DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF IS513CR2 USING FEA

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 CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page

Abstract 1

1 Introduction 3

2 Literature Survey 11

3 Materials and Methods 22

4 Results and Discussion 26

5 Conclusion 33

References 34

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 ABSTRACT

In the engineering process the sheet metal has a wide variety of applications. Everyday
contemporary manufacturing operations to mold sheet metals to the necessary shapes were
exploited. Various forming operations were currently used on the application-based basis to
create complex profiles. In such a scenario, sheet metal forming incremental is an emerging
technology that focuses on the creation of complex structures. Unlike traditional die forming
method, the IF is a custom manufacturing process. The plastic deformations are however
limited to certain limits of the metallic materials in which it could experience fracture or
tearing. Stresses like tension, compression, shear or the combined stresses are incorporated
by the forming process for the plastic deformation of the materials for obtaining the desired
shapes. Among the manufacturing process, cold forming is found to be one of the high speed
processes in which the metal can be deformed to desired shapes, without any removal of
materials. Multiple dies and punches are used in the forming process to force the materials
beyond the elastic limits for achieving complex shapes in forming. The cold forming process
is noted to an experienced based technology but this is changing due to the development of
new computer based analytical tools in the industries. However, much more work has not
been carried out in the aspect of finite element simulation and experimental studies of
IS513CR2. Irrespective of the manufacturing processes. Processing temperature is the most
important factor; lower the value results better performance or output characteristics. Hence,
an initiative is taken through this research work to predict the effect of temperature
distribution, stress, thickness using commercial finite element code.

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The sheet metal incremental forming has higher formability limit and hence it is
widely utilized in the manufacturing of automobile sheet parts, shipyards and in the aerospace
industry. The particularized account of the experiments and the investigations that are
conducted for the incremental forming study is conferred in this chapter. The experimental
procedure was planned to keep in the understanding of the work of earlier researchers in this
field. It is aimed to develop predictable data, which will be useful during. The incremental
forming of steel sheets. Moreover, the procurement of data referring to different parameters
during incremental forming are explained in the consecutive experimental procedures. The
various steel sheets that are used in this research with their compositions are provided in this
chapter. The setup, variation of parameters and the output parameters observed in the
incremental forming are also listed. The specifications of the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) standards for various steel sheets and testing pieces of equipment that
were useful for the study are listed. Further, with the increase in the competitiveness in the
manufacturing industries and products, it is necessary to improve the present scenario and
adopt the latest technologies. The present topic discussed in this paper also focuses on the
newer and unique manufacturing technology that is revolutionizing the sheet metal industry
by reducing the cost and overall production time. The Single point incremental forming has
utmost importance in the medical implants applications apart from the conventional sheet
metal application.

Sheet metal forming is a process of modifying the geometry of the metal plate
making it suitable for different applications. The commercially processed sheet metal are
available as thin sheets which are coiled after rolling and thick sheet or plate which might
have already de coiled or flattened. These are then processed again by automobile
manufacturers, food industries, aero industries and others, according to their applications.
Sheet metals are generally preferred for it high elastic modulus, yield strength and strength to
weight ratio. One of the biggest disadvantages of incremental sheet metal forming process is
that it takes relatively long time for the formation, thus its ideal only for small scale
productions.

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 There are wide varieties of sheet metal process available, generally the source of
energy for forming is mechanical, but there are also other means such as hydraulic, explosive.
Each method has its own means of forming and uses different hard tools for forming.
Different shapes and sizes of sheet could be achieved from this process. Preparation of blank
is the primary process before starting the forming process itself, the modern method adopted
in cutting of blank for a large sheet is CNC laser cutting which is completely controlled my
computer programs.

Sheet metal forming is generally done by the application of tensile load,

compressive load is not preferred due to the fact that application of this type of load could
cause wrinkling in sheet. The application of tensile load leads to the increase in the surface
area of the sheet metal at the cost of reduction of its surface area. However the major
disadvantage of this method is that a relatively small amount of strain is produced at which
the fracture could take place.

The demand for the sheet metal in day to day scenario has forced the
manufacturers to develop new modern forming techniques in order to improve the production
without any compromise in the quality. Single point incremental forming has gained
importance in forming sheet metals due to its ability to process complex shapes. With the
development of technology, there has been a lot of sheet metal forming processes which
ranges from hand hammering technology to complex transfer systems. The manufacturing
process choice is based on the quantity and accuracy of the components needed Sheet metal
processing methods generally require high operating costs, and dedicated dies particularly
when complex components need to be generated. In such a case, Incremental sheet forming is
one of the best processes used for small batch components nowadays. Incremental Sheet
Forming (ISF) is a flexible manufacturing process that as in conventional stamping process
does not require complex dies and punches. This method is either carried out by a CNC
milling machine or by a contour path operated by a robot.

