TOEFL Guide

UNIT 1
SHORT CONVERSATIONS
Listening for Specific Information : WHO and WHAT
Speakers of short conversations in Part A of the Listhening Comprehension

section usually talk about more than one person. This may be confusing since the
questions may ask about who does what. Make sure that you remember which
person does what, and do not be confused by the different people mentioned.
Strategieses
When there are two persons mentioned in the second speaker’s line, distinguish
who does what.
Sample problem
On the recording, you will hear :
Man : Do you there’s a new member in the band now ?
Woman : Yes. I heard Doug recruited Ray as a new guitarist.
Narrator : What does the woman say about the band ?
In your test book, you will read :
(A) Doug became a new member of the band.

(B) Doug was fired from the band.
(C) Ray replaced Doug in the band.
(D) Ray was hired as the band’s new guitarist.
The woman mentions two people (Doug and Ray), and they are used to confuse
you in the options. Doug recruited Ray as a new guitarist means that Ray is the
new member, hired by Doug. Therefore, the best answer is (D) Ray was hired as
the band’s new guitarist.
UNIT 2
SHORT CONVERSATIONS
Listening for Specific Information : WHO, WHAT, and WHERE
Some question in Part A of the Listhening Comprehension section usually ask you
to draw conclusions about who the speakers are, what will probably happen next,
and where the conversation probably takes place. The answers to these question
are not directly started in the conversations. However, there are clues that lead to
the correct answers.
Strategieses
1. Listen for clues in the dialogs to identify who the speakers are. Draw a
conclusion about the occupation of the speakers.
Sample problem
Man : What did I miss during my absence ?
Woman : One assignment and a quiz.
Narrator : Who are the speakers ?
(A) Editors
(B) Librarians
(C) Teachers
(D) Students
The clues my absence, one assignment, and a quiz in the conversation tell you
that the speakers are probably students. Therefore, the correct answer is (D)
Students.
2. Listen to the second speaker to draw a conclusion about what he/she probably
intends to do.
Sample problem
Man : Excuse me, you`re playing that music much too loud. I can’t
get to sleep ?
Woman : Oh, sorry. I didn’t realize.
Narrator : What will the woman probably do next ?
(A) Speak softly to the man.
(B) Stop talking too much.
(C) Turn down the volume of her music.
(D) Play dofferent music.
The man says that the woman is playing that music musch to loud. The
woman says that she didn’t realize, so she will probably turn the volume
down. Therefore, the correct answer is (C) Turn down the volume of her
music.
3. Listen for clues in the dialog to identify where the speakers are.
Sample problem
Man : Hi, Jack. Is thus seat taken ?
Woman : Oh, hi Danielle. No, sit down. Looks like the whole dorm is
here to have lunch today.
Narrator : Where does this conversation probably take place ?
(A) In a cinema
(B) In a dormitory cafetaria
(C) In a college hall
(D) In a departement store
The clue Looks like the whole dorm is here to have linch tells you that this
conversation probably takes place at the cafetaria of a dorm. Therefore, the
correct answer is (B) In a dormitory cafetaria.
UNIT 3
SHORT CONVERSATIONS
Understanding Statements and Negative Expressions
Many of the question in Part A of the Listening Comprehension section are about
what the second spekaer says. The answers to such question are often the
restatements of what is said. A restatement expresses the same idea as the
statement.
Examples
Living in a big city is costly.
expensive
Kathy had her house painted last month
asked someone to paint her house
The second speaker’s line may contain negative expressions are restatements of
the expressions.
Negative forms Examples
Not or –‘t
Ben isn’t happy about moving to Canada.
sad
never
none Joe never talks much.
nobody is quiet
no one Nothing went right.
nothing all went wrong
dis- Tanya dislikes swimming.

in- doesn’t like
un- The report is really inaccurate.
not accurate
The door is unlocked.
not locked
Strategieses
1. Pay attention to the second speaker’s line to answer the question about its
meaning. The answer is usually a restatement of what the second speaker says.
Sample problem
On the recording, you wil hear :
Man : I can’t stand this weather.
Woman : We haven’t seen as much snow as this for years !
Narrator : What does the woman mean ?
(A) It has rarely snowed this much.
(B) It hardly snowed this year.
(C) It snows so much every year.
(D) It is barely snowing this year.
The correct answer to this question is (A). The statement We haven't seen as
much snow as this for years means that It has rarely snowed this much. Notice
that option (A) is the restatement of what the second speaker says.
NOTES:
a. Choose an option with a word or phrase that has the same meaning, or is a
synonym of a word or phrase in the second speakers line.
Sample problem
On the recording, you will hear:
Woman : Did you see the manager about the part-time fob in the
bookstore?
Man : Yes, and I had to fill out an application
Narrator : What does the man mean?
(A) He got a job as bookstore manager.
(B) There is no vacancy in the bookstore.
(C) He read a book about how to apply for jobs.
(D) He was required to complete a form.
The key word fill out means complete, and the key word application refers
to form. Therefore, the best answer is (D) He was required to complete a
form.
b. Do NOT choose an option with a word or phrase that sounds similar to a
word or phrase in the second speakers line because it may have a different
meaning. You should choose an option that has a different word or phrase
with the same meaning as what has been said.
Sample problem
Woman : I heard that Jake has just moved to a new apartment.
Man : That's impossible. He doesn’t have a cent !
Narrator : What does the man mean ?
In your test book, you will read:
(A) Jake has no sense of responsibility.
(B) Jake has sent his friends to his apartment.
(C) Jake cannot afford to rent an apartment.
(D) Jake is on the set with the woman.
The key word in the second speaker’s line of the conversation is cent
Options (A), (B), and (D) have similar sounds to cent. They are incorrect.
Therefore, the best answer is (C) Jake cannot afford to rent an apartment
2. Pay attention to the second speakers line containing negation. The answer to
the question is usually an option with an affirmative sentence that means the
same as the line.
Sample problem
Man : How come if took them an extra hour to get to the cinema ?
Woman : They didn’t drive fast enough.
Narrator : What does the woman say about the trip ?
(A) They drove rather slowly.
(B) They could not have driven quickly.
(C) They wanted to drive quickly to the cinema.
(D) They didn’t drive to the cinema.
The correct answer is (A). They did not drive fast enough to the cinema
means that they drove rather slowly. Notice that the correct answer uses
slowly the synonym of not fast enough.
UNIT 4
SHORT CONVERSATIONS
Understanding Special Expressions, Idioms, and Phrasal Verbs
The second speaker of the short conversations in Part A of the Listening

Comprehension section sometimes uses special expressions, idioms, or phrasal
verbs. Questions in this part often ask about their meanings.
Special Expressions Examples

Sounds like a good idea. Man : We should see the painting exhibit tonight.
You can say that again Woman : Sounds like a good idea.
Don’t look at me. I’ll go with you.
Man : We must finish the report of this research

quickly.
Woman : You can say that again.
I agree with you
.
Idioms Man : May I borrow your notes on Professor Brody's
Be my guest. lecture ?
Lend you a hand. Woman : Be my quest.
Enough is enough. Please do.
Woman : Jack, I can’t lift this box myself.

Man : I’ll lend you a hand.
I’ll help you.
Phrasal verbs Man : I plan to see the opera on Saturday. How

Count in about you?
Look into Woman : Well, you can count me in.
Come out I’ll join you.
Comedown with
Put up with Man : I haven’t seen Dennis.
Woman : He’s been hospitalized.
He’s come down with avion flu.
suffered from
Strategieses
Listen carefully to the second speaker's line as it may contain a special expression,
idiom, or phrasal verb that is tested.
Sample problem 1
Woman : Shouldn’t someone pick up the clothes from the cleaner’s ?
Man : Don’t look at me !
(A) The clothes don’t look clean to him.
(B) He doesn’t intend to get the clothes.
(C) He can pick out his clean clothes.
(D) The woman should stop staring at his clothes.
The second line Don’t look at me! is an expression that means that the man
doesn’t intend to do what the woman suggests. Therefore, the best answer is (B)
He doesn’t intend to get the clothes.
Sample problem 2
Woman : Larry, have you decided on the topic for your thesis ?
Man : No, I haven’t. I’m very much at loose ends right now and need
some time to decide which topic I want.
(A) He is going to quit school.
(B) He is not sure of the topic he wants.
(C) He has discussed the topic with his professor.
(D) He has started writing his thesis.
The phrase very much at loose ends in the man’s line indicates that the man has no
clear idea of what to do next. Therefore, the best answer is (B) He is not sure of
the topic he wants.
Sample problem 3
Man : Hey, you can swim very well now.
Woman : It seems that my practice is paying off.
Narrator : What does the woman mean ?
(A) The woman has had to spend a lot of money to learn to swim.
(B) She has not practiced swimming for quite some time.
(C) Her practice sessions have brought good results.
(D) She cannot swim very well after her practice.
The phrase my practice is paying off in the woman’s line indicates her practicing
swimming has brought good results. Therefore, the best answer is option (C).
UNIT 5
SHORT CONVERSATIONS
Making Inferences and Understanding Implied Meaning
Very common in Part A of the Listening Comprehension section are questions

that ask you to make inferences from and understand the implied meaning of what
is said. Questions of this type make use of the words likely, assume, infer, or
imply to let you know that the answers are not explicitly mentioned in the
conversations. To answer such questions, you need to go beyond what is said not
only by the second speaker but sometimes also by both speakers.
Strategies
Listen carefully to the second speaker’s line. Questions on inferences and
implications are usually based on this line, although what the first speaker says
may give a clue.
Sample problem 1
Woman : I’ve heard Karen has had a terrible accident Let's visit her.
Man : No need. Ifs not serious. She has recovered from her injuries.
Narrator : What can be inferred about Karen ?
(A) Karen is still in the hospital.
(B) Karen has to undergo an operation.
(C) Karen wants the speakers to visit her.
(D) Karen is okay now.
The correct answer to this question is (D). The man says that Karen has recovered
from her injuries, so you can assume that Karen is okay now.
Sample problem 2
Man : Could you help me with my biology homework this afternoon ?
I’m really having a hard time with it.
Woman : Sorry, I’m busy this afternoon.
Narrator : What does the woman imply ?
(A) She doesn’t like helping him.
(B) She’ll be busy with her biology homework.
(C) She can’t help him this afternoon.
(D) She’ll help him with his biology homework.
The correct answer to this question is (C). It is implied that the woman can't help
man this afternoon because she says she is busy this afternoon.
UNIT 6
LONGER CONVERSATIONS
Identifying the Topic and Listening for Specific Information
The longer conversations in Part B of the Listening Comprehension section

include academic conversations between students and professors or other
academic personnels; class discussions; and informal conversations between
friends, as well as between students and service personnel in places such as stores
and restaurants.
A. Identifying the Topic

The topics of the conversations include research, papers, courses, trips, student
activities and problems, sports, as well as current news like natural disasters,
environment issues, etc. To identify the topic of a longer conversation, you
should listen carefully to the first exchange.
Strategieses
Pay attention to what the speakers say in the beginning of the conversation.
The topic is usually mentioned in the first exchange.
Sample problem
Narrator : Listen to a conversation between two students.
Woman : Okay, I think we understand how rain is formed. Now, we
need to discuss the formation of acid rain.
Man : What is acid rain exactly ?
... (The conversation continues.)
Narrator : What is the topic of the conversation?
(A) Advanced physics
(B) The causes of acid rain
(C) The formation of acid rain
(D) The effects of acid rain
The topic of the conversation is (C) Formation of acid rain.
B. Listening for Specific Information

