” attended the dedication.
The Rushana (Vairocana) Daibutsu is a Japanese National
Treasure standing forty-nine feet in height. It required five
hundred tons of copper to construct. Two other statues, smaller
but still immense, flank the main altar.
Although Todaiji is obviously unique in many ways, it appro-
priately serves as our example of a Japanese Buddhist temple.
More Japanese Buddhists visit this temple than visit local
neighborhood temples. In addition, this early Buddhist temple
in Japan includes all the elements that one can see in consider-
ably smaller temples all over Asia.

A BUDDHIST TEMPLE IN THE UNITED STATES

Buddhist places of worship can be found throughout the United
States and Europe, increasingly not only in urban settings but also
in rural areas. There is not a major city in the West without
several Buddhist centers representing different Asian Buddhist
 Worship 91

TIBETAN MONASTERIES
In his recent book, The Sound of Two Hands Clapping, Georges Dreyfus
provides a wonderfully insightful look inside Tibetan monasticism.
Currently a Professor of Religion at Williams College, Dreyfus spent
many years as a Tibetan Buddhist monk.
Dreyfus describes the Tibetan monastery as one centered on
rituals regardless of whether the monastery community is made
up of a handful or thousands of monks. He describes his own
efforts to memorize the ritual manual that guided practice within
the temple. The routine of ritual inside Dre-pung Monastery during
debate sessions included a morning service, then a brief prayer
in the courtyard. Following a debate, another service ensued,
another courtyard prayer, and then another debate. In the after-
noon, there may be yet another debate and then the main ritual
of the day: the prayer of the evening debate. This last ritual
contained more than fifty prayers and lasted more than two hours,
Dreyfus reports. (44)
The rituals are usually performed in the assembly hall, which is par-
ticularly valued for this reason and also because it is the location
where the monks receive support (food, money) from their sponsors.
One could draw a parallel with a Christian chapel, which is likewise
the site where important rituals occur and the place where the church
receives offerings from its parishioners.
Beyond the daily rituals, the temple is busy with rituals prescribed
by the Vinaya Pitaka and with the Buddhist holy days, e.g., the com-
memoration of the Buddha’s Awakening. Temples will also celebrate
school-specific rituals (those related to a particular “school” or type
of Buddhism) as well as temple-specific rituals (e.g., the celebration of
the foundation day of the temple).
Dreyfus describes rituals called “foot firming,” which are performed
for supporters of the temple. This type of ritual may be done for a
variety of different purposes, such as healing or repelling evil spirits.
The timing of these rituals is either astrologically determined or deter-
mined by a diviner. Monks, individuals, corporations, or governments
can request such rituals, and the monks may come to depend on these
rituals as an essential part of their support.
A local monastery operates as we have described. A central
monastery has additional functions because it serves as a training
center for monks. However, whether the monastery is local or central,
all of monastic life centers on rituals.
92 BUDDHISM

sects. Large numbers of Americans now live within easy

driving distance of a Vietnamese Buddhist temple that is the
social center of an immigrant community; a Zen temple
largely peopled by thirty-something Caucasian Americans;
or a meeting of Sôka Gakkai Buddhists, a form of Buddhism
with a strong following in the African American community.
Buddhist temples in the United States range from large,
dedicated buildings to residential homes that have been
converted to a weekly gathering place for prayer. In short,
Buddhist temples are no longer filled solely with Asians.
The American Buddhist temple that we will focus on is
located in a house in a residential neighborhood in a city in the
Midwest. It has been in existence for about twenty-five years
and is affiliated with a larger network of temples that originated
with an esteemed Japanese Zen teacher who came to the United
States in the 1950s and established a home temple. One of his
students, a fifty-year-old American-born male, who first became
interested in Zen Buddhism in the 1960s, was sanctioned by this
master as his dharma heir and empowered to teach at and then
run this subtemple. Within the national network of temples
founded by the original Japanese Zen teacher, we see a second
generation of teachers, the dharma heirs of the original set of
students, moving into positions of leadership.
The temple is set up as a nonprofit organization. It has
an attractive Web site that provides meditation schedules,
announces special events, posts newsletters, etc. Each weekend
offers an opportunity to learn how to meditate so that one
may feel more at ease in participating in the daily practice or
the weekly session (offered on a Sunday morning). The Zen
Center also offers opportunities for families to be involved in
practice and other support activities. There are several retreats
(sesshin) per year, open to both members and nonmembers
(membership often requires a small, yearly fee). Sesshin may
be held in the city temple or outside the city in a rural temple.
The temple is growing very slowly and financially it is, at
best, a break-even affair. Sources of revenue include the
 Worship 93
memberships, selling of tapes and books, and donations from
members and friends of the temple. Some larger annual gifts
help as well.

PRACTICE IN A BUDDHIST CENTER

The number and type of practice sessions provided by a Buddhist
temple depend upon its location and the type of Buddhism it
represents. In this section, we will look at the practice schedule
in an American Zen Center.
The “Clouds in Water Zen Center” is located in downtown
St. Paul, Minnesota. It has been in existence for about a decade.
The home page of their Web site states, “We are a dharma center
that offers intensive Zen training in practice-realization that this
very life is a ‘field of boundless emptiness from the beginning.’
We offer many gateways to Buddhist practice and welcome all
who seek clear wisdom and radiant compassion.” 55
One can register for classes on-line and donate money to the
Center on-line. The News and Updates section indicated a busy
schedule at the beginning of 2004, with a fifteen-week program
on the teachings of the Buddha and making peace, the visit of a
noted Zen scholar for several lectures with zazen practice, numerous
classes, and a notice that an article on the Center’s children and
youth practice program had appeared in the St. Paul newspaper.
The “Sunday Morning Meditation” schedule is as follows:

8:00–8:45 Compassion Practice

9:00 First meditation period, fifteen minutes
9:15 Second meditation period, sitting or
walking meditation
9:30 Dharma talk by either our guiding teacher
or a guest teacher, or a student talk by a
senior student
10:30 Tea and conversation in our social hall 56

Sunday worship is open to anyone and instructions on how to

meditate consistent with the Center’s practice are made available
either at the Center or on-line. Daily meditation is offered at the
94 BUDDHISM

Center on Mondays through Thursdays with sitting starting

at 5:30 A.M. and ending with a liturgy from 6:50 to 7:05. There
are also noontime, evening, Tuesday afternoon, and Saturday
morning practice schedules.
The “Compassion Practice” mentioned in the Sunday Morning
Meditation schedule is a special practice that lasts for a hundred
days. It is “the practice of invoking compassionate energy for
those close to us and for the world through chanting the ‘Ten
Line Kannon Sutra of Timeless Life.’” 57 Cards are filled with joys
or concerns that are read during the service.

LEARNING ABOUT BUDDHIST PRACTICE

Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, a popular magazine on Buddhist
practice, lists many opportunities to study Buddhism. The list
includes speaking tours of esteemed Buddhist teachers, retreats,
visits to monasteries, and a classified listing of Dharma Centers.
Both domestic and international opportunities are available. A
simple Internet search will provide additional information
about Buddhist places and practices.
Today, one can travel to historic Buddhist sites in Asia as a
tourist or pilgrim and in a matter of days see sites that not
too long ago no one person had collectively ever seen. Many
Buddhist sutras have been translated into English and some are
even available on-line. In today’s world, opportunities to explore
the many dimensions of Buddhist practice abound.
 FROM THE
BUDDHIST
TRADITION
CH.RoW.Bud.4cTipIn.Final.q 9/23/04 4:47 PM Page B

A painting of the Birth of the Buddha, Temple of Yongju,

Suwon, South Korea. The Buddha, or Siddhartha Gautama,
was born in Lumbinî, in what is now Nepal, in 563 B.C.E.
It is said that Siddhartha miraculously emerged from his
mother’s side and thus did not experience the trauma of a
typical birth. He therefore was able to remember all of his
previous lives due to this Awakening experience.
 C

Housed in the School of Ratanakosin, Thonburi District,

Thailand, this mural displays the miraculous nature of the
Buddha as he raises himself up in front of his family.
D

This Pancharaksha manuscript, housed at the Newark

Museum, Newark, New Jersey, dates to the twelfth
century C.E. These two folios are written in Sanskrit on
palm leafs.

This eighteenth-century gilded bronze prayer wheel contains

a long prayer scroll and is housed at the Musee des Arts
Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris, France. Known as chhos-hkor in
Tibetan, prayer wheels are often carried by pilgrims on
visits to temples. When the wheel is spun, it is said to bring
spiritual blessings and well-being to the world.
 E

The shrine to the Golden Buddha at Deskit Monastery in

Nubra Valley, India.
F

The Buddha of Bamiyan.

This two-hundred-foot
statue located in central
Afghanistan dates to
the fifth century C.E.
Though it was one of
two statues of the
Buddha destroyed by
the Taliban in 2001,
there are plans to have
it rebuilt.

After achieving enlight-

enment, Gautama
Buddha traveled to
Sarnath—located in
present-day Uttar
Pradesh, India—where
he preached the first
discourse on the Four
Noble Truths. Indian
Emperor Ashoka is
said to have erected
these stupas on the
site where the Buddha
preached his famous
sermon.
CH.RoW.Bud.4cTipIn.Final.q 9/23/04 4:48 PM Page G

Tibetans believe that prayer flags carry their prayers and

mantras to heaven as offerings to their deities, and benefit
those who hang them, as well as all sentient beings. These
flags have been strung near Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, the
original home of Tenzin Gyatso, the fourteenth Dalai Lama.
H

A replica of Byodoin Temple, Kyota, Japan. The original

temple, which was built in the twelfth century, still stands
today and is one of the few temples that remain from
Japan’s Heian period. This reproduction is located on the
island of Oahu, Hawaii.
 6

Growing Up
Buddhist

A child is innocent but lacks the maturity

and the wisdom to handle his own life.
Adults have the maturity to some extent,
but lack the innocence.
This innocence bestows wisdom,
it can only be achieved through the practice
of “direct seeing” into one’s own mind.
—Dr. Thynn Thynn, “Children’s Direct Seeing,”
Sakyadhita Newsletter, 1994, vol. 5, no. 1.
96 BUDDHISM

he Buddhist temple historically has occupied a central role in

T Buddhist societies. As we learned in the last chapter, it served
as a center of learning, study, healing, guidance, work, celebration,
and mourning. Today, young men in some Southeast Asian
countries continue to depend upon the temple and monasticism
to supply an important part of their formal education. In some
areas, a young man is not deemed ready for marriage until he
has received this type of education.
Lay Buddhists continue to rely upon the monks and their
understanding of herbal medicine for medical treatment, and
this is oftentimes the only medical treatment available. They
visit the temple to pray, socialize, and confer with the monks and
nuns who support the spiritual and psychological health of the
community-at-large. And, certainly, over the course of their life-
times there will be many visits to the Buddhist temple to attend
rituals of celebration and mourning. The myriad ways in which
Buddhism intersects the lives of its believers are often specific to
certain countries, towns, and even temples, but a few examples
may serve to illustrate how Buddhism impresses itself upon the
lives of its followers.

THE BUDDHIST FAMILY

In rebirth, a person is born into this world with a karmic legacy
derived from past lives. Buddhist parents are also connected to
preconception as they might have offered petitionary prayers:
They may have prayed for the ability to conceive, or asked that
their baby might be a boy, healthy, and so forth. Even prior
to that, prayers had likely been offered as each prospective
partner sought another person with whom to raise a family!

The Buddhist Family in Japan

As we consider Japanese Buddhist families, we need to keep in
mind that Shinto is the other major tradition in Japan and that
it also plays a significant role in rites of passage. For example, the
baby’s first visit to a Shinto shrine after birth (Jp.: Miyamairi) is
a cause for celebration, as are the traditional visits to the shrine
 Growing Up Buddhist 97
of children who are seven, five, and three years old. In Japan this
is known as the Shichi-go-san festival, from the Japanese words
for “seven” (shichi), “five” (go), and “three” (san). The relation-
ship between Shinto and Buddhism in Japan is syncretistic, as is
evident in the fact that even as people pray for protection of
their children at a Shinto shrine they simultaneously look to a
Buddhist temple for the same reason.
Japanese children of school age may seek out spiritual assis-
tance at the family temple in preparation for a critical exam or
as an aid in social relationships. Occasionally, a Buddhist priest
is sought out for advice in raising a child or to perform a ritual
for a special purpose, such as for healing. Special rituals may be
solicited by grandparents as well as parents. The traditional Asian
household contains three generations, and it is very often the
grandparents that encourage and lead the religious practices
of the family.
As the child comes of age, his or her visits to the temple may
be focused on securing a promising job or a spouse. Marriages
themselves are most often conducted by a Shinto priest. However,
as the couple has children, cares for their aging parents, and in
turn age themselves, the practical application of Buddhism to
every aspect of the lifespan continues. Prayers, devotions, and
other Buddhist practices assist in achieving goals and in main-
taining well-being at every age.
As happens in every religious tradition, there are those
who do not seem to have much faith in the prayers recited on
the temple grounds, demonstrating at best an “it can only
help” attitude toward their devotions. There are also, of course,
many genuinely devout Buddhists in Japan and in other
Buddhists countries.
In many Buddhist temples in Japan, one may purchase
amulets. These are thought to protect the believer from various
concerns such as fire, specific illnesses, pregnancy (or infertility),
failure of entrance exams, or business failure. Certain temples
are renowned for being particularly efficacious in protecting the
believer from one or another of these concerns, and people will
98 BUDDHISM

travel great distances to visit these temples and benefit from

their famed power.
Fuda (flat pieces of inscribed wood) and omamori (small cloth
brocade bags with an inscription) are the most common types of
protective amulets available in Japanese Buddhist temples. Train
or bus companies will often place these items on their trains or
buses to protect passengers from an accident. The household, too,
may have its own omamori to protect it from fire or intruders.
Similar practices are found in other Buddhist countries. Indeed,
the popularity of such practices helps Buddhism to retain its
relevance in the day-to-day life of believers. It should be noted,
however, that many of these practices originated with the indige-
nous traditions in the country and predated the transmission of
Buddhism to that country.

The Buddhist Family in Myanmar (Burma)

In Myanmar (formerly called Burma), Theravâda is the dominant
form of Buddhism. About eighty-eight percent of the population
is Buddhist. The majority of these are very devout, and the
Buddhist temple is almost invariably the center of village life.
In a short essay entitled “A Buddhist Family in Burma,” U Kin
Maung 58 describes how his own family practices Buddhism:

From his childhood, a Buddhist is taught to respect Buddha,

Dhamma, Sangha, his parents and Teachers. During the
month of Thadingyut, which marks the end of the Buddhist
lent, young persons would approach their parents and
Teachers to pay their respects by bowing down deeply before
them and receive their blessings, while fruits, tinned provi-
sions, candles and other such articles are placed before them
as token for their respect.59

Upon rising in the morning, his children bow before the

family shrine that is on the south side of the house (south
and east are the preferred directions). As is the case in Buddhist
families across Asia, Maung’s live-in mother-in-law is the
person primarily responsible for household practice and
 Growing Up Buddhist 99
maintenance of the shrine. In front of the numerous Buddhist
statues that have been collected are “three goblets filled with
seasonal flowers, little silver cups and plates for offerings of
food and water, which are really a symbolic gesture on our
part as if Buddha were alive and with us.” 60 Maung’s mother-
in-law also meets the monks who visit the home as part of
their daily rounds to collect alms and provides them with
small amounts of food.
The entire family will pray at the home shrine each morning,
intoning the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts. Laypersons
ordinarily follow only the Five Precepts, but they may increase
the number of precepts they follow during certain times of
the year. The entire family visits the monastery and pagodas
often. They usually bring food and have a family picnic there.
The monks meet the children and provide them with plantains
or sweets.
At the end of the day, the children will pray before the family
shrine. Usually the parents will be present to listen to the prayers
of their children.

JIZÔ BOSATSU: A BUDDHIST DEITY FOR CHILDREN

Jizô Bosatsu (Skt.: Ksitigarbha) plays an important role in
Japanese society. Inarguably, the most commonly encountered
bodhisattva image in Japan is his. You may see him standing by
himself on a busy street corner, on a playground, or in a cemetery;
or you may see great numbers of Jizô statues standing side-by-
side in a virtual pyramid of statues.
Jizô means “He who encompasses the earth.” Bosatsu is the
Japanese word for bodhisattva. Jizô Bosatsu appeared early
in Mahâyâna history in India but didn’t become popular
until coming to China—where he is known as Dizang—in the
fifth century C.E.
Dizang’s myth is related in a sutra named after him. Prior to
becoming a bodhisattva, he was a young Brahmin girl who
vowed to save all beings from the torments of hell. Although Jizô
works to help beings in all of the Six Realms of Existence (those
100 BUDDHISM

in hell, hungry ghosts, animals, demons, humans, and deities),

he is especially determined to aid those in hell:

In hell, his mission is to lighten the burden caused by previous

evil actions, to secure from the judges of hell an alleviation of
the fate of the condemned and to console them. Thus in the
popular mind, Ksitigarbha has become the Bodhisattva of
hells par excellence.61

Jizô is the guardian of children who are stillborn, lost through

miscarriage, or aborted. Children who die prematurely are
believed to go to the underworld, which is a place of suffering.
Jizô works to lessen the intensity and duration of their suffering.
Little heaps of stones around Jizô statues reflect the belief that a
stone offered in faith by a parent will reduce the amount of time
his or her child spends in hell. (In Hinduism and Buddhism, hell
is not a place of eternal punishment. As soon as one’s negative
karma is used up, one is released to enter one of the other realms
of existence.)
A Japanese story about Jizô locates him in hell, “on a sandy
beach called Sai-no-Kawara, [where] dead infants spend their
time building votive structures with small pebbles to increase
their merits and those of their parents. But every evening,
demons, especially an old woman named Sôzu-no-Kawara no
Uba, demolish their work. Ksitigarbha then consoles the unhappy
children, telling them, ‘In this land of shades, I am your father
and your mother: trust me morning and evening.’” 62
Sometimes grieving mothers will take a dead child’s tiny
garments and dress a Jizô statue in them, hoping that the gift will
result in special protection for their child. A tiny hat or bib on a
Jizô statue, on the other hand, is usually the gift of a rejoicing
mother whose child was healed after she prayed to Jizô.
Jizô may be known by different names, depending upon which
of his powers is being invoked. For example, Taue Jizô helps
farmers to plant rice, while Koyasu Jizô, who in a feminine form
is considered as a “bestower of children,” 63 protects children and
helps ease childbirth. Enmei Jizô Bosatsu serves as a “celestial
 Growing Up Buddhist 101
babysitter”; fieldworkers will leave their children playing in the
vicinity of this Jizô while they work.
In modern Japan, Jizô’s most important function is to offer
aid in the event of a mizuko (literally “water baby”), an aborted
or stillborn child. Japan has a high abortion rate, and Jizô helps
both the parents and the aborted fetus, both here and in the next
life. Some Buddhist temples have developed rituals to avert the
suffering resulting from an ignoble death so that the aborted or
stillborn fetus does not need to endure that agony.64

BUDDHISM AND DEATH IN JAPAN

At the time of a death, Buddhism takes center stage in the life of
a Japanese family. Ian Reader, a scholar of Japanese religions,
reports that a 1984 survey found that of the more than eighteen
hundred people who were asked the reasons they would visit
their temple and consult a Buddhist priest, seventy-eight percent of
the respondents indicated they would do so for reasons connected
to funerals, whereas only eight percent would do so for “spiritual
reasons.” The remaining fourteen percent gave no response.65
As Shinto has become connected with marriage in Japan,
Buddhism has become connected with funerals. All the Buddhists
sects in Japan have developed mortuary rituals, and it seems that
the primary function of Buddhism in the eyes of the Japanese
populace is to carry out these rituals. Buddhism assumed this
role almost from the beginning of its presence in Japan in the
sixth century. An imperial edict in C.E. 685 decreed that all
households should have a butsudan (Buddhist altar) to venerate
the ancestors of the family. The first cremation of a Buddhist
monk took place in 700 and members of the Imperial family
were thereafter cremated.66
Japanese Buddhism found its niche relative to Shinto by
articulating a view of the afterlife, something that Shinto did
not offer. Shinto did encourage veneration of the ancestors,
however, and Buddhism adopted the practice of ancestor venera-
tion. This was an accommodation on the part of Buddhism,
since its doctrines of rebirth and no-self should have precluded
102 BUDDHISM

the possibility of an enduring individual person after death. Yet

Buddhism in Japan acknowledged an enduring spirit after death
that needed to be venerated by the living.
The mixing of Shinto and Buddhist beliefs and practices
persists in modern Japan. It bewilders the observer of Japanese
religiosity and sometimes it confuses the Japanese people
themselves:

It was the apparent spiritual and magical powers accumulated

by those who trained in the Buddhist tradition, aligned to
the powers possessed by Buddhism in the form of its Buddha
figures, statues, prayers, incantations and rituals, that were
responsible for convincing the Japanese that Buddhism had
the ability to transform the spirits of the dead and lead them
to enlightenment after death, thereby eradicating the impuri-
ties and pollutions associated with death.67

The above quotation makes reference to “the impurities and

pollutions associated with death.” The idea that death is a
source of pollution is an ancient and powerful aspect of
Japanese culture. It is for this very reason that Shinto priests
do not conduct funerals, leaving this polluting work to the
Buddhists. The emphasis on purity is evident in the Japanese
fondness for onsen (hot springs) and sento (public baths), and
in the multiple uses of salt as a purifier, including inside the
sumo ring. The connection between death and impurity is
underscored in the ancient Japanese myths, which describe
how the male partner of Japan’s founding couple, Izanagi,
ritually cleansed himself in order to remove the pollutants
that he had come in contact with as a result of his descent into
the underworld.
Although funeral observances vary from region to region,
we can offer a general portrayal of what happens at the time of
a death.68 As occurred in the West, funerals in Japan are transi-
tioning from being largely home affairs to being funeral-home
experiences. But, as of today, the home continues to be an
important setting.
 Growing Up Buddhist 103
Upon death, the body is washed either at home or in the
hospital and the orifices are stuffed with cotton. The body is
then dressed and taken to where the service will be held, usually
in the deceased’s home temple. In modern Japan, it is not always
readily apparent which temple should be contacted, because
people relocate more often now than they did previously.
Once the proper temple has been determined, its priest is
contacted by whomever is overseeing the details of the funeral
service, whether that be the mortuary or a family member.
Traditionally, the eldest son decides on the day of the funeral,
the setting of the altar, the food that will be served, and so on.
The body is placed on dry ice, either before the family altar at
home or in the mortuary hall. A family member remains with
the body until it is placed in a coffin. When placed in the coffin,
the body is dressed in white, the Buddhist color signifying death.
Paper money is placed in the coffin, “for the deceased to pay for
the toll across the River of the Three Hells,” 69 along with other
items that the deceased may have enjoyed in life.
When the actual service commences, a white tent is erected
outside the door of the home. This serves the dual purpose
of indicating the location to arriving mourners, and inform-
ing passersby and neighboring residents that a death has
occurred.
A table is set up with a registry in which guests will sign their
names. Mourners may also place condolence money (koden)
for the family in a special envelope. The amount of money is
indicated on the outside of the envelope and varies depending
on the relation of the mourner to the deceased and other factors.
The amount of money that is received is recorded in the registry
that will be given to the family later.
As one enters the room where the body is laid to rest, one is
greeted by the smell of incense. Buddhism utilizes incense in
many of its rituals; in funerals it is used because of its purifying
effects. New arrivals stand or sit before the body and the altar;
they bow, utter a prayer, ring a bell, and place a pinch of incense
in the already smoldering pile of loose incense. The family
104 BUDDHISM

members are present, and greetings and condolences are shared

with each person at this time.
When the priest arrives, he speaks with the family and then
begins the wake with a sutra reading. As he reads, the family
members, in hierarchal order, bow, offer incense, and return to
their seats. Then all the participants do the same in turn. When
the sutra reading is finished, everyone bows and the wake is over.
A small present from the family is given to each person as he or
she leaves. Depending on their relation to the family, some
people will only attend the wake and not the funeral.
The funeral is often the next day (the Japanese have not tradi-
tionally practiced embalming). It will be held at the temple, and
the body is placed before an altar that the mortuary has created
for the occasion. A wooden tablet with the death name (kaimyo)
of the deceased is set up. This tablet is called an ihai. The death
name has been given to the deceased by the priest and recorded
in the temple registry.
As at the wake, the priest intones an appropriate sutra as the
mourners take their turns coming forward individually. Upon
conclusion of the sutra reading, the priest leaves the room. A
representative of the family, the eldest son if possible, gets up
and thanks everyone for attending the service. Those who were
not able to attend will often be represented by the reading of
letters that were sent to the family. The coffin that has been open
to this point is now sealed.
As everyone stands, the pallbearers carry the coffin out of the
temple and to the hearse. In Japan, the hearse is designed to look
like a temple on wheels. It conveys the body to the crematorium
with the family members following.
At the crematorium, the coffin is placed on a sliding tray that
will move into the crematory oven. The family watches as the
coffin moves into the oven. They are told when they can return
to pick up the remains. The family returns home or to the
funeral hall, sometimes by a different route than the one they
used in coming, so as to not have the deceased spirit follow
them. They wait until the appointed time whereupon they
 Growing Up Buddhist 105
return to the crematorium. There the cremated body is displayed
for the family and each member is provided special hashi
(chopsticks). With these hashi, the bones of the deceased are to
be picked up and placed in the urn. An attendant is present to
assist. Each bone is picked up by two members of the family at
the same time (this is why you will never see two Japanese
people pick up food at the same time when eating—this is only
done at funerals). It is particularly important to find the Adam’s
apple and place it in the urn.
Upon completion of this task, the urn is covered and wrapped
in a white cloth. The urn will be placed on the family altar in the
home for a period of time. Ultimately, the urn or parts of the
remains are placed at a family grave site and regular memorial
services are held thereafter at determined intervals.
In all Buddhist sects, the time period immediately following
physical death is considered very important. The Tibetan
Buddhist tradition in particular has paid considerable attention
to this period of time, and it is the subject of The Tibetan Book
of the Dead.
Across the Buddhist world, similar death rituals are performed.
The preparation of the body, the reciting of sutras, and crema-
tion will be carried out as we have described; whether the funeral
takes place in Thailand, China, or Sri Lanka.