Sheet metal forming is a technique of shaping metals, there are various methods
utilized for sheet metal forming process, some of them include the use of direct tensile force
some with stress and other with tension. The major advantage of forming process is that there
is no loss of material. The forming process are generally classified into two types based upon
working temperature, hot forming and cold forming. In the incremental sheet forming phase
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the spring back effect has an adverse effect. Therefore, the influence of the spring back has
led to the wall angle variance in the forming angle. The geometry of the incrementally shaped
surface with the difference in the wall angle is also called. It is observed that the increase in
the wall angle increases the geometry of the formed sheet. A study in the production cycle for
the incremental forming was made and is found that the production cycle is shorter in the
incremental forming process than for the conventional processes and it is noticed that only
lower break even points were produced by the incremental forming. It also shows that there is
slight dependence on the part size and the breakeven point increases as the part size increases
stated

Deep Drawing

In this metal working process the tensile force is used to stretch the metal. It is
suitable to produce deep parts which s of simple geometry. It generally uses a cylindrical
press to punch into the sheet metal which would be placed on the blank and the punch in
allowed to press, to form the shape of the die.

Rubber Pad Forming

In this metal forming process the sheet metal is pressed in between a die and a
rubber block. Due to the load applied on the rubber block side the sheet metal forms the
shape of the die. These manufacturing process are used in general purpose
application. Rubber pad forming is the process where the sheet metal is placed in between a
die and a rubber block and pressed against each other with a sufficient pressure to deform the
sheet metal and take the shape of the die.

Explosive Forming

In this metal working process, high amount of explosive energy is utilized to

deform the sheet. This method consists of a die which is immersed in a water sump and the
sheet metal is placed over the die and the entire setup is submerged inside the water, the sheet
is held in its place and an explosive is set off in a particular distance and the energy emitted
from the explosion is utilized to deform the metal sheet.

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Roll Forming

A process to form sheet metal strip along straight, longitudinal, parallel bend lines
with multiple pairs of contoured rolls is called roll forming. Roll forming is a stretchy
process, where both the basic rules and the exceptions can be utilized. Some of the operations
like difficult roll forming tasks can be made with longer time duration and much more money
easily. Alternatively, it has also been shown that plans to roll form simple shapes can
generate devastating results if the basic rules of roll forming are not followed.

Magnetic Pulse Forming

This method is useful to form the electrically conductive work piece. This method
uses magnetic pulse field that induces a current in the work piece and which the help of the
generated repulsive force the work piece is reshaped. The technique is sometimes called as
high velocity forming.

Stretch Forming

Shaping of a sheet or part, usually of uniform cross section, through application of

suitable tension or stretching and subsequently forming the sheet around or over a die of the
desired shape is called stretch forming. This process is suitable for large sheet metal parts
with shallow contours in limited numbers of quantity. It has high labor stretch and the tooling
costs which depends on its part size.

Single Point Incremental Forming

Single point incremental forming is one of the advanced technique in order to

form sheet metal, this is achieved by moving a rotating tool on the sheet to form the sheet
into the desired shape. The primary concept of the single point incremental forming process
is causing plastic deformation on the surface of the sheet metal. The process is flexible and
many different contours can be generated with the use of a single tool and hence heavy
machineries and dies can be avoided.

The incremental sheet metal forming technology uses CNC guided tool pathway
to run the tool over the sheet metal. The entire process of the SPIF is very simple and can be

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categorized into five simple modules. The initial step begins with creating a CAD model,
where the desired shape and contour is to be created in any CAD software. The next step
would be to generate the tool path, the normal commercially available CAM software in the
market cannot be used for this purpose, and this is use to the fact that these applications are
designed to meet the general machining process and not SPIF. The next step would be to fix
the tool in the machine and setup the plate on the correct place holder. The local deformation
of three axis CNC machine is done by using single hemispherical end tool, the sum total of
the local deformations giving the sheet its final shape. Ambrogio et al. have investigated the
influence of process parameters on accuracy through statistical analysis. Durante et al. have
studied the influence of tool rotation on an incremental forming (IF). He explained the
relationship between the tool rotations evaluated at different speeds and also revealed the
influence of tool rotation in terms of forming forces, temperature reached, and surface
roughness

Incremental forming is a die less forming process where the sheet metal
production technique is obtained by feeding a tool through a well-defined path in an
incremental manner.