Other questions in Part B of the Listening Comprehension section deal with
specific information in the conversations.
Strategieses
1. Briefly preview the options given in the test book before the listening.
2. Try to anticipate the question for every problem: who, what, when,
why,how, etc.
3. Try to determine the answer while listening.
Sample problem
Narrator : Questions 1 through 3 are based on the following
conversation.
Woman : Hi, Clark. I called you this morning but nobody picked up
the phone. I just wanted to ask you about the introduction
to psychology course that you took last semester.
Man : Are you taking Professor Palmer’s course this coming
semester ?
Woman : Yes. And I heard he's very demanding.
Man : Yes, you’re right. Don’t expect that he’ll tolerate students
coming late for his class. He gives a lot of assignments and
he’s strict about deadlines.
Woman : Wow! That's discouraging.
Man : Aw, c’mon. If I can do it, so can you.
Narrator : 1. Why did the woman call the man?
(A) To ask about a course
(B) To introduce Professor Palmer
(C) To ask for an assignment
(D) To complain about Professor Palmer
Narrator : 2. What do the speakers say about Professor Palmer ?
(A) He makes his students work hard.
(B) He is an encouraging lecturer.
(C) He comes late for his own class.
(D) He is lenient with his students.
Narrator : 3. How does the woman feel about taking the course ?
(A) Enthusiastic
(B) Angered
(C) Disappointed
(D) Pessimistic
Explanation
1. Question 1 asks why the woman called. The reason mentioned is ... to ask you
about the Introduction to psychology course .... Therefore, the best answer is
(A) To ask about a course.
2. Question 2 asks about Professor Palmer. The woman in the conversation says
that ... he is very demanding. Therefore, the best answer is (A) He makes his
students work hard.
3. Question 3 asks about the woman’s feeling. Mentioned in the conversation is
Wow! That’s discouraging. Therefore, the best answer is (D) Pessimistic.
UNIT 7
SHORT TALKS
Identifying the Topic and Listening for Spresific Information
The short talks in Part C of the Listening Comprehension section consist of short
academic lectures and reports, radio programs, orientations for academic courses
and procedures, or talks given by tour guides, etc.
A. Identifying the Topic

The topics of the short talks include introduction to a course, transportation,
community service, trips, animals and their habits, research projects, popular
science, famous people, etc. The question about the topic of a short talk
usually comes immediately after the talk. To understand what the topic is, you
should not miss the first few lines of the talk.
1. Briefly preview the options of the first question of the talk before the talk is
read out.
2. Listen carefully to the first two or three lines of the talk because the topic is
usually mentioned then.
Sample problem
Narrator : Questions 1 through 4 are based on the following talk in a
meeting.
Woman : I’d like to welcome all candidate members of the Rotary
Club of Tunkhannock, Pennsylvania. The Tunkhannock
Rotary Club is part of Rotary International which is an
organization that offers humanitarian intercultural, and
educational programs.
... (The talk continues.)
Narrator : 1. What is the main topic of the talk?
(A) Candidate members of the Rotary Club
(B) Humanitarian activities of the Rotary Club
(C) The Rotary Club International
(D) Programs of the Tunkhannock Rotary Club
The topic of the talk is (D) Programs of the Tunkhannock Rotary Club.
B. Listening for Specific Information

Other questions in Part C of the Listening Comprehension section are
questions about specific information in the talks.
Strategieses
1. If you have time, preview the options given in the test book.
2. Try to anticipate the question for every problem: who, what, when, why,
how, etc.
3. Try to determine the answer while listening.
Sample problem
Narrator : Questions 1 through 4 are based on the following talk.
Woman : l’d like to welcome all candidate members of the Rotary
Club of Tunkhannock Pennsylvania. The Tunkhannock
Rotary Club is part of Rotary International which is an
organization that offers humanitarian and educational
programs.
As you probably have known. Rotary International was
established by an attorney named Paul P. Harris on
February 23, 1905. Since that time, the club's activities
have always been designed to reach the goal of the
organization: to improve the human condition.
So far, the Tunkhannock Rotary Club has been raising
money to support local community efforts to make
Tunkhannock and its surroundings a more productive and
more enjoyable place to live and to help the communities in
many ways. The club sponsors a youth baseball team,
supports the Envirothon raises money to help eradicate
contagious disease/provides a community fireworks display
every Independence Day, and donates money to children
and youth organizations. ...
(This is the continuation of Question 1 in A.Identifying the Topic)
Narrator : 2.According to the speaker, what is the main objective of
Rotary International ?
(A) To provide job opportunities for prospective lawyers
(B) To design universal educational programs
(C) To make the human condition better
(D) To make its members more productive workers
Narrator : 3.When was Rotary International founded?
(A) Prior to the 1900’s
(B) In the Late 1900’s
(C) In the early 1900’s
(D) In the mid 1900’s
Narrator : 4.How does the Tunkhannock Rotary Club help the
community?
(A) By sponsoring local organizations
(B) By forming sports teams
(C) By opening job vacancies in town
(D) By building schools for local children
Explanation
1. Question 2 asks about the objective of Rotary International. In the talk, the
speaker mentions ... the goal of the organization: to improve the human
condition. Therefore, the best answer is (C) To make the human condition
better.
2. To answer Question 3, you have to focus on the question when Rotary
International was founded, and thespeaker mentions February 23, 1905.
Therefore, the best answer is (C) In the early 1900's.
3. Question 4 asks how the Tunkhannock Rotary Club helps the community.
The talk mentions the club sponsors a youth baseball team, supports the
Envirothon, raises money to help eradicate polio, provides a community
fireworks show for every Independence Day and donates money to
children and youth organization. Therefore, the best answer 1s (A) By
sponsoring local organizations.
UNIT 8
PARTS OF SPEECH
Nouns and Articles
A. Nouns
There are various types of nouns. Some nouns may fall under more than one
type. This unit takes up the following types of nouns:
1. Countable Nouns
2. Uncountable Nouns
1. Countable Nouns
Countable nouns can take a singular or plural form.
Singular Plural Examples
a cat cats
There is a man outside the building.
a man men
a tooth teeth There are two men outside the building.
an egg eggs
An elephant has a trunk.
an elephant elephants
an axe axes Elephants have trunks.
a. Singular Nouns
When a noun refers to one person or thing, it is singular.
Singular Examples
a girl or one girl
I need to buy a book.
a book or one book
a report or one report One reports missing from the file cabinet.
an insect or one insect
An insect is a type of very small animal
an orange or one orange
with six legs.
an icon or one icon
Strategies
1. Do NOT end singular nouns with -s/-es.
Check your understanding.
Directions : Circle the articles and numbers and underline the
nouns they modify. Decide which ones are wrong.
Correct the mistakes.
1. They took a long, enjoyable trips to the country on their
vacation.
2. Kathy has finished reading one chapter of the book.
3. Carlo is only one of the many outstanding students in our
school.
4. One cup of coffee will be perfect to ward off sleepiness.
5. There is one empty chair in the back row for you to sit on.
Sample item
Mohandas Gandhi was in charge of a Red Cross units during the
A B C
Boer War.
D
You should choose option B because a is used with a singular
noun. It should be a Red Cross unit.
2. Use singular nouns after the words below.
a/an a single
one another
this each
that every

Directions : Circle the above words and underline the nouns
they modify. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct
the mistakes.
1. There was,not a single cars in the parking lot.
2. The school needed another baseball coaches.
3. She needs every penny she earns to support her family.
4. This math problem is not easy to solve, even for a bright
student like Erwin.
5. The professor always comes up with a quiz to work on at the
end of each class.
Sample item
In every living organisms, complex chemical reactions occur
A B
among thousands of substances.
C D
You should choose option A because the word every should be
followed by a singular noun. It should be every living organism.
3. Singular countable nouns usually need articles. Use the with
singular countable nouns when referring to things in general or to
specific things; use a/an with singular countable nouns when
referring to nonspecific things.
Examples
The lion is called the king of the beast.
(The lion means all lions – general meaning)
The university needs a lion to conduct research on wildlife.
(The university needs any one lion.)
The lion that the zoo has lent to us is now in a cage in the
university lab.
(The lion is the one lent by the zoo, a specific lion, not other lions.)
Check your understanding
Directions : Circle the articles if there are any, and underline
the nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct
the mistakes.
1. A zebra belongs to the horse family.
2. Toyota is a Japanese car.
3. There was the sparrow that fell out of its nest.
4. The rain forest usually contains exotic animals.
5. Siberian flying squirrel is commonly called the flying mitten.
Sample item
Edwin Hubble, the discoverer of the red shifting of galaxies,
was_____
(A) the American astronomer
(B) an American astronomer
(C) American astronomers
(D) an American astronomers
The phrase American astronomers a singular countable noun and
doesn’t represent all astronomers in general. Thus, it needs the
article an. So, the correct answer is (B) an American astronomer.
b. Plural Nouns
When a noun refers to more than one person or thing, it is plural. The
plural form of most nouns is made by adding –s/es to the singular
form; however, there are some exceptions.
Examples
Singular Plural Examples
owl owls
lecturer lecturers Five lecturers from this university will attend the
buzz buzzes international conference in San Francisco next
bus buses week.
dish dishes We have to do the dishes before going to the
church churches movie.
box boxes
Some exceptions
baby babies 1. Plural form of nouns ending in consonant –y
party parties Example
daisy daisies Most students look forward to attending
graduation parties.
calf calfes 2. Plural form of nouns ending in -f(e)
wife wives Example
leaf leaves The color of the autumn leaves is usually
yellow.
sheep sheep 3. Irregular plural forms of nouns.
species species Example
datum data The researchers need more data to finish the
ox oxen project.
4. Plural forms of man, woman, and gentleman
man men Example
woman women We will recruit more men for the project.
gentleman gentlemen
Strategieses
1. Do NOT use a/an with plural nouns.
Directions : Circle the articles and underline the nouns they
modify ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.
1. An about twenty calves are grazing In the field.
2. An enthusiastic spectators applauded the clowns.
3. There are beautiful birds of paradise in the zoo.
4. A rainbow is a display of the spectrum colors of sunlight.
5. They used on axes to cut the trees.
Sample item
UNESCO is headquartered in Paris, France, with an over 50 field
A
offices and several institutes and centers throughout the world.
B C D
You should choose option A because field offices is a plural noun
and does not take the article an. It should be over 50 field offices.
2. Use plural nouns after the words below.
a// these dozens of
some those hundreds of
some (of the) every one of thousands of
a few(of) each one of a number of
many (of) each of the number of
a lot of one of a couple of
lots of both several (of the)
various other
Directions : Circle the words mentioned on the list above and
underline their nouns. Decide which ones are
wrong. Correct the mistakes.
1. The institution gave scholarships to a number of student.
2. Teachers use various technique to make their lessons
interesting.
3. It took them a couple of hours to finish their class project.
4. Law enforcement is a problem in some countries because of
corrupt officials.
5. Each of the team member shared the same workload.
Sample item
The International Committee of the Red Cross reported a death toll
A
of thousands of man as a result of the tsunami in December 2004.
B C D
You should choose option B because a plural noun should follow
thousands of. It should be thousands of men.
3. When words such as hundred, thousand or million follow a
number, do NOT put them in a plural form.
Check your understanding,
Directions : Circle the numbers that modify nouns. Decide
which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.
1. Two hundred more employees are being recruited for the
growing company.
2. The project needs six thousands dollars.
3. Hundreds of volunteers from different countries came to the
rescue of the earthquake victims.
4. About sixty thousands rupiah could be collected during the
cultural night.
5. Tens of teenagers were arrested for fighting during the rock
concert.
Sample item
Six millions residents of New Jersey consider their region as
A B C
important as New York City.
D
You should choose option A because millions follows a number. It
should be six million residents.
4. Be careful of irregular plural nouns.
Directions : Circle the plural nouns. Decide which ones are
1. The research presented a lot of valuable datums.
2. Oxes are usually used as draft animals.
3. Most housewives prefer to have part-time jobs.
4. Some specieses of animals are endangered.
5. Auroras are natural phenomenons that can be seen in the far
northern and southern hemispheres of the earth.
Sample item
Aoudads, wild horned sheeps of six subspecies, live in North Africa.
A B C D
You should choose option A because the plural form of sheep is
the same as its singular form. It should be sheep.
2. Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are nouns that have only one form and take a singular
verb.
Food
rice Examples
sugar The country produces much rice.
fruit The patient needs a lot of blood.
Mathematics my favorite subject.
Fluids The new office needs a lot of equipment.
blood The furniture in this room is to be replaced.
water
oil
Fields of study Note:

mathematics Though some uncountable nouns end in -s,
economics they are singular.
physics
Other
furniture
news
equipment
Strategiess
1. Do NOT use uncountable nouns after the words/phrases below.
a/an a few (of) dozens of
another many (of) hundreds of
one every one of thousands of
a single each one of a number of
each each (of) the number of
every one of a couple of
these both several (of the)
those
Directions : Circle the words mentioned on the list above and
underline their nouns. Decide which ones are
1. There are dozen eggs in the refrigerator,
2. Much flowed from his wound.
3. The school issued regulations for students and teachers.
4. This furniture will have to be specially cleaned.
5. Money used for the relief of the refugees must be reported.
Sample item
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development has
taken a role in coordinating international action on a corruption by
A B C D
creating Anti-bribery Convention.
You should choose option D because corruption is an uncountable
noun and does not take the article a It should be corruption.
2. Use uncountable nouns with the words below.
much all*
little some*
a little a lot of*
an amount of lots of*
plenty of*
* They can also be used with countable plural nouns.
Directions : Circle the articles, indefinite adjectives and
quantifiers and underline their nouns. Decide which
ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.
1. They have to live on whatever little money they earn.
2. She came up with plenty of ideas during the class.
3. There were quite a number students coming to the seminar on
depression.
4. We did not see many houses in the area.
5. The institution has done a lot of research on the new drug.
Sample item
Coming from a poor family, Lazaro Cardenas, the Mexican president
A B
who made social and economic reforms during the 1930s, received few
C D
education.
You should choose option D because education is an uncountable noun
and does not follow the quantifier few. It should be little education.
3. Do NOT put uncountable nouns into plural form.
Directions : Circle the nouns. Decide which ones are wrong.
1. Physics is not his favorite subject.
2. This type of plant needs a lot of sunlight / cause its uncountables
nouns.
3. He drinks a lot of coffee.
4. People say that no news is good news.
5. Cats cannot stand pepper.
Sample item
New York City is a center of international finance, politics,
A B
communications, musics, fashion, and culture.
C D
You should choose option C because musics uncountable. It should be
music.
B. Articles
A and an are called indefinite articles because they are normally used to refer
to nonspecific person/thing, while the is called a definite article because it is
used to refer to a specific person/thing or persons/things.
Indefinite articles Examples
a
The school board makes a decision concerning the students
an
every two years.
The school board makes an important decision concerning
Definite article
the the students every two years.
It is the chair prepared for our new teacher this semester.
Strategieses
1. Use a/an when the noun is newly introduced. Use the when the noun has
been mentioned before, or when the noun is specific.
modify. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the
mistakes.
1. Henry lent me a book. A book is very interesting.
2. A woman sitting next to me was not my colleague.
3. We saw the funny-looking dog this morning.
4. The rightful heir has passed away, too.
5. The renowned professor has been assigned to be the tutor of a future
king.
Sample item
Astronomy is a study of the universe, consisting of celestial bodies, gas,
A B C
and dust.
D
You should choose option A because study of the universe refers to
Astronomy. It suggests something specific and does not take the article a It
should be the study of the universe.
2. Use the with superlatives and with words like first, next, last, same and
only.
the mistakes.
1. The only navigable river during the rainy season is not navigable now.
2. Next film produced will be about espionage.
3. Our institute will recruit same number of employees as it did last year.
4. The most complicated machine we have is not working.
5. The soccer match last night was most exciting of all matches during the
World Cup matches.
Sample item
In ancient Egypt, first appearance of certain stars each year marked the
A B
beginning of the seasonal flood, an important event for agriculture.
C D
You should choose option A because the article the should be used with the
word first It should be the first appearance.
3. Use the to refer to specific nouns such as : the sun, the moon/the world, etc.
the mistakes.
1. The Hilton happens to be the biggest hotel in my town.
2. The moon revolves around the earth once every month.
3. Ground is wet after the rain last night.
4. We went to city's zoo last week.
5. In clear nights, we can see many stars in sky.
Sample item
Copernicus believed that the earth goes around sun, and not the other way
A B C D
around.
You should choose option B because there is only one sun in our solar
system. It should be the sun.
4. Pay attention to when the article the is used.
a. The is NOT used with names of the following :
• months, and days : January, December, Saturday, Sunday
• chemical substances : hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
• continents : Africa, Asia
• capes, bays, and points : Cape Canaveral, Cape Cod, San Francisco
Bay, Tampa Bay, Point Dume, Point Mugu
• countries and states : Canada, France, California, Wisconsin
EXCEPTIONS : the Netherlands, the Philippines
• cities: Melbourne, New York
EXCEPTION : the Hague
• streets/roads/squares/parks : Yale Street, Wiltshire Boulevard,
Trafalgar Square, Yosemite National Park
• individual islands : Easter Island, Stanton Island
• individual mountains and lakes: Mount Everest, Mount Whitney
• lakes : Lake Toba, Lake Michigan EXCEPTION: the Great Salt
Lake
• airports : Kennedy Airport, Heath row Airport
• universities : Yale University, Harvard University
b. The is used with names of the following:
• regions, especially those beginning with compass direction : the North
of England, the southern hemisphere, the Crimea, the Caucasus
• groups of islands : the Bahamas, the Canaries
• groups of lakes : the Great Lakes, the Finger Lakes
• mountain ranges : the Rocky Mountains, the Andes
• deserts: the Sahara, the Mojave
• peninsulas: the Monterey peninsula, the Iberian peninsula
• oceans, seas, rivers, gulfs, and canals: the Atlantic, the Indian
Ocean, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, the Amazon, the
Mississippi, the Gulf of Mexico, the Persian Gulf. The Panama
Canal, the Suez Canal
the mistakes.
1. The oxygen makes up about 70 percent of the atmosphere.
2. The Australia is a continent in the southern hemisphere of the earth.
3. The highest mountain is located in the Himalayas.
4. Mount Fuji is famous for its snow-capped peak.
5. Niagara Falls has become a tourist attraction.
Sample item
The Carlisle is a quiet college and light-manufacturing town in the
A B C
Cumberland Valley of southern Pennsylvania.
D
You should choose option A because Carlisle [ka:(r)lail] is a name of a
place and cannot take the article the. It should be Carlisle.
5. Use the with some adjectives to denote a group of people having the
condition described by the adjectives, such as the rich (rich people), the
deaf (deaf people), etc. This construction is always plural in meaning.
the mistakes.
1. The rich get richer and the poor get poorer.
2. The donation will go to needy.
3. Fear of a man can make a person do evil things.
4. This kind of computer game is suitable for young.
5. Deaf should be sitting in a special section of the hall.
Sample item
Disabled demanded that public facilities, such as train and bus stations and
A B C
libraries be constructed to accommodate them.
D
You should choose option A because the word Disabled refers to all
disabled people. It should be The disabled.
6. Use the with all nationality adjectives when you mean the people of that
country.
mistakes.
1. British still believe in monarchies.
2. Life could be very difficult at times for the Sudanese.
3. French joined the Alliance during World War II.
4. The brave people are willing to take risks.
5. Javanese know that Javanese is difficult for foreigners to learn.
Sample item
Some people in the world, such as Japanese, still uphold their traditions
A B C
even in modern days.
D
You should choose option C because the word Japanese refers to the
people of Japan. It should be the Japanese.
7. Use a/an with a person or thing that is nonspecific.
Directions : Circle the articles if there are any^ and underline
the mistakes.
1. The police are looking for a man in the brown sweater.
2. After the shocking earthquake, people found that there was the crack in
the ground.
3. I met a girl who was a student here.
4. A man who employed me was very generous.
5. He needed a pair of gloves.
Sample item
Born in the family fond of tennis, the tennis champion Christine Evert was
A B
the most famous woman athlete in the United States.
C D
You should choose option A because the word family refers to any family
fond of tennis. It should be a family.
8. Use a with a noun starting with a consonant sound and aw with a noun
starting with a vowel sound.
an herb BUT a herbal remedy
an hour a half hour
an honor a unit
an SMA student a university student
mistakes.
1. Which came first, a chicken or a egg ?
2. The platypus is an unique creature in the animal kingdom.
3. An exciting movie might become a blockbuster.
4. As a avid reader, John is a self-educated man.
5. Teenagers have the tendency to consider an famous actor or actress an
icon.
Sample item 1
Chemistry arose from attempts to transform base metals into gold, a effort
A B C D
that became known as alchemy.
You should choose option D because effort starts with a vowel sound. It
should be an effort.
Sample item 2
In 1900 George Eastman invented an small camera, the Kodak Brownie.
A B C D
You should choose option C because small camera starts with a consonant
sound. It should be a small camera.
9. Do NOT use articles with plural nouns used to represent a class.
mistakes.
1. The African-Americans have served in every American military action.
2. The best football team usually has the best blockers.
3. The rugby players wear heavy gym shorts, thick jerseys, socks rugby
shoes and protective mouthpieces.
4. There are more the European football fans than there are American
fans.
5. Short-beaked common dolphins of the Mediterranean face threats from
human activity.
Sample item
Many people considered the roses a symbol of romance.
A B C D
You should choose option B because roses represents all roses. It should be
roses or the rose.
10. Use articles according to the rules.
mistakes.
1. Food shown in the movies, TV programs, or commercials may be just
replicas.
2. The Hollywood has become a productive source of box-office films.
3. Haiti is an island nation with a large population.
4. In 2004, there were increasingly destructive hurricanes in the Caribbean
and the Gulf of Mexico.
5. The extreme poverty is an insult to humanity.
Sample item
The telescope enables an astronomers to confront scientific questions about
A B C D
the birth of the universe.
You should choose option B because the word astronomers is a plural
indefinite noun that does not need the article an. It should be astronomers
or an astronomer.
UNIT 9
PARTS OF SPECH
Subject, Object, Possessive, And Reflexive Pronouns; Possesive Adjectives;
Relative Pronouns and Adverbs; Forms of Other; and Nonreferential it and
There Subjects
A. Aubject and Object Pronouns