BUDDHIST MONASTICISM
As one visits a Buddhist temple throughout the world, he or
she may encounter a monk or nun praying, chanting, selling
religious items, or sweeping a walk. One may rightly wonder,
“How does one become a Buddhist monk or nun and how do
they live their lives?”
As you may recall, the early canonical doctrines that pertained
to being a monk or nun appeared in the Vinaya Pitika. This
document still lies at the heart of monastic practice; although
over time it has been transformed and reinterpreted.
The early Buddhist monastics were organized into districts.
Each district had an observance hall (uposatha) that served as
106 BUDDHISM

a gathering place for all the monks in the area. Here they would
assemble to recite the pâtimokkha, or rules of discipline, with
a view toward maintaining both personal and collective
adherence to the monastic rules of conduct. There were many
such rules of conduct, but we will only take a brief look at
some of the more important rules that monks and nuns were
obliged to follow.
Violation of the following rules would result in permanent
expulsion from the sangha: 1) killing a human person,
2) thievery, 3) sexual intercourse, and 4) claiming false
spiritual attainment. Monastic life was designed to be an assault
on egoism and the passions; one can readily see that these four
actions would not be conducive to that end. No human society
can condone the killing of one member by another. Unless
murder is severely dealt with, the mutual trust and cooper-
ation that defines a community is at risk. Thievery not
only promotes avarice but also corrodes trust in one’s fellow
monks. Monks and nuns were to be celibate and so free to
concentrate their energies on their practice rather than on
the worldly concerns of marriage, children, and physical
appearance. Sexual intercourse was therefore forbidden,
although this prohibition is modified in some Mahâyâna
sects that allow monks to marry. Even in those cases, the
impetus to simplify one’s life remains.
The most grievous breach of honesty in monastic life is to
claim that you have achieved a goal that all your fellow monks
are earnestly striving for when in fact you have not. This egotism
strikes at the heart of the Buddhist spiritual community, not
least of all because Buddhism espouses a disintegration of
egoism as its goal. Other rules in the Vinaya Pitika deal with
violations that require a gathering of monastics to deliberate,
offences that require a level of punishment short of permanent
expulsion, size and site of monastic quarters, required decorum
that a monk should show to his senior, and so on.
The applicant for monastic life must meet strict criteria. A
person applying for full ordination has to be a minimum of
 Growing Up Buddhist 107
twenty years of age, but one can enter the novitiate (which is
a preparatory period for monastic life) any time after the age
of eight. Young novices are provided tutors and placed under
the guidance of a senior monk who helps to instruct the
youngster. To become a monk, a person must be male, of
good physical and mental health, unencumbered by military
service, free of debt, and carrying his parents’ permission.
Ordination includes tonsure, which is the shaving of the
head. Tonsure signals that the person has left the world.
Hair is seen as a sexually attractive feature; it is not needed
in the monastery.
The newly ordained monk takes the Three Refuges (“I take
refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the Dharma, I take refuge
in the Sangha.”) and vows to abide by the Ten Precepts. The
Ten Precepts involve abstention from 1) taking life, 2) stealing,
3) sexual misconduct, 4) lying, 5) drinking alcoholic beverages,
6) eating after noon, 7) watching entertainment, 8) adorning
oneself with jewelry or perfumes, 9) using a high bed (here the
idea is that a padded bed encourages excess sleep or lounging),
and 10) receiving gold or silver. (Buddhist laypersons abide by
the first five of these precepts.) The newly ordained monk also
receives the robes he will wear as a monk.
The ordination ceremony requires a quorum of at least
ten ordained monks. The candidate is presented to the
congregation, and it is attested that he has met the minimum
requirements. This is followed by a public request for
approval by silence. If none of the assembled monks speaks,
the person is ordained. The date and time are noted and are
important for establishing seniority. If you are ordained five
minutes before me, you remain my senior regardless of our
relative ages.
The monk then begins his monastic life and duties. You may
think that a monk spends his entire day in prayer, meditation, or
some other devotional activities. While it is certainly true that
monks do engage in prescribed spiritual practice each day, much
of the monk’s time is filled with routine physical work.
108 BUDDHISM

BUDDHIST MONASTICISM: NUNS

According to Buddhist tradition, Gautama Buddha was reluc-
tant to let women into the monastic order but relented due
to the entreaty of his disciple, Ânanda. Again, according to
tradition, the Buddha stated that if women were indeed allowed
to enter monastic life, the dharma would not survive as long as
it would with their exclusion. Whether or not the Buddha ever
actually made that remark, there appear to have been early
Buddhist nuns who were as zealous for the dharma as their
male counterparts.
The Therigâtha, a collection of songs (gâthas) attributed to
elder nuns (theri), sheds light on the women’s reasons for
entering the monastery. The women came from varied back-
grounds. Some were princesses, others housewives, and others
courtesans. Some were fleeing poverty, or a difficult marriage,
or the boredom of housework. More than half, however, came
from a favorable situation and entered the monastery for
purely religious reasons: faith in the Buddha’s teachings and
missionary zeal.
The Buddhist nun’s ordination resembles that of a monk,
except that she must stand before both a quorum of monks
and a quorum of nuns. Nuns must pledge to abide by eight
additional regulations that the monks do not follow; these
include rules that subordinate the nuns to the monks.
The women’s order never received as much financial support
as the men’s order. Eventually, the Theravâda order of nuns
dwindled to almost nothing. There are female monastics in
some Mahâyâna sects, but they usually prefer to be called
“monks” rather than “nuns,” and at least those in the more
modern Buddhist sects are not subordinate to male monks.

THE BUDDHIST LAYPERSON

The Buddhist layperson financially supports the temple and
patronizes temple events. Laypeople also support the monastic
community. It is designed to be a mutually beneficial situa-
tion: The patron receives good karma, Buddhist teaching, and
 Growing Up Buddhist 109
spiritual guidance in return for their financial contributions.
Lay contributions may be given in the form of alms dispensed
to a specific monk during his begging rounds, or as a large
annual gift to the temple. Many families do both. Even the
small amounts of change given to purchase incense, amulets,
or postcards at a temple are part of the economics of the
Buddhist temple. The omnipresent expectation that visitors
should place coins in a coin box as they pray or receive bless-
ings underscores the mutually assumed dynamic of financial
and spiritual exchange. Without the vital and varied support
of the lay community, monastic Buddhism could not exist.
The core beliefs of a Buddhist, whether lay or monastic, reside
in the Four Noble Truths. The layperson is expected to take the
Three Refuges and abide by the Five Precepts. The Five Precepts

FALUN GONG AND LAY BUDDHISM IN CHINA

In the West, many people seem to believe that the People’s Republic
of China is a Buddhist country. Perhaps they think of it as a country
where the kinds of Buddhist beliefs and practices discussed in this
book are widely practiced. They may even believe that it has always
been predominantly Buddhist and that its people have practiced
Buddhism for centuries.
This is not quite an accurate picture. Buddhism was transmitted
to China early in the first millennium C.E. It went through historical
periods of growth and decline. The current Communist government
offers no support for religious belief of any variety, and it certainly
considers Buddhism to be a religion. Consequently, lay Buddhist
practice in China today is very much on a “folk” level. It would
be wrong to leave the reader with the impression that children
who grow up Buddhist in China today are extensively schooled in
meditation or learn to read Buddhist sutras. In the People’s Republic
of China today, laypeople who practice Buddhism do so primarily at
home altars. They may also go to the temple and pray before the
main altar.
There are also new religions that have a Buddhist component. An
example of such a new religion is the Falun Gong (also called Falun
Dafa) movement. It is one of the more popular religio-philosophical
110 BUDDHISM

movements in China today. You may have even heard about it on the
news, as the Chinese government is very concerned about its rapid
growth. What are the basic tenets of Falun Gong, and how do they
relate to Buddhism?
Falun Gong is often translated as “Buddhist Law” movement. It
was founded by Li Hongzhi (b. 1952) who wanted to combine
Buddhist and Taoist ideas into a set of morality and meditation
practices. It does not call itself a religion as only five religions
(Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Protestantism, and Catholicism) are
currently viewed as legal religions by the Chinese government.
Anything other than these five religions is deemed illegal and may
even be in danger of being labeled a “dangerous cult.” That is what
happened to Falun Gong.
The primary purpose of Falun Gong is to promote mental and
physical health. It is such a popular mass movement (with some
forty million followers according to some estimates) that the Chinese
government views it as a threat to the well-being of the nation. They
have likened Falun Gong to the Aum Shinrikyo movement in Japan.
Aum Shinrikyo was responsible for killing people in a Tokyo subway
by releasing sarin gas. (There is no reason to believe that Falun
Gong ever has or ever would do anything similar.) The Chinese
government banned Falun Gong in 1999. Following a very large
protest by Falun Gong followers, government suppression of the
movement began the following year and continues today.
How many Buddhist elements are found in Falun Gong? The
movement teaches karma and rebirth. It utilizes physical exercise as
part of a spiritual philosophy that stresses truthfulness, benevolence,
and forbearance. Using five key exercises, the practitioner seeks to
unleash the power of the Falun (which is viewed as a power centered
in the lower abdomen), so it can travel throughout his or her body,
thus ensuring physical and spiritual well-being. Falun Gong also
teaches that its practices can replace traditional medical treatments
for illnesses. The symbol of Falun Gong is a swastika (an ancient
Asian symbol often employed by Buddhism) surrounded by yin-yang
symbols (the yin-yang circle is a Taoist symbol).
We would have to conclude that Falun Gong’s connection with
traditional Buddhist teachings is limited. It does, however, use
Buddhist and Taoist ideas to attract Chinese people (and an increas-
ing number of people in other countries) to a “new” philosophy.
 Growing Up Buddhist 111
receive more emphasis in Therâvâda Buddhism than they do in
Mahâyâna Buddhism, but all Buddhists are obligated to live an
ethical life. As noted previously, all Buddhists believe in rebirth
and transmigration and seek nirvana, if not in this life then in a
future one.
The main difference between Buddhists is in the practice they
choose to employ. The devotional approach, involving praying
to a deity, is most common. Other Buddhists rely on meditation,
sometimes mixing meditation with prayer.
7

Cultural
Expressions

Children ran to and fro—shrieking and laughing—

stopping only for seconds to stare wide-eyed as a new
performer, clad in wild and colourful costume, made
his entrance. At this too, the expressions of the old men
who sat alone and stony-faced would brighten and for
a moment the old women would cease their chatter.
—Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in Freedom in Exile
 Cultural Expressions 113
BUDDHISM AND ART
uddhism has always been associated with art, probably
B because Buddhism requires something that art provides,
namely, the ability to see things in dramatically unconven-
tional ways. Buddhist paintings and sculpture serve as a focus
for meditation for monks and as teachings in pictures for
ordinary laypersons. The famed Borobodur Temple in Java
(C.E. seventh–eighth century) is one of the world’s great sights.
It is composed of 13.6 acres of lava, with close to four hundred
Buddha statues and nearly six thousand relief scenes.
Visitors to the Hill of Sanchi in the State of Madhya Pradesh,
India, can see chronicled on this one site the growth, flourish-
ing, and decay of Buddhist art and architecture in India over a
period of around fourteen hundred years. The Buddha images
found here and elsewhere follow a carefully prescribed standard
of physical proportions, for they are designed to illustrate the
physical harmony and beauty of a perfected being, a Buddha.
Creating a Buddha image is therefore an exacting science.
Perfect proportions are also required in the design of religious
monuments like stûpas. Hand positions (mudras) on statues
convey an entire spiritual vocabulary—gesturing, teaching,
compassion, fearlessness, and much more.
Mandalas, richly decorated and colored geometric designs,
are used for meditation. The person meditating is to realize
the spiritual power of the mandala within his own being. In
Dharamsala, India, Tibetan Buddhist monks spend close to a
month painstakingly creating a Kalachakra (“Wheel of Time”)
mandala from grains of colored sand. After the ceremony is
completed, this exquisite mandala is typically destroyed to
drive home the truth of impermanence, and the sands are
used in an offering for world peace.
Given the fact that Buddhism has produced such a vast array
of art, we will not be able to discuss all of it. Let us begin at the
beginning, with the earliest known Buddhist art, and proceed
from there to a consideration of several representative forms
of Buddhist art.
CH.RoW.Bud.C07.Final.q 9/23/04 4:25 PM Page 114

114 BUDDHISM

THE BEGINNINGS OF BUDDHIST ART

There is no known surviving Buddhist art until centuries after
the time of the Buddha’s death. During the Mauryan period
(ca. 323–185 B.C.E.), we find the spread of stûpas, stone burial
mounds that housed relics of the Buddha. The first recognizably
Buddhist buildings and the use of carved caves to serve as
temples, shrines, and monastic residences appeared contempo-
raneously with the spread of the stûpas.
Some of the stûpas have large stone gateways decorated
with Buddhist art. The one at Sanchi (near Vidisha in Madhya
Pradesh, India) has various Buddhist symbols and events from
the Buddha’s life carved on it. The foundations for Sanchi date
back to the time of Aśoka (273–236 B.C.E.); the carving on
several of the gateways can be dated to the first century B.C.E.
Perhaps the earliest Buddhist art is found on Aśoka’s
pillars. Aśoka inscribed his edicts on wood and stone pillars.
These pillars also contained a number of carved images that
subsequently served as Buddhist symbols: lotuses, wheels,
and lions.
Early Buddhist art did not employ images of the Buddha but
did utilize scenes from the Jataka stories and other instructional
materials. In scenes illustrating the Buddha’s prior lives, he is
portrayed as an animal (e.g., a deer) rather than as a human
being. In scenes from his life as Siddhartha Gautama, he might
be represented by an empty throne, the wheel (of the Law), or a
stûpa, rather than as a human figure. Portrayals of scenes from
these stories were advantageously placed so that pilgrims cir-
cumambulating the stûpa would be engaged by them. Although
the Buddha was not shown as a human figure, other people were
drawn as human beings. Statuary at early sites like Sanchi was an
interesting mix of male and female figures, and this influenced
the subsequent development of Buddhist statuary.
The first human images of Gautama Buddha appeared in the
first century of the Common Era. The first statues differed
noticeably depending on whether or not they were influenced by
Greek artistic conventions introduced into India at the time of
 Cultural Expressions 115
Alexander the Great. These early images set the pattern for later
artistic portrayals of Buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Also in the first century, we see the beginning of painting of
Buddhist images, such as in the Ajanta caves in India. Buddhist
art flourished in India until about the twelfth century. It also
traveled with Buddhism to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, East
Asia, and Tibet. In each of these areas, Buddhist art blended
with local artistic conventions to produce a new and distinctive
form of art. While we lack the space to introduce all of these
varieties of Buddhist art, we can at least demonstrate the range
of Buddhist arts by considering a number of different art
forms. In the remainder of this chapter, we will consider the
tea ceremony, pagodas, and the haiku poetry form. Then we
will turn to a brief exploration of Zen art before we conclude
this chapter by discussing contemporary Buddhist influences
on culture.

A JAPANESE TEA CEREMONY

The way of tea (cha-no-yu), as embodied in the Japanese tea
ceremony, is in itself a miniature showcase of Buddhist arts.
Architecture, gardening, calligraphy, pottery, and flower arrang-
ing, all support the artistry of the tea ceremony itself. Tea
and Buddhism have enjoyed a long camaraderie: Tea drinking
began in China “among the Zen [Buddhist] monks, who used
it as a method of preventing sleep.” 70
Sen no Rikyu, the sixteenth-century Japanese tea master, said,
“The art of Cha-no-yu consists of nothing else but boiling water,
making tea, and sipping it.” His statement underscores the tea
ceremony’s emphasis on simplicity.
A tea ceremony is a formal event, and one must be invited to
attend the event, which is held in a tea garden (chaniwa). The tea
garden, along with all the other elements of the tea ceremony,
is designed to convey yugen (“mystery”), wabi (“restrained
expression”), and sabi (“individual objects”). The tea ceremony
and its setting are designed to cultivate a calm mind and
demeanor in the participants.
116 BUDDHISM

The traditional teahouse is made of natural materials. It has a

low door that requires the person entering to bow low in a spirit
of humility. The tea room is itself a work of art, and within it are
displayed other works of art—maybe an example of ikebana
(flower arrangement) or a kakemono (a hanging scroll). Often
the tea ceremony utensils are themselves objet d’art to be seen
and admired. Silence permeates the ceremony; talk is sparingly
offered and only in hushed tones. The sounds that surround the
participants are those of the natural denizens of the garden, the
soft hissing of the teakettle, the slight shuffling on the straw
mats, the sipping of the tea.
In his book Zen and Japanese Culture,71 D.T. Suzuki identifies
four characteristics of the tea ceremony: harmony (wa), reverence
(kei), purity (sei), and tranquility (jaku). Balance or harmony
between the elements of the tea ceremony reflects, as Japanese Zen
monk Takuan Soho says, “the spirit of a naturally harmonious
blending of Heaven and Earth.” 72 The tea ceremony cultivates
reverence for all natural things and the humility that naturally
arises from that reverence. In a physical sense, purity underscores
the importance of keeping the tearoom immaculately clean.
Symbolically, purity points to the purpose of the ceremony, which
is to cleanse the mind and spirit of the accumulated dust of the
world. Tranquility permeates the tea ceremony, which is truly a
contemplative practice.
The purity and cleanliness of the tea ceremony is artistic, not
antiseptic. Not every leaf is raked up in the tea garden; Sen no
Rikyu would sweep the path to the tea room and then reach up to
a tree limb and shake it to allow new leaves to fall naturally on the
path. The tea ceremony endeavors to bring to the participants’
awareness the purity that dwells within his or her breast. This is a
natural, embodied purity, not the sterility of a disinfected facility.

PAGODAS
Is there any image more characteristic of Asia than the silhou-
ette of a pagoda against the evening sky? The pagoda (which is
a Portuguese word) evolved from the design of the stûpa as
 Cultural Expressions 117
Buddhism spread across Asia. In China, it assumed the now-
familiar shape of a multitiered tower. There are generally an
odd number of tiers, and the number is symbolic: In a five-story
pagoda, each story may represent one of the five elements
(earth, metal, water, fire, and wood).
Pagodas were constructed in a variety of shapes and materials.
As Robert Fisher notes, “A survey of East Asian pagodas reveals
a preference for a particular material in each culture, which in
turn affected the design. The Chinese preferred the basic shape
and brick construction with elaborate surface details that
emulate wood. The Koreans favored stone; while the Japanese,
with their abundant supply of timber (and relative lack of
granite), constructed pagodas of wood.” 73
Like the stûpa, the pagoda is a repository of Buddhist relics.
Pagodas had stairways to access the different levels. The Horyûji
pagoda, the oldest one in Japan, has four scenes in clay on its first
level: 1) on the east side, Vimalakirti and Manjuśri are engaged
in a conversation;74 2) on the north is represented Gautama
Buddha passing into parinirvânâ; 3) on the west, a scene depicts
the distribution of Gautama Buddha’s relics; and 4) on the south,
Maitreya (the future Buddha) is giving a lecture. Paintings on the
exterior of the pagoda were also used for instructional purposes.
The pagoda was initially an essential part of Chinese temple
design. It stood between the main gate and the main hall, with
the assembly hall being placed behind the main hall, thus form-
ing a line of structures. However, in the Sui and Tang periods
(581–907), some temples had two pagodas and they were placed
on either side of the main hall.
The fact that the pagoda was no longer situated on the main
axis of the temple signaled its reduction in importance. The
dominant position in the temple now belonged to the main hall.
Robert Fisher has called this “a victory for Chinese secularism,” 75
because the design of the main hall was based on the design of
an imperial throne hall rather than on the design of any religious
structure. The removal of the pagoda from the main axis of
the temple, combined with the rise of Pure Land and Ch’an
118 BUDDHISM

Buddhism (neither of which placed much importance on

relics), ultimately led to a reduced role of the pagoda’s presence
and usefulness.

HAIKU AND BÂSHO

Sometimes American schoolchildren are introduced to the
haiku form of poetry. You might remember being asked to
compose a haiku using exactly five syllables in the first line,
seven syllables in the second line, and five syllables in the third
and final line. Japanese poetry has come to be associated with
the haiku, but actually the haiku form is one of a larger assort-
ment of poetic structures, including the tanka (thirty-one
syllables in five lines of 5, 7, 5, 7, and 7 syllables respectively) and
the sedôka (5–7–7–5–7 syllables).
In China, Korea, and Japan, we find both monastics and
laypersons using poetry to express Buddhist ideas. Not just in
these countries but in many parts of the world poetry is used to
express profound ideas that cannot easily be explained in prose.
The one name most universally associated with haiku is that
of Bâsho (C.E. 1644–1694). Born in Ueno, a city near Kyoto,
Bâsho followed a rather inauspicious path at the beginning of
his life: He became the servant of a relative of the local feudal
lord. His master, Todo Yoshitada, enjoyed the exchange of verse
(called haikai) and Bâsho showed a talent for composing
poems. His master’s death turned Bâsho’s life in a new direction.
He journeyed extensively and wrote about his experiences in
his many books. He composed poetry constantly. In time, he
became quite famous.
He ultimately settled in Edo (present-day Tokyo) where his
students had built him a hut. A banana tree was planted in the
yard of the hut thus giving rise to his name, Bâsho (“basho” is
the Japanese word for banana plant).
Bâsho went on many pilgrimages, and these trips inspired
many of his writings, including the collection for which he
is best known, Narrow Road to the Far North. He also began
practicing Zen Buddhism under Priest Butcho (1642–1715).76
 Cultural Expressions 119
I have included some examples of Bâsho’s poetry below,
translated into English. The reader is encouraged to seek out
other examples published in books and on the Internet. The
poems below do not seem to follow the 5–7–5 syllable structure
of haiku, until one remembers that Bâsho was composing in
Japanese not English.

Against the brushwood gate,

Dead tea leaves swirl
In the stormy wind.

As you ponder this first poem, recall that the Chinese have for
millennia read the configuration of tea leaves in a cup as a means
of divining the future.

The sound of hail

I am the same as before
Like that aging oak.

This second poem is a humorous one, reflecting upon the silli-

ness of the author’s feeling of security after the storm has passed.
He feels secure because nothing has changed, his world has
not been uprooted by the storm. That aging oak, for example,
doesn’t look any different after the storm than it did before, but
the very fact that it is “aging” indicates that it has not escaped
change. Everything is impermanent.