Initially the sheet is clamped to a fixture using clamps on the fixture and tightened
with nuts and bolts. The edges of the sheet blank remain usually fixed in the horizontal
manner. A computer-generated tool path is developed using a CAM software and the
program is executed in a CNC milling machine. A spherical shaped forming tool path till it
touches the metal sheet. Thus the sheet metal part is formed in a stepwise fashion by a CNC
rotating spherical tool without the need of a die.

Types

Incremental forming encompasses two types based on the fabricator’s choice. The
first is Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF). In Single Point Incremental Forming, there
is just one tool to deform the sheet into a given shape. Single Point Incremental forming is
also called Negative Incremental Forming as it doesn’t use any reinforcement from dies or
counter tools.

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 The next is the Two-Point Incremental Forming (TPIF). In the Two Point
Incremental Forming, there is one tool to deform the sheet metal. Another tool acts as a
Counter Tool to give the sheet metal a shape. This counter tool can also be substituted by a
die. TPIF is also called as the Positive Incremental Forming. In comparison, Single Point
Incremental Forming is better used as it is better in working and results. It is more acute in
producing the final result.

Incremental Forming is usually very advantageous, based on the fact that during
forming the sheet metal can be deformed way further than when other operations are done on
the sheet metal. The sheet metal in this operation can exceed its limits as defined by the
Forming Limit Curve (FLC). The mechanics of the sheet exceeding the FLC is a factor on the
forming limits. It is important while creating the experimental setup. It is also important when
the finite element models of the process are generated. The needed forming forces in
incremental forming process is lesser than other forming processes. The incremental forming
process provides good finish of the surface for the part.

The advantage of the sheet metal being easily deformed, while exceeding its
limits, is highly localized to a point. This fails when a sheet metal is continuously deformed,
in which case the sheet metal fails. The sheet fails due to the fact that when the particles of
the sheet is continuously deformed, they are being displaced. This causes some of the
particles to interact with each other creating a void in certain places. This causes the sheet
metal to form cracks.

Another phenomenon that prevents any sheet metal undergoing tension, which is
continuously being deformed, is a phenomenon called instabilities. In the presence of
instabilities the deformation is isolated to a small region called a neck. The amount of
deformation that a neck can take is called the necking limit. This limits the amount
deformation a neck can take as even small displacements in the neck can cause the sheet
metal to crack or fail. Usually in ductile materials the necking limit is higher than the fracture
limit. The only way by which the sheet metal can be worked on without hindrances is by
removing any instabilities. Incremental forming is ideal in situations where the formation of
the neck is limited. This is done by localizing the stress to a concentrated of a zone. This zone
must have some characteristics such that the applied force for deformation is limited by the
zone hence limiting any displacements. The property of the sheet metal outside the zone must
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that it must not encourage any extensions in the zone. This is achieved by two modes. One is
the limiting of the applied stress to a level below the level that equals the necking limit. The
other mode of preventing failure is by increasing the value of the limiting stress to more than
the value of the applied local stress. The second one needs reversibility in the effect of
mechanism that causes a localized stress.

Many numerical simulations of Single Point Incremental Forming have shown

that, for a tool’s path along straight or gently curved sides, the material does not shift in the
original plane of the sheet that is not deformed, but moves normal to this plane. Hence, the
minor and major directions of surface strain are result of strain on the surface of the sheet
being zero or negligible parallel to the tool direction and positive perpendicular to the 31 tool
direction respectively. Changes in the design can be achieved very efficiently. Due to the
localized deformations in incremental forming, the formability in conventional deep drawing
is better.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Claudio et al (2006), has investigated elastic plastic behavior of sheet metal forming
process (deep drawing and v-Die bending) using the finite element software. They carried out
several simulation tests in deep drawing and v-die bending process and obtained the most
appropriate value for some parameters and also developed elastic plastic computational
program to simulate successive deep drawing and v-die bending process.

Mustafa et al (2007), proposed Hyperform LS-DYNA for 3D finite element Analysis

of Sheet Metal Air bending. The results obtained from the Hyperform LS-DYNA compared
with Ansys LS-DYNA and experimental results and concluded that the results of Hyperform
LS-DYNA is a good tool to simulate sheet metal bending process.

Marciniak et al (1995), has investigated the formability characteristics of Aluminum

based composites using FEM and statistical tool are discussed. Formability characteristics of
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) have been influenced by many factors viz., temperature,
and pressure, volume fraction of reinforcement, size and shape of particles. Investigation on
wall friction, friction between particles and matrix powder are also presented.