Subeject pronouns are used as the subject of a verb and object pronous are
used as the object of a verb or of a preposition.
Subject Pronouns Examples
I we Jason lent the novel to her after he finished reading it.
you you OP S OV
he they
she it They gave him the money he asked for.
S OV
Object Pronous
me us Note :
you you S : Subjet
him them OP : Object of preposition
her it OV : Object of verb
B. Possessive Pronouns
Prossessive pronouns may function either as the subject of a verb or as the
object of a verbb or of a preposition.
Possessive Pronouns Examples
mine My roommate borrowed mine because his is broken
Yours truly, his OV S
Hers
Ours He promised to introduce a friend of his tomorrow.
theirs OP
C. Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used as the object of a verb or of a preposition. They
are used when the object of the verb or preposition refers to the subject. A
Special use of reflexive pronouns is to intensify nouns or pronouns.
Reflexive Pronouns Examples
myself Ron hurt himself.
yourself OV
himself Children should be taught to depend on themselves
oneself OP
itself rather than on others.
ourselves
yourselves The students themselves insisted on having a discussion.
themselves (intensifying S)
D. Possessive Adjectives
Possessive adjectives are also tested in the TOEFL Possessive adjectives
function to modify nouns and must agree with the nouns they refer to.
Possessive Pronouns Examples

my All students must bring their ID’s.
your Poss. Adj.
hisher He explained his plans to all of us.
our Poss. Adj.
their
E. Relative Pronouns and Adverbs

Relative pronouns are all used in adjective/relative clauses.
• Who or that is used as a subject referring to a person.
• Whom is used as an object referring to a person.used as a subject or on
object referring to a thing.
• Whoseis used to replace a possessive adjective.
Relative adverbs, also used in adjective/relative clauses, substitute for an
adverb. They are not pronouns and they can cause confusion in the TOEFL.
• When refers to a time.
• Where refers to a place.
• Why refers to a reason.
Relative Pronouns Examples
who/that My sister who graduated from college last month is
whom
which/that rel.pron.
whose thinking of having a business of her own.
Relative Adverbs
The book that I bought yesterday when I went to the new
where
when rel.pron rel.adv.
why mall is expensive.
F. Forms of Others
Another refers to a nonspecific singular noun; others refers to a nonspecific
plural noun; and the other refers to a specific singular noun; and the others
refers to a specific plural noun. All of these pronouns are used as the subject
or the object of a verb.
Other Pronouns Examples

another The 705DG scanner was sold. Another is available next
the other S
other week.
the others Did you lose your copy ? I still have another.
0V
Here is one of the two books. I’m still reading the other.
0V
Some people like reading; others prefer watching TV.
S
One student was playing the piano. The others were
S
singing along.
G. Nonreferential it and there subjects