Another year is gone.

A travel hat on my head.
Straw sandals on my feet.77

What does this third poem say to you? It was written at the end
of a year of traveling. Although the passage of time is once again
indicated, the author seems at ease with this now; indeed, he
appears quite content with his life of impermanence. Bâsho died
in his fiftieth year but his contributions to world poetry and to
the expression of Buddhist ideas endure.
120 BUDDHISM

ZEN ART
Shin’ichi Hisamatsu (1889–1980), a noted Zen Master, authored
a book translated into English as Zen and the Fine Arts.78 The
book includes many examples of what Dr. Hisamatsu identifies
as Zen art as well as his rendering of the philosophical basis
behind Zen art. He enumerates seven characteristics of the Zen
aesthetic: 1) Asymmetry, 2) Simplicity, 3) Austere Sublimity or
Lofty Dryness, 4) Naturalness, 5) Subtle Profundity or Deep
Reserve, 6) Freedom from Attachment, and 7) Tranquility.
Some of these characteristics echo D.T. Suzuki’s comments on
the tea ceremony (see page 116). Perhaps by examining each of

BUDDHIST CULTURE VIA TRICYLE

One of the more visible signs of the growing popularity of Buddhism
in the United States is the appearance of Buddhist-related periodicals.
Of these, Tricycle: The Buddhist Review is perhaps the best known.
(“Tricycle” refers to the three cycles of birth-death-rebirth.) The mag-
azine was first published in the early 1990s and documents what the
Editor-in-Chief James Shaheen noted on the occasion of the fiftieth issue:
“ . . . if you look closely, you’ll see that the dharma has found its way
into nearly every nook and cranny of our culture, from intensive retreats
to often remote locations to the everyday lives of ordinary folks.” (7)
Each issue offers a short dharma talk, suggestions on practice, an
interview with a famous Buddhist, book reviews, a directory of
dharma centers, etc. While the mere existence of this periodical
shows that Buddhism has arrived, the articles one encounters on its
pages provide even better examples of the spread of the dharma into
Western culture.
One finds articles on such topics as contemplation in corporate
culture, a Buddhist history of food, and Buddhism in Russia. There is
virtually no aspect of Western culture that it has not examined
through the lens of Buddhism. That is precisely the point: Western
Buddhists and others who are interested in looking at issues and
topics in a different way are asking questions like: What does Buddhism
have to say about abortion or the war in Iraq? What would Buddhist
ethics have to say about such matters as parenting or racial diversity,
the environment or gay marriage? Western Buddhists have created an
 Cultural Expressions 121
Hisamatsu’s terms we may get a better glimpse not only into Zen
art but into the nature of Buddhist art in general. The forms and
even the specifics of the underlying philosophy of Buddhist art
vary with culture and sect, of course, but the larger intent of
Buddhist art, once grasped, will open the door to understanding
many different types of Buddhist art.
Asymmetry is closely related to naturalness. Nature is not
often symmetrical or perfectly ordered but rather irregular and
seemingly, from the human perspective, disordered. Thus, asym-
metrical artistic expressions try to capture the way the world
truthfully is through a “deformation” of form and perfection.

expectation that there should be an applied Buddhist ethics to accom-

pany their belief and practice.
While writing this, I am perusing the latest issue of Tricycle (Spring
2004). I see a special section on Buddhist practice within prisons in
the United States. The authors are a diverse group, including current
and recently released prisoners as well as those who bring the Buddhist
teachings inside the prison walls. The section describes the missionary
effort that Buddhism is undertaking in U.S. prisons. As have the
other two missionary religions (Christianity and Islam), Buddhism is
reaching out to an imprisoned audience. One article speaks of Scott
Darnell who is serving a life sentence for first-degree murder in a
prison in Illinois. Darnell writes:

I count myself fortunate to have learned the Buddha-way

during my time inside. I count myself blessed beyond measure
to have known people who strive for truth, understanding,
and transformation, both for themselves and others. If such
a thing is possible here, surely it is possible everywhere. Buddha-
nature shines forth right here, right now, for anyone willing to
look. Do any of us here see completely? No. But at the end of
our sangha gatherings each week, somehow things appear
different. If but for a moment, the gun towers seem not as
tall, the razor wire not as sharp. Instead, there is blue sky, the
warmth of the sun on our faces, and world engaged and
engaging. (77)
122 BUDDHISM

Simplicity is present in the Japanese teahouse, the brushwork

of the calligrapher, and the core of the Buddhist belief system. Of
course, mandalas can be quite ornate, and certain Buddhist
rituals are elaborate, but even the most ornate examples of
Buddhist art retain a kind of simplicity because they put the
viewer in touch with childlike abandon and the freedom of
emptiness. As Hisamatsu explains:

Simplicity also has something in common with naïveté and

abandon. For, actually, it is abandon rather than deliberateness
that is in keeping with Simplicity. The ultimate Simplicity is
“not a single thing,” or the One. If, as the negation of holiness
results in the freedom of non-holiness, then simplicity as the
negation of clutter may be spoken of as being “boundless”—
there is nothing limiting, as in a cloudless sky.79

Perhaps another way to approach the sometimes complex

simplicity of Zen art is to think of it as a simplicity on the far
side of complexity rather than a simple simplicity.
Austere Sublimity focuses our attention on the deeper,
mature aspect of nature. It is a “becoming dried,” with the
“disappearance of childishness, unskillfulness or inexperience,
with only the pith or essence remaining.” 80
Naturalness means not artificial in a general sense; however,
it has an additional meaning for Buddhists who believe that our
original nature is the Buddha nature. A genuine work of Buddhist
art is one that expresses Awakening in one way or another.
Subtle Profundity implies that Buddhist art should convey a
deeper level beneath the surface impression, a level that is
indicative of the artist’s spiritual state. An excellent example of
this is the dry-landscape garden at Ryôanji in Kyoto, Japan.
Ryôanji is a Rinzai Zen temple founded in 1450. It is renowned
throughout the world for its exemplary rock garden. Consist-
ing of fifteen larger rocks and smaller rocks that are raked, the
garden appears rather stark and unassuming. The garden is
actually a meditation tool, not unlike the mandala. The monks
will meditate in its presence with the intent of realizing the
 Cultural Expressions 123
nondifference between the garden and themselves. The garden
is, in essence, a koan.
The Zen rock garden may evoke some element of subtle
profundity in the casual observer, or it may not. The profundity
it exhibits is the reflection of the Awakened mind of its creator
and the mirroring of that reflection in the mind of the observer.
In Buddhist belief, there is nonduality, no distinction, between
the two minds. Hisamatsu refers to this “reflection” as “an infinite
echo reverberating from a single thing.” This single thing, as we
now know from our study of Buddhism, “contains everything.” 81
Hisamatsu associates this characteristic of Zen art with a
“calm darkness” such as one would encounter in the tearoom.
Such darkness may be understood as “calming darkness,” which
can bring tranquility and relief to the participant. He also refers
to this as a “bright darkness.” 82
Freedom from Attachment is a cardinal Buddhist idea as
embodied in the Four Noble Truths—each person is to be
released (Awakened) from his or her egoistic passions. Here the
emphasis is on the transcendence of the conventions, authority,
and rules that attend dualistic thinking. What is meant is not a
willful arbitrariness borne from embracing chaos but a by-
product of Awakened consciousness that allows the artist to be
naturally unrestrained in word or action. For example, in the
môndo (Zen dialogue) all conventions of grammar or meaning
are seemingly suspended, as can be seen in the following example:

When Yüeh shan (Jp.: Yakusan) was sitting in meditation, a

monk asked,“What are you thinking while sitting immovably?”
The master said, “I am thinking of the very matter of not-
thinking.”
To this the monk asked, “How do you think of the matter
of not-thinking?”
The master replied, “Non-thinking!” 83

Again, this is not meant to be nonsensical or mere wordplay

but a display of the interlocutor’s spiritual state. Hisamatsu
notes that the Zen tradition calls this the “Rule of No Rule.” 84
124 BUDDHISM

The “Rule of No Rule” applies not only in words but also in

other art forms.
Tranquility is the seventh characteristic. Zen art and, by
extension, Buddhist art is meant to convey a tranquility, a
composure within the participant. Even in the most elaborate
display of color, complexity, or noise, Buddhist art maintains
its peace-producing core.

BUDDHIST CONTRIBUTIONS TO CONTEMPORARY

WESTERN ART AND CULTURE
Many Westerners may associate Buddhist art with the Buddhist
statue of Maitreya in his Hotei incarnation. This was once a
very popular curio. It portrayed a rotund, seated Buddha—one
could even rub his belly for good luck!
The West has also displayed an interest in more serious
Buddhist art. Most major museums have at least some repre-
sentative Buddhist pieces, and there are some amazing personal
collections of Asian Art, including Buddhist art. Buddhist art
has not generally been found in the homes of average Westerners,
but this is changing as more Westerners have access to infor-
mation about Buddhism.
Another important factor in the increasing acceptance of
Buddhist art has been the personality of the Dalai Lama and the
corresponding growing popularity of Tibetan Buddhist art.
One is no longer surprised to see religious items such as prayer
flags, framed mandalas, or thangkas in people’s homes or dis-
played on the pages of popular magazines. One may wonder if
these objects maintain their sacred nature in the homes of non-
Buddhists, where they are most often displayed for their unique
design and use of color. Chinese and Japanese Buddhist art has
been displayed in Western homes for centuries without any
religious connotations. To date, the Asian visual arts have had
the most influence in the West; the performing arts (such as
dance, music, and theater) have garnered only a limited audience.
Non-Asian converts to Buddhism provide another avenue by
which Buddhist art has influenced the West. Henry David
 Cultural Expressions 125
Thoreau (1817–1862), famed naturalist and author of Walden,
was very interested in Buddhism. Thoreau learned about Eastern
texts from his friend, Ralph Waldo Emerson. Western philoso-
phers—including Arthur Schopenhauer, Martin Heidegger, Jean
Paul Sartre, and others—have become interested in Buddhism.
Western writers and poets connected with the “Beat generation”
(Gary Snyder, Alan Ginsberg, and Jack Kerouac, among others)
were or are influenced by Buddhism. Western interest in Zen
Buddhism has remained strong over the last fifty or so years.
More recently, Tibetan Buddhism has attracted the attention
of many in the West. Several noted celebrities have publicly
embraced Tibetan Buddhism. In a culture that closely follows
celebrities’ lives, such personal decisions can lead to a broader
acceptance of the religion in question. In centuries past, it
was critical to convert the king to Buddhism for Buddhism to
become established in a new country. Perhaps in the twenty-first
century, the new “kings” who need to be converted so that the
general populace will follow are the people seen on television
and in the movies!
Currently, the most outspoken and famous celebrity propo-
nent of Buddhism is actor Richard Gere. He has starred in many
movies over a long career and won an Academy Award for Best
Actor in An Officer and a Gentleman. Gere has devoted much
time and money to the Tibetan Buddhist cause and considers
the Dalai Lama to be his teacher.
Recent movies with Buddhist themes include Kundun, Little
Buddha, and the Matrix series. Buddhists in the music world
include John Cage, Laurie Anderson, Tina Turner, and members
of the rock group The Beastie Boys. The “New Age” movement
has encouraged and supported many Buddhist musical presen-
tations, both live and recorded. The West has also been treated to
the considerable musical talents of Tibetan monks on tour. The
monks use traditional instruments to accompany the chanting
of sutras.
Still, no form of Buddhism seems as cemented to the American
psyche as Zen Buddhism. The interest in Zen manifests in Zen
126 BUDDHISM

garden design, two-dimensional and three-dimensional art forms,

poetry, and even Zen comics! Ironically, today the leading edge
of Buddhist art may well be in the West.
 8

Holidays

Throughout the centuries

preceding Tibet’s invasion by China,
the seasons were marked by numerous festival days . . .
celebrated by monks and laymen alike.
For the latter, the time was passed in eating,
drinking, singing, dancing and playing games,
combined intermittently with prayer.
—Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in Freedom in Exile
128 BUDDHISM

sually Buddhists have sought to permeate cultures rather

U than to dominate them. Buddhism, like most other religions,
is certain that it knows the truth, but its concept of truth is
inclusive rather than exclusive and allows for varying degrees
of understanding of truth. This means that Buddhism has often
been willing to cooperate with non-Buddhist cultural elements,
rather than competing with them. As you will observe in this
chapter, this element of cooperation is evident even in Buddhist
holidays, many of which have secular elements or elements
derived from other religions.
In some countries, Buddhist holidays are determined based
upon a lunar calendar; in others, the Western or Gregorian
calendar, which is a solar calendar, is used. This means that the
dates of certain holidays may vary from country to country.
Considering that Buddhists live in many different countries,
one would expect some variation in the dates of holidays even
without this complication.
There is no universal Buddhist calendar; the many different
schools or sects of Buddhism maintain separate calendars. While
almost every day of the year is a special observance for Buddhists
somewhere, there are major holidays that most Buddhists
observe. We begin this chapter with a discussion of several of
these more universally observed holidays.

NEW YEAR
Every country in the world celebrates the New Year, and Buddhist
countries are no exception. Many countries observe the New Year
with a mixture of secular and religious rituals and Buddhist
countries do too.
The year 2000 on the Gregorian calendar roughly coincided
with the year 2543 B.E. (Buddhist Era). The date of the Buddhist
New Year varies from country to country and according to the
type of Buddhism practiced. Chinese, Koreans, and Vietnamese
celebrate in late January or early February according to the lunar
calendar, while the Tibetans usually celebrate about one month
later. All of these are Mahâyâna Buddhist nations.
 Holidays 129
In Theravâda nations (Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,
Cambodia, and Laos) the New Year festival occurs in mid-April.
The exact date depends upon the first full moon in April. In
Thailand, the date is fixed on April 13.
In general, Asians view the New Year as the most significant
cultural celebration of the year. In Asian communities, New Year
is equated with family reunions, completing business transac-
tions, ending feuds, making amends, refurbishing wardrobes,
honoring ancestors, and cleaning house.

Songkran
The Thai New Year is called Songkran. Buddhist images in
homes and in the temple are cleansed with jasmine-scented
water on the first official day of the New Year. Throughout the
world, the New Year is commonly associated with some sort of
cleaning ritual.
In addition to cleansing, water is also used for veneration. As a
sign of respect, young people will sprinkle water on older people.
The family will dress in traditional Thai clothing and wear
leis of jasmine. Faces and necks will be painted with a white
paste to ward off evil. To signify the connectedness of all people,
people will tie strings to each other’s wrists accompanied by
prayers of blessing. The strings are to be worn until they fall off
on their own.

Chinese New Year

New Year’s is an auspicious day in China as well, where it is
actually a season rather than a day. (This is analogous to the
Christmas season, which surrounds Christmas Day.) The Chinese
family will use the occasion for cleaning, including applying
new paint, often red (the color of life), to the house. Other
decorations are put up signifying best wishes and special food is
placed on the family altar. The eve of the New Year finds family
members gathered for a common meal with special foods being
served. Also on this evening, places of worship will be visited for
special New Year blessings. On New Year’s Day itself, children
130 BUDDHISM

may receive presents from their parents, neighbors are visited,

and a fresh start is brought to relationships that may be strained
or inactive. The famed Lantern Festival occurs at the end of the
New Year season (on the fifteenth day of the year). People carry
lanterns into the streets to take part in a great parade. One version
of the origin of this festival is Buddhist.

BUDDHA DAY (VESAK)

The most important observance for Buddhists is the commemo-
ration of the birth, Awakening, and death (parinirvâņâ) of the
Buddha. Although it is not believed that all three events actually
happened on the same date, Theravâda Buddhists celebrate them
all on the same day. This day, sometimes called “Buddha Day”
in the West, is known as Vesak or Visakah Puja in Theravâda
countries. Traditionally, this day is celebrated on the first full
moon day in May (in a leap year it is held in June). On this day,
laypeople will go to the temples, participate in a worship service,
listen to talks on the dharma, bring food to donate to the temple,
and perhaps reaffirm their allegiance to the Five Precepts. It is a
joyous occasion and there may be booths on the temple grounds
that sell sweets, Buddhist curios, and the like.
In Mahâyâna countries, three separate holidays commemorate
the Buddha’s birth (eighth day of the fourth month), Awakening
(eighth day of the twelfth month), and death (fifteenth day of
the second month). Buddhists who use the Western calendar
(such as Japanese and American Buddhists) do not celebrate
these holidays on the exact same day as Buddhists who follow
the lunar calendar.

DHARMA DAY (ASALHA PUJA DAY)

Dharma Day is primarily a Theravâda holiday, although it should
be noted that there is a Tibetan equivalent that occurs about a
month earlier. Dharma Day is observed in Thailand and some
other countries in Southeast Asia.
Dharma Day is also called Asalha Puja Day, because it falls on
the first full-moon day of the eighth lunar month, and the eighth
 Holidays 131
month on the Buddhist calendar is named Asalha. Dharma Day
celebrates the Buddha’s first teaching.
The Buddha attained Awakening on the full moon of the sixth
lunar month. Two months later, on the full moon of the eighth
lunar month, he delivered his first sermon to his first five
disciples in Deer Park. This event marked the establishment of
the Buddhist religion.
There are a variety of activities that might take place on
Dharma Day, but one common activity is the chanting of the
discourse known as the Dhamma Cakka Sutta (“the Setting in
Motion of the Wheel of Truth”). The chanting would ordinarily
take place in the original Pali language and form part of the
evening vigil.
Other activities might include a visit to a monastery, listen-
ing to a sermon, joining a procession, or attending an award
ceremony in which scholarships are presented to schoolchildren
from low-income families. The scholarships are funded by
the monastery.

SANGHA DAY (MAGHA PUJA DAY)

You may have noted a Buddha Day and a Dharma Day, and you
might recall that the “Three Jewels” of Buddhism are the Buddha,
the Dharma, and the Sangha. Logically, you might expect a
Sangha Day, and you would be correct. Occurring on the first
full moon of the third lunar month, Buddhists recall on this day
a significant event in the life of the Buddha.
After the initial Rains Retreat (Vassa), the Buddha traveled to
Rajagraha where he met up with 1,250 arhats who had, without
prior appointment, convened to pay homage to the Buddha.
This day is also called “Fourfold Assembly Day” because there are
four important elements: The number of arhats who convened,
the fact that all had been ordained by the Buddha himself, the
fact that all came without appointment, and the fact that all this
occurred on a full-moon day.
Having looked at some of the more universally observed
Buddhist holidays, we turn now to some examples of holidays
132 BUDDHISM

that are associated with a given area. We begin with two East
Asian festivals (Obon and the Hungry Ghost Festival). After
discussing the Festival of the Tooth in Sri Lanka, we move
on to two Vajrayâna festivals (the Tibetan feast of Tara and
Padmasambhava Day in Bhutan). We will conclude this chapter
with a look at a special Japanese Buddhist ritual known as the
Sennichi Kaihôgyô.

OBON 85
Ancestor worship is common in East Asia. It is not surprising,
then, that Ulambana or Ancestors’ Day is more popular in

BUDDHIST ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICE:

THE ORDINATION OF TREES
Many people have noted Buddhism’s earth-friendly attitude. There is
even an emerging body of scholarship on what might be called a
Buddhist environmental ethic. Here I would like to discuss an interest-
ing response to deforestation on the part of some Thai Buddhist
monks. The response involves the appropriation of a traditional ritual
(monastic ordination) in a creative response to an emerging need
(saving the trees).
Phrakhru Manas Natheepitak, the abbot of the Wat Bodharma
in northern Thailand, is credited with devising “tree ordination” 86
in the early 1990s as a response to the continued deforestation
near his temple (“wat” means temple). He thought that if the
trees became sacred by being “ordained” (just as a monk or a
nun does), no one would dare to cut them down. He hoped that
his “tree ordinations” would also help publicize the environmental
devastation the entire country of Thailand was experiencing due
to deforestation.
Phrakhru Manas had tried every avenue he knew to get the logging
company to stop cutting down trees but to no avail. Despite concerns
from Buddhists and his own temple, he persisted and this practice has
now spread across Thailand.
In July 1991, in the Nan Province, Phrakhru Pitak Nanthakhun
conducted a tree ordination.87 Typically, the laity provides donations
 Holidays 133
East Asian countries than anywhere else. Ulambana is pri-
marily observed in Mahâyâna traditions, but some in the
Theravâda tradition observe this holiday as well. In Japan,
Ulambana is known as Obon, and in China it is the Hungry
Ghost Festival.
Obon is observed in summer, traditionally in July but
recently this festival has been moved to August. School is out
and many people take this time to travel to their ancestral
homes where they can return to their roots. Obon thus becomes
a massive family reunion of the living and, as will shortly
become apparent, of the dead.

to the monks prior to an ordination ceremony. In this case, nurseries

and patrons had donated twelve hundred seedlings to the monks.
During the ceremony, several plays not only provided entertainment
but also highlighted the environmental import of the day.
After sanctifying the robes and seedlings, the officiating monks,
led by Phrakhru Pitak, planted some of the seedlings on the temple
grounds, next to the tree that was to be ordained, and gave the balance
to the attending laity. As the trees had been deemed holy, laypersons
would not intentionally harm them for fear of negative karma.
About two hundred people along with twenty monks then traveled
to the site of the tree ordination. The tree, one of the oldest still
standing in this area, had been prepared and at the appropriate
moment was wrapped with the orange robes that would have been
wrapped around a human who was being ordained. In Thai human
ordinations, the acolyte’s begging bowl contains sanctified water that
is sprinkled on the participants. However, at this unique gathering,
Phrakhru Pitak had ten headmen from local villages drink the water
as a sign of their oath to protect the forest.
A plaque attached to the ordained tree reads, “Tham laay paa
khee tham laay chaat,” which can be translated in several ways due
to multiple meanings for the word chaat: “To destroy the forest is to
destroy life (or “one’s rebirth,” or “the nation”).”
This new use of an ancient ritual demonstrates Buddhism’s ability
to adapt to emerging social needs. “Tree ordination” appears consistent
with the Buddhist sanction to uproot suffering.
134 BUDDHISM

As Obon approaches, fires burn at entrances to village homes,

and paper lanterns hang in cemeteries. Buddhist family altars
are covered with vegetables and fruits are set out as offerings. It
is said that soon the ancestors, the spirits of the dead, will be
returning to their earthly homes for a visit with their relatives.
Family crests are displayed and mukae-bi (welcoming fires)
are lighted to guide the spirits of the dead back home. There
they will be greeted by the living members of their family,
many of whom will have traveled great distances to return to
the site of their family tomb (ohaka). (Most Japanese people
now live and work in big cities, but the ohaka, reflecting the
demographics of a former era, tend to be in the small towns
and in the countryside.)
For several days, the spirits of the dead will be entertained
by fireworks and folk dances. The living will pray for the
repose of the souls of their ancestors. Buddhist temples will
conduct special ceremonies and graveyards will be full of activity
as families visit family tombs.
At the conclusion of the holiday, the ancestral spirits will
be guided back to the other world by miniature boats carrying
lighted candles. The tiny boats are set afloat on a river or in
the sea.