You-min et al.(2008), has investigated the influence on forming limit of blank and
fractured thickness. They analyzed the square cup drawing process and the elliptical hole
flanging process, and calculated the forming limit ratio for each process. In addition, tools
were designed to perform experiments for each process. Simulations and experiments were
performed with varying processes and consistent results were obtained.

Tung-Sheng et al (2001) proposed the membrane theory for the analysis of

axisymmetric sheet metal forming processes such as punch stretching, deep drawing and
hydro forming is presented. Some examples on the stretching, drawing and hydro forming of
metal sheets are considered, and the computed results are compared with experimental data
and with the results from existing numerical solutions

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 Ghaffari et al.(2010) examine the formability of a magnesium-based alloy AZ31
sheet, the deep drawing and the Erichsen tests are carried out and they are simulated by the
finite-element method. They used recently proposed approach (ductile fracture criteria) to the
prediction of forming limit of the AZ31 sheet, which latter breaks suddenly without any
obvious necking phenomenon. From the histories of stress and strain calculated by the finite-
element simulation, the fracture initiation is predicted by means of a ductile fracture criterion.
Comparison with experimental observations shows that the fracture initiation site and the
critical punch stroke in forming processes of the AZ31 sheet are successfully predicted by the
combination of the simulation with the ductile fracture criterion.

Wagoner et al (1996), has investigated the efficiency of sheet metal forming process
at elevated (warm / hot) temperatures. Deep drawing of HSLA / UHSLA steels, aluminum,
titanium and magnesium alloys in an effective way is possible only at elevated temperatures
and has some indefinitenesses. In the study, deep drawing simulations are realized with a
titanium copper alloy and a low alloy steel to investigate the deep drawability of high
strength / low formability metal sheets. The comparison of the results obtained from this
study with the other experimental, analytical and computer aided studies found from the
literature showed that the results are coherent. From the studies it’s understood that, the
critical temperature that makes the deep drawability maximum differs from material to
material.

Kin et al. (2002) has investigated the effect of process parameters—tool type, tool
size, feed rate, friction at the interface between tool and sheet, plane-anisotropy of sheet—on
the formability by experiments and FEM analyses. It was found that the formability is
improved when a ball tool of a particular size is used with a small feed rate and a little
friction. Due to the plane-anisotropy, the formability differs according to the direction of the
tool movement.

Lademo et al.(2008) has investigated the influence of texture and grain structure on
strain localization and formability by experimentally and numerically for two Al Zn Mg
alloys. The considered alloys have recrystallised or non-recrystallised grain structure and
strong or nearly random texture. In this study a comprehensive test programme, including
uniaxial tension tests in three directions, through-thickness compression tests, plane-strain
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tension tests and double plate formability tests, is completed to determine the work
hardening, plastic anisotropy and formability of the materials. Strain localization and failure
are examined by optical microscopy. Using parts of the test data, an anisotropic plasticity
model is calibrated and applied in calculation of forming limit curves, using the Marciniak–
Kuczynski (M-K) analysis for anisotropic materials. The formability tests show that the
materials with nearly random texture exhibit superior formability. This is mainly attributed to
enhanced work hardening for these materials. For the material exhibiting strong β-fibre
texture significantly lower formability is found in equibiaxial stretching than in plane strain,
while this characteristic is not seen for the material with strong cube texture. The M-K
analysis is capable of predicting the major trends of the experiments, and captures the low
formability of the alloy with strong β-fibre texture under equibiaxial straining. A numerical
study is performed to evaluate the sensitivity of the predicted forming limit curves to
parameters not determined experimentally.

Surasak Suranuntchai (2007) has investicated the formability charecteristics of the

hydraulic brake booster system by using an FE programme in the prediction of the deep
drawing process. They had been investigated the parameters were die radius,punch diameter
and friction coefficient.they had consider to simplify the process, the punch and die in the
simulation were assumed to be rigid. They predicted forming limit diagram by using keelar
equation and finally concluded most of the defects such as necking, thinning were found in
the second and third process. In 2006 Ham and Jeswiet have studied the forming process of
aluminum alloy AA3003 sheets by varying spindle speed, step depths, feed rates and forming
angles. The faster spindle rotation speeds have improved the formability of the sheets. The
tool diameter effect is negligible in forming a part. Thus utilization of smaller and flat parts is
possible with reduced machining time.
The geometrical accuracy of the formed part can be diminished significantly in the
SPIF process by means of preheating due to which the geometric deviations like the spring
back and the bending effects can be reduced stated (Shrivastava et al. 2018). The ability of a
given material or the sheet metal to undergo the plastic deformation without any damage is
called the formability of a material. It is very important to have a good knowledge about the
formability of a material for effective design and layout for the industrial forming processes.
The principal reason, which provokes the development of SPIF, is the absence of specific

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tooling and their greatest formability. This emerging operation is being investigated in
various engineering applications like medical product manufacturing.