If and there, though classified as pronouns in most dictionaries and grammar
books ditter from other pronouns. The main function of if and there is either to
provide sentence with a subject or to anticipate a true subject in the predicate
position.
The nonreferential it introduces predicates with special meanings such as to
sho identification, to express weather, time and distance, and to describe a
situation. It is also used to anticipate the true subject.
The nonreferential there occurs most often with a linking verb and the verb
agrees wi the subject that comes after it.
Nonreferential subjects It to show special meanings:
it • Identification : It’s Ane
ther • Weather : It was snowing yesterday.
• Time : It’s Sunday.
• Distance : It’s ten miles from the university to
my house.
• Situation : It’s lonely here.
It to anticipate the true subject :
It is important to be punctual. (To be punctual is
important.)
It is important that you be punctual. (That you be
punctual important)
It is incredible what scientists can do these days.
(What scientists can do these days is incredible.)
There to anticipate the true subject :
There is a student in the library. (A student1s in the
library)
There seem to be two problems in the project. (Two
problems seem to be in the project.)
Strategieses
1. Make sure that the pronouns correctly refer to the nouns.
Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the pronouns.
Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.
1. Industries that use plastics have recycled their wastes for years.
2. When water, is heated, it changes into steam.
3. Plato was born in Athens and their family was one of the most
distinguished in the city.
4. Sylvia Plath’s works emphasize her sharp insights and ironic wit.
5. Platinum has unique qualities that make them precious.
Sample item
Coal is the major export of Queensland and large quantities of them are
A B C
used for the production of electricity in Australia.
D
You should choose option C because them is not the right pronoun for coai
It should be it.
Sample item 2
After Andhra Pradesh served as India’s first ambassador to the Soviet
A
Union, his helped the smooth transfer of power in India in 1964.
B C D
You should choose option B because his is put in the place of a subject. It
should be he.
2. Make sure that possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives are in the
correct form and are appropriate to the nouns or pronouns they refer to.
Directions : Circle the noun and underline the possessive
pronoun. Then decide which ones are wrong.
1. My sister Martha believes that she can do the job better than her
friends can.
2. I suspected that John had taken my dictionary because he said he lost
his yesterday.
3. My parents wanted me to drive my car because their is still under
repair.
4. I think that his ideas are worse than mine.
5. Can I borrow your book ? I couldn’t find mine.
Sample item 1
Roosevelt introduced an idea of him, the New Deal, to overcome the
A B C D
effects of the Great Depression.
You should choose option C because him is not the correct form of
possessive pronoun. It should be his.
Sample item 2
Stieglietz, one of the greatest American photographers, has been honored
A B
for work of theirs in providing a basis for the development of
C D
photography.
You should choose option C because theirs is not the correct possessive
pronoun. It should be his.
3. Make sure that reflexive pronouns are in the correct form and are
appropriate to the nouns or pronouns they refer to.
Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the reflexive
pronouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct
the mistakes.
1. My daughter Dana always does her homework herself.
2. My teacher always encourages his students to have faith in himself.
3. Did you yourself clean the living room and the bedroom ?
4. He should not think too highly of himself.
5. We really want you to be able to solve the problem ourselves.
Sample item 1
Charles Darwin herself wrote The Origin of Species during his five-year
A B C D
voyage on the Beagle.
You should choose option A because herself is not the correct reflexive
pronoun. It should be himself.
Sample item 2
Green turtles can find the way back theirselves to the same spot where
A B C D
they were born.
You should choose option B because theirselves is not the correct form of
reflexive pronoun. It should be themselves.
4. Be careful of the wrong uses of relative pronouns.
a. Do NOT put what place of which, and vice versa.
Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the relative
pronouns. Decides which ones are wrong. Correct
the mistakes.
1. In the Indus Valley, what is now Pakistan and western India, most
dwellings had drains for waste disposal.
2. Edgar Allan Poe’s reviews included principles of literary analysis
which affected later writers.
3. The Illiad describes events of the Trojan War, which was fought
between fought between Greece and the city of Troy.
4. A species related to poison ivy is poisonous oak, which grows in
the Pacific Northwest of the U.S.
5. Before World War II, Poland’s economy depended on agriculture
which employed about 60% of Polish workers.
Sample item
Jericho, what is believed to be the earliest known town, started to
A B
evolve from an area covering 10 acres into a town in 8000.
C D
You should choose option A because what does not refer to Jericho. It
should be which.
b. Do NOT put who in place of which, and vice versa. Check your
understanding
the mistakes.
1. Political parties are organized groups of people who control a
government.
2. Thomas Aquinas, who a great scholar, wrote Summa Theologica.
3. Every grain has an outer shell which may be smooth or wrinkled.
4. Jackson Pollock was an American artist who had an important
influence on modern painting.
5. Kublai Khan had a postal system which consisted of a network of
courier stations.
Sample item
The history of modern architecture includes the technology and the
A B
architects which designed buildings.
C D
You should choose option C because which cannot refer to people the
architects. It should be who.
c. Do NOT use the relative adverb if/we with a preposition.
the mistakes.
1. Polar bears hunt seals at holes in the ice the seals come up for air.
2. A meadow stream-pond develops a place in where a slowly
moving stream widens as it flows over sloping land.
3. In the U.S., pontoons have been used as permanent bridges in
places where deep water makes pier construction expensive.
4. In 1771, a porcelain industry developed near Limoges, where
kaolin deposits had been found.
5. Postal workers take mail from post boxes offices where it is sorted.
Sample item
Worchester was the location of the battle of 1651 in where Oliver
A B C
Cromwell defeated Charles II, ending the English Civil War.
D
You should choose option C because which should be used instead of
where. It should be in which.
5. Use the forms of other correctly. Another (singular) and others (plural)
refer to nonspecific nouns. The other (singular) and the others (plural)
refer to specific nouns.
Note :
While another and the other can be used as adjectives that modify nouns
(another car, the other girl others and the others cannot (not others
people, not the others house.)
Directions : Circle the forms of other. Then, decide which ones
are wrong. Correct the mistakes.
1. Some enjoy outdoor activities while others like indoor activities.
2. I need to do two things before leaving for school tomorrow : one is
water the plant and is feed my cat.
3. Do you still have the another work to do today ?
4. The professor assigned us several math problems, but I could only
solve few of them. Others are too difficult for me.
5. The design process often includes packaging, styling, retail displays,
and ether devices for distribution of mass-produced goods,
Sample item 1
Painting is one of the two techniques in decorating books in England in the
A B C
10 th and 11th centuries; another is colored-outline drawing.
D
You should choose option D because another cannot refer to the specific
noun technique. Therefore, it should be written the other.
Sample item 2
While millions of refugees driven by civil war, natural disaster and
A B
persecution seek safety outside of their countries, millions of others people
C
leave for temporary work.
D
You should choose option C because others is followed by people. It
should be millions of other people.
6. The nonreferential it may be confused with the nonreferential there. It
emphasizes identification while there emphasizes existence.
Directions : Circle the introductory words and underline the
verbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the
mistakes.
1. There is 150 breeds of dogs recognized by American Kennel Club
(AKC).
2. It is clear that poverty occurs in nations with undeveloped resources.
3. It is clear that American philosophers were the first to develop
pragmatism.
4. It is not known how humans and dogs first learned to coexist.
5. There is a social organization helping certain people to become
members of the parliament. .
Sample item 1
_______ in physics that work has a much more specific definition.
(A) There is clear
(B) It is clear
(C) Clear it is
(D) Though it is clear
The sentence needs a subject and the expletive it should be used since the
sentence emphasizes identification. So, the correct answer is option (B) It
is clear.
Sample item 2
_______ no distinction between axons, the nerve fiber, and dendrites in
invertebrates’ nerve net system,
(A) It has
(B) There has
(C) There is
(D) lt is
The phrase no distinction is the subject of the sentence and the expletive
there should be used since the sentence stresses the existence of no
distinction. So, the correct answer is option (C) There is.
UNIT 10
PARTS OF SPEECH
Adjectives and Adverbs
A. Adjectives
There are different types of adjectives and this unit takes up descriptive
adjectives, participles, and noun adjuncts (nouns that modify other nouns, and
so, they function as adjectives).
Adjectives modify nouns, appearing before the nouns or after linking verbs.
They also modify pronouns, usually appearing after linking verbs [be,
become, remain, etc.).
Descriptive Adjectives Examples
beatiful
intelligent He is intelligent
generous Pron. Adj.
James is a generous man.
Participles Adj. N
Present Past
intereting unterested They became bored
boring bored Pron. Adj.
spoiling spoiled
breaking broken The broken windows should be replaced.
selling sold Adj. N
grinding ground
The teacher awarded some pencil cases to her
N. Adjunct N
Noun Adjunct
a school bag students.
pencil cases Note :
a night cap Adj, : adjective
N : noun
Pron : pronoun
Strategieses
1. Do NOT use nouns in place of adjectives, and vice versa.
Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the adjectives.
1. Today, people are becoming more aware of the dangerous of smoking.
2. One of man’s basic instincts is to build shelter.
3. The principal is facing student resistance to the new regulations.
4. There are so many technique terms in the article.
5. Nobody seemed amused listening to his jokes.
Sample item
It is the long of the rod that determines how fast the pendulum swings
A B C D
back and forth.
You should choose option B because the article the should be followed by
a noun. It should be the length.
Sample item 2
The canal in Panama has made tourism in that country an importance
A B C D
business.
You should choose option D because an adjective should precede the noun
business. It should be an important business.
2. Use adjectives before nouns and after linking verbs.
Linking verbs
be prove
look taste
seem smell
appear become
remain keep
feel sound
Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the
mistakes.
1. The scientist looked confused when he read the report of the
research.
2. The student committee plans to hold an annual meeting this week.
3. A complete set of the books is necessary for the reference of the report.
4. He decided to visit the girl because she did not sound healthy on the
phone.
5. They remained calm upon hearing the terrible news.
Sample item 1
A hole small in the confer of the parachute canopy lessens the jolt when
A B C
the parachute opens.
D
You should choose option A because the adjective smallshould occur
before the noun hole. It should be small hole.
Sample item 2
The egg of a penguin remains warmly in the pouch above its feet.
A B C D
You should choose option C because the verb remains should be followed
by the adjective warm. It should be remains warm.
3. Be careful of participles. Present participles are active in meaning but past
participles are passive in meaning.
Decide which ones are wrong: Correct the
mistakes.
1. The students are assigned to read more about the amazed discoveries in
physics.
2. We decided to write about the electing president for our student
magazine.
3. Moral issues are always interesting to discuss.
4. Strongly motivated students usually succeed in their studies.
5. The teacher looked satisfied with her students’ performance in the
speech contest.
Sample item 1
Harold Ickes opposed the exploitation of his country's limiting natural
A B C D
resources.
You should choose option D because a past participle is needed instead of
a present participle to modify the noun natural resources. It should be
limited natural resources.
Sample item 2
During World War II, all the fought nations transported troops behind
A B C
enemy lines by plane.
D
You should choose option A because a present participle is needed to
modify the noun nations instead of the past participle fought It should be
the fighting nations.
4. Be careful of the position of noun adjuncts. They are nouns but they
function as adjectives. So noun adjuncts always precedes nouns they
modify.
Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the noun adjuncts.
1. Our school will go on a trip field next week.
2. The weather forecast predicted that there will be a heavy rain
tomorrow.
3. Show entertainments are mushrooming all over the worlds.
4. We need to go to a drug store to buy the medicine.
5. Some career women are taking post-graduate studies.
Sample item
Paris, located on the Seine, is the beautiful city capital of France.
A B C D
You should choose option D because the noun capitals used to modify the
noun city. It should be capital city.
B. Adverbs
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or the whole sentence. This
unit discusses only the first three. The position of adverbs is flexible,
depending on what is being emphasized.
Adjectives Adverbs Examples
fast fast The boys work diligently.
hard hard V Adv.
high high and highly OR
diligent diligenttly The boys diligently work.
careful carefully Adv. V
attentive attentively The students ore studying hard
V Adv.
Other adverbs (not formed The students looked deeply impressed by
from adjectives) Adv. Adj.
very the lecturer.
too They listened very attentively the
almost Adv. Adv.
never explanation
often They are too young to be married.
just Adv. Adj. .
merely Note :
recently V : Verb
really Adv. : Adverb
Adj. : Adjective
Strategieses
Do NOT use adverbs in place of adjectives, and vice versa.
Directions : Circle the adjectives and underline the adverbs.
1. The reference books are neat arranged in the library.
2. She talked very fast as she careless explained the problems to us.
3. The clothes are beautiful designed by the famous designer.
4. They danced well enough throughout the performance.
5. She quick became aware that he was looking at her.
Sample item 1
Clocks have special devices that give the pendulum a tiny push at regularly
A B C D
intervals.
You should choose option D because the word intervals is a noun and needs
an adjective instead of an adverb to modify the noun. It should be regular
intervals.
Sample item 2
Only a canal pilot with years of experience can safe guide fast ships through
A B C D
narrow channels and locks.
You should choose option C because the verb guide should be modified by an
adverb instead of the adjective safe. It should be safely guide.
UNIT 11
SIMPLE SENTENSE
A simple sentence has one subject and one verb, although the subject and the verb
may be compound.
Examples
Peru is the third-largest country in South America.
S V
John and Marion have been studying and working in Tokyo for seven years.
Compound s Compound V
There are certain structures that can cause confusion in finding the subject and the
verb of a sentence. The structures taken up in this unit are prepositional phrases,
appositives and participial phrases.
Prepositional phrases are phrases that are preceded by prepositions like In, df, on,
to, by, behind f and they contain nouns as the object of preposition (OP). These
nouns are often mistaken for subjects.
Examples
The passengers on the bus were all sweating and restless.
S Prep.Phr. V
Only one out of 50 interviewees was accepted.
S Preposional Phr. V
OP = the bus
50 interviewees
Appositives are words or phrases that provide more information about subjects or
objects. Nouns in appositives are often mistaken for the subjects.
Examples
Carla, one of the brightest studei has been chosen to join the competition.
S Appositive V
The workers, desperate over the company policy, are going on strike.
S Appositive V
Participial phrases are phrases that are preceded by either present or past
participles. In this structure, the participle, which modifies a noun, can be
mistaken for the verb of the sentence.
Examples
The children leaping out of their beds were screaming with fright.
S Present participial phrase. V
Greats essays, praised by the teacher, were submitted for the writing
S Past participial phrase. V
competition.
Strategieses
1. Make sure that the sentence has a subject and a verb.
Directions : Find the subjects and the verbs. Decide whether
any are missing. Supply the missing subjects and
verbs,
1. Various people all over the world have practiced different forms of
marriage.
2. The first experiences in the home mark the beginning of education.
3. Home life influenced by the way a family is organized.
4. In ancient Rome, had absolute authority over his children.
5. The members of a family may have certain responsibilities toward each
other.
Sample item 1
________ was the patron and protector of the city of Athens.
(A) The goddess Athena
(B) That the goddess Athena
(C) It is the goddess Athena
(D) Being the goddess Athena
The sentence needs a subject. So, the correct answer is (A) The goddess
Athena.
Sample item 2
Tens of thousands of Maoris ____ between 1815 and 1840 in intertribal wars.
(A) when died
(B) they died
(C) dying
(D) died
The sentence needs a verb. So, the correct answer is (D) died.
2. Make sure that there are no double or repeated subjects or verbs in a sentence.
Directions : Find the subjects and the verbs. Decide whether
there are repeated subjects or verbs. Correct the
mistakes.
1. To curb waste of time at meetings, some executives they have resorted to
the use of stopwatches, whistles, and uncomfortable chairs.
2. Repeated studies have shown that the length, texture and coarseness of
one's hair they are not determined by how often it is cut.
3. Noisy toys register more than 100 decibels harm kids' hearing.
4. For many people, gardening can provide contentment in life.
5. Changes in earth's atmosphere and oceans caused by humans have
contributed to more frequent and more severe natural disasters.
Sample item
In a good season, a bee hive it can produce about 60 pounds of honey.
A B C D
You should choose C because there is a repetition of the subject. The sentence
already has a subject a bee hive and does not need the extra subject it. It
should be ..., a bee hive can ....
3. Do NOT confuse objects of prepositions with the subjects of sentences.
Directions : Find the subjects and the verbs. Circle the objects
of prepositions. Decide which ones are wrong.
1. All the flowers in the garden is watered every day.
2. Many students in Room 204 come from different parts of the world.
3. Most information from the articles are inaccurate.
4. In this university, students with a lot of work experience have a greater
chance of getting a part time job.
5. Farmers in this country still work by hand or with the help of animals.
Sample item
In the Middle Ages, _______ of Western music used a system for notating
their compositions, so they couid be performed by musicians.
(A) that composers
(B) composers
(C) composers who
(D) composers they
The sentence needs a subject. In the Middle Ages is a prepositional phrase and
the middle ages is the object of preposition, not the subject. So, the correct
answer is (B) composers.
4. Be careful of appositives that explain or identify subjects or objects. Make
sure that there is no unnecessary verb or construction within a sentence.
Directions : Circle the subjects or the objects that are explained
or identified by appos! fives. Underline the apposi
fives. Decide what is wrong. Correct the mistakes.
1. The Adams-Omnis Treaty, a transcontinental treaty, is an agreement
between the United States and Spain.
2. That the capital city of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, is an important convention
center for international African conferences.
3. Joseph Addison is best known for his collaboration with Sir Richard Steele
in writing and publishing The Spectator, is a series of popular essays in
1712.
4. Joy Adamson, was an author and painter, became famous for her book
Born Free: A Lioness of Two Worlds.
5. A Welsh politician and trade union leader, William Abraham was elected
to Parliament in 1885.
Sample item 1
A great Italian astronomer, _______ laid the foundations for modern
experimental science.
(A) That Galileo
(B) Galileo is
(C) Galileo
(D) Galileo who
The sentence needs a subject. So, the correct answer is (C) Galileo.
Sample item 2
The Acropolis, _____ in ancient Greece, dominates the city of Athens.
(A) a fortified natural stronghold
(B) by fortifying a natural stronghold
(C) to fortify a natural stronghold
(D) fortifying a natural stronghold
The sentence needs an appositive. So, the correct answer is (A) a fortified
natural stronghold.
5. Be careful of the use of present and past participles. Present participles are
active in meaning and past participles are passive in meaning.
Directions : Underline the present and past participles. Decide
1. The furniture making by the carpenter is exported to many countries.
2. The lady taught English in this school is my aunt.
3. The first lesson taught by Professor Green was very difficult.
4. The fried noodle serving in this restaurant is one of the most delicious
dishes.
5. The report written by Dr. Brown's secretary has many spelling mistakes.
Sample item I
Osteoarthritis is a chronic disease _______ deterioration of the joint cartilage.
(A) causing
(B) be caused
(C) to cause
(D) caused
The sentence needs a present participle to explain a chronic disease. So, the
correct answer is (A) causing.
Sample item 2
An allergic reaction is sensitivity to a specific substance __________ allergen.
(A) be called
(B) calling
(C) called
(D) to call
The sentence needs a past participle to explain a specific substance. So/the
correct answer is (C) called.
UNIT 12
AGREEMENT
Subject-Verb
The basic concept of subject-verb agreement is that verbs must agree in person
and in number with their subjects. This unit discusses subject-verb agreement in
number since this is a very common problem in the TOEFL.
Agreement in number means that singular subjects must be followed by singular
verbs, and plural subjects by plural verbs.
Examples
The solution to the problems is quite simple.
S V
Some of the ink was spilled.
S V
The girls have breakfast at 6 a.m.
S V
Some of the students are Indians.
S V
Strategieses
1. Be careful of verbs after collective nouns.
Collective nouns
family army jury
committee navy class
government flock band
team colony majority
group audience board
public council enemy
a. Collective nouns referring to the unit as a whole are followed by singular
verbs.
Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the verbs. Decide
1. The jury have finally come to a decision.
2. The class arpdoing an exam.
3. The board has agreed on the proposal.
4. The majority are opposing the new government policy on income tax.
5. The badminton team were one of the best in the world.
Sample item
In other words, the ant colony consist of the queen and her children - the
A B C D
workers.
You should choose option C because the verb following the subject the ant
colony, a collective noun that refers to a unit as a whole, should be in
singular form. It should be consists.
b. Collective nouns referring to the different members comprising the unit
are followed by plural verbs.
Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the verbs. Decide
1. The family hds been arriving from different towns.
2. The band how tuning their musical instruments.
3. A second group are now rehearsing their parts in the play.
4. The committee jb<ds been blaming each other for the fatal decision.
5. The government have worked on various projects.
Sample item
The audience was asking many questions on the controversial issue.
A B C D
You should choose option B because the verb following the subject The
audience, a collective noun that refers to the individual members of the
audience, should be in plural form. It should be were.
2. Subjects starting with the following phrases can be singular or plural
depending on the nouns that follow them.
some of the all of the
any of the none of the
most of the
Directions : Circle the subjects and underline the verbs. Decide
1. Most of the students know,s that there is going to be a test.
2. None of the workers wanri to quit their jobs.
3. All of the water has been used for the plants.
4. Hardly any of the magazines contain good articles.
5. Some of the journey was done by night.
Sample item
Because much of the state of Nevada is barren desert, some of the
A B
government’s nuclear bomb tests has been set off underground in this state.
C D
You should choose option C because the verb of the subject some of the
governments nuclear bomb tests, a plural noun, should be in plural form. It
should be have been.
3. The words on the list below are grammatically singular, and should always
take singular verbs.
anybody anyone anything each (-h singular noun)
everybody everyone everything every (+ singular noun)
nobody no one nothing
somebody someone something
1. Somebody is knocking at the door.
2. Nobody wants to be treated unfairly.
3. Everything seems to be working as planned.
4. Nothing in this world iscertain.
5. Each student in all of the classes isto write at least two papers in one
semester.
Sample item
There is a basic tenet of law that says everyone are innocent until proven
A B C
guilty.
D
You should choose option B because the subject everyone is singular and it
needs a singular verb. It should be is.
4. Be careful of prepositional phrases that come between subjects and verbs. The
verb must agree with the subject of the sentence, NOT with the noun in the
prepositional phrase.
Directions : Find the subjects and underline the verbs. Decide
1. The buildings behind our school are old.
2. The participants of the seminar are all teachers.
3. The students in the next classroom are all present.
4. The population of many towns owgrowing too fast.
5. The data of the poll show that many people still believe in the current
government.
Sample item
Governments in times of need often switches to flat money, which is not
A B
backed by reserves of another commodity.
C D
You should choose option A because the verb must agree with the plural
subject Governments. It should be switch.
5. Be careful of the expletive there. The verb agrees with the subject that comes
after the verb.
Directions : Circle the verbs and underline the subjects. Decide
1. There are no cars in the parking lot.
2. There remains no doubt of his integrity.
3. There were a lot of campers on the site.
4. There were long lines of people when we arrived to buy the concert
tickets.
5. You could see that there was grief in his face.
Sample item
There appear to be great confusion among the residents in the areas stricken
A B C D
by the hurricane.
You should choose option A because the subject great confusion is a singular
noun and it requires a singular verb, not the plural verb appear. It should be
appears.
6. Be careful of adverb phrases at the beginning of sentences. The verb that
comes before the subject should agree with the subject, NOT with the noun in
the adverbial phrase.
1. From the ceiling dangle a mass of spider webs.
2. In the box are the things aeeded by the students.
3. At the end of this street lies the church that is centuries old.
4. After winning the beauty contest come Endless activities for Miss
Indonesia.
5. In between the rocks grows lichen.
Sample item
Among the children’s books published in the U.S. in 1944 were Esther
A B C D
Forbes’s Johnny Tremaine.
You should choose option D because the subject is Esther Forbes's Johnny
Tremaine, a singular noun that needs a singular verb. It should be was.
7. Some nouns with -s endings are singular and take singular verbs.
aerobics physics genetics measles
athletics economics mechanics diabetes
billiards mathematics statistics mumps
cards linguistics politics rabies
bowls obstetrics electronics shingles
1. Mumps is a viral disease.
2. Mathematics gives me a headache.
3. Athletics is popular in my country
4. Billiards is not so popular today
5. Politics play an important part in modern life.
Sample item
Mechanics, a branch of physics, concern the motions of objects and their
A B C D
response to forces.
You should choose option B because the subject Mechanics is a singular noun
that needs a singular verb. It should be concerns.
UNIT 13
PARALEL STRUCTURE
When you present information in a series, it must be stated in the same