HUNGRY GHOST FESTIVAL88

In Taiwan and in Chinese communities around the world, the
Hungry Ghost Festival occurs at the midpoint of the seventh
lunar month (generally in August on the Western calendar). In
Taiwan, people refer to the seventh lunar month as “Ghost
Month,” because during this month those suffering in hell are
given a reprieve. The gates of hell are flung open on the first day
of the month, allowing the suffering and starving ghosts to roam
the earth. They will enjoy a month of feasting and fun before
returning to hell on the last day of the month.
The Hungry Ghost Festival combines Confucian, Buddhist,
and Taoist elements. The Confucian tradition expects children
to show great reverence for their parents, a virtue known as
 Holidays 135
“filial piety.” This includes veneration of one’s ancestors. The
soul that is neglected by its descendants will be hungry and
spiteful, and will likely cause trouble for the living. It becomes
a “hungry ghost.” However, if nonrelatives feed the hungry
ghosts during Ghost Month, they will be appeased and not
bother the community.
Buddhists celebrate the Hungry Ghost Festival as an expres-
sion of compassion, a key Buddhist virtue. They tell the story
of Mu-lien’s mother, a very selfish woman who was confined to
the depths of hell. Mu-lien brought food to the monks on his
mother’s behalf, and his mother was released from her suffering.
Buddhists call the Festival “Ulambana,” from a Sanskrit word
meaning “the emptying out of hell.”
The Taoists call the Hungry Ghost Festival “Putu,” signifying a
general amnesty for the souls in hell. They also call it “Zhong
Yuan.” On this day, the Ruler of Earth (Zhong) is said to pardon
the sins of human beings.
Who are the ghosts? Not all of them are great sinners. A ghost
is anyone who was not lucky enough to become an ancestor.
Since burial represents the first stage in sending an ancestor to his
or her proper place in the afterlife, anyone who receives an
improper burial, or none at all, cannot become an ancestor. The
spirit is left homeless. This typically occurs in mass executions,
forced migrations, and so forth. Other souls become ghosts
because their anger will not let them go to their rest. Perhaps they
were murdered, or unjustly executed, and are seeking vengeance.
It is one’s descendants who carry out the sacrifices that trans-
form a deceased person into an ancestor. Thus a child who dies, or
a woman who is unmarried or barren, becomes a ghost. A person
who becomes a Christian, and no longer venerates the ancestors,
risks demoting his or her parents to the status of a ghost.
The ghosts are guided by “salvation lanterns” placed at the
front door of people’s homes, or at the entrances and exits of
villages. The lanterns are lit at midnight after burning incense
and paying tribute to the lost souls, and extinguished the next
morning. They are lit every night of Ghost Month.
136 BUDDHISM

At the festival, the ghosts find all kinds of foods prepared for
them. Joss paper money will be burned, so they can take it
back with them to provide for their needs in the underworld.
They are entertained with dances, opera, parades and floats,
singing, puppet shows, acrobatics, poetry and painting, and
theater troupes.
The festivities come to an end when a Taoist monk dressed up
as Zhong Kui begins his dance. Zhong Kui is the Chinese ghost
buster. He performs a Taoist dance designed to chase off ghosts
who are hesitant to go back to the world of darkness. As the
dance ends, the gates of hell are closed for another year.

THE FESTIVAL OF THE TOOTH

The Festival of the tooth is the most important of Sri Lanka’s
public holidays. It is purely coincidental that it takes place in
Kandy, a city in central Sri Lanka. The tooth in question is
reputedly a relic of the Buddha. According to the traditional
story, a monk plucked one of the Buddha’s teeth from the pile of
ashes left after his cremation. The tooth was given to Sri Lanka
for safekeeping around C.E. 300.
This tooth is housed in a great temple on a small hill. The
temple was built specifically to house the tooth, which is kept
hidden inside a nested set of caskets and is never seen. However,
once a year, in July or August, on a full-moon night, there is a
procession held in its honor.
The procession travels through the city of Kandy for ten
consecutive nights, growing in size with each night. It includes
torchbearers, whip-crackers, dancers, drummers, and many
elephants. The casket containing the tooth is carried on the
last elephant. The procession begins and ends at the temple on
the hill, which is one of the most revered Buddhist temples in
the world.

FEAST OF TARA89
Tara is a Tibetan Buddhist bodhisattva and the national
goddess of Tibet. (Bodhisattvas are treated as deities in Tibet.)
 Holidays 137
Her feast day falls in summer, in late July or early August on the
Western calendar.
Tara is called the “Mother of All Buddhas” because buddhas
are born of the wisdom that she represents. She is believed to be
able to eliminate the eight fears that, according to Vajrayâna
Buddhism, cloud our judgment and keep us from seeing the
light of truth. Buddhists believe that the mind is the source of
much suffering. Once purified, however, it reflects reality like a
pond of still, clear water reflects images—without distortion.
There are two stories regarding Tara’s origins. One begins with
another bodhisattva who had been working for a long time to
guide beings toward Awakening. He had helped hundreds of
thousands, but when he realized how many more were still
suffering in the cycle of births and deaths, he began to cry. Tara
sprang forth from his tears of compassion, saying, “Don’t
worry—I will help you.”
The other story tells about one of Tara’s previous births as a
human being. She was praying as two monks passed her on the
road. One monk said to the other that she showed so much
devotion that she would probably be reborn as a man. (The
belief at the time was that only men could attain Awakening.)
Tara overheard the remark and replied that there is no essential
difference between male and female. She then vowed to work
perpetually for the benefit of all beings in the body of a woman,
no matter how many times she was reborn.
Tara was one of the first female deities in Buddhism. Today,
male and female deities are paired in Tibetan Buddhism, just
as they are in Hinduism. However, the symbolism of male and
female is reversed in the two religions. In Hinduism, the
female deity is the active partner (compassion), while the male
is more contemplative (wisdom). In Tibetan Buddhism, it is
the female partner who is quiescient wisdom itself, while male
deities symbolize active compassion. Tara is portrayed with
green skin, clothed in silken garments and jeweled ornaments.
Her right hand gestures supreme generosity, while her left
hand near her heart indicates the bestowing of refuge. She is
138 BUDDHISM

seated in an unusual lotus position: Her left leg is withdrawn

to symbolize renunciation of the world, but her right leg is
extended to show that she is always ready to rise to the aid of
anyone who needs help.

PADMASAMBHAVA HONORED
IN BHUTAN’S FESTIVALS 90
The Kingdom of Bhutan lies in the heart of the Himalaya
Mountains. Along with Tibet and Mongolia, it comprises the
traditional stronghold of Vajrayâna Buddhism, also known as
“Tibetan Buddhism.” With Mongolia and Tibet currently under
Chinese rule, Bhutan is the only surviving nation in the world
to have Vajrayâna Buddhism as its official religion.
Padmasambhava (“lotus-born”), a wonder-working teacher
who hailed from northern India, introduced Vajrayâna Buddhism
to the entire Himalayan region. Many of Bhutan’s festivals
include dramatized scenes from his life.
Legend says that Padmasambhava made the trip to Bhutan on
the back of a flying tigress. The pilgrimage centers of Bhutan tell
the story of his visit. At Taktsang, he is said to have conquered
the demon spirits that were standing in the way of the spread of
Buddhism. In Bumthang, a temple was built on the spot where
Padmasambhava’s fingerprints and footprints appeared etched
into solid rock. Throughout Bhutan, stûpas line the roadsides
commemorating places where Padmasambhava stopped to
meditate. The people of Bhutan live where Padmasambhava
walked. To them, he is the “second Buddha.”

THE SENNICHI KAIHÔGYÔ 91

Sennichi Kaihôgyô is not a festival per se but rather a special
ceremony. This fascinating one-thousand-day ritual involves
arduous mountain hikes. So difficult is it that it has seldom
been attempted: less than fifty monks have tried it since 1571.
The ritual is conducted on Mount Hiei, which is a sacred
mountain just outside Kyoto. Mount Hiei is the headquarters of
the Tendai sect. Any monk who is interested in attempting this
 Holidays 139
ritual must be single, ordained, and must have lived in the
Mount Hiei area for twelve years of training. He must also
receive permission from the Tendai leadership.
A monk who embarks on the ritual is clad in white (the
Buddhist color of death). He wears a symbolic dagger and
carries a length of rope. These symbols associated with death
signify that death is preferable to quitting, and they also indicate
that the pilgrim is not in the world during this ritual period.
On his feet, the monk wears straw sandals or just tabi (thin
socks) after the first three hundred days.
The monk walks a route over the face of Mount Hiei for one
hundred days in a row. There are two routes: one that is
twenty-two miles and one that is twenty-five miles. The monk,
who starts walking about midnight, will stop to pray and chant
a mantra at numerous sites. As it takes about six or seven hours
to complete the trek, once accustomed to it, the monk returns
to his temple early in the morning and is then expected to keep
his regular daytime schedule of duties and activities. On one of
the one hundred days, the monk will complete a thirty-mile
walk throughout Kyoto with the purpose of transferring the
merit he has accumulated to others.
In the Sennichi Kaihôgyô, one such one hundred-day
period is completed every spring for three years in a row. This
is followed by a fourth and a fifth year, in which the ritual
extends to two hundred days. After finishing the accumulated
total of seven hundred days of walking, the monk faces an
especially difficult interlude.
Called the dôiri (Jp.: “to enter the hall”), the interlude consists
of a nine-day period during which the monk does not eat, drink,
or sleep. During the dôiri, the monk is restricted to a temple and
maintains a seated lotus position in front of a statute of Fudô
(a Buddha), and he conducts Buddhist services from that position.
Each day at two in the morning, he leaves the temple to walk to
a well 656 feet away where he draws water to offer to Fudô. The
monk has several attendants who remain with him at all times to
keep him from falling asleep. These attendants accompany him
140 BUDDHISM

to the well, chanting prayers and verses from a sutra. They are
not allowed to aid or assist him in any way. As the nine days go
by, the relatively short trip to the well takes longer and longer for
the monk to complete. However, the monk also attracts more
onlookers as the days go by who urge him along with their own
prayers and chants.
After the successful completion of the dôiri, the following
spring finds the monk completing another one-hundred-day
period but now with a thirty-seven mile hike that takes fifteen
hours each day to complete. For the seventh and last year of
the Sennichi Kaihôgyô, the monk undertakes a fifty-two mile
walk through Kyoto called the ômawari. The ômawari involves
frequent devotions and again allows him to share his accumu-
lated merit with others. This route requires eighteen hours
to complete, so the monk gets very little sleep for this one-
hundred-day period. On the last one-hundred-day period, the
monk returns to the short route and the ritual is completed.
 9

Memories

This is the way: try, try, try!

Then, over time, there is hope.
—Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in The World of Tibetan Buddhism
142 BUDDHISM

uddhists have never cherished the memory of historical

B events as much as they have cherished the spiritual insights
of certain teachers. Following this Buddhist orientation, this
chapter will profile a few of the more significant personages in
Buddhist history. The integral role of the Buddha is self-evident,
but we have already discussed his life and teachings. There are
others, however, who bear closer study. From the potentially very
long list of important Buddhist teachers, I have selected five to
serve as illustrations of some of the amazing personalities within
Buddhism. We will read of Buddhist practitioners from Japan,
Tibet, India, China, and the United States.

Dôgen 92 (1200–1253)
Dôgen was mentioned when discussing Zen Buddhism in Japan
and the development of the Sôto sect was attributed to his
work. Dôgen was born in Kyoto in 1200 to an aristocratic
family. His father was a high-ranking minister in the Japanese
government.
Dôgen was considered a precocious child with a quick intellect
that allowed him, so the story goes, to read Chinese poetry at
four years of age and a Chinese Buddhist treatise at nine.93
However, his father died when Dôgen was two years old, and his
mother’s death when he was seven rendered him an orphan. It
may be that these events awakened in him a sense of his own
finitude that precipitated the events of his adult life.
At thirteen, Dôgen became a monk in the Tendai sect on
Mount Hiei right outside Kyoto. After about a year of study,
Dôgen started having problems with his practice. In his own
words, his overriding question was, “If all beings possess buddha
nature, then why is it that one must strive after realizing such in
Awakening?” 94 A theist might frame Dôgen’s question in this way:
“If God is all-loving, all-forgiving, and will act for my salvation,
why is it necessary for me to work out my own salvation?” 95
Dôgen asked his teacher for an answer to his question, but he
was not satisfied with the answer he received. He decided to
leave Mount Hiei and look for another teacher. (It is interesting
 Memories 143
to note that when Siddhartha Gautama had questions that could
not be answered to his satisfaction by those around him, he too
went searching for someone who could provide a better answer.)
Dôgen was referred to Eisai, the Buddhist master responsible
for establishing the Rinzai Zen sect in Japan, and he traveled to
Kennin-ji. Eisai met Dôgen and responded to his question by
saying, “All the Buddhas in the three stages of time are unaware
that they are endowed with the Buddha nature, but cats and
oxen are well aware of it indeed.” 96 This answer satisfied Dôgen
and he decided to stay and practice with Eisai. However, Eisai
died the following year.
One of Eisai’s students, Myôzen (1184–1225), succeeded Eisai
at Kennin-ji and Dôgen studied with him for the next nine years.
At twenty-three, Dôgen decided to travel to China in order to
study Zen and Myôzen accompanied him.
Once in China, Dôgen went to study at T’ien-t’ung monastery
with the Abbot Wu-chi. His practice advanced but, still not
satisfied, he decided to travel around China looking for the right
teacher. Meanwhile, Wu-chi died and his successor, Ju-ching
(1163–1228), had a reputation as an excellent teacher. Dôgen
returned to T’ien-t’ung for a last attempt to find the right
teacher before returning to Japan.
This was a fortunate decision as Ju-ching turned out to be the
perfect teacher for him. Ju-ching worked tirelessly at his zazen,
inspiring Dôgen to intensify his practice. Finally, Dôgen experi-
enced Awakening:

Early one morning, as he was making his usual round of

inspection at the beginning of the formal zazen period,
Ju-ching discovered one of the monks dozing. Scolding the
monk, he said, “The practice of zazen is dropping away of
body and mind. What do you expect to accomplish by
dozing?” Upon hearing these words, Dôgen suddenly realized
enlightenment, his Mind’s eye opening fully.97

His Awakening was accepted by Ju-ching and after continuing

his training at the monastery for two more years, Dôgen
144 BUDDHISM

returned to Japan in 1227. Ju-ching supported his student’s

decision, hoping that Dôgen would be able to teach the dharma
in meaningful ways to the Japanese.
Dôgen initially returned to Kennin-ji and remained there
for three years. However, he was never one to stay in one place
for very long. He soon moved to another temple, An’yô-in.
He had also begun to write by this point. He then moved to
Kôshô-ji and began in earnest to train others in his under-
standing of Zen. It was during this period of time that he
wrote what came to be considered his magnum opus, the
Shôbôgenzô Zuimonki. As his fame as a teacher increased,
so too did the demands on his time and the jealousies of
other Buddhist groups.
He eventually moved to the temple with which he is most
closely associated, Eiheiji—now one of the head temples of the
Sôtô sect of Zen Buddhism.
Dôgen had some interest in influencing political events and he
met with various leaders. However, his priority was always on
persuading others to pursue the practice of Zen through his
teaching and writings.
In 1252, Dôgen became ill and returned to Kyoto to seek
medical treatment. He died on August 28, 1253, at Seido-in in
Takatsuji, Kyoto.

Tenzin Gyatso: The Fourteenth Dalai Lama (1935– )

Undoubtedly the most famous Buddhist monk alive is the Dalai
Lama. “Dalai Lama” is not a name but a title. It comes from
the Mongolian language, in which “Dalai” means “ocean” and
“Lama” means “teacher.” The ocean is a symbol of large and deep
wisdom. The title was attached to the position in the sixteenth
century, when the Mongols ruled the country we now call Tibet.
Traditionally, the Dalai Lama has been the political and
spiritual leader of Tibet. The current Dalai Lama’s name is
Tenzin Gyatso. How does one become a Dalai Lama? To
answer this question we need to understand the Tibetan
Buddhist belief in tulkus.
 Memories 145
Tibetan Buddhists believe that esteemed, Awakened lamas
have the ability to come back into this life to help bring others
to the Buddhist path. So, tulkus are what other Buddhists call
bodhisattvas—they are living bodhisattvas. Some people believe
that the Dalai Lama is the only one in the Tibetan tradition who
is said to reincarnate in this way, but that is not correct—there
are significant others.
Tenzin Gyatso is the fourteenth Dalai Lama, and he is believed
to be the reincarnation of the previous Dalai Lamas. He is also
regarded as the living representation of Avalokiteśvara, the
bodhisattva of compassion.
Tibetan Buddhists believe that the current Dalai Lama will
provide information as to where his (or her) next rebirth will
occur. (Although there have only been male Dalai Lamas of
Tibetan origin to date, there is nothing that would preclude the
next Dalai Lama from being female and/or of a different national-
ity.) Lamas98 may have prophetic dreams that provide additional
instructions, and after the mourning period following the death of
a Dalai Lama, the search begins for his new embodied form.
Using the clues they have received, the search party will eventu-
ally identify a child candidate who will be tested. The test might
include asking the candidate to identify objects or persons from his
previous life. Once identified, the new Dalai Lama has traditionally
been installed in his new home, Potala Palace in Lhasa, the capital
of Tibet, and his monastic education begins. When the Dalai
Lama came of age, he also became the secular head of Tibet.
The current Dalai Lama, as you may know, does not live in his
traditional home in Potala Palace. This is due to the 1959 Chinese
occupation of Tibet, which forced the current Dalai Lama to flee
into exile. The Chinese government claimed and continues to claim
that they are the rightful owners of Tibet because, they say, it
historically belonged to China. They further claimed that Tibet’s
theocratic (religiously ruled) government was oppressing its people
and making them “backward”; hence, Tibet needed liberation.
Tibet received no substantial help from the world community
because other nations were fearful of upsetting China. China
146 BUDDHISM

took control of Tibet and moved many of its own citizens there,
and there are now more ethnic Chinese living in Tibet than ethnic
Tibetans. What was once the most overtly Buddhist country in
the world became one where religious practice was curtailed,
monks and nuns were defrocked, and temples were destroyed or
abandoned. While the degree of religious oppression has been
slightly reduced, the country of Tibet is but a shell of its former
Buddhist self.
Fortunately, the Dalai Lama escaped into neighboring India,
where Dharamsala serves as his residence and as a center for
Tibetan Buddhism. The Dalai Lama and the other Tibetan exiles
continue to hope that they will be able to return to Tibet some-
day. In the meantime, one cannot help but admire the way
in which they have managed their exile. They have garnered
political support for their cause, built Buddhist educational
institutions, and taken a very proactive stance toward preserv-
ing Tibetan culture in exile.
While not condoning the Chinese aggression, it is safe to say
that Tibetan Buddhism would not have the global presence it
now enjoys had not the tradition been forced to adapt to this new
situation. The personal popularity of the Dalai Lama has enhanced
the status of Tibetan Buddhism in the West. Today, American
and European bookstores carry best-selling books by the Dalai
Lama and other Tibetan Buddhist teachers. In U.S. cities, one
finds Tibetan religious centers that have made not only Tibetan
Buddhism but also Tibetan Buddhist art, food, and culture accessi-
ble to a non-Tibetan audience. The Dalai Lama has won a Nobel
Peace Prize; his public talks in cities like New York and Los Angeles
sell out; in short, he has become a cult figure for many Westerners,
both Buddhist and non-Buddhist, who appreciate the personal
embodiment of his teachings on love and kindness.

Dipa Ma 99 (1911–1989)
Nani Bala Barua was born near Chittagong, in present-day
Pakistan, in 1911. From early in her life, she was interested in
Buddhist rituals:
 Memories 147
Contrary to the custom of keeping small children away
from monks, her parents allowed Nani to offer food, wash
the monks’ feet, and sit with them while they ate. Instead of
pretend-cooking like most little girls her age, Nani seemed
solely interested in creating miniature altars and offering
flowers to the Buddha.100

At twelve, Nani was married. (Arranged marriages are custom-

ary in the Indian subcontinent; people may be officially married
quite young, but they do not live together and begin raising a
family until they are older.) Years after her marriage ceremony,
she was sent to live with her husband in Rangoon, Myanmar.
Rajani was a kindly and supportive man, and the couple fell
deeply in love. Nani struggled with being unable to have children
but her husband consoled her saying that she should instead treat
every person she met as if he or she were her only child. She kept
this advice close to her heart for the rest of her life.
When Nani’s mother died suddenly, she and Rajani raised
Nani’s youngest brother, Bijoy, as their own child. At thirty-
five, that is, at approximately the age at which the Buddha
experienced Awakening, Nani did become pregnant, yet her
infant daughter soon died. At thirty-nine, she again became
pregnant. When the baby girl was born, Nani called her “Dipa,”
meaning “light.” It was at this time that Nani came to be called
“Dipa Ma,” which means “the mother of Dipa.”
Hypertension accompanied these births and Dipa Ma came
close to death. She had to lie in bed for several years while her
husband struggled to maintain his job as an engineer and care
for both his wife and the baby alone. At the age of fifty-nine, he
died of a heart attack. This desperate situation occasioned Dipa
Ma’s entry into a meditation center. She believed it was the only
way to save her life. Encouraged by a dream in which she
encountered the Buddha, she began her practice.
She then went through a phase of entering and leaving medi-
tation centers, balancing her own practice with caring for her
daughter. Her health improved and she had an Awakening
148 BUDDHISM

experience that she came later to describe in this way: “My out-
look has changed greatly. Before I was too attached to everything.
I was possessive. I wanted things. But now it feels like I’m
floating, detached; I am here, but I don’t want things. I don’t
want to possess anything. I’m living—that’s all. That’s enough.” 101
She also became quite adept at supernormal powers (siddhis).
Over time, her fame in Myanmar spread. Even after she moved
to Calcutta, India, she continued to attract students, particu-
larly middle-aged women like herself. She believed that women
practitioners actually had an advantage over men. She told her
female students: “You can go more quickly and deeper in the
practice than men because your minds are softer . . . Women’s
tendency to be more emotional is not a hindrance to practice.” 102
Her discipline was strict. She expected her followers to
emulate her own lifestyle of little sleep, following the five
precepts, and meditating several hours a day. They had to report
their progress to her twice a week.103 Despite this forcefulness
in her practice and her expectations, her strength came from
her loving-kindness (metta):

She taught a metta (loving-kindness) meditation, emphasiz-

ing over and over again “the first thing is to love yourself.” She
advised, “You cannot progress by self-doubt and self-hatred,
only by self-love. This is the fuel. Our mind is our friend. It
is our own source of help. It is our refuge. Unless you have
respect for yourself, you cannot proceed.” 104

Dipa Ma ultimately drew the attention of foreigners and was a

strong influence on such well-known American practitioners
as Joseph Goldstein, Sharon Salzberg, and Jack Kornfield. This
connection resulted in a trip to the United States in 1980 where
she helped lead a retreat. Dipa Ma continued teaching in her
apartment in Calcutta until her death in September 1989.

Sheng-yen (1930– ) 105

Sheng-yen was born in Shanghai, China, the youngest of six
children. At thirteen, he was able to enter a nearby temple
 Memories 149
called Langshan. His recollection of this Ch’an temple was crisp
and tart—he thought there really wasn’t any genuine practice
going on there. His mentor, Langhui, recommended that young
Sheng-yen perform prostrations to Kuan-yin (bodhisattva of
mercy) to help alleviate his karmic debt. He did so, and he
reported that one morning while bowing he “was overcome . . .
with a very refreshing and comfortable feeling. It seemed as
if the whole world had changed. My mind became very clear
and very bright.” 106
At sixteen, Sheng-yen was sent to a sub-temple in Shanghai.
For the next two years, he performed Buddhist rituals for the
dead; this work helped raise funds for the temple. Sheng-yen did
not enjoy his assigned task, and he left this sub-temple and
enrolled instead in the Jing-an Monastery in Shanghai where
he could pursue more formal studies. At Jing-an he was exposed
to Buddhist ideas of many different sects, which allowed him
to continue his meditation practice. He did not receive any
guidance on meditation, however, and he came to feel at a loss as
to how to proceed.
In 1949, China came under the Communist rule of Mao
Tse-tung (Mao Zedong). Sheng-yen joined the opposing forces,
the Kuomintang,107 and served with distinction for ten years. His
time in the army did not dull his ardor for Buddhism, and he
reported that he took time every day for meditation.
In 1958, Sheng-yen met two Ch’an masters, both of whom
were to exert a tremendous influence on his life. Their names
were Lingyuan (1902–1988) and Donghou (1907–1977). Ulti-
mately, Sheng-yen received transmission from Lingyuan but it
was through Donghou that he attained full monkhood. Under
Donghou’s gaze, Sheng-yen advanced spiritually but it was not
easy—Donghou was a demanding teacher who worked constantly
to keep Sheng-yen off balance:

When I lived with him [Doughou] he forbade me to keep a

blanket because monks were supposed to meditate at night.
When tired, we could nap, but we were not to rely on the
150 BUDDHISM

comfort of a bed or blanket. All of these arbitrary things were

his way of training me. Although it is hard to think of this
treatment as compassionate, it really was. If I hadn’t been
trained with this kind of discipline, I would not have
accomplished much. I also realized from him that learning
the Buddha Dharma was a very rigorous activity and that one
should be self-reliant in practice.108

In 1964, Sheng-yen entered a three-year, solitary retreat. He

carried out two such retreats. In the second of these he began
to write. After his six years of retreat, Donghou suggested that
Sheng-yen pursue graduate studies in Buddhism in Japan, and
in 1969 he did so. He acquired his master’s and doctorate
degrees while continuing his Buddhist practice in Japan. He
expressed his indebtedness to Bantetsugyû Rôshi and the
difficult practice he experienced at his temple in Tôhoku, which
is in northern Honshû.
In 1976, Sheng-yen began teaching in the United States, where
he still works to this day. He now divides his time between the
United States and Taiwan, and in 1990 established the Dharma
Drum Mountain center outside Taipei City in Taiwan, which
serves as a graduate school, conference center, and a facility
dedicated to Ch’an practice. He is the author of many books on
Buddhism and tours the world providing dharma teachings.