Due to the relative motion between the sheet and the tool (Durante et al 2009)
have performed temperature measurement activity and highlighted a proportional dependence
in accordance with the rotation speed parameter.

The next most important process variable is the table feed. Generally, the
incremental forming processes are very slow when compared to the other traditional stamping
process that results in a low rate of production, whereas modern machines operate at high
feed rates. From the economic point of perspective, the tool feed study is important for small
scale production even when the pieces of equipment cost.

The highest micro hardness value can be achieved for the highest feed rate. The
mechanical properties are mostly affected by the residual stresses. The geometrical accuracy
and the fatigue strength are the two important factors that are mostly influenced by the
residual stresses. Increased formability is resulted due to progression of a localized forming
zone in the SPIF which makes them unique from other conventional processes. The highest
residual stresses are observed when there is a high bending ratio with low shearing ratio
stated (Fabian et al 2019).

This indicates that there is a rise in temperature due to the act of deformation
producing heat. Thus the formability of the sheet metal is increased and the material
microstructure will not be altered with mechanical characteristics. The spreading effect of
punch taking place at higher temperatures results in the increase of hardness with high speed
thus causes higher deformation along the surface of the material stated (Ambrogio et al
2013).

Analyze process parameter effects are done by Kim and Park (2002) and have
studied the formability of sheet metal. The process parameters are tool size, tool shape, tool
type, feed rate, friction between sheet and tool, plane anisotropy and FEM analyses. When a
ball tool of a particular size has been implemented with a small feed rate accompanied by a
little friction, it is noticed that there is an increase in the formability of the sheet metals.

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 Attanasio et al (2006) status that using a tool path with a proper feed rate
depending upon the part geometry results in very good surface quality. Hussain et al (2008)
did an experimental study on the tool and its lubrication in the negative incremental forming
process of Ti sheets and have observed that there is an increase in the temperature when the
feed rate has increased and also noted that friction produced at the blank affects the quality of
components surface.

A study on force analysis and its deformation of single point incremental sheet
metal forming has been studied by Petek et al (2009) has been studied. The analysis depicted
the impact of tool rotation speed, step depths, wall angle, tool diameter, plastic logarithmic
strain and the lubrication on the magnitude of forming force. Among them, the step depth
was observed as an influential parameter that has an impact on the product’s manufacturing
time.

During the experimental tests conducted by Attanasio et al. (2006) they made a
study on the step depth influences during the process of forming and has been noted that by
decreasing the values of step depth the surface quality can be achieved also stated this results
in an increase in the manufacturing time. Using tool paths with high step depth it is observed
that the pocket geometry was not correctly produced as the pocket was far from the ideal
profile. The unleashing scope for both experimental and simulation through finite element
studies on incremental forming of steel sheets to provide a significant contribution of this
work is to observe the mechanical, metallurgical, surface and formability characteristics of
incrementally formed steel sheet materials. The main purpose of this study is to develop and
proceed with an experimental setup consisting of a fixture and a forming tool for carrying out
the incremental forming process.

In the ISMF process, the Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) was reported to be
different from the traditional forming process method similar to deep drawing and a negative
slope is observed in minor strain. During the forming process, the deformation is greater in
the corners than along the sides and so cracking occurs mostly at the corners stated (Shim and
Park 2001, Filice et al 2002). The ability of a given material or the sheet metal to undergo the
plastic deformation without any damage is called the formability of a material. It is very
important to have a good knowledge about the formability of a material for effective design
and layout for the industrial forming processes. The principal reason, which provokes the
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development of SPIF, is the absence of specific tooling and their greatest formability. This
emerging operation is being investigated in various engineering applications like medical
product manufacturing.

Kopac et al. (2005) in their experimental studies on the aluminium and steel sheets
have determined that the formability of sheet metals undergoes larger deformations when
compared to the conventional forming process and hence the minor axis stress is always
found to be a positive value. To explore and investigate the effects of various process
parameters such as tool speed, table feed and step depth on the surface roughness,
formability, thickness variation and microstructure of the formed shapes and to optimize the
input process parameters through surface methodology response and conduct confirmation
experiments to verify the models. To perform a finite element analysis for predicting the
formability characteristics and validating the same with experimental results.