grammatical form or parallel structure. Words must be matched with words,
phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses. Nouns must be matched with
nouns, adjectives with adjectives, and verbs with verbs. This unit focuses on
parallel words and phrases in sentences. The conjunctions and, but and or are
used to coordinate equally important pieces of information.
Examples
Words with words
• Nouns : Do the rich know about disease, hunger, and poverty
• Adjectives : Amanda is rich and intelligent, but unfriendly.
• Adverbs : She smiled sweetlyand politely.
Phrases with phrases
• Infinitives : Rita wants to teach in kindergarten or (to) write children's
stories.
• Gerunds: Paul likes reading fiction, watching movies, and playing
outdoor sports.
• Verbs : After dinner, she cleaned the table and washed the dishes.
• Prepositions : The reward rests not ^n the task but m, the pay. (John. K.
Galbraith)
Strategieses
Words or phrases in a series must be the same part of speech or a similar parallel
form.
Directions : Circle the connectives and underline the supposedly
parallel parts. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the
mistakes.
1. Human beings are often ignorant, pitiless, and show brutality.
2. A healthful diet should be rich in vegetables, fruit and cereals.
3. She wanted to do two things : to work part time to finish her studies.
4. Before acquiring language, babies detect differences in musical tones and
charys in the tempo and the rhythm of the music.
5. Women should exercise regularly but not excessively because hard physical
workouts can trigger hormone production.
Sample item 1
Dietary proteins are powerful compounds that build and _____ body tissues, from
hair and fingernails to muscles.
(A) repairing
(B) repair
(C) repaired
(D) to repair
The word and used to connect the verb another verb in the same forrm So the
correct answer is (B) repair.
Sample item 2
The earliest Roman art is generally associated with the overthrow of the Etrus can
A B
kings and the establish of the Republic in 509 B.C.
C D
You should choose option D because the word establish should be parallel with
the noun overthrow. It should be establishment.
UNIT 14
WORD CHOICE
A number of words in English often cause problems because they have an

apparently similar form, meaning, or sound. They are often used incorrectly in
place of each other.
Preposition Adverb Near is a preposition. It means close to.
Nearly an adverb. It means almost
near nearly
Examples
He lives near the campus.
Prep.
Verb Adverb + Adjective Nearly all of the students in my doss participated in
Adv.
like a like
the outing.
Like is a verb, meaning enjoy. It can also be a

Prepositions
preposition followed by an object and mean
like similar.
Unlike is a preposition, meaning not typical/similar.
unlike
It appears after a linking verb or before a noun.
Alike is an adverb meaning equally. It is also an
adjective meaning similar and appears after a
linking verb, but not before a noun.
Examples
Cathy likes ice cream.
V
Andy enjoys outdoor activities like jogging and
Prep.
hiking.
It is unlike Carlo to be so quiet.
Prep.
Unlike his brother, John has a sense of humor.
Prep.
Our parents treat us all alike.
Adv.
The twins Maria and Myra look very much alike.
Adj.
Verb adjective Live [liv] is a verb.
live alive Alive [a’laiv] is an adjective used after a linking verb.
live Live [laiv] and living are adjectives used before a noun.
living
Examples
Adjective Adverb My cousin lived in Surabaya but now he lives in Jakarta.
hard hard V V
hardly The lady was still alive when I left her.
Linking V
Verb They staged a live performance
make Adj.
do A living creature needs oxygen
Adj.
Hard can be an adjective or an adverb depending on its

function in the sentences.
Hardly is an adverb, meaning barely or scarcely.
Examples
Clay becomes hard when it is heated.
Adj.
It rained hand last night.
Adv.
They could hardly blame him; he was not even there.
Adv.
The verb make means produce or create; the verb do