Taitetsu Unno (1929– )

In the early 1950s, Japan was still deeply entrenched in the
trauma of World War II and the subsequent occupation by
U.S. troops. Taitetsu Unno found himself studying at Tokyo
University graduate school while waiting to matriculate into
the Buddhist studies program.
Twenty-four years of age and a Japanese-American, Taitetsu was
among those Americans who had been detained in detention
camps in the United States during the war. In Japan, he felt like
a “stranger in a strange land.” He had befriended a philosophy
student, though—a young man named Teruo. Together they had
 Memories 151
worked on figuring out the world in which they found themselves.
Teruo suffered with frail health as the result of having had tuber-
culosis as a child. He struggled with pain and fatigue.
One night Teruo asked Taitetsu, “What is karma in Buddhism?”
Taitetsu’s response was abstract and academic rather than
personal, and the topic quickly changed. The next day, Taitetsu
learned that his friend has committed suicide. This plunged
Taitetsu into a profound period of questioning:

That evening, I stayed up all night going over the tragic

happening again and again. Three questions loomed large in
my mind. First, I wondered if Teruo was now happy—was he
now at peace? I thought about this for a long time, but instead
of an answer coming to me there was only silence. Secondly, I
wondered what I would say to Teruo’s mother. What is the
one word of compassion that I could offer her for her painful
loss? I wasn’t looking for hackneyed phrases of condolence
but truly uplifting words. But again, I didn’t know—there was
only a void. And thirdly, I kept thinking of Teruo’s question to
me—what is karma, really? As I thought deeply about it, I
realized that such an objective question, having little to do
with my own existence, would invite only empty, abstract
answers, answers of the sort that I had given to Teruo the
previous night. For a truly meaningful answer, the question of
karma had to become more concrete: Who am I? What am I?
Where did my life come from and where was it going? There
was only a blank.109

Faced with these existential questions, Taitetsu turned to

the writings of Albert Camus and Friedrich Nietzsche. He also
explored the scriptures of the world’s religions. He reported
that “Some of this was useful on one level, but none cleared the
confusion that prevailed.” 110
He turned at last to the tradition in which he had been raised,
Shin Buddhism. The maternal and paternal side of his family
had generated Shin Buddhist priests. His once solely academic
interest in Buddhism now emerged as his personal interest:
152 BUDDHISM

MASTER YUNMEN
Master Yunmen (864–949) was an esteemed Ch’an Master. Urs App’s
book (Master Yunmen) includes his biography and a section describing
his teachings. Here are some of Yunmen’s words:
Every person originally has the radiant light—yet when it is looked
at, it is not seen: dark and obscure. (Section 143)
As long as the light has not yet broken through, there are two
kinds of disease: 1. The first is seeing oneself facing objects and
being left in the dark about everything. 2. The second consists in
having been able to pierce through to the emptiness of all separate
entities (dharmas)—yet there still is something that in a hidden
way is like an object.
[Views about] the body of the teaching also exhibit two kinds
of disease: 1. Having been able to reach the body of the Buddhist
teaching, one still has subjective views and is at the margin of that
teaching because one has not gotten rid of one’s attachments to it.
2. Even though one has managed to penetrate through to the body
of the Buddhist teaching, one is still unable to let go of it.
But, if one examines this [teaching] thoroughly, it’s stone-dead.
That’s also a disease! (Section 193)
Someone asked, “What is the fundamental teaching?”
Master Yunmen said, “No question, no answer.” (Section 30)
Whether you are an innocent beginner or seasoned adept, you
must show some spirit! Don’t vainly memorize [other people’s]
sayings: a little bit of reality is better than a lot of illusions.
[Otherwise,] you’ll just go on deceiving yourself.
What is the matter with you? Come forward [and tell me]!
(Section 61)
On May 10, 949, Master Yunmen died. In the seventeenth year
after his death, a local magistrate had a dream that Yunmen’s tomb
(he was not cremated) was to be opened. This was done, and his body
was found not to have deteriorated but rather, “the eyes were half open
and glistened like pearls, the teeth sparkled like snow, and a mystical
glow filled the whole room.” (30) Subsequently, his mummified body
was honored at the capital for a month and installed back in the
Yunmen monastery only to disappear in the mid-1970s during the
Cultural Revolution in China.
 Memories 153
“All world religions grapple with these questions, but in my
case, due to fortunate karmic circumstances, Shin Buddhism
provides the answers that are illuminating, challenging, and
constantly evolving.” 111
In the Epilogue of his book, River of Fire, River of Water,
Taitetsu Unno provides the answers to his three questions:

First, who am I? Whence do I come? Whither do I go? The

answer is simple. I am a limited karmic being, full of
ignorance and forever wandering, who has been endowed
with a gift, the single thread of nembutsu . . . Second, what
is the one true word of compassion? I realize now it’s not
so much the word but the source that is crucial. . . .
From its [great compassion] depth, then, emerges the
genuine word (desana) that uplifts all of life as is. It
may appear as a single word, or an eloquent silence, or
namu-amida-butsu itself. Finally, is my friend who took his
own life happy now? Who is to say? As far as I am concerned,
I have no choice but to entrust myself to the working of
great compassion that vowed to work ceaselessly until all
beings, even a single blade of grass, are liberated into the
universe of boundless light.112

POSTSCRIPT
These glimpses are only a few of the many such accounts in
print. More importantly, the stories of faith that are written
in the hearts of Buddhist believers are as numerous as the
stars themselves. Taitetsu Unno’s story illustrates what Zen
Buddhism teaches, namely, that one needs to write one’s own
story without a “dependence on words and letters.”
10

Buddhism in
the World Today

The past should not be followed after,

the future not desired.
What is past is done with
and the future not yet come.
—From Majjhima-Nikaya, iii 87.
 Buddhism in the World Today 155
oday Buddhism has a presence in every country in the world.
T The growth in interest and devotion, particularly on the part
of young people, virtually ensures that it will continue to expand
in number of adherents and influence. The two areas of the
globe in which it is likely to continue to be most influential are
Asia and the West. It should prove useful, then, to outline the
current concerns of Buddhism in Asia and in the West. In a
postscript, I will hazard some guesses on how Buddhism might
evolve in the future.

BUDDHISM IN ASIA TODAY

India
Around the twelfth century, Buddhism declined dramatically
in India. It has long been surmised that this decline was due to
factors including a revitalized Hinduism and a perception that
Buddhism emphasized monastic life at the expense of laypersons.
Buddhism persists in India, albeit not in the large numbers
it historically counted. The name that is most closely associated
with Buddhism in contemporary India is Bhimrao Ramji
Ambedkar (1890–1956).
Ambedkar was born into the so-called “untouchable” caste
(these people are now referred to as Dalits). With this birth, it is
not surprising that he suffered much discrimination as a child.
Despite this, he was able to go to college, and ultimately he was
awarded doctoral degrees from Columbia University and the
London School of Economics.
Despite these credentials and his professional position as a
lawyer, Dr. Ambedkar still suffered discrimination and even
physical violence against his person. He concluded that the
Hindu caste system was the source of the problem. Conse-
quently, he abandoned Hinduism and, after considering his
options, chose to convert to Buddhism. He publicly embraced
Buddhism at a large public function on October 14, 1956. He
died in December of that same year. However, his conversion
and his writings struck a chord with many other Dalits who
also converted to Buddhism. What Ambedkar saw in Buddhism
156 BUDDHISM

was a worldview very similar to that of Hinduism but without

a caste system.
Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha (TBM) is said to be an out-
growth of Ambedkar’s work. It is closely associated with the
Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, a global Buddhist
organization. Besides working assiduously to convert people to
Buddhism, this organization also works to bring assistance to
disadvantaged people through educational, health-care, and
literacy efforts.

Thailand
Thailand is a stronghold of Theravâda Buddhism, and the
home of two of the more prominent Theravâda voices of the
twentieth century. One of these belonged to Buddhadâsa
Bhikku (1906–1993). Buddhadâsa Bhikku was ordained a
monk at twenty years of age. He studied in Bangkok, then
established the Suan Mokkhabalarama (The Grove of the Power
of Liberation) in an abandoned temple near his hometown of
Purn Riang. His approach to Buddhism was that one couldn’t
divorce personal change from social change. The forces that
impinge upon us and create dukkha are the same for both, and
it is only through seeing the interdependence of all things
through study and practice that each individual and his or her
society will reach emancipation.
Sulak Sivaraksa (b. 1933) was a student of Buddhadâsa Bhikku.
He is a Thai Buddhist who actively seeks to apply Buddhist
ethics to the socio-economic challenges in his home country
and around the world. He is the cofounder of the International
Network of Engaged Buddhists. He has written numerous
books in Thai and English, including Seeds of Peace and A
Buddhist Vision for Renewing Society.

Vietnam
From Vietnam has come one of the most famous Buddhists of
today, Thich Nhat Hanh. Hanh entered a Vietnamese Thien
Buddhist temple at the age of seventeen. Through his traditional
 Buddhism in the World Today 157
Buddhist study and subsequent formal education in Vietnam
and in the West, he came to see the need for a Buddhist response
to the Vietnam War. He founded the “Order of Interbeing”
in 1965. Due to his determination to speak out against both
sides of the Vietnam conflict, he has remained an exile from
his homeland to this day.
Hanh lives in a monastic community in southwestern France
where he writes, teaches, gardens, and works to help refugees
around the world.113 Thay (“teacher”), as Hanh is known to his
students, was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1967 by
a former recipient of the same prize, Martin Luther King, Jr.
Hanh’s thought, as traced through his many books, speaking
engagements, and workshops, has focused on central Buddhist
notions such as the nonduality of all aspects of reality, compas-
sion for all sentient beings, and so forth, but perhaps he is best
known for his emphasis on cultivating mindfulness. Ultimately,
mindfulness will lead to Awakening, but even long prior to that
momentous event, he believes, all persons can benefit from
practicing mindfulness in everyday life. Hanh is an important
source of inspiration for today’s engaged Buddhist movement.

Tibetan Buddhism
We have already spoken about the towering figure of the Dalai
Lama, whose spiritual message and influence rise above the
world’s troubles like the Himalaya Mountains themselves. It is
ironic that the tragic fate of Tibet at the hand of the People’s
Republic of China was the operative factor in bringing the
Dalai Lama and his message to the world. Ironic and tragic, yet
strangely beautiful, the crushing blow that sought to destroy this
ancient tradition actually accomplished nothing more than to
break open its parochial shell and release the life within to go forth
into the world. It unleashed not only the voice of this one
“simple monk” (as the Dalai Lama refers to himself) but the voices
of many other Tibetan Buddhist writers, musicians, and artists.
It also unleashed a powerful and still-expanding application of
Buddhist teaching to global politics and global economics.
158 BUDDHISM

BUDDHISM BEYOND ASIA AND THE WEST

We began this chapter by stating that Buddhism has a pres-
ence in every country in the world today. There is Buddhism
in Africa, South America, and other locations that we may not
think of as Buddhist. Many of these Buddhist outposts are the
result of the efforts of worldwide proselytizing movements,
such as Sôka Gakkai, which have sought to spread the dharma
to the seven continents. The extensive publications of Buddhist
authors and translations of Buddhist works have also
contributed to the dissemination of Buddhism. Finally, the
Internet, which can be found in the farthest reaches of the
world, and which has thousands of Buddhist-related Web
sites, has generated a “virtual sangha” with incalculable
numbers of members. Even many who don’t see themselves as
Buddhists are sympathetic to its message.

WESTERN BUDDHISM
In the West, as well, the Internet has superseded cassette tapes
and pamphlets as a conveyor of the Buddhist message. The rapid
expansion of publishers of books on Buddhism has placed
books by the Dalai Lama, Sylvia Boorstein, Jack Kornfield,
and Thich Nhat Hanh, to name only a very few, on numerous
American bookshelves. Although self-identified Buddhists
still constitute only a small percentage of the American public,
this has all happened remarkably fast when we consider how
Buddhism arrived in the West.

History of Buddhist-Western Contacts

Some people think that Buddhism came to the West in the
middle of the twentieth century with the emergence of interest
in Zen Buddhism, but that is only the most recent in a series of
contacts between Buddhism and the West. It is possible that the
Western religions and Buddhism met just prior to or at the
beginning of the Common Era. Some have argued that there is
evidence of contact with Buddhism in the Bible itself. Perhaps
the most substantial of these arguments concerns the story of
 Buddhism in the World Today 159
Jesus walking on the water. While there are many stories of
Buddhist adepts performing this feat, there is no similar story
in the Hebrew Bible. It is certainly possible that contact
between the Western religions and Buddhism occurred that
long ago, because both traditions would have traveled on the
same trade routes in Central Asia, at least by the time of
Alexander the Great. But whether or not contact had occurred
by the beginning of the Common Era, it almost certainly
happened when Christian missionaries reached China in the
seventh century. These early Christian missions in China died
out, however, and Christianity would not return to this part of
the world until the long Christian expansion that began with
the Roman Catholics in the sixteenth century and is still con-
tinuing today with most current Christian missionaries being
American Pentecostals or Evangelicals. Wherever Christians
traveled in Asia, they were likely to meet Buddhists.
Western contact with Buddhism probably also occurred
during the thirteenth century as a result of European travel to
Asia initiated by the Crusades. Whatever exchanges there were
probably involved European and Asian traders. Exchange of
goods was often accompanied by an exchange of ideas; indeed,
that is how most religious and philosophical ideas spread prior
to the modern period.
During the Christian expansion that began in the sixteenth
century, missionaries often traveled with commercial fleets.
Through the tales of these early travelers, both sacred and
secular, the intellectuals of Europe became interested in Asia and
its religions, including Buddhism. We know that such notable
European thinkers as Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich
Nietzsche found Buddhist philosophies fascinating even though
their understanding of Buddhism was limited. This continued
fascination gave rise to groups of people who were interested in
leaning more about Buddhism and soon study societies were
formed, such as the Pali Text Society in 1881 and the Buddhist
Society in 1907. Very soon, translations of Buddhist sutras began
to be published in English.
160 BUDDHISM

Buddhism in Nineteenth-Century America

The American encounter with Buddhism was based on the
European experience. With Buddhist texts now available in
European languages, nineteenth-century American intellectuals
like Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Walt
Whitman used Buddhist ideas in their writing. As was the case
among European intellectuals, their grasp of Buddhism was
not completely sound.
In the middle part of the nineteenth century, an interesting
movement was born that encouraged interreligious dialogue
and study. It was called Theosophy, meaning “knowledge of
God” or “divine knowledge.” The founders of this movement
were Helena P. Blavatsky (1831–1891) and Colonel H.S. Olcott
(1832–1907). The Theosophical Society was founded in New
York in the 1870s. It sponsored publications, trips, and the estab-
lishment of centers in Asia, thereby contributing much to the
growth of Buddhism in the West.
Perhaps the most often cited date for the introduction of
Buddhism in the United States is 1893. In that year, the World
Parliament of Religions was held in Chicago. Three Buddhist
nations were represented at the Parliament: Japan, Ceylon
(Sri Lanka), and Thailand. As a result of this meeting, both
Theravâda and Mahâyâna groups began sending missionaries to
the United States. Perhaps the most influential of these was Shaku
Sôen, a Zen Buddhist. Although influential in his own right, the
“culmination” of Sôen’s mission came with his students, most
notably D.T. Suzuki.

Buddhism in the Twentieth Century

D.T. Suzuki provided the foundation for the emergence in the
mid-twentieth century of such notable British authors as Alan
Watts, Christmas Humphries, and Edward Conze. In the United
States, Suzuki’s work influenced a wide range of people,
including scholars, psychologists, college students, and the
educated public. At around the same time, the popular Beat
movement and its vanguard writers and poets, including Jack
 Buddhism in the World Today 161
Kerouac, Gary Snyder, and Allen Ginsberg, brought their own
interpretation of Zen Buddhist thought to many readers.
Zen was not the only form of Buddhism represented on
college campuses in the 1950s and ’60s. Theravâda, Nichiren,
and even Tibetan Buddhism were present. This surge of interest
in Buddhism was accompanied by the study of Buddhism as a
world religion in many colleges and universities; an outpouring
of texts, tapes, and public talks by and about Buddhists; and the
establishment of Buddhist centers throughout the United States
and Europe that fostered the emigration of Asian teachers to
lead these centers. The Buddhist centers we see today are not
these early centers but the next generation. The present teachers,
many of whom were born in the United States or Europe, are
designated dharma heirs of the first generation Asian teachers.
(A dharma-heir is someone who receives the sanction to teach
and lead from his or her own teacher.) These present teachers
are, therefore, the second generation of Buddhist teachers in
the West. We are also in the midst of a second generation of
Buddhist scholarship. The first establishment of a formal
graduate program in Buddhist Studies was at the University of
Wisconsin in 1965. Now many of the major universities in
the West, including Harvard, the University of Chicago, and
Columbia offer such degrees, and the quality and quantity of
Buddhist scholarship parallels the growth of popular treatments
of Buddhism, some of which are best-sellers.
It is small wonder then that the number of people identifying
themselves as Buddhists has increased in the West. However,
Westerners accepted the legitimacy of the study of Buddhism
before they accepted the legitimacy of practicing Buddhism. The
exceptions to this general rule were the early pioneers and the
young persons consigned to the “counter-culture” of the 1960s.
The generation after this embraced the emerging authority of
Buddhism; its foreignness had worn off a bit by then and it
no longer seemed as odd or as uncomfortable for middle-class
Americans and Europeans to consider Buddhism as a belief
system. It began to move from being considered trendy or
162 BUDDHISM

attractively exotic to being just another viable spiritual option.

It is clear that it has not wholly arrived at this juncture yet, but
in the last twenty years it has made dramatic progress toward
just such a status.
The growth of Buddhism in the West has not been without
challenges and controversy. In the next section, we will assess
some of Buddhism’s current challenges as a prelude to our
consideration of its future.

BUDDHISM IN THE FUTURE

Buddhism in Asia and in the United States stands at a pivotal point.
We will begin with its position in the United States. The Buddhist
mission here is facing several challenges. Donald Mitchell catego-
rizes these challenges as “Ethnicity, Identity, and Practice” and
“Authority and Gender” issues. He also notes and describes the
promise of “Buddhist Ecumenism, Interfaith Dialogue, and Social
Engagement.” 114 Mitchell’s categories can help us to begin to
understand the dynamics of Buddhism in the Unites States today.

“Ethnicity, Identity, and Practice” Issues

There are two types of Buddhists in the United States. The ethnic
Buddhists are those of Asian ethnic descent who have emigrated
(or their parents emigrated) to the United States bringing
their Buddhist beliefs with them. Buddhist converts are
mainly Caucasian, upper-middle-class members of the so-called
Baby Boomer generation. Which of these two represents
“American Buddhism?”
The “conversion sangha” has developed highly progressive
forms of Buddhism that are frequently divorced from the histo-
ries, families, and traditions that are at the center of the ethnic
community. The ethnic Buddhist community is typically much
more traditional. For example, in the Vietnamese Buddhist
community the temple is the nexus for raising a family and the
center of all social interactions.
Should American Buddhists do everything they can to keep
their children in the Buddhist fold? “No!” say the baby
 Buddhism in the World Today 163

THE ART OF HAPPINESS

If you wish to gain a better understanding of how Buddhism is being
taught in the modern world, you might try reading the best-seller
The Art of Happiness: A Handbook for Living, coauthored by the Dalai
Lama and Howard Cutler. The book shows how Buddhist teachings
are being presented to contemporary Westerners, the vast majority of
whom are not Buddhist.
The book sleeve claims that the book’s contents are “based on
2,500 years of Buddhist meditations mixed with a healthy dose of
common sense. The Art of Happiness is a book that crosses the bound-
aries of traditions to help readers with difficulties common to all
human beings.”
As the title indicates, this work purports to be “a handbook for
living.” Let’s examine a section of the chapter entitled, “A New Model
for Intimacy.” In this chapter, Howard Cutler asks the Dalai Lama
whether he ever gets lonely. The Dalai Lama, to Cutler’s surprise,
answers “No.”
The Dalai Lama goes on to explain that he doesn’t get lonely
because he looks at all human beings in a positive way, at their
positive aspects. In short, he regards all beings with compassion,
which generates a connectedness between him and the other person.
He states, “So, if you wish to overcome that feeling of isolation and
loneliness, I think that your underlying attitude makes a tremendous
difference. And approaching others with the thought of compassion in
your mind is the best way to do this.” (70)
Later in this same chapter, the Dalai Lama speaks about our inter-
connectedness. As an example, he invites us to consider the material
objects we possess for the enjoyment of life; these are provided
through the efforts of many people. For example, the book you are
reading was made possible by the people who provided the paper,
the ink, the publishing, the shipping, and, of course, the writing. He
concludes, “So, despite the fact that the process of relating to others
might involve hardships, quarrels, and cursing, we have to try to
maintain an attitude of friendship and warmth in order to lead a way
of life in which there is enough interaction with other people to enjoy
a happy life.” (74)
164 BUDDHISM

boomers who, as converts to Buddhism, obviously chose a

different belief system than their parents. They will certainly
teach their children about Buddhism, but they will likely expose
them to other religions as well and allow them to make up their
own minds as they come of age. At the same time, as Mitchell
notes, the emigrant community is losing its sons and daughters
to either the dominant Christian tradition or to no tradition at
all. This situation does raise questions for both the unity and
future of the collective sangha in the West.

“Authority and Gender” Issues

As you have no doubt noted, we have spoken almost exclusively
of men in this book. Clearly, Buddhism has a long tradition of
men being in positions of power. We saw that demonstrated in
the status of nuns: the tradition considered them to be inferior
to male monastics. This traditional gender structure was
imported to the West, but it has come under criticism there by
feminists. In addition, there were scandals in certain prominent
Buddhist centers in the 1980s, and these shook the conversion
sangha in particular. As a result, many prominent Buddhist
centers have reexamined their leadership assumptions. They
have made changes that, they believe, will allow all parishioners,
male or female, straight or gay to experience the dharma equally.
Male and female coleadership and rotating leadership are
examples of such accommodations. This deviation from the
traditional structure certainly seems supportable on the basis of
Buddhist teachings, but the master-student relationship is to be
built around the master’s spiritual experience and not on his or
her management skills or accord with diplomatic principles.

Buddhist Ecumenism
Part of the solution to these emergent challenges is the advent of
Buddhist ecumenism. In Asia, where Buddhism was atomized
into schools and countries, pan-Buddhist unifying efforts were
rare. However, in the West, where many types of Buddhism are
found together in a single country, there is an opportunity to
 Buddhism in the World Today 165
think collectively and learn from one another. This might well
hold the key to the concern about the split between the ethnic
and converted Buddhist communities. There have been several
significant meetings over the last ten years where participants
worked toward reaching agreements on the common concerns
of all Western Buddhists, and this bodes well for the future
evolution of Buddhism.

Interreligious Dialogue
For more than forty years, Christians and Buddhists have formally
come together to engage in spirited discussions about their
respective beliefs and possible common ground. Through such
interlocutors as Thomas Merton, D.T. Suzuki, Keiji Nishitani,
John Cobb, and Masao Abe, this ongoing dialogue (which
includes Jews and Muslims as well) provides a positive, new
source for Buddhist globalization.