To understand the nature of deformation during the incremental forming process,

Emmens et al. (2007) made an attempt and observed that the shear mode of deformation has
to be present due to the bending occurring in the incremental forming process. An alternative
is provided by the incremental forming to the conventional methods due to the absence of
dies. These are not cost effective for small batch operations. Forming of hard materials such
as sheets of steel are the challenges that are faced in the forming process. This challenge can
be overcome by the SPIF process. So an acute study on the parameters of the incremental
forming process and its influences need to be done and also the formability traits are
necessarily understood.

During the incremental forming process the bending under tension incorporating
simultaneous stretching and bending are found to be the main reason for the increase in the
formability of the sheet metals. These findings play a vital role in understanding the failure
mechanism in the process of incremental forming stated Emmens and Boogaard (2008).
These are not cost effective for small batch operations. Forming of hard materials such as
sheets of steel are the challenges that are faced in the forming process. This challenge can be
overcome by the SPIF process. So an acute study on the parameters of the incremental
forming process and its influences need to be done and also the formability traits are
necessarily understood.

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 Allwood et al in the year (2007) conducted some experiments in order to explain
the formation of higher forming limits observed during the incremental process also noted
that an appreciable amount of through-thickness shear occurs. This results in the reduction of
tensile stresses thus increasing forming limits. The deformation of sheet occurring during the
process is mainly due to bending and stretching effects observed in the plane perpendicular to
the tool path. The Single Point Incremental forming is an innovative sheet metal forming
process and is found to be a flexible process when compared to other forming processes. This
alloys various intricate shapes to be formed without the help of dies by using tools in the
CNC machine. An alternative is provided by the incremental forming to the conventional
methods due to the absence of dies. Incremental forming is well known for customized
production of sheet metals. It overcomes many major drawbacks of die forming process.
Generally, sheet metal products are formed using dies and punches according to the required
shape and sizes, but this method of production turns out to be shape specific, also
manufacturing of different dies for different sizes is found not to be cost efficient as the cost
of die and punches is extremely high. There are various method for the forming of sheet
metal among which incremental forming is found to the cost cutting and efficient

The mechanics of incremental sheet forming on Cu plate forming were studied by

Kathryn et al (2009) and the measurements have shown that the deformation mechanism in
the single point incremental forming process is stretching and is shear in the plane
perpendicular to the direction of the tool. On successive laps, the strain components are
increased and it is observed that the shear parallel to the tool direction is its most significantly
noted component. The cold forming process is noted to an experienced based technology but
this is changing due to the development of new computer based analytical tools in the
industries. The various forming process like Single Point Incremental forming (SPIF), High-
Pressure Torsion (HPT), Multiaxial Alternative Forging (MAF), Equal-Channel Angular
Pressing (ECAP), Accumulative Roll Bonding (ARB) are evolving for obtaining complex
shapes with all formality aspects.

Analysis of material formability of AA1050-O in the incremental forming process

was conducted by Filice et al (2002). This test was proposed for achieving different straining
conditions and thereupon to determine the forming limit diagrams for continuous forming
operations. The forming limit curve obtained from the incremental forming was found to be

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quite different from those obtained by the conventional forming process and more strains
were formed by the incremental forming than the traditional forming process. These
properties were substantiated by considering the characteristics of the process mechanics. The
plastic deformation occurrence due to the small-sized punch is strongly localized and limited
to the proximity areas. As the tool moves along the assigned path, it incrementally progresses
and higher strain is attained in the material before the fracture occurs is its consequence.

Ham and Jeswiet (2007) made an attempt to determine the effects due to the type
of material, the thickness of the material, tool size on the maximum forming angle value, step
depth values, major, minor and effective strains. The material with high formability effect
was shown by the response curves in both effective strain and maximum forming angle.
The Tensile tests were used to determine the formability of the material and stated that lower
the UTS the formability will be more. The major focus is to analyze the various failure modes
of Single point incremental forming by the usage of Liquid nitrogen and the microstructural
results are analyzed. The hardness of the samples are compared at 0.5 Kg load in which the
results have proved comparative increase in the hardness of the sheet when treated with liquid
nitrogen.

Szekeres et al (2007) did an experiment in measuring the force in pyramid-shaped

parts with a spindle mounted with force sensor in which similar force trends have been
observed while forming cone shape but not in the pyramid shape. And so tool force
measurement is not very reliably indicated during the single point incremental forming
process. This cross-section of the sample was prepared for the microstructure evaluations.
The images of the microstructure were captured from the top surface of the incremental
forming as starting point and the microstructure is captured at equal intervals. It is expected
that the sample would reveal the effect of incremental forming on the microstructure and the
change in the microstructure at every point is studied

The corrected tool path generation shows a direct impact on the accuracy of
dimensions, formability, surface finish, thickness, processing time stated Kim and Yang
(2000).