means perform or act These verbs are not
interchangeable and they are used in special collocations
such as make war, make the bed, do homework, do
research, etc.
Examples
They made me an offer of Rp 400,000.
They made a lot of mistakes.
Can you do repairs on my car ?
He did his homework very well.
Strategieses
1. Be careful of near and nearly. They have different meanings and functions.
Directions : Circle the words near or nearly. Decide which uses are
1. We are nearly finished this paper.
2. I’ll be seeing you in the nearly future.
3. The detective solves the mystery nearly the end of the story.
4. Arnold nearly gave up on the difficult project.
5. The project is nearly completed.
Sample item
The strongest winds on Saturn are found nearly the equator.
A B C D
You should choose option D because the sentence needs a preposition before
the noun the equator. It should be near the equator.
2. The words like, unlike, and alike have different functions and meanings.
Directions : Circle the words like, unlike or alike. Decide which ones
are used wrongly. Correct the mistakes.
1. Unlike Oregon, Florida is a hot and humid state.
2. Brothers and sisters are usually like in character and habit.
3. Rita does not look like her mother.,
4. This power plant, unlike the last one, is very huge and complicated.
5. Alike the previous one, the present math teacher is very strict.
Sample item
Alike most other mice, jumping mice hibernate.
A B C D
You should choose option A because the word alike is an adjective that should
come after a linking verb/not a noun. A preposition should be used before a
noun. It should be Like.
3. The words live, alive and Hying are often interchangeably misused. Check
your understanding.
Directions : Circle the words live, alive and living. Decide which ones
1. Most teenagers like live rock concerts.
2. The dog run over by a bike is still living.
3. Doctors kept my grandpa live on a life-support machine.
4. Henry is the alive image of his father.
5. The concert was broadcast live.
Sample item
The sea fan consists of an alive colony of individual coral animals.
A B C D
You should choose option B because the word alive cannot be used before the
noun colony. You should use the adjective living. It should be a living colony.
4. Be careful of the words hare/and hardly. Check your understanding.
Directions : Circle the words hard, and hardly. Decide which ones
1. I hardly have enough time to finish the assignment.
2. He slammed the door hardly to express his anger.
3. I can hard understand the discussion in the seminar.
4. He hardly ever goes to the library.
5. The football team played hard to win the game.
Sample item
The cause of narcolepsy, a disease that causes excessive sleepiness, is hard
A B C D
known.
You should choose option D because the adverb hard\s not the right form to
modify the verb known. It should be hardly.
5. Pay attention to the words make and do
Directions : Circle the words make and do. Decide which ones are
1. It is important that students do their assignments.
2. Those two faculties do not like to make business with each other.
3. One must make his or her best to achieve his or her goals.
4. Fiona is happy because she has succeeded in making her research.
5. Good students learn from their experience when they make mistakes.
Sample item
Albert Einstein theories have done a great contribution to the development of
A B C
modern science.
D
You should choose option A because the word done does not collocate with a
great contribution. It should be made.
UNIT 15
UNDERSTANDING WORD REFERENCE
Reference of IT, THEY, ITS, THEIR, and THEM
The word reference comes from the verb to refer, which means to relate, A
referenfs the noun that a pronoun or a possessive adjective refers to. The noun is
generally used first, and the pronoun that it refers to comes after. Some questions
in the Reading Comprehension section of the TOEFL ask you to point out the
referent of a pronoun (it, the/or fhem) or of a possessive adjective (its or fhe//).
The referent can be found in the phrase (s) or sentence (s) before the pronoun or
the possessive adjective. In some cases, the referent might come after it.
Example
Line Many scientists think that dolphins, closely related to whales and
porpoises, are among the most intelligent animals. Humans train in
captivity these friendly creatures, which are eager to interact with them.
When dolphins are well trained, they can jump through hoops, throw
5 balls through nets, and even walk backward on the water.
Just as whales and porpoises are, dolphins are mammals. They feed
their young with milk produced profusely in the mother’s body. Unlike
fish, dolphins have lungs and are warm-blooded. Regardless of the
temperature of the surroundings, their temperature always stays about
10
the same.
There are about 40 species of dolphins known to exist in Earth’s
oceans and freshwater rivers. But the bottle-nosed dolphin and the
common dolphin are much better known. Scientists have tried to
understand dolphin intelligence and they have done research mainly with
these two species. The bottle-nosed dolphin has a short beak. It makes
15 the dolphin Ipok like it is smiling. The common dolphin has a dark band
down its long, narrow beak and around its eyes.
Adapted from The World Book Student Discovery Encyclopedia, Volume 4
Sample questions
1. The word “them” in line 3 refers to ________.
(A) scientists
(B) animals
(C) humans
(D) creatures
2. The phrase “their temperature” in line 9 refers to the temperature of
(A) fish
(B) dolphins
(C) lungs
(D) surroundings
3. The word “they” in line 12 refers to
(A) dolphins
(B) oceans
(C) rivers
(D) scientists
4. The word “It” in line 14 refers to
(A) dolphin intelligence
(B) research
(C) the bottle-nosed dolphin
(D) a short beak
5. The word “its” in line 15 refers to
(A) the bottle-nosed dolphin
(B) the common dolphin
(C) a dark band
(D) long, narrow beak
Explanation
1. Look for plural nouns before the pronoun them. The nouns creatures, humans,
animals, and scientists are all plural nouns, but the logical noun that can be
replaced by the pronoun them is humans. Therefore, (C) is the correct answer.
2. Do the same thing. You should look for plural nouns before the word their.
The plural nouns before their are surroundings, lungs, dolphins, and fish. The
noun that can correctly be replaced by the word their \r\ relation to
temperature is dolphins. The right answer is (B).
3. The plural nouns before the/are scientists, rivers, oceans, and dolphins. The
plural noun that can best be replaced by scients scientists, so the correct
answer is (D).
4. Do the same thing, but this time, look for singular nouns. The singular nouns
before the pronoun it are a short beak, the bottle-nosed dolphin, research, and
dolphin intelligence. The noun that can best replace the pronoun it is a short
beak. So, the right answer is (D).
5. The singular nouns that come before the word its are the long, narrow beak, a
dark band, the common dolphin, and the bottle-nosed dolphin. The noun that
can best be substituted by its is the common dolphin. Therefore, the answer is
(B).
Strategieses
1. Find the pronoun in the passage in the line that is stated in the question.
2. The pronoun it and the possesive adjective its rfer to a singular noun such as a
things, an animal or a plant. The pronouns they and them, and the possesive
adjective their, refer to a plural noun such as things, animals, plants or people.
3. Read the phrase (s) oe sentence (s) before the pronoun.
4. Look carefully for only plural nouns oe singular nouns, depending on the
pronoun or the possesive adjective.
5. Decide which of the nouns can correctly be replaced by the pronoun.
UNIT 16
FINDING SPECIFIC INFORMATION
One question type in the Reading Comprehension section asks you to find what
line (s) in the passage a piece of information is written. Before checking the
passage for all the lines listed as options, you should understand the key word or
key idea of the question. The correct information in the passage is often a
restatement of the key word or key idea of the question.
Example
Line Bioluminescence, defined as the emission of visible light by living
organisms, is a characteristic of many near-surface ocean creatures. Most
of these creatures produce light when they are irritated by something
around them. Scientists have produced light the way these animals do,
but the light which is produced by living creatures in the dark will
5 always be beautiful.
There are about forty main kinds of organisms that produce
bioluminescence. Of these organisms, fireflies are the best known as
insects that have lights. Fireflies can control their lights so that they
serve as signals between males and females. Other insects such as the
cucujo beetle and the lantern fly, which are found in tropical forests,
10 produce a very intense light. It is so bright that an army surgeon once

performed an operation under the light of a beetle.,
Adapted from 11963 Science Research Associates, Inc., Brown LAB IIIb
Sample questions
1. Where in the passage does the author give a definition ?
(A) Lines T-2
(B) Lines 3-5
(C) Line 6
(D) Line 7
2. Where in the passage does the author mention the use of the insect light to
illuminate surgery?
(A) Lines 2-3
(B) Lines 7-8
(C) Lines 9-10
(D) Lines lO-ll
Explanation
1. Question 1 asks you to find a definition. In line 1, you find ...
bloluminescence, defined ...i and you should recognize that it is the definition
of bioluminescence. The correct answer is (A).
2. Question 2 asks you to find information about the use of the insect light in
surgery. The words surgeon and operation in line 11 tell you that the light is
used in surgery. So, the correct answer is (D).
Strategieses
1. Determine the key word or key idea of the question.
2. Find in the passage all the liness listed as options.
3. the lines that contain a similar thought to the key word or key idea are the
correct answer. The information un the passage is a restatement of the
question.
4. Choose the option that contains the line number (s) of the information.
UNIT 17
FINDING SPECIFIC INFORMATION
Answering WHAT, WHEN, and WHERE Questions
Some of the questions in the TOEFL Reading Comprehension section are about
stated specific information. This unit discusses how to answer what, when, and
where questions. To answer those kinds of questions, you should find out what the
key word or key idea of the question is, and find in the passage the piece of
information that has a similar meaning to the key word or key idea. The answer is
a restatement of what is stated in the passage.
Example
Line The Maya were a large group of Indians who lived in Mesoamerica –
present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize and western
Honduras. It is believed that these people came across the Bering Strait
with the other Native Americans, but soon migrated south. Around the
5 year 5000 B.C., the Maya people settled on the coastlands, forming
small fishing villages. By 2000 B.C., the Maya moved inland and began
to raise maize and beans. These plants became their main source of food.
Mayan harvests were large, and the people had food to spare. Good
harvests and extra food helped make the Maya a wealthy and powerful
10 people. They created fine architecture, developed the art of making
pottery and introduced the first known American systems of irrigation. A
form of writing emerged, and the Maya began their first recorded
history.
About the year 1000, a heavy drought hit Mesoamerica. The Mayan
crops failed, causing famine and death for many Mayas in the mountain
areas. The Maya in the lowlands fared a little better. However, the
15 Spanish explorers of the 13th and 14th centuries came and brought new
diseases that the Maya could not cope with. Diseases and Spanish
conquerors finally caused the Mayan empires to collapse. The last
Mayan kingdom surrendered to the Spaniards in 1697. After the
Spaniards conquered Mexico, much of the traditional Mayan culture was
destroyed.
Sample questions
1. Where did the Maya live when they started to become farmers?
(A) Bering Strait
(B) North America
(C) On the coastlands
(D) Inland
2. When did the terrible natural disaster strike the Maya?
(A) Around the year 5000
(B) In 2000 B.C.
(C) Around the year 1000
(D) In 1697
3. What was NOT evidence of the advanced state of Mayan civilization ?
(A) The setting up of fishing villages
(B) The introduction of irrigation methods
(C) The development of the art of making pottery
(D) The emergence of .a writing form
4. What happening caused the Mayan empires to collapse?
(A) A severe drought
(B) Crop failure
(C) Famine and death
(D) Diseases and the Spanish conquest
Explanation
1. Question 1 asks where and the key idea is become farmers. Look in the
passage for information about farmers. The similar idea is stated in line 6,
moved inland and began to raise maize and beans. The correct answer is (D)
Inland^ the place where the Maya began to farm.
2. Question 2 asks when and the key idea is natural disaster In the passage, the
same idea is expressed as a phrase in line 12, a heavy drought The correct
option is (C) Around the year 1000.
3. Question 3 asks what .., NOT. The key idea is NOT evidence of. The passage
mentions introduced irrigation methods developed the art of making pottery,
and a form of writing emergedas evidence that made the Maya a wealthy and
powerful people. The phrase forming small fishing villages is not good
evidence of advanced civilization. So, the correct answer is (A).
4. The last question asks about an event. The key idea is caused... to collapse.
Look in the passage for similar idea. The information is in lines 15 and 16:
Diseases and Spanish conquerors caused the Mayan empires to cave in. The
correct answer is (D).
Strategieses
1. Choose the key word or key idea of the question
2. Find a similar idea in the passage.
3. Try to understand the information in the passage countaining the key word.
4. Look for an option that best restates the information in the passage.
UNIT 18
GUESSING WORD MEANING FROM CONTEXT
Finding Clues from Punctuation, Restatement, and Examples
A number of questions in the TOEFL Reading Comprehension section test your