Socially Engaged Buddhism

One of the results of the encounter between Buddhism and the
West has been a growing sense of social engagement on the part
of Buddhism. Traditional Buddhist interests came closer to what
we would call psychology than they did to what we would call
social responsibility. Engagement with Christians, Jews, and the
Western world in general has fostered a new sense of social
engagement among Buddhists. This new direction has been
inspired and informed by inter-religious dialogue.
There is, of course, a potential negative side to the Western-
ization of Buddhist countries. In a genuine dialogue, there
needs to be a sense of equality and mutual respect. If one side
assumes an air of cultural superiority, so that the other feels
not invited but coerced to adopt certain ideas, then the basis of
genuine dialogue has been lost and replaced by intellectual and
cultural colonization.
While colonization is bad, the confrontation of ideas can be
good. When confronted by the human rights values of the West,
Asian countries have made changes. Sometimes, as in the case of
166 BUDDHISM

the People’s Republic of China, economic assistance has been

directly tied to human rights expectations. With some success,
Western countries have pushed the link between economic
progress and achievements in human rights. Quite often, it has
been the Buddhists within these countries who have risen to the
social and economic challenges presented by the West.
The Buddhist Peace Fellowship, the work of the Greyston
Mandala, and a vibrant hospice and prison ministry, are examples
of how this new concern has born fruit among American
Buddhists. Scholars like Christopher Queen, Kenneth Kraft,
and David Chappell are documenting these efforts, as well as
examining the kinds of doctrinal support that might be
available for Buddhism to develop in this direction.

Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century

In the West
Buddhism is more than twenty-five hundred years old, but
its influence in the West is relatively new. It does seem that
Buddhism is here to stay, and it seems likely that it will continue
to expand and prosper. Its challenges, though considerable, are
not dissimilar to those it faced as it migrated from India across
Southeast Asia. On this long-ago journey, Buddhism encoun-
tered new cultures with already established religious traditions.
Its success on this journey demonstrates that Buddhism is a
flexible tradition, and this bodes well for its success in the West.
We may witness the development of new branches of Buddhism
that cannot be categorized as either Theravâda or Mahâyâna in
form. We will certainly see reinterpretations of the dharma as
Buddhism settles into its new home, and these changes may well
come with increasing velocity.

In Asia
Changes in the structure of Buddhism are occurring in Asia as
well but at a slower pace. In the West, Buddhism is undergoing
large-scale changes with very little traditional underpinning. In
Asia, a thicket of traditional underpinning provides greater
 Buddhism in the World Today 167
stability than Buddhism enjoys in the Western context, but it
also puts the brakes on change. Perhaps this will allow Asian
Buddhism to evolve less painfully and with fewer regrets.
Certainly the large amount of Western experimentation provides
Asians with a lot of raw data that they can use to formulate their
own decisions about the future direction of Buddhism. It will be
fascinating to watch what happens.
CHRONOLOGY & TIMELINE

ca. 563 B.C.E. Birth of Gautama Buddha in Lumbinî (present-day

Nepal).
531 Gautama Buddha renounces the householder life
(The Great Renunciation).
524 Gautama Buddha gains Awakening at Gaya (Bodh
Gaya); preaches the first discourse in Sarnath on the
Four Noble Truths.
480 Gautama Buddha passes into parinirvâņâ at Kusinara;
the first council convenes at Rajagraha, India, and
brings forth the Tripitika.

563 B.C.E.
Gautama Buddha is born in
Lumbinî (present-day Nepal) 641
Songtsen Gampo
480 introduces Buddhism
Gautama Buddha passes into to Tibet
parinirvâņâ; first Buddhist council
convenes at Rajagraha, India

BCE (BC) CE (AD)

500
500 500
500 1000
1000
C.E. 67 552
Buddhism Buddhism introduced
introduced to Japan
to China

100 ca. 359

Theravâda Buddhism Buddhism introduced
first appears in Burma to Korea
(Myanmar) and Thailand

168
 CHRONOLOGY & TIMELINE

380 Second Council convenes in Vesali over issues

related to the practice as understood in the Vinaya
Pitika.
271 King Aśoka’s accession to the throne.

250 Third Council convened by King Aśoka at Pataliputra,

India, with further dissension over doctrine.
ca. 247 Introduction of Buddhism to Ceylon (Sri Lanka),
by son of King Aśoka, Mahinda, and King Tissa
is converted; compilation of Buddhist scriptures
by Aśoka.

1391
First Dalai Lama, Gendün Drubpa,
born (title given posthumously)

1578
Institution of Dalai Lama
formally established when
Sönam Gyatso receives title
from Mongol ruler Altan Khan

1300
1300 1900
1900 2000
2000
1893 1966–1976
World Parliament Cultural Revolution in China;
of Religions meets temples, monasteries, and
in Chicago, Illinois libraries destroyed in Tibet
and China
1950
1935 World Fellowship of
Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Buddhists is founded
Tenzin Gyatso, born in Colombo, Sri Lanka

169
CHRONOLOGY

240 The great monastery Mahavitara is established in

Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; Mahinda completes
Tripikita commentaries in Sinhala language and
bhikkuni order is established in Sri Lanka by
Sanghamitta, King Aśoka’s daughter.
C.E. 67 Buddhism introduced to China.

100 Theravâda Buddhism first appears in Burma

(Myanmar) and Thailand.
200 Buddhist monastic university at Nalanda, India,
flourishes.
ca. 359 Buddhism introduced to Korea.

552 Buddhism introduced to Japan.

607 Horyûji Temple built in Nara, Japan.

641 Songtsen Gampo introduces Buddhism to Tibet.

752 Vairocana Buddha statue of Todaiji Temple (Nara)

completed.
779 Samye, first Buddhist monastic university (Tibet) is
established.
805 Saicho (767–822) establishes Tendai sect in Japan.

806 Kukai (774–835) establishes Shingon sect in Japan.

1175 Honen (1133–1212) establishes Jodo sect in Japan.

1191 Eisai (1141–1215) establishes Rinzai Zen sect

in Japan.
1224 Shinran (1173–1262) establishes Jodo-Shin sect
in Japan.
1227 Dôgen (1200–1253) establishes Soto Zen sect
in Japan.
1253 Nichiren (1222–1282) founds Nichiren sect in Japan.

170
 CHRONOLOGY

1391 First Dalai Lama, Gendün Drubpa, born (title given

posthumously).
1578 Sönam Gyatso receives title of Dalai Lama from
Mongol ruler Altan Khan.
1591 Sen no Rikyu (b. 1520), founder of tea ceremony,
dies.
1881 Pali Text Society is founded by T.W. Rhys Davids.

1891 Maha Bodhi Society founded in India by Anagarika

Dharmapala.
1896 Light of Asia, published by Sir Edwin Arnold,
generates interest in the United States and England
in Buddhism.
1935 Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, born.

1959 Dalai Lama flees to India.

1966–1976 Cultural Revolution in China. During this period,

temples, monasteries, and libraries destroyed in
Tibet and China.
1970s One of the outcomes of the Vietnam War is an
emigration of numerous Southeast Asians to the
United States and Europe, which results in expand-
ing the presence of Theravâda Buddhist centers in
metropolitan areas; Insight Meditation Society
founded.
1980–2004 The continued growth of Buddhist centers in the
West; the expansion of the “cyber-sangha” with
many Buddhist-related sites appearing on the
Internet, including translations of sutras; the birth
and growth of popular Buddhist periodicals (Tricycle,
Shambala Sun) in the United States.

171
NOTES

CHAPTER 1: Introduction 14 Ibid., cf. 74–75.

1 Theravâda Buddhism is the more 15 Ibid., 140.
conservative form of Buddhism. It 16 One can distinguish between a human
attempts to maintain the Buddha’s being and a human personal being. A
teachings without historical change. human being may not develop into a
Mahâyâna Buddhism, too, believes that human personal being. A human
it maintains the Buddha’s teachings personal being is a human being who has
unchanged, but it claims that not all of consciousness of self (self-consciousness).
the Buddha’s teachings could be given
17 Masao Abe, Zen and Western Thought,
to the world at once. What Theravâda
(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
considers “additions,” Mahâyâna
1985), 6.
considers the “completion” of the
Buddha’s teachings, given when the 18 As quoted in Masao Abe’s Zen and
world was ready to receive it. Western Thought, 4. Abe offers an
excellent exposition of these lines in
2 Rebirth is sometimes called transmi-
this book as well.
gration, or more popularly in the West,
reincarnation. 19 Ibid., 8.
3 Webster’s New World College 20 Ibid., 9.
Dictionary, Fourth Edition, (USA: 21 Ibid., 18.
Macmillan), 976. 22 Quoted in Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart
of the Buddha’s Teaching, (New York:
CHAPTER 2: Foundations Broadway Books, 1998), 49.

4 Richard Robinson, Willard Johnson, 23 Ibid., 50.

The Buddhist Religion: A Historical
Religion, third edition, (Belmont, Calif.: CHAPTER 3: Scriptures
Wadsworth, 1982), 7.
24 The term sutras can be used in several
5 John Strong, The Buddha: A Short different ways. The Buddhist scriptures
Biography, (Oxford: Oneworld Publica- are often referred to as sutras even
tion, 2001), 38. though the Buddhist scriptures include
6 Theodore de Bary (editor), The much more material than what is
Buddhist Tradition in India, China, contained in the Sutra Pitaka.
and Japan, (New York: Random House, 25 Donald Mitchell, Buddhism: Introduc-
1972), 62. ing the Buddhist Experience, (New York:
7 Ibid. Oxford University Press, 2002), 97.
8 Ibid., 63. 26 Wisdom and compassion are the two
9 Ibid., 63–64. primary Buddhist virtues. According
to the Mahâyânists, the arhat demon-
10 Ibid., 65.
strates neither.
11 The deathless state, beyond the round
27 de Bary, The Buddhist Tradition in
of births and deaths, is called moksha
India, China, and Japan, 82.
by Hindus or nirvana by Buddhists.
28 See the discussion in Chapter Two on
12 Ascetics practice extreme forms of
Right Livelihood, the sixth step of the
self-denial, including: sleep deprivation,
Noble Eightfold Path.
taking only small amounts of food and
water, denial of normal movement 29 de Bary, The Buddhist Tradition in
(sitting or standing in one position for India, China, and Japan, 155.
a long time), refraining from talking, 30 Quoted in Mitchell, Buddhism:
abstaining from sex, lack of material Introducing the Buddhist Experience,
possessions, and homelessness. 199.
13 Strong, The Buddha: A Short Biography, 31 de Bary, The Buddhist Tradition in
70. India, China, and Japan, 198–199.

172
 NOTES
32 Jean Smith, editor, Radiant Mind: (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California
Essential Buddhist Teachings and Texts, Press, 1982), 9.
(New York: Riverhead, 1999), 51–52. 51 Leslie Alldritt, “Masao Abe and Paul
33 Richard DeMartino, “On Zen Commu- Tillich: A Dialogue Toward Love,” in
nication,” Communication 8, no. 1 Donald Mitchell (ed.), Masao Abe: A
(1983), as quoted in Urs App, Master Zen Life of Dialogue, (Boston: Tuttle,
Yunmen, (New York: Kodansha, 1994), 1998), 238.
53. 52 Sogyal Rinpoche is the author of a
34 App, Master Yunmen, 54. popular text on The Tibetan Book of the
35 Adapted from Mumonkan case 6. Dead called The Tibetan Book of Living
and Dying.
36 The “Three Treasures” are the Buddha,
the dharma (Buddhist teaching), and 53 Robert Thurman, translator, The
the sangha (Buddhist community). Tibetan Book of the Dead, (New York:
37 Tantric Buddhism is based on esoteric Bantam, 1994), 42.
texts called tantras. It makes use of 54 Ibid., 45.
diagrams called mandalas and magical
formulas known as mantras. Whereas
other forms of Buddhism view the CHAPTER 5: Worship
passions as a hindrance to liberation, 55 http://www.cloudsinwater.org/
Tantric Buddhism attempts to harness home.htm.
and use the energy of the passions for 56 http://www.cloudsinwater.org/medita-
the purpose of attaining nirvana. tion.htm.
38 de Bary, The Buddhist Tradition in 57 Ibid.
India, China, and Japan, 331.
39 The shogun was technically the heredi-
tary commander-in-chief of the Japanese CHAPTER 6:
army, but he actually functioned as the Growing Up Buddhist
ruler of the nation.
58 U Kin Maung, “A Buddhist Family in
40 As quoted in de Bary, The Buddhist Burma,” http://web.ukonline.co.uk/
Tradition in India, China, and Japan, buddhism/kmaung.htm.
371.
59 Ibid., 1.
41 John Powers, Introduction to Tibetan
60 Ibid., 2.
Buddhism, (Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow Lion,
1995), 219. 61 Louis Frédéric, Buddhism Flammarion
42 Ibid., 223. Iconographic Guides, 186.

43 Ibid., 233. 62 Ibid., 186–187.

44 Ibid., 251. 63 Ibid., 188.

45 Ibid., 452. 64 Cf. William LaFleur, Liquid Life:
Abortion and Buddhism in Japan,
46 Louis Frédéric, Buddhism (Flammarion (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Iconographic Guides), (Paris: Flammarion, Press, 1992).
1995), 64.
65 Ian Reader, Religion in Contemporary
Japan, (Honolulu: University of Hawaii
CHAPTER 4: Worldview Press, 1991), 89.
47 Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha 66 Ibid., 84. The Japanese employed earth
Taught, (New York: Grove, 1959), 20ff. burial prior to this time. Buddhism
carried the practice of cremation of
48 Ibid., 25–26.
the dead from its Indian beginnings as
49 Ibid., 26. it was and is an accepted practice of
50 Keiji Nishitani, Religion and Nothing- Hinduism.
ness, trans./intro. by Jan Van Bragt, 67 Ibid., 84.

173
NOTES
68 This account is largely taken from Billy 82 Ibid., 33–34.
Hammond, “Japanese Buddhist 83 As quoted in Masao Abe, Zen and
Funeral Customs,” http://tanutech. Western Thought, 23–24.
com/japan/jfunerals.html, 1. This use
of paper money seems an influence of 84 Hisamatsu, 35.
Chinese spirituality where paper
money (and other paper objects) are CHAPTER 8: Holidays
ritually burned to help those in the
afterlife. The imagery of crossing a lake 85 Much of the material in this section is
to enter hell obviously evokes the reprinted from “Japan’s Obon Festival
Greek myth where Charon ferries the Reunites Families” (The Brookings
dead across the river Styx that encircles Register, July 11, 2002, A7) by Ann
Hades. Marie Bahr, with the author’s and
69 Ibid., 1. publisher’s permission.
86 Pipob Udomittipong, “Thailand’s
Ecology Monks,” in Stephanie Kaza,
CHAPTER 7: Kenneth Kraft (eds.), Dharma Rain:
Cultural Expressions Sources of Buddhist Environmentalism,
(Boston: Shambala, 2000), 193.
70 A.L. Sadler, Cha-no-yu: The Japanese
Tea Ceremony, (Rutland, Vt.: Charles 87 Susan Darlington, “Tree Ordination in
Tuttle, 1962), 1. Thailand,” Ibid., 198–205.
71 D.T. Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture. 88 This section is a slightly abridged version
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University of “Chinese Ghost Festival Empties
Press, 1959), 273ff. Underworld for a Month” by Ann Marie
Bahr (The Brookings Register, August 7,
72 Ibid., 248. 2003, A6). It is reprinted here with the
73 Robert Fisher, Buddhist Art and permission of the author and publisher.
Architecture, (London: Thames and 89 The information in this section is derived
Hudson, 1993), 98. from “Tibetans Honor Fearless Female
74 Vimalakirti is a lay Buddhist, a house- Bodhisattva” by Ann Marie Bahr (The
holder who demonstrates greater Brookings Register, July 31, 2003), A6.
wisdom than Manjuśri. Manjuśri 90 The information on Padmasambhava
plays various roles in Buddhism, Day is derived from “Bhutan Honors
but here he serves as a symbol of the ‘Second Buddha’” by Ann Marie
Theravâda wisdom. The artists Bahr (The Brookings Register, June 21,
wish to convey the Mahâyâna belief 2001, A7).
that laypersons are as capable of
attaining nirvana in this lifetime 91 The following account of Sennichi
as monks. Kaihôgyô is derived from the description
of this ritual in Religion in Contemporary
75 Fisher, Buddhist Art and Architecture, Japan by Ian Reader (Honolulu,
98. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press,
76 Cf. www.uoregon.edu/~kohl/basho/ 1991), 124ff.
life.html.
77 Ibid.
CHAPTER 9: Memories
78 Shin’ichi Hisamatsu, Zen and the
92 This section is indebted to Yûhô
Fine Arts, trans. by Geshin Tokiwa,
Yokoi’s brief biography of Dôgen
(New York: Kodansha, 1971).
in his book, Zen Master Dôgen,
79 Ibid., 31. (New York: Weatherhill, 1976).
80 Ibid., 31. 93 Ibid., 27.
81 Ibid., 34. 94 Ibid., 27.

174
CH.RoW.Bud.zBM.Final.q 9/23/04 4:30 PM Page 175

NOTES
95 The phrase “work out your own salva- autobiographical account found on the
tion” comes from Philippians 2:12 in Dharma Drum Mountain Web site
the New Testament. (www.chancenter.org).
96 Ibid., 28. 106 Sheng-yen, Hoofprint of the Ox, 3.
97 Ibid., 32. 107 The Kuomintang is the political party
98 Lamas are high-ranking monks. of the Republic of China, located on
the island of Taiwan. It was formed by
99 Interested readers may read more about Sun Yat-sen, the father of the Republic
Dipa Ma in Amy Schmidt’s book, Knee of China, and led for many years by
Deep in Grace: The Extraordinary Life Chiang Kai-shek.
and Teaching of Dipa Ma, (Lake Junaluska,
N.C.: Present Perfect Books, 2002). 108 Ibid., 8.
100 Amy Schmidt, “Transformation of a 109 Taitetsu Unno, River of Fire, River of
Housewife: Dipa Ma and Her Teachings Water, (New York: Doubleday, 1998),
to Theravâda Women,” in Ellison Banks xxi, xxii.
Findly (ed.), Women’s Buddhism, 110 Ibid., xxv.
Buddhism’s Women: Tradition, Revision, 111 Ibid., xxvii.
Renewal, (Boston: Wisdom, 2000), 201.
112 Ibid., 208–209.
101 Ibid., 207.
102 Ibid., 210.
103 Ibid., 209.
CHAPTER 10:
Buddhism in the World Today
104 Ibid., 212.
113 http://www.spiritwalk.org/thich-
105 This section of the chapter is adapted
nhathanh.htm.
from Dan Stevenson’s biographical
account of Sheng-yen’s life in the 114 Mitchell, Buddhism: Introducing the
book, Hoofprint of the Ox, (New York: Buddhist Experience, 338ff.
Oxford, 2001) and Sheng-yen’s short

175
GLOSSARY

* Sanskrit (Skt.), Chinese (Ch.), Japanese ( Jp.), Korean (K.),

Pali (Indo-Aryan language used by Theravâda Buddhists)
âlaya-vijñâna (Skt.)—“Storehouse consciousness.”
Amitâbha (Skt.) ( Jp.: Amida)—Celestial Buddha of the Pure Land.
anitya (Skt.)—Impermanence, one of the Three Marks of Existence
along with anatman and dukkha.
arhat (Skt.)—“worthy one”; the one who has realized nirvana in the
Theravâda tradition.
Avalokiteśvara (Skt.) (Ch.: Kuan-yin; Jp.: Kannon)—Bodhisattva
of compassion.
avidya (Skt.)—Ignorance.
bhiksu (Skt.)—Buddhist monk.
bhiksunî (Skt.)—Buddhist nun.
bodhi (Skt.)—Awakening, nirvana.
bodhisattva (Skt.)—A Mahâyâna Buddhist term for the Awakened
person who foregoes final nirvana (parinirvâņâ) and compassionately
helps unawakened persons to know the dharma.
Buddha (Skt.)—Awakened One.
Ch’an (Ch.) ( Jp.: Zen) (K.: Son)—“Meditation”; School of Chinese
Buddhism that stresses meditation.
citta (Skt., Pali)—Mind.
Dalai Lama (Tibetan)—The head of the Geluk school of Tibetan
Buddhism; spiritual and secular leader of Tibetan people; current
Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso.
dâna (Skt., Pali)—donations or giving to sangha (Buddhist community).
dharma (Skt.)—“Truth,” teachings of Buddhism, law.
dhyâna (Skt.)—“Meditation.”
dukkha (Skt.)—unsatisfactoriness, suffering; first of the Four Noble
Truths.

176
 GLOSSARY

haiku ( Jp.)—Type of Japanese poetry using set patterns of lines and

syllables.
Hinayâna (Skt., Pali)—Lesser vehicle; a term that was used to denigrate
and differentiate early non-Mahâyâna Buddhism from Mahâyâna.
Jâtaka (Skt., Pali)—the stories that recount the previous lives and
activities of Gautama Buddha.
jiriki ( Jp.)—“Self-power” (as opposed to “tariki”): the ability to realize
Awakening through one’s own effort.
Jôdo ( Jp.)—“Pure Land”; the Pure Land School of Buddhism.
Jôdo Shinshu ( Jp.)—the True School of Pure Land Buddhism.
karma (Skt.)—“Action”; the natural system of cause and effect that
influences conditions of rebirth or Awakening.
karunâ (Skt., Pali)—Compassion.
kenshô ( Jp.)—Glimpse or insight into Awakening.
kleśâ (Skt.)—defilements.
Mâdhyamika (Skt.)—Philosophical school of Mahâyâna Buddhism.
Mahâyâna (Skt.)—Major branch of Buddhism that stresses bodhisattva
ideal, expanded canon, and enhanced inclusion of laity into sangha.
Maitrya (Skt.)—Bodhisattva of the future.
mandala (Skt.)—pictorial representation of the Buddhist cosmos
used for meditational and ritual purposes.
Mañjuśri (Skt.)—Bodhisattva of Wisdom.
mantra (Skt.)—word or spoken formula used in Tibetan Buddhism
for ritual or meditation purposes.
mappô ( Jp.)—In Nichiren Buddhism, the idea of the last days for the
dharma.
Mâra (Skt., Pali)—the tempter in the Awakening story of Gautama
Buddha; symbolizes the challenges of the physical realm for all
practitioners.

177
GLOSSARY

mâyâ (Skt., Pali)—Illusion.

mudra (Skt.)—“seal”; ritual hand movement or position.
nembutsu ( Jp.)—Pure Land Buddhist term used for the phrase (“Namu
Amida Butsu,” Praise Amida Buddha) that believers recite (Ch. nien-fo).

Nichiren ( Jp.)—Japanese school of Buddhism founded by Nichiren

and based on his teachings and interpretation of the Lotus Sutra.

nirvana (Skt.)—to “extinguish”; Awakening, the Buddhist resolution

to the problem of human personal existence, the Third Noble Truth
of Buddhism.

parinirvâņâ (Skt.)—the completion of nirvana at the point of physical

death.

prajñâ (Skt.)—“wisdom”; the wisdom that comes with the Awakening

(also Mahâprajna is used to distinguish from wisdom that is gained
penultimately).

prâtimoksa (Skt.)—Buddhist monastic precepts.

pratîtya-samutpâda (Skt.)—system of codependent origination that
explains the casual links between ignorance and rebirth.

Rinzai ( Jp.); Lin-chi (Ch.)—Japanese Zen Buddhist school pro-

moted by Eisai.

samsara (Skt.)—cycle of birth and death that perpetuates for all

sentient beings until Awakened.

sangha (Skt.)—Buddhist community.

satori ( Jp.)—Awakening.
Shingon ( Jp.)—“True Word,” Japanese esoteric Buddhist school
founded by Kukai.

skandha (Skt.)—“aggregate”; the five constituent of the “self” (material

form, sensation, perception, mental formation, and consciousness).

smŗti (Skt.)—mindfulness; part of the Eightfold Path.

178
 GLOSSARY

Sôtô ( Jp.)—school of Zen Buddhism championed by Dôgen.

Sthaviravâda (Skt.)—early school of Buddhism; foundation for
development of Theravâda Buddhism.
stûpa (Skt.)—originally, reliquary or structure that contained sacred
articles, bones attributed to Gautama Buddha; now extended for other
Buddhist sacred articles.
sun (K.)—“meditation,” Ch’an Buddhist school in Korea.
sutra (Skt.)—Buddhist sacred texts.
taņhâ (Pali)—desire, craving of the ego; the Second Noble Truth of
Buddhism.
tantra (Skt.)—esoteric tradition in Buddhism.
tariki ( Jp.)—“other power,” depending upon a separate power for
Awakening (cf. jiriki).
tathâgata (Skt., Pali)—“Thus gone,” term for an Awakened person
used in Mahâyâna Buddhism.
Theravâdâ (Pali)—major branch of Buddhism that stresses the
Tripitika, monasticism, and is the predominant form of Buddhism
in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Trikâya (Skt.)—Three Bodies doctrine of Mahâyâna Buddhism.
Tripitika (Skt.)—“Three Baskets,” the three parts of the Pali Canon
(Vinaya, Sutra, and Abhidharma).
upâya (Skt.)—“Skillful means.”
vinaya (Skt., Pali)—rules for the sangha; one of the three baskets of
the Tripitika.
Yogâcâra (Skt.)—Mahâyâna school of Buddhist philosophy.
zazen ( Jp.)—“seated meditation” in Zen Buddhism.
Zen ( Jp.)—“meditation”; Japanese school of Buddhism that emphasizes
meditation.