The final outcome of the product has an important parameter called the tool path
which adds the geometric accuracy of the generated path. Hence, the accuracy of the features
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of the part produced by single point incremental forming is improved by using the tool path
interactions and features. According to the deviation predicted in the individual features,
compensations are done in the CAD files. The behaviors of each individual feature are taken
into account and all the possible interaction features that are feasible are considered in order
to improve the accuracy of the entire path stated (Petek et al 2009).

The tool path generation plays an important role in the ISF (Incremental Sheet
Forming) process, since the tool path has a consequential effect on the accuracy of
dimensions, processing time, surface roughness, and the variation in the thickness stated
Kurra Suresh et al (2013).

A universal methodology of the tool path generation for an arbitrary component

which is formed by the Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF) process for obtaining the
required geometrical accuracy was presented by Malhotra et al (2008). He also carried out
experiments and finite element analysis and studied the effectiveness of the methodologies
proposed earlier.

The adaptive slicing availed in layered manufacturing were modified and was
used for generating tool paths in SPIF. Results obtained indicates that the proposed
methodologies enhances the accuracy achievable in SPIF (Rajiv Malhotra et al 2008). The
plastic deformations are however limited to certain limits of the metallic materials in which it
could experience fracture or tearing. Stresses like tension, compression, shear or the
combined stresses are incorporated by the forming process for the plastic deformation of the
materials for obtaining the desired shapes. Among the manufacturing process, cold forming is
found to be one of the high speed processes in which the metal can be deformed to desired
shapes, without any removal of materials. Multiple dies and punches are used in the forming
process to force the materials beyond the elastic limits for achieving complex shapes in
forming.

Ceretti et al (2003) work on the importance of tool path has revealed that deciding
the tool path type is dependent on thickness, surface finish, sheet material and the CNC
machine being used. The effectiveness can be achieved by testing the spiral and the profile
tool paths of a hemispherical dome forming and the profile tool paths were noted to obtain
better geometrical shapes and also its thickness forming for this shape.
19
 Leach et al (2001) did an investigation by examining two different tool paths
known as inside-out and outside-in by forming the shallow rectangular pyramids and this
investigation indicated that the vertical increment known as pitch plays a major role in
forming consistent thickness incorporated with very good surface finish.

Jadav et al. in the year (2004) experimented incremental forming process and has
observed dents and twists in the part that is formed using the helical tool path. In order to
overcome this complication, a bidirectional profile tool path was suggested. This suggested
tool path is similar to the profile path except that for each subsequent cycle, the tool changes
its direction of travel thus, minimizing the dents and twists which in turn enhances the formed
component’s geometric accuracy. The conventional forming processes are suited and applied
for high volume production due to high cost of dies in the sheet metal forming. Though in the
sheet metal products, the pattern of demand has undergone an alteration. The single point
incremental forming is customized for the sheet metal products that are made in small
quantities as it is a die less forming process stated (Schafer and Schraft 2004).

Using correction strategies, the deviation of the parts from the required shape can
be rectified and to exhibit this method Hirt et al (2003) has carried on with a correction
method by proposing a new model which is smaller by the unwanted deviation. This method
showed a very good result for the observations of pyramidal geometries but there is a need
for the iterations for some complex and complicated shapes. Parts containing right angled
structures can’t be processed by this process. Spring back effect takes place while using this
method. This can be reduced to a certain level by using a few correction algorithms. The
precision in the formed products is lesser especially in areas such as bending edges and
convex radii.

Leach et al (2001) examined the usefulness of lubrication and the experiments

proved that higher strain values resulted due to the use of lubrication, whereas Kim and Park
(2002) in his article mentioned the requirement for some optimum friction for enhancing the
formability. In the incremental forming, the cost of the machine tool is high when compared
to the cost of dies. It is important to choose the right forming process rather than adapting the
association to a lower volume. Categorizing the cost of the production is called the breakeven
analysis. The two factors namely the variable and fixed parameters play a vital role. In order

20
to determine the level of sales volume, the total variable and the fixed costs were compared
with sales revenue stated (Syed Asad Raza Gardezi 2008).

21
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials

Material selected for this work is IS513CR2 sheet. IS513CR2 has very good corrosion
resistance to seawater and marine and industrial atmosphere. It also has very good weldability
and good cold formability. It is a medium to high strength alloy with a strength slightly
higher than 5251 and a medium to high fatigue strength. The material used for the present
study is IS513CR2 sheet of 1 mm thickness. The dimension of the material is 100 * 100 mm.
The reason for choosing IS513CR2 martial is because of its extensive application in the
automobile industry and for its mechanical property.