understanding of English words. If the words tested are unfamiliar to you, you can
use context clues to guess their meanings. Context clues help explain or clarify the
meanings of particular words. Some clues come in the form of :
1. Punctuation
2. Restatements
3. Examples
1. Punctuation
Punctuation marks such as parentheses [(...)], commas [, ... or ... and dashes
[ — ... or —...—] indicates that a word is explained within the sentence itself.
2. Restatements
An unknown word in a sentence may be explained in a phrase or a clause that
means the same thing as the word. This clause or phrase may be introduced by
these signal words :
• or
• that is or i.e.
• in other words
• that is to say
3. Examples
The meaning of an unknown word can also be guessed from examples
mentioned in the passage because examples usually give some idea of what
the unknown word means. The following signal words may introduce
examples :
• Such • like • including
• such as • especially
• for instance • as
• for example • e.g.
Example
Line Stress occurs when the pressure on a person seems to be overwhelming
or out of control. Stress can create feelings of conflict and/or anxiety
within an individual. Some kinds of stress, such as increased financial
responsibilities, are easily recognized. Other kinds of stress, such as
trying to earn peer acceptance, may go undetected. If stress is not
5
identified and resolved, it can gradually deteriorate one's ability to
function. Thus, stressful people experience an imbalance between the
demands placed on them and their ability to meet these demands. Stress
can cause physical symptoms like sweaty palms, fast heartrate,
andchurning stomach.
10 Stress it self is not necessarily bad, but at times, is in fact, useful.
Some stress is even inevitable. Take for example, if you experience a
necessary change in your life. A certain amount of stress helps people
focus and get things done. Stress helps people reach hard goals and do
their best. A degree of stress boosts performance. In short, stress keeps
15
people going. It is the mindset – the frame of thought though, which
determines if the stress becomes uncontrollable anxiety or not.
Sample questions
1. The word “overwhelming” in line 1 is closest in meaning to __________.
(A) unmanageable
(B) influencing
(C) worrying
(D) unpredictable
2. The word “symptoms” in line 8 can best be replaced by _________.
(A) illustrations
(B) signs
(C) weaknesses
(D) declines
3. The word “mindset” in line 14 is closest in meaning to ________.
(A) awareness
(B) wisdom
(C) self-discipline
(D) way of thinking
Explanation
1. The clue that may help you to understand the word overwhelming is the word
or – a sign of restatement. The word overwhelming has a similar meaning to
out of control. Out of control meow something beyond your capability, so the
most logical answer is (A) unmanageable.
2. The clue like that comes after symptoms indicates that the words following the
due are examples – sweat / palms, fast heart rate and churning stomach.
These are not kinds of diseases. Instead, they are signs that one may suffer
from a disease. Therefore, the most logical answer is (B) signs.
3. To answer the last question, look at the clue near the tested word. The word
mindset is followed by a dash (-) indicating that the following phrase the
frame of thoughts a further explanation of the word mindset. The word that is
closest in meaning to the word mindsets (D) way of thinking.
Strategieses
1. Find the word to be defined in the passage.
2. Read the sinrence in which the word is located.
3. Look for a clue in the form of parentheses, dashes or examples to help you
understand the meaning of the word.
4. Choose the best answer based on the clue.
UNIT 19
GUESSING WORD MEANING FROM CONTEXT
Finding Glues from Surrounding Words
Unit 18 explains how to find clues from punctuation, restatements and examples.
This unit deals with how to find clues from the surrounding words as these words
explain or clarify the meaning of unfamiliar words that are tested.
Example
Line Yeasts, especially those of the genus Saccharomyces, have long been
of commercial importance. As the chief agents of alcoholic fermentation,
they are essential to the making of beer, wine, and other alcoholic
beverages and industrial alcohol. Wild yeasts, those found in nature and
5 probably carried by insects from the soil to fruits, are frequently active in
the fermentation process. In bread making, yeasts act upon the
carbohydrates in the dough to form carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.
They are driven off in the baking process. The escaping carbon dioxide
then causes the bread to rise.
Adapted from www.encarfa.com
Sample questions
1. The word “essential” in line 3 can best be replaced by______.
(A) important
(B) expensive
(C) suitable
(D) applicable
2. The word “driven off” in line 7 is closest in meaning to ______.
(A) modified
(B) applied
(C) initiated
(D) removed
Explanation
1. The nearby phrase that helps you to understand the word essentials the chief
agents, The word chief gives the idea that yeasts are important in the
fermentation process in the making of alcoholic drinks. Therefore, (A)
important'is the correct answer.
2. The surrounding words that may help you to understand the unfamiliar phrase
driven off are the escaping carbon dioxide causes the bread to rise. The
substance was driven off the bread during the baking process. The most
probable answer is (D) removed.
Strategieses
1. Find the word to be defined in the passage.
2. Read the sentence where the word or phrase is located, or the sentences before
or after that sentence.
3. Use the context of nearby words to figure out the unknown word.
4. Choose the best answer based on the clue.
UNIT 20
FINDING THE MAIN IDEA
In the TOEFL Reading Comprehension section, there are questions about the
topic, the title, or the main idea of a passage. All of these questions essentially ask
about the same thing. The topic is what the passage discusses; the title represents
what the passage is all about; and the main idea is the main point the writer wants
to convey. The main idea of a passage can be either stated or unstated (implied) in
the passage. This unit discusses explicitly stated main ideas. To answer questions
about the main idea, you should carefully read the first line of each paragraph of
the passage and look for a common theme throughout these lines.
Example 1
Line Of the various tribes living in the Ituri rain forest of Africa, Pygmies
are the most unusual. They are perfectly formed people except that they
weigh only about eighty pounds with a height of not more than four feet.
Pygmies are great travelers, capable of moving in the treetops almost as
expertly as monkeys. Often they travel great distances through tree
5 branches without touching the ground.
Pygmies are also renowned as great hunters as they can shoot three or
four arrows one after another so rapidly that often the last one leaves the
bow before the first has reached its target. If an arrow misses its target,
the impatient Pygmy may fly into a rage, breaking his arrows and
stamping on them. Regardless of their extraordinary little bodies,
10
Pygmies can consume a large amount of food. One Pygmy can finish a
stalk of sixty bananas at a single meal, in addition to quantities of meat.
After eating, he will lie on his hard earth bed and groan in pain all night.
In the morning, he is ready to eat the same amount of food all over
again.
Sample questions
1. What is the main idea of the passage ?
The Pygmy is
(A) a unique tribe in the Ituri rain forest of Africa
(B) a very skillful forest people
(C) the African tribe best in hunting
(D) a tribe in Africa living in isolation
2. Which of the following would be the best title for this passage?
(A) Civilizing the Pygmy
(B) Living in the Forest of Africa
(C) The Wonders of Nature
(D) The Incredible Pygmy
Explanation
1. The first sentence of paragraph one shows that the paragraph talks about how
unusual the Pygmies are. The first sentence of paragraph two also supports the
unusualness of the tribe. Option (B) is too general; option (C) is too specific,
used in support of the main idea in the first sentence; and option (D) is not
correct because the passage does not tell about isolation at all. Therefore, the
correct answer is (A).
2. To answer question 2, find a common idea that covers all the details of the
passage. Since the passage tells about the uniqueness of the Pygmies, the
correct answer is (D) The Incredible Pygmy,
Example 2
Line Dew, the thin film of water that has condensed on the surface of
objects near the ground, forms when radiational cooling of these objects
during the night time hours also cools the shallow layer of overlying air
5 in contact with them. It then causes the condensation of some water
vapor. This condensation occurs if the capacity of air to hold water vapor
lessens as the air is cooled. Dew forms most readily on those surfaces
that lose heat through radiation most efficiently but are insulated from
external heat sources. Dew Ts easily formed if humidity in the lowest
10
layers of air is high. The humidity either supplies the moisture or at least
inhibits the evaporation of the dew already deposited. Strong winds
reduce dew formation since they mix a larger layer of air, creating a
more homogeneous distribution of heat and water vapor. Under such
conditions, it is unlikely that a sufficiently cool and damp layer of air
can form near the ground.
Adapted from The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedic 2003, Columbia University Press
Sample question
What does the passage mainly discuss?
(A) The condensation of water vapor
(B) The impact of humidity on dew formation
(C) How dew is formed
(D) Where dew is formed
Explanation
The question asks about the topic or subject of the passage. Read the first sentence
that says Dew ...forms when .... The next sentences give details of how dew is
formed.
Options (A) and (B) refer to details and option (D) is also too specific, not
reflecting the general idea of the passage. The correct answer is [C\ How dew is
formed.
Strategieses
1. Read the first line of the paragraph, or, if the passage consists of more than
one paragraph, the first sentences of all the paragraph.
2. Look for a common theme or general idea that covers the supporting details.
3. Go over the rest of the passage to check if you found the correct common
theme or idea.
4. Choose the answer that has the same idea as that found in the passage.
UNIT 21
MAKING INFERENCES
Some questions in the Reading Comprehension section require answers that are
not directly or explicitly stated in the passage. Questions of this type use the
words implied, inferred, likely, or probably. You must look for stated facts from
which you can make an inference or draw a probable conclusion.
Example
Line Louis Pasteur, a French scientist born in 1822, made major scientific
contributions that have greatly benefited humanity. His discovery that
germs are the cause of most infectious diseases is one of the most
important discoveries in medical history. His work became the
5 foundation for the science of microbiology and the basis of modern
medicine.
Pasteur’s exceptional works in microbiology and medicine can be
summarized as follows. First, he championed changes in hospital
practices to minimize the spread of diseases by microbes. Second, he
10 discovered that weakened forms of a germ could be used as a vaccine

against stronger forms of the germ. Third, Pasteur found that rabies was
transmitted by agents so small that they could not be seen under a
microscope. These agents are later known as viruses. He then developed
techniques to vaccinate dogs against rabies, and treat humans bitten by
rabid dogs. And fourth, Pasteur introduced pasteurization, a process by
which harmful microbes in food products are destroyed using heat,
15 without damaging the food.
Sample questions
1. What can be inferred about the advantage of Pasteur's findings about germs
for humanity ?
The findings have ______.
(A) stopped the spread of contagious diseases
(B) made medical treatment cheap
(C) led to the emergence of more diseases
(D) prevented people from catching infectious diseases
2. It is implied in the second paragraph that _______.
(A) hospitalization became more complicated
(B) the stronger the germs, the more powerful the vaccines
(C) Pasteur discovered the existence of the rabies virus
(D) pasteurization is used for all food products
Explanation
1. To answer Question 1, you should find the stated fact that can lead to a
probability stated in one of the options. The phrase to minimize the spread of
diseases suggests that Pasteur’s findings have prevented people from
contracting infectious diseases. So, the correct answer is (D). The other
options cannot be inferred from the passage.
2. The sentences (lines 10-12) ... rabies was transmitted by agents so small that
coula not be seen under a microscope. These agents are later known as
viruses, are the clue from which you can conclude that (C) is the correct
answer. Options (A), (B), and (D) cannot be concluded from the passage.
Strategieses
1. Read all the choices carefully
2. Locate the clue or evidence or stated fact un the passage that can be used to
make an inference or draw a probable conclusion.
3. Eliminate any definitely wrong answers.
4. Choose the best answer.

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UNIT 1

Speakers of short conversations in Part A of the Listhening Comprehension

In your test book, you will read :

(A) Doug became a new member of the band.

dis- Tanya dislikes swimming.

The second speaker of the short conversations in Part A of the Listening

Special Expressions Examples

Man : We must finish the report of this research

Woman : Jack, I can’t lift this box myself.

Phrasal verbs Man : I plan to see the opera on Saturday. How

Very common in Part A of the Listening Comprehension section are questions

The longer conversations in Part B of the Listening Comprehension section

A. Identifying the Topic

B. Listening for Specific Information

A. Identifying the Topic

B. Listening for Specific Information

Check your understanding.

Fields of study Note:

A. Aubject and Object Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns Examples

E. Relative Pronouns and Adverbs

Other Pronouns Examples

G. Nonreferential it and there subjects

When you present information in a series, it must be stated in the same

A number of words in English often cause problems because they have an

Like is a verb, meaning enjoy. It can also be a

Hard can be an adjective or an adverb depending on its

The verb make means produce or create; the verb do

10 produce a very intense light. It is so bright that an army surgeon once

A number of questions in the TOEFL Reading Comprehension section test your

10 discovered that weakened forms of a germ could be used as a vaccine

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