179
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Thurman, Robert. Essential Tibetan Buddhism. San Francisco, Calif.:

Harper, 1996.

Tucker, Mary Evelyn, and Duncan Ryûkan Williams (eds.). Buddhism

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Wijayarnatna, Mohan. Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts

of the Theravâda Tradition. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
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185
FURTHER READING

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISM

Bercholz, Samuel, and Sherab Chödren Kohn (eds.). Entering the Stream:
An Introduction to The Buddha and His Teachings. Boston, Mass.:
Shambala, 1993.

de Bary, William Theodore, (ed.). The Buddhist Tradition in India,

China, and Japan. New York: Random House, 1972.

Gethin, Rupert. The Foundations of Buddhism. New York: Oxford

University Press, 1998.

Keown, Damien. A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Oxford

University Press, 2003.

———. Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford

University Press, 2000.

Lopez, Donald (ed.). Buddhism in Practice. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton

University Press, 1995.

———. The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History and

Teachings. San Francisco, Calif.: Harper, 2002.

Mitchell, Donald. Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience.

New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Reynolds, Frank, and Jason Carebine (eds.). The Life of Buddhism.

Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2000.

Robinson, Richard, and Willard Johnson. The Buddhist Religion: A

Historical Introduction, third edition. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1982.

Strong, John. The Experience of Buddhism: Sources and Interpretations.

Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1995.

THE STORY OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA

Armstrong, Karen. Buddha. New York: Viking Press, 2001.

Carrithers, Michael. The Buddha. New York: Oxford University Press,

1983.

186
 FURTHER READING

Strong, John. The Buddha: A Short Biography. New York: OneWorld

Publications, 2001.

TEACHINGS OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA

Hanh, Thich Nhat. The Heart of the Buddha’s Teachings. New York:
Broadway Books, 1998.

Rahula, Walpola. What the Buddha Taught. New York: Grove Press,
1959.

Smith, Jean (ed.). Radiant Mind: Essential Buddhist Teachings and Texts.
New York: Riverhead Books, 1999.

MAHÂYÂNA BUDDHISM
Ch’en, Kenneth. Buddhism in China. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Press, 1972.

Gómez, Luis O. (Intro. & Trans.). The Land of Bliss: The Paradise of the
Buddha of Measureless Light. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii
Press, 1996.

Unno, Taitetsu. River of Fire, River of Water. New York: Doubleday, 1998.

Watson, Burton (trans.). The Lotus Sutra. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1993.

Williams, Paul. Mahâyâna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. London:

Routledge, 1989.

THERAVÂDA BUDDHISM
Gombrich, Robert. Theravâda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient
Benares to Modern Columbo. London: Routledge, 1988.

Harvey, Peter. The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness, and Nirvana

in Early Buddhism. Richmond, U.K.: Curzon Press, 1995.

Wijayarnatna, Mohan. Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts of the

Theravâda Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

187
FURTHER READING

BUDDHIST ART
Fisher, Robert E. Buddhist Art and Architecture. London: Thames and
Hudson, 1993.

Frédéric, Louis. Buddhism. (Flammarion Iconographic Guides Series).

Paris: Flammarion, 1995.

Govinda, Lama Anagarika. Psycho-Cosmic Symbolism of the Buddhist

Stupa. Berkeley, Calif.: Dharma Publications, 1976.

Hisamatsu, Shin’ichi. Zen and the Fine Arts. New York: Kodansha
International, 1971.

LaFleur, William. The Karma of Words: Buddhism and the Literary Arts
in Medieval Japan. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press,
1983.

Sadler, A.L. Cha-No-Yu: The Japanese Tea Ceremony. Rutland, Vt.:

Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1962.

WOMEN AND BUDDHISM

Findly, Ellison Banks (ed.). Women’s Buddhism, Buddhism’s Women.
Somerville, Mass.: Wisdom, 2000.

Gross, Rita. Buddhism after Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and

Reconstruction of Buddhism. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1993.

Klein, Anne. Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the
Art of the Self. Boston, Mass.: Beacon, 1995.

Paul, Diana. Women in Buddhism: Images of the Feminine in the Mahâyâna

Tradition. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1985.

BUDDHISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Badiner, Allen Hunt (ed.). Dharma Gaia: A Harvest of Essays in
Buddhism and Ecology. Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax Press, 1990.

Kaza, Stephanie, and Kenneth Kraft (eds.). Dharma Rain: Sources of

Buddhist Environmentalism. Boston, Mass.: Shambala, 2000.

188
 FURTHER READING

Tucker, Mary Evelyn, and Duncan Ryûkan Williams (eds.), Buddhism

and Ecology: The Interconnection of Dharma and Deeds. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.

CH’AN, SON, ZEN BUDDHISM

Abe, Masao. Zen and Western Thought. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of
Hawaii Press, 1985.

———. A Study of Dôgen. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1992.

App, Urs. Master Yunmen. New York: Kodansha International, 1994.

Beck, Charlotte Joko. Nothing Special: Living Zen. San Francisco, Calif.:
Harper, 1993.

Buswell, Robert. The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in

Contemporary Korea. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992.

Nishitani, Keiji. Religion and Nothingness. Berkeley, Calif.: University of

California Press, 1982.

Sahn, Seung. Dropping Ashes on the Buddha, compiled and edited by

Stephen Mitchell. New York: Grove, 1976.

Master Sheng-yen. Hoofprint of the Ox. New York: Oxford, 2001.

Sogen, Omori. An Introduction to Zen Training. Boston, Mass.: Tuttle, 2001.

Suzuki, Shunryu. Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind. San Francisco, Calif.:

Weatherhill, reissued 1997.

Tanahashi, Kazuaki. Moon in a Dewdrop: Writings of Zen Master Dôgen.

San Francisco, Calif.: North Point Press, 1985.

CONTEMPORARY BUDDHISM
Coleman, James William. The New Buddhism: The Western Transforma-
tion of an Ancient Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Prebish, Charles, and Kenneth Tanaka (eds.). The Faces of Buddhism in

America. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1998.

189
FURTHER READING

———, and Steven Heine (eds.). Buddhism in the Modern World:

Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2003.
Reader, Ian. Religion in Contemporary Japan. Honolulu, Hawaii:
University of Hawaii Press, 1991.

TIBETAN BUDDHISM
Chödrön, Pema. When Things Fall Apart: Heart Advice for Difficult
Times. Boston, Mass.: Shambala, 1997.

Dalai Lama, and Howard Cutler. The Art of Happiness. New York:
Riverhead Books, 1998.

Powers, John. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Ithaca, N.Y.:

Snow Lion, 1995.

Rinpoche, Sogyal. The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. San Francisco,
Calif.: Harper, 1998.

Thurman, Robert. Essential Tibetan Buddhism. San Francisco, Calif.:

Harper, 1996.

SOCIALLY ENGAGED BUDDHISM

Jones, Ken. The New Social Face of Buddhism: A Call to Action. Boston,
Mass.: Wisdom Press, 2003.

Kraft, Kenneth (ed.). The Wheel of Engaged Buddhism: A New Way of the
Path. New York: Weatherhill, 1999.

Loy, David. The Great Awakening: A Buddhist Social Theory. Boston,

Mass.: Wisdom, 2003.

Queen, Christopher, and Sallie King (eds.). Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist

Liberation Movements in Asia. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1996.

———, Charles Prebish, Damien Keown (eds.). Action Dharma: New

Studies in Engaged Buddhism. London: Routledge, 2003.

190
 WEBSITES

The Buddhist World

http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld

Buddhist Temples
http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2058.html

Buddhist Corner
http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/jizo1.shtml

Buddhist Texts
http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm

Zen Buddhist Texts

http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/zen/

Index of Buddhist Teachings

http://www.shingon.org/teachings/ShingonMikkyo

191
INDEX

Abe, Masao, 34–35, 165 attachment

abhaya mudra, 72 art and freedom from, 120,
Abhidharma philosophers, 48 123–124
Abhidharma Pitaka, 42 and nonattachment, 80–81
abortion, 101 austere sublimity, and art, 120, 122
action, and Tantrism, 71 authentic reality. see suchness
Afghanistan, Buddhism in, 6–7 authority issues, in West, 164
Africa, Buddhism in, 158 Avalokiteśvara, 45, 69, 71
aging, Buddha viewing, 21, 22, 28. and Tenzin Gyatso, 145
See also ancestor veneration Awakened-Unawakened duality, 52
Ajanta caves, 115 Awakening, 15–17, 29, 30, 31, 38, 42,
Alexander the Great, 115, 159 74, 78–79, 157
altars, in temples, 86–87 and art, 122
Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji, and birth-death-rebirth cycle, 14,
155–156 83
American Pentecostals, 159 and bodhisattva, 47
Amida Buddha, 62, 86 and Buddha, 20, 24–25, 27, 130,
Amitâbha Buddha, 45, 54, 55, 61 131
amulets, in temples, 97–98 and Ch’an Buddhism, 56
Ânanda, 26, 40, 42, 108 and Dalai Lama, 69
ancestor veneration, 101–102 and Dipa Ma, 147–148
and holidays, 132–136 and Dôgen, 143
Anderson, Laurie, 125 explanation of, 33–36
An’yô-in, 144 and mindfulness, 157
arhats, 46–47 pure land of, 16. See also Pure
Buddha meeting with in Raja- Land Buddhism
graha, 131 and Tantrism, 70
art, 113–115 and Theravâda Buddhism, 66
in India, 5 and Yogâcâra school, 50
in Japan, 58–59
in temples, 87, 113, 122–123 Baby Boomer generation, 162, 165
Zen, 120–124 Bâsho, 118–119
Asanga brothers, 49 Beastie Boys, 3, 125
ascetic(s), 24, 25, 27 Beat generation, 125, 160–161
Buddha becoming, 23 bell, in temples, 88
Asia, Buddhism in benevolence, 10
current status of, 158–162 Bhikku, Buddhadâsa, 156
and history of Buddhist expansion, Bhutan, Kingdom of, Buddhism and
5–9, 40 holidays in, 132, 138
in twenty-first century, Bible, 10, 158–159
166–167 birth-death-rebirth (samsara), 9, 14,
Aśoka, 5–6, 65, 114 49, 70, 83
pillars of, 114 and Buddha, 14
asymmetry, and art, 120, 121 Blavatsky, Helena P., 160
Atiśa, 68 bliss (Sambhogakâya), 44–46

192
 INDEX

bodhisattvas, 45, 46 and life of excess, 20–23

on altars, 86 and Maitreya, 117, 124
and bodhissattva ideal, 43, 46–47, and meaning of as title, 19
69 and meeting arhats in Rajagraha, 131
difference between Buddha and, 47 and middle way, 23
and Feast of Tara, 132, 136–138 and nuns, 108
and Kuan-yin, 149 and Rains Retreat (Vassa), 131
and tulkus, 144–145 and self, 76, 77
Boorstein, Sylvia, 158 and Sutra Pitaka, 42
Borobodur Temple, 113 Vairocana, 60, 61, 89, 90
Brahmins, 25 Yakushi, 90
branches. See Mahâyâna Buddhism; Buddha: A Short Biography, The
Theravâda Buddhism; Vajrayâna (John Strong), 19
Buddhism Buddha Day (Vesak), 130
Buddha, 74 Buddha nature, 78, 79, 122, 142, 143
on altars, 86 Buddhist, definition of, 9–13
Amida, 62, 86 Buddhist ecumenism, 164–165
Amitâbha, 45, 54, 55, 61 “Buddhist Family in Burma, A”
as ascetic, 23 (U Kin Maung), 98–99
Awakening of and becoming Buddhist path, 79, 80
Buddha, 20, 24–25, 27, 130, 131 Buddhist Peace Fellowship, 166
birth of, 19–20, 130 Buddhist Society, 159
and birthname, 19 Buddhist Vision for Renewing Society,
and Buddha Day, 130 A (Sulak Sivaraksa), 156
Daibutsu, 89, 90 Butcho, 118
death and parinirvâņâ of, 26, 40,
43, 130 Cage, John, 125
Dharmakâya, 54, 60, 61 calendar, 128
and difference between bodhisattva Cambodia,
and, 47 Buddhism in, 129
and early life, 19–25 history of, 8
and Festival of the Tooth, 132, 136 and Theravâda Buddhism, 65
and first teaching, 27, 89, 130–131. Camus, Albert, 151
See also Four Noble Truths candles, on altars, 86
and followers, 24, 25, 26, 27, 40, celebrities, as Buddhists, 3
46–47, 108 Central Asia, history of Buddhism,
as founder of Buddhism, 10 5–6
and Four Passing Sights, 20–22 Ch’an Buddhism, 55–57, 63,
Fudô, 139 117–118, 148–150
Gautama, 10 Chandaka, 20–22
as human, 10 Chappell, David, 166
images of, 113, 114, 114–115, 117 Chih-i, 51
and Kashyapa, 56 children
and later years, 26 in Japan, 96–97
and life as Buddha, 25–26 Jizô Bosatsu as deity for, 99–101

193
INDEX

China, Buddhism in, 50–57 Confucianism, 7, 134–135

and art, 117, 118, 124 consciousness (vijñâna), 76, 77–78,
and Ch’an Buddhism, 55–57, 63, 83
117–118, 148–150 consciousness (vijñâna), ordinary,
current status of, 7 28–32, 34, 35, 36, 77
and Dizang as deity for children conversion sangha, 162, 164, 165
in, 99–100 conversions, 124–125, 155–156,
history of, 7 162, 164.
and holidays, 128, 129–130, 133, See also missionaries
134–136 Conze, Edward, 160
and Hua-yen school, 52–54 councils, and sangha, 40, 42
and Pure Land Buddhism, 54–55, counter-culture, 125, 160–161
61, 117 craving. See desire
and Sheng-yen, 148–150 cremation, 101, 104–105
and Taoism, 7, 15, 134, 135–136 and Buddha, 26
and T’ien-t’ai school, 51–52. crematorium, 104–105
See also People’s Republic of China Crusades, 159
Ching-t’u, 54. cultural expressions, 112–126
See also Pure Land Buddhism and art, 113–115, 120–124
Chinul, 57–58 and contributions to Western art
Ch’nt’ae, 52 and expression, 124–126
Ch’ont’ae school, 57 and haiku, 118–119
Christianity, 4, 10, 11, 15, 25, 159, 165 and Japanese tea ceremony,
Chûgû-ji monastery, 59 115–116
Clouds in Water Zen Center, 93–94 and pagodas, 116–118
Cobb, John, 165 and Zen art, 120–124
coin box, on altars, 86, 109 Cunda, 26
colleges/universities, Buddhism current status of Buddhism,
represented on, 161 155–162
colonization, 165–166 in Asia, 155–158
Columbia University, 161 beyond Asia and West, 158
Common Era, Buddhism in West by in India, 155–156
beginning of, 158–159 in Japan, 8, 62, 64–65
Communism. See People’s Republic in Korea, 58
of China in People’s Republic of China, 7
compassion, 10, 79–81 in Sri Lanka, 5
and Avalokiteśvara, 45, 69 in Thailand, 156
Great, 35, 47, 79 and Tibetan Buddhism, 157
and Hungry Ghost Festival, 135 in Vietnam, 156
and practice sessions in temples, in West, 158–162.
93, 94 See also future
and Tenzin Gyatso, 145
concentration, and Theravâda Dahui, 56
Buddhism, 65, 66 Daibutsu, 89, 90
condolence money (koden), 103 Daitô, 56

194
 INDEX

Dalai Lama Dharma Day (Asalha Puja Day),

and Avalokiteśvara, 45, 69 130–131
establishment of, 9, 68–69, 144 Dharma Drum Mountain center, 150
Sönam Gyatso as, 93 dharma heirs, 161
Tenzin Gyatso as fourteenth, 3, 66, Dharma, Lang, 68
69, 124, 144–146, 157, 158 Dharmakâya Buddha, 54, 60, 61
Dalits, 155 diet, 10, 79
death, 12 Dipa Ma, 146–148
of Buddha, 26, 40, 43, 130 dissatisfaction, 28–29, 30, 32
Buddha viewing, 22, 28 distribution, 3–5
and Buddhism in Japan, divination, for Buddha, 20
101–105 Dizang, 99–100
and cremation, 26, 101, 104–105 Dôgen, 57, 63–64, 142–144
and funerals, 101, 102–105 dôiri, 139–140
and Great Death, 34 Donghou, 149–150
and infants, 100 Drubpa, Gendün, 68
and Obon, 132–136 dryness, and art, 120, 122
and Sennichi Kaihôgyô, 139 duality. See nondualistic-dual
and Tibetan Buddhism, 105 framework
transmigration at, 78, 81, 83, 111 dukkha, 156
death name (kaimyo), 104
Deer Park East Asia, Buddhism in
Buddha’s Sermon at, 27, 89, and art, 115, 117
130–131. See also Four Noble and holidays, 132–136
Truths education
Todaiji located in, 89 and Buddhism represented on
deity yoga, and Tantrism, 71 college campuses, 161
DeMartino, Richard, 56 and monasticism, 96
demographics, 3–5 and temples, 96
dependent co-arising (pratîtya- egoism, 106
samutpâta), 29, 48 Eightfold Path (Fourth Noble Truth),
desire (tanha), 27, 29–32, 75. 27, 36–38, 65
See also Fourth Noble Truth; Eiheiji, 144
suffering; Third Noble Truth Eisai, 57, 63, 143
Detsen, Trisong, 67 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 125, 160
devotional Buddhism, 11–12, 111 emptiness (śûnyatâ), 48–49, 74, 75
and Korean Buddhism, 57 and Hua-yen school, 53–54
and Pure Land Buddhism, 54–55 and T’ien-t’ai school, 51
and T’ien-t’ai school, 52 engaged Buddhist movement.
Dhamma Cakka Suta, 131 See socially engaged Buddhism
dharma, 26, 42 Enmei Jizô Bosatsu, 100–101
and Buddha, 26, 55 entrance gate, in temple, 85
and future, 166 essence (Dharmakâya), 44, 46
and missionaries, 10 ethical code, 10, 111
and nuns, 108 ethnic Buddhists, 162, 165

195
INDEX

Evangelicals, 159 Gampo, Songtsen, 67

existence, 48–49, 78 Gautama Buddha, 10.
inauthentic, 17 See also Buddha
three characteristics of, 74–79 Gautama, Siddhartha, 19.
See also Buddha
faith, and Pure Land Buddhism, 54–55 Geluk school, 68–69
family, 96–101 gender structure, in West, 164.
and deity for children, 99–101 See also monks; nuns
in Japan, 96–98 Gere, Richard, 3, 125
in Myanmar/Burma, 98–99 Geshin, 62
and prayers, 96 Ghost Month, 134, 135
Fa-tsang, 52, 53 ghosts, and Hungry Ghost Festival,
Feast of Tara, 132, 136–138 132, 134–136
female sex organ, and lotus, 88 Ginsberg, Alan, 125, 161
Festival of the Tooth, 132, 136 giving (dâna), 47
filial piety, 134–135 Goldstein, Joseph, 148
fires, welcoming (mukae-bi), 134 Great Buddha Hall
First Noble Truth, 27–29, 30 Great Compassion (Mahãkaruna),
Fisher, Robert, 117 35, 47, 79
Five Precepts, 99, 109, 111, 130, 148 Great Death, 34
Flower Garland school. See Hua-yen great doubt block, 34
school “Great Renunciation, The,” 22
form or body (rûpa), 76, 77 Great Wisdom (Mahâprajnâ), 35, 79
Four Noble Truths, 27–38, 109, 123 growing up Buddhist. See death;
First, 27–29, 30 family; layperson; monks; nuns
Fourth (Eightfold Path), 27, Gyatso, Gendün, 68
36–38, 65 Gyatso, Sönam, 68–69
Second, 27, 29–32 Gyatso, Tenzin (fourteenth Dalai
Third, 27, 32–36 Lama), 3, 66, 69, 124, 144–146,
Four Passing Sights, 20–22 157, 158
Fourfold Assembly Day, 131
Fourth Noble Truth (Eightfold Path), haikai, 118
27, 36–38, 65 haiku, 118–119
France, and Thich Nhat Hanh, 157 Hakuin, 56
Friends of the Western Buddhist Han Dynasty, 7
Order, 156 hanging scroll (kakemono), 116
fuda, 98 Hanh, Thich Nhat, 37, 156–157, 158
Fudô, 139 harm. See non-harm
fulfilled love, 36 harmony (wa), and tea ceremony,
funerals, 101, 102–105 116
future, 162, 164–167 Harvard University, 161
future of Buddhism hashi (chopsticks), 105
in Asia, 166–167 hearse, 104
in United States, 162, 164–165 Heian period, 59
in West, 166 Heidegger, Martin, 125

196
 INDEX

hell, 100 inauthentic existence, 17

here and now, 38, 75 incense
Hiei, Mount, 52, 63, 64, 142 on altars, 86
and Sennichi Kaihôgyô, 132, in funerals, 103, 104
138–140. India, Buddhism in
See also Tendai sect and Ambedkar, 155–156
highest yoga, and Tantrism, 71 and art, 5, 113, 114, 114–115
hikes, and Sennichi Kaihôgyô, 132, and Buddha, 25–26
138–140 current status of, 155–156
Hinduism, 4, 12–13, 15, 16, 72, and Dalai Lama, 146
74–75, 79 and Dipa Ma, 148
and atman, 78 and Friends of the Western
and Buddha studying with holy Buddhist Order, 156
men, 22–23 history of, 5
Buddhism retaining teachings of, and Madhyamika school, 48–49
25–26 and Tibet, 9, 146
and cremation, 26 and Trailokya Bauddha
and decline of Buddhism, 155–156 Mahasangha, 156
and hell, 100 and Yogâcâra school, 48, 49–50.
male and female deities paired in, See also Hinduism
137 individual objects (sabi), 115
Hisamatsu Shin’ichi, 120–124 Indonesia, history of Buddhism in,
holidays, 12, 127–140 8
holy man/men, 25 Indra’s Net, 53
Buddha studying with, 22–23 infants, and death, 100
Buddha viewing, 22 initiation, and Tantrism, 70
home altar, 12, 98–99, 105 International Network of Engaged
Hônen, 62 Buddhists, 156
Horyûji, 58–59 Internet, 158
and pagoda, 117 interreligious dialogue, 165
Hossô school, 59 Islam, 4, 10, 11, 15, 25
householders, 12.
See also laypeople Jainism, 13, 74, 79
Hua-yen school, 52–54 Japan, Buddhism in
human rights, 165–166 and art, 117, 118–119, 122–123,
Humphries, Christmas, 160 124
Hungry Ghost Festival, 132, 134–136 current status of, 8, 62, 64–65
hunting, 10, 38, 79 and death, 101–105
hwadu, 58 and Dôgen, 142–144
and family, 96–98
ignorance (avidya), 17, 29, 30 history of, 7–8
ikebana (flower arrangement), 116 and holidays, 132, 133–134,
impermanence (anicca), 48, 74, 75, 138–140
113, 119 and Jizô Bosatsu as deity for
impurity, and death, 102 children, 99–101

197
INDEX

and Mahâyâna Buddhism, 42–43 Korea, Buddhism in

and Nichiren Buddhism, 59, and art, 117, 118
64–65 and Ch’nt’ae, 52
and Pure Land Buddhism, 54, 59, history of, 7
61–62 and holidays, 128
and Rinzai Buddhism, 57, 63, and Mahâyâna Buddhism, 42–43
122–123, 143 and Pure Land Buddhism, 54, 58
and Shen-yen, 150 and Son, 57, 58
and Shingon Buddhism, 59, 60–61 Kornfield, Jack, 148, 158
and Shinto, 58, 96–97, 101–102 Kôshô-ji, 144
and Sôka Gakkai movement, 59, Kôya, Mount, 60
65, 158 Koyasu Jizô, 100
and Sôtô Zen Buddhism, 57, 64, Kraft, Kenneth, 166
142, 144 Kshatriyas, 25
and tea ceremony, 115–116 Ksitigarbha, 100
and temples, 42–43, 58–59, 64, 86, Kuan-yin, 149
87, 88, 88–90, 97–98, 122–123, Kudara Kannon, 59
144 Kudara (Paekche) kingdom, 57, 59
and Tendai sect, 52, 59, 63, 132, Kûkai, 61
138–140, 142 as Kôbo Daishi, 60
and Zen, 15 tomb of (Gobyô), 60
and Zen Buddhism, 49, 56, 59, Kundun (movie), 3, 125
62–64, 142–144 kung-an (koan), 56, 57, 63
Jâtakas, 20, 114 Kuomintang, 149
Java, Buddhist temples in, 113 Kusha school, 59
Jin-an Monastery, 149 Kuśinagarî, 26
Jizô Bosatsu, 99–101 Kûya, 62
Jôjitsu school, 59
Ju-ching, 143–144 lamas, 145.
Judaism, 10, 11, 15 See also Dalai Lama
Langhui, 149
Kadam school, 68 Langshan, 149
Kagyu school, 68 Lantern Festival, 130
Kapilavastu, 19 lanterns
karma, 13–15, 16, 25, 74 and Lantern Festival, 130
and death, 81, 83 salvation, 135
generation of, 29 Laos, Buddhism in, 129
and hell, 100 history of, 8
and sannyasin, 22 and Theravâda Buddhism, 65
Kashyapa, 56 laypeople, 12, 108–109, 111
Kegon school, 59, 89 and art, 113
Kennin-ji Temple, 63, 143, 144 and Buddhist path, 80
Kerouac, Jack, 125, 161 and karma, 16
Khan, Altan, 69 monks and nuns supported by, 12,
Koguryô kingdom, 57 99, 108–109

198
 INDEX

and poetry, 118 Maitreya, 117, 124

and rules of conduct, 42 Maitreyanântha, 49
and Theravâda Buddhism, 65 Malaysia, Buddhism in
and visit to temple, 87–88 history of, 8
lecture hall, in temple, 85 and Yogâcâra school, 48, 49–50
Lin-chi, 57 male sex organ, and vajra, 88
Lin-chi school, 57, 63 Mandala, Greyston, 166
Lingyuan, 149 mandalas, 61, 71–72, 113, 124
lions, 52–53 Manjuśri, 117
Little Buddha (movie), 3, 125 mantras, 61, 72
lokas, 14–15, 52 Mao Tse-tung, 149
Lotus school. See T’ien-t’ai school mappô, 55, 64
Lotus Sutra, 51, 64 Mâra (the Great Temptor), 23–24
lotuses, 88, 114 Marpa, 68
love (Mahâkarunâ), 10, 36, 79–80 master-student relationship, and
loving-kindness (metta), and Dipa Ch’an Buddhism, 56
Ma, 148 Matrix series (movies), 125
Lumbinî, Buddha born in, 19 Maung, U Kin, 98–99
Mauryan period, 114
Mâdhyamika school, 48–49 Mâyâ, 19, 20
mahâsañghika (“great community”), medical help
42 from monks, 85, 96
Mahâyâna Buddhism, 40, 42, 42–65 and Yakushi (Medicine Buddha),
and bodhissattva ideal, 43, 46–47, 90
66, 69 meditation (dhyâna), 47, 111
and emptiness, 75 and Ch’an Buddhism, 55–57
and female monastics, 108 and Dipa Ma, 147, 148
and Five Precepts, 109, 111 and Hua-yen school, 54
and holidays, 128, 129–130, and mandalas, 61, 71–72, 113, 124
132–136 and practice sessions in temples,
in India, 5 93–94
and mahâsañghika, 42 and Ryôanji, 122–123
and marriage for monastics, 62, and Shen-yen, 149
106 in Shingon Buddhism, 61
religio-philosophical develop- and Tantrism, 70–71
ments in, 47–65 and T’ien-t’ai school, 51, 52
and social structure, 12 and Yogâcâra school, 50
and Trikâya, 43–46, 66 memories. See teachers
in United States, 160 mental formations (samskâra), 76
and Vajrayâna Buddhism, Merton, Thomas, 165
66, 68. middle way, 48
See also China, Buddhism in; and Buddha, 23
Japan, Buddhism in; Korea, military service, 10, 38, 79
Buddhism in mind, 30, 37, 38
main hall, in temples, 85, 117 mindfulness, 38, 157

199
INDEX

mind-only, 49 Mother of All Buddhas, Tara as, 137

Miroku, 59 movies, Buddhist themes in, 3, 125
missionaries mudras, 61, 72, 113
and Buddhism, 5–6, 10–11, 25 Mu-lien, 135
and Christianity, 25, 159 music, and monks, 125
and Islam, 25. Myanmar/Burma, Buddhism in, 8,
See also conversions 98
Mitchell, Donald, 43, 53, 162, 164–165 and Dipa Ma, 98–99, 147–148
mizuko (water baby), 101 and family, 98–99
monasteries, temples as, 12, 85, 88 history of, 8
monasticism. See monks; nuns and holidays, 129
môndo (Zen dialogue), 123 and Theravâda Buddhism, 65, 98
monks, 12, 105–108 Myôzen, 63, 143
and art, 113 mystery (yugen), 115
criteria for, 106–107
and districts, 105–106 Nâgârjuna, 4849
education provided by, 96 Nani Bala Barua. See Dipa Ma
laypeople supporting, 12, 99, Nara period, 8, 59
108–109 Narrow Road to the Far North
life and duties of, 107 (Bâsho), 118
and marriage, 62, 106 naturalness, and art, 120, 122
medical help from, 85, 96 nature
and music, 125 and asymmetry, 121
and nirvana, 16 and austere sublimity, 122
and nonattchment, 80–81 nembutsu, 62
and novices, 107 New Age movement, 125
and nuns as subordinate to, 108, New Kadam school, 68
164 New Year, 128–130
and ordination, 107 Nichiren, 64
and poetry, 118 Nichiren Buddhism, 59, 61, 64–65
and residing in temple, 12, 85, 88 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 151, 159
and rules of conduct, 42, 105, nihilistic argument, 48–49
106 nirvana, 15, 42, 49, 60, 70
and Sennichi Kaihôgyô, 132, Nishitani, Keiji, 77, 165
138–140 nonattachment, 80–81
and taking care of temple, 85, 87, and art, 120, 123–124
88 nondualistic-dual framework, 34–35,
in temples, 12 36, 51, 61, 77–78, 80, 123, 157
and Theravâda Buddhism, 65, 66 nonexistence, 49
and Three Refuges, 107 non-harm (ahimsa), 74, 79–80
and tonsure, 107. Northern School, of Ch’an Bud-
See also Dalai Lama dhism, 57
morality (sila), 37, 47 no-self (anatman), 74, 75–79,
and Theravâda Buddhism, 65–66 101–102
and Vajrayâna Buddhism, 66 novitiate, 107

200
 INDEX

nuns, 12, 105, 108 and Cultural Revolution, 67

and districts, 105–106 and human rights, 166
education provided by, 96 and Sheng-yen, 148–150
laypeople supporting, 12, 99, and Tibet, 9, 67, 145–146, 157.
108–109 See also China, Buddhism in
and marriage, 62, 106 perceptions (samjñâ), 76
and nonattchment, 80–81 storehouse of, 49–50
and poetry, 118 performance, and Tantrism, 71
and residing in temple, 12, 85, 88 poetry, 118–119
and rules of conduct, 42, 105, 106 Potala Palace, 145
as subordinate to monks, 108, 164 Powers, John, 70
and taking care of temple, 85, 87, practice sessions, in Buddhist centers,
88 93–94
in temples, 12 Prajâpatî, 20
Nyingma school, 68 pratyeka-buddha, arhat as, 46–47
prayer flag, 124
objects, 29–32, 34, 35–36 prayers, and family, 96.
Obon, 132–134 See also devotional Buddhism
observance hall (uposatha), 105–106 priest, and funerals, 103, 104
Olcott, H.S., 160 profundity, and art, 120, 122–123
old age. See aging prostration, and Tantrism, 70
omamori, 98 pure land, of Awakening, 16
ômawari, 140 Pure Land Buddhism
Order of Interbeing, 157 in China, 45, 54–55, 61, 117
ordinary consciousness, 28–32, 34, in Japan, 54, 59, 61–62
35, 36, 77 in Korea, 54, 58
other (tarkik), 62 Pure Land Scripture, 54
outcastes, 25 Pure Land (Western Paradise), 54
purity (sei)
Padmasambhava Day, 132, 138 and lotus, 88
Paekche kingdom, 57, 59 and tea ceremony, 116
pagodas, 116–118 Putu, 135–136
Pakistan, Buddhism in, 6–7
Pali Canon, 5 Queen, Christopher, 166
Pali language, 131 Qur’an, 10
Pali Text Society, 159
Pâpâ, 26 Râhula, 20
parinirvâņâ, and Buddha, 26, 40, 43, Rains Retreat (Vassa), 131
130 Râjagraha, 131
patience (ksânti), 47 council in, 40, 42
pâtimokkha, 106 Reader, Ian, 101
peace, 11, 37 reality, 78
People’s Republic of China authentic, 50
Buddhism in, 7 and here and now, 38, 75
and communism, 67, 145–146, 149 and T’ien-t’ai school, 51–52

201
INDEX

rebirth, 14–15, 16, 25, 74, 78, Sanchi, Hill of, 113, 114
101–102, 111 sangha, 12, 25, 26, 40
and birth-death-rebirth, 9, 14, 49, and councils, 40, 42
70, 83 Sangha Day (Magha Puja Day),
and Buddha, 19–20 131–132
and family, 96 sannyasin, 22
and transmigration at death, 78, Sanron school, 59
81, 83, 111 Sârnâth, 27, 89
Reeves, Keanu, 3 Sartre, Jean Paul, 125
reserve, and art, 120, 122–123 satori, 15
restrained expression (wabi), 115 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 125, 159
retreats (sesshin), 92 scriptures, 10, 39–72
reverence (kei), and tea ceremony, Seagal, Steven, 3
116 seals, and Tantrism, 71
Right Action, 10, 37–38, 65 Second Noble Truth, 27, 29–32
Right Concentration, 37, 38 Seeds of Peace (Sulak Sivaraksa),
Right Effort, 37 156
Right Intention, 36, 37 self (atman), 29, 31, 62, 78
Right Livelihood, 37–38, 65 and no-self (anatman), 74, 75–79
Right Speech, 37, 65 and T’ien-t’ai school, 51
Right View, 36, 37 True, 34, 35
Rinpoche, Sogyal, 81 Sen no Rikyu, 115, 116
Rinzai Buddhism, 57, 63, 122–123, 143 Sennichi Kaihôgyô, 132, 138–140
Risshô Kôsei-kai, 65 sensations (vedanâ), 30, 76, 77
Ritsu school, 59 Seventeen Article Constitution, 58
River of Fire, River of Water (Taitetsu sexual activity
Unno), 153 monks, 106
River of the Three Hells, 103 and Tantrism, 69, 71
rock garden, Zen, 122–123 Shâriputra, 46–47
rosary, 87 Sheng-yen, 148–150
Rôshi, Banatetsugyû, 150 Shichi-go-san festival, 97
Rule of No Rule, 123–124 Shin Buddhism, 150–151, 153
Ruler of Earth (Zhong), 135–136 Shingon Buddhism, 59, 60–61
Ryôanji, 122–123 Shinran, 62
Ryûnin, 62 Shinto, 58, 96–97, 101–102
Shôbôgenzô Zuimonki (Dôgen),
saddhu, 22 64, 144
Saichô, 52 shoes, removal of in temples, 86
Sai-no-Kawara, 100 Shômu, 90
Sakya school, 68 Shôtoku, 8, 58
Śâkyamui, 19 sickness, Buddha viewing, 21–22, 28
salvation lanterns, 135 Sikhism, 13
Salzberg, Sharon, 148 Silla kingdom, 57
Sambhota, Thonmi, 67 simplicity, and art, 120, 122
samurai warriors, 8 Sivaraksa, Sulak, 156

202
 INDEX

Six Perfections (pâramitâs), 47 suffering (dukkha), 17, 27–29, 74–75,

Six Realms of Existence, 99–100 77–78
skandha, 76–77 and non-harm, 79–80
Snyder, Gary, 125, 161 Sui period, 117
social attitude, 25 Sujâtâ, 23
social structure, 12. sutra, 10
See also laypeople; monks; nuns and funerals, 104
socially engaged Buddhism, 157, Sutra Pitaka, 42
165–166 Suzuki, D.T., 116, 120, 160, 165
and Thich Nhat Hanh, 156–157,
158 Taiwan, Buddhism in
Sôen, Shaku, 160 and holidays, 132, 134–136
Sôka Gakkai movement, 59, 65, 158 and Mahâyânâ Buddhism, 42–43
Son Buddhism, 57, 58 and Shen-yen, 150
Songkran, 129 Takuan Soho, 116
Sôtô Zen Buddhism, 57, 64, 142, Taliban, 6
144 Tang period, 117
South America, Buddhism in, 158 tanka, 118
South Asian worldview, 12 tantra, 69
Southeast Asia, Buddhism in Tantrism, 60, 61, 68, 69–71
and art, 115 symbols of, 71–72, 114
history of, 8–9 Taoism, 7, 15, 134, 135–136
and Theravâda Buddhism, 65–66 Tara, Feast of, 132, 136–138
Southern school, of Ch’an Taue Jizô, 100
Buddhism, 57 tea ceremony, Japanese, 115–116
Sôzu-no-Kawara no Uba, 100 tea garden (chaniwa), 115
Sri Lanka, Buddhism in, 9 tea room, 116
and art, 115 teachers, 141–153
history of, 5 and death, 83
and holidays, 129, 136 and dharma heirs, 161
and Theravâda Buddhism, 65 Dipa Ma, 146–148
Srong-tsan-gam-po, 9 Dôgen, 57, 63–64, 142–144
sthaviras (seniors), 42 second generation of in West, 161
stillbirth, 101 Sheng-yen, 148–150
storehouse of perceptions (âlaya- Taitetsu Unno, 150–151, 153
vijñana), 49–50 and Tantrism, 70
striving (virya), 47 Tenzin Gyatso, 3, 66, 69, 124,
Strong, John 144–146, 157, 158
stûpas, in temples, 88–89, 113, 114, teaching. See dharma; teachers
116–117 teahouse, 116
Suan Mokkhabalarama, 156 temizuya, 89–90
subject, 29, 31, 32, 35–36 temples, 12, 84–94, 96
subject-I, 29, 31, 32, 34, 78 and altars, 86–87
suchness (tathatâ), 50, 52 and amulets, 97–98
Suddhodana, 20–21 and art, 87, 113, 122–123

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INDEX

and bell, 88 Theosophical Society, 160

and coin box, 86, 109 Theosophy, 160
and death, 12 Theravâda Buddhism, 40, 42, 65–66
and education, 96 and arhat, 46
and entrance, 85 and Five Precepts, 109, 111, 130
and funerals, 101, 103, 104 and holidays, 129, 130–131,
and holidays, 12, 129, 130 132–136
in Japan, 58–59, 64, 86, 87, 88, in India, 5
88–90, 97–98, 122–123, 144 in Myanmar/Burma, 65, 98
and laypeople, 108–109 and nuns, 108
learning about, 94 and social structure, 12
and lecture hall, 85 in Southeast Asia, 9, 65–66
and lotus, 88 in Sri Lanka, 5
and Mahâyâna Buddhism, 42–43 and sthaviras, 42
and main hall, 85, 117 in Thailand, 65, 156
monks and nuns residing in, 12, in United States, 160, 161
85, 88 Therigâtha, 108
and pagodas, 117 Third Noble Truth, 27, 32–36
and practice sessions, 93–94 Thoreau, Henry David, 124–125, 160
and shoe removal, 86 Three Jewels, 37, 131
and structure, 85–89 Three Refuges, 70, 99, 107, 109
and stûpas, 88–89, 113, 114, Three Treasures, 58
116–117 threefold truth, 51
and temple complex, 85–89 Thurman, Robert, 81, 83
in Tibet, 67 Tibet, Buddhism in/Tibetan Bud-
in United States, 90, 92–93 dhism
and vajra, 88 and art, 115
Vajrayâna, 87 current status of, 157
and visitors, 87–88 and death, 105
and wheel, 87, 88 and Geluk school, 68–69
and Zen Buddhism, 87 history of, 9, 67–68
Ten Precepts, 107 and holidays, 128, 130, 132,
Tendai sect, 52, 59, 63, 142 136–138
and Sennichi Kaihôgyô, 132, and India, 9, 146
138–140 male and female deities paired in,
Teruo, 150–151 137
Thailand, Buddhism in and monasteries, 67
and Buddhadâsa Bhikku, 156 and People’s Republic of China, 9,
current status of, 155–156 67, 145–146, 157
history of, 8 and statue of Gautama Buddha, 67
and holidays, 129, 130–131 and tulkus, 144–145
and Sulak Sivaraksa, 156 and United States, 161
and Theravâda Buddhism, 65, 156 and West, 3, 125–126, 146, 161.
thangkas, 124 See also Dalai Lama; Vajrayâna
theistic Buddhism, 45–46, 47–48 Buddhism

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 INDEX

Tibetan Book of the Dead, The, 81, and other religions, 3, 4

83, 105 and Sheng-yen, 150
T’ien-t’ai school, 51–52, 57 and Taitetsu Unno, 150–151, 153
T’ien-t’ung monastery, 143 and temples, 90, 92–93
Todaiji, 59, 89–90 in twentieth century, 3, 125,
tomb, family (ohaka), 134 160–162
tonsure, 107 and Zen Buddhism, 90, 92–94,
Tooth, Festival of the, 132, 136 160–161.
trade routes, 159 See also West, Buddhism in
Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha University of Chicago, 161
(TBM), 156 University of Wisconsin, 161
tranquility (jaku) Unno, Taitetsu, 150–151, 153
and art, 120, 124 Upâli, 40
and tea ceremony, 116 urn, and cremated body, 105
transformation (Nirmânakâya), 44
transmigration at death, 78, 81, 83, 111. Vairocana Buddha, 60, 61, 89, 90
See also rebirth Vaiśâli, council in, 42
Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, 94, vajra, 72
120–121 in temples, 88
Trikâya, 43–46 Vajrayâna Buddhism, 5, 66–72
Tripitaka (“Three Baskets”), 42, 65 in Bhutan, 138
True Self, 34, 35 and bodhisattva, 66
truth, 78, 128 and eight fears, 137
absolute, 49 and Geluk school, 68–69
conventional, 49 and holidays, 132, 136–138
threefold, 51. in India, 5
See also dharma schools of, 67–69
Ts’ao-tung school, 57. and Tantrism, 69–71
See also Sôtô Zen Buddhism and temples, 87
Tsong Khapa, 68 and transmigration at death, 83
tulkus, 144–145 and Trikâya, 66.
Turner, Tina, 3, 125 See also Tantrism; Tibet,
Tu-Shun, 52 Buddhism in
Vasubandhu, 49
Uich’on, 57 vegetarian diet, 79
Ulambana (Ancestors’ Day), Vietnam, Buddhism in
132–136 current status of, 156–157
United States, Buddhism in, 3, 4 history of, 8
and conversions, 162, 164, 165 and holidays, 128
current status of, 158 and Thich Nhat Hanh, 156–157
and Dipa Ma, 148 Vietnam War, 156
and ethnic Buddhists, 162, 165 Vimalakirti, 117
and future, 162, 164–165 Vinaya Pitaka, 42, 105, 106
and impressions of Buddhism, 3 violence, 10, 37–38
in nineteenth century, 124–125, 160 Visakah Puja, 130

205
INDEX

visualizations, and Yogâcâra school, and non-harm (ahimsa), 79–80

50 and three characteristics of
Vulture Peak, 56 existence, 74–79
and transmigration at death, 78,
wake, and death, 104 81, 83
Walden (Henry David Thoreau), 125 worship, 84–94, 96.
Watts, Alan, 160 See also temples
way of tea (cha-no-yu), 115–116 Wu, 52
Wei-hsin, Ch’ing-yüan, 34, 35 Wu-chi, 143
West, Buddhism in
and Buddhist conributions to art Yakushi (Medicine Buddha), 90
and expression, 124–126 Yaśodharâ, 20
current status of, 158–162 yoga, and Tantrism, 71
history of, 158–159 Yogâcâra school, 48, 49–50
and human rights, 165–166 Yoshitada, Todo, 118
and Tantrism, 69, 71
and Tibetan Buddhism, 3, Zen, 15
125–126, 146 Zen and Japanese Culture (D.T. Suzuki),
in twentieth century, 160–162 116
in twenty-first century, 166 Zen and the Fine Arts (Shin’ichi
and Vajrayâna Buddhism, 66 Hisamatsu), 120–124
and Zen Buddhism, 55, 63, Zen Buddhism, 34, 49, 55, 56
125–126, 158 and art, 120–124
wheels, 113, 114 and Bâsho, 118
and Kalachakra, 113 and Dôgen, 57, 63–64, 142–144
in temples, 87, 88 and Great Death, 34
Whitman, Walt, 160 in Japan, 49, 56, 59, 62–64,
wisdom (bodhi/prajñâ), 27, 47 142–144
Great, 35, 79 Rinzai, 57, 63, 122–123, 143
and Theravâda Buddhism, 65, 66 Sôtô, 57, 64, 142, 144
women, 25 and True Self, 34, 35
and Dipa Ma, 146–148. in United States, 90, 92–94,
See also gender issues; nuns 160–161
World Parliament of Religions, 160 in West, 55, 63, 125–126, 158.
world religion, Buddhism as, 3–5, 65 See also Ch’an Buddhism
worldview, 12, 73–83 Zhong Kui, 136
and nonattachment, 80–81 Zhong Yuan, 135

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 PICTURE CREDITS
Page:
6: Statistics adapted from E: © David Samuel Robbins/
www.adherents.com CORBIS
B: © Leonard de Selva/CORBIS F: (top) © Scala/Art Resource,
C: © Gilles Mermet/Art Resource, NY
NY F: (bottom) © Brian A. Vikander/
D: (top) © The Newark Museum/ CORBIS
Art Resource, NY G: © Brian A. Vikander/CORBIS
D: (bottom) © Réunion des Musées H: © Wolfgang Kaehler/CORBIS
Nationaux/Art Resource, NY

Cover: © Kurt Stier/CORBIS

Frontis: Courtesy of the C.I.A.

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CONTRIBUTORS

LESLIE D. ALLDRITT is an Associate Professor of Religion and

Philosophy at Northland College in Ashland, Wisconsin. He earned his
Ph.D. in Religious Studies from Temple University in 1991 and was
privileged to study with Dr. Richard DeMartino at Temple University.
His current research interest is Japanese Buddhism and its relationship
to the burakumin, a discriminated group in Japan. Born in Kansas,
he currently resides in northern Wisconsin with his wife, Vicki, and
son, Owen.

ANN MARIE B. BAHR is professor of religious studies at South Dakota

State University. Her areas of teaching, research, and writing include
World Religions, New Testament, Religion in American Culture, and
the Middle East. Her articles have appeared in Annual Editions: World
Religions 03/04 (Guilford, Conn.: McGraw-Hill, 2003), The Journal of
Ecumenical Studies, and Covenant for a New Creation: Ethics, Religion
and Public Policy (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1991). Since 1999, she has
authored a weekly newspaper column which analyzes the cultural
significance of religious holidays. She has served as president of the
Upper Midwest Region of the American Academy of Religion.

MARTIN E. MARTY, an ordained minister in the Evangelical Lutheran

Church in America, is the Fairfax M. Cone Distinguished Service
Professor Emeritus at the University of Chicago Divinity School, where
he taught for thirty-five years. Marty has served as president of the
American Academy of Religion, the American Society of Church
History, and the American Catholic Historical Association, and was also
a member of two U.S. presidential commissions. He is currently Senior
Regent at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. Marty has written
more than fifty books, including the three-volume Modern American
Religion (University of Chicago Press). His book Righteous Empire was
a recipient of the National Book Award.

208