Properties of IS513CR2:

 Decorative Finish
 Hard Wearing
 Non-Slip
 Corrosion Resistant
 Low Maintenance
 Anti-Static
 Light-weight

Setup Carried Out for Incremental Forming

The Incremental forming process was carried out in a CNC vertical milling
machine. The machine was developed by AMS-Ace Manufacturing Systems Limited, India.
The CNC machine used for the incremental forming process experiments. During the forming
process, the sheet has firmly fitted to the fixture. This fixture was clamped to the bed of CNC
vertical milling machine and the a specially prepared tool was fitted to the mandrel of the
CNC milling machine so that it can be moved along the generated tool path to obtain the
required final shape ( pyramid). The experiment was done for different feed rates for various
depths and spindle speeds on constant thickness steel sheets. Incremental forming process
holds superiority over conventional forming techniques because there are no dies present and

22
flexible process control through CNC programming is very easy. Since the dies are
eliminated, the tooling cost is considerably reduced.

Material selection for fixture

S.No. Components & Materials

1 Fixture and base plate
C45 steel
Tensile strength t=360MPa
2 Nut and bolts
C45 steel
Tensile strength t=360MPa
3 Vertical supports
GI pipes
Young’s modulus E=2.1×105N/mm2

The forming limit, Vickers micro hardness, surface roughness, thickness

distribution and the microstructures of the formed sheets were characterized
accordingly. Based upon the strain distribution on the material, the formability of the
incremental forming process on steel sheets was studied. Out of the various methods
that are available to deduce the measure of major strain and minor strain, this research
uses small circles etched on the surface of the sheet. The method which has been
effectively used to solve the problems is the Strain analysis by a grid marking and is
proven to be a very useful method, which has been used effectively to solve the
problems in metal forming. The surface of the sheet metal is subjected to different
stresses during the formation time thus results in non-uniform strains that are
developed in the formed part. And hence, there will be regions of high strains as well
as low strains. This may lead to fracturing or wrinkling of the material. The areas of
high strain can easily be identified at the very initial stage by the grid marking
method. Here the circles of 6 mm diameter were etched on the surface of the Sheet
metal. The blank was washed with a neutralizing solution as a substitute for etching.
The etched circles turn into ellipses following the incremental forming of the sheets
into varying shapes. The direction of the strains is taken as indicated by the major and

23
minor axis of the ellipse. The major and minor strains are given by the ratio of the
major and minor axes of the ellipse to the diameter of the original circle.

Experimental Procedure

A three-axis vertical computer numerical control machine (CNC) is used to

conduct a single point incremental forming process. The machinability of any material
can be evaluated based on a few criterions such as tool life, metal removal rate,
cutting forces, surface finish, chip shape, and temperature. The IS513CR2 sheet metal
is very easy to machine and the required shape can be obtained. The path of the tool is
controlled by the Contour path. The path is formed in a spiral tool path controlled by
programming. The direction of the tool begins from the center of the sheet metal
component and opens with that depth until the desired diameter or shape is reached to
the maximum depth. NC data which is created from a CAD model of the component
to be built prescribes the tool course. The formation technique consists of a single
stage of formation where the tool traces a series of contour lines with a vertical feed in
between. Using this forming technique, it is clear that there are a relatively large range
of adjustable process parameters that may impudence the forming process for a given
geometry, such as the radius and velocity of the forming device or the vertical pitch
(size of the step down). Experimental design was followed for conducting
experimental trials. Totally 18 experimental trials have been carried out. Three
parameters were taken and the corresponding good responses were obtained from the
experiments. To understand the formability of IS513CR2 sheet metal in detail, the
forming process is studied with varying parameters of wall angle, tool material, step
depth, spindle speed and feed in detail. The spindle speed is increased in the
progression of 100, 200 and 300 rpm with variable feed rates of 500, 1000 and 1500.
Then roughness is measured for the same as shown. In experimentation, various
factors such as wall angle, tool material, spindle speed, step depth and speed have
been considered. Two different tool materials namely High speed steel and Tungsten
Carbide have been taken for the experimentation process. Further, various responses
such as wall thickness, hardness, geometry and forming angle have been considered.
The surface finish values are higher in case of Tungsten carbide tool when compared
to the Silicon carbide and high-speed steel tools. The forming angle is also measured

24
 in each of the parametric considerations. There is slight variation in the forming angle
when compared to the wall angle.

Numerical Simulation of IS513CR2

Initially, the necessary parameters for the frustum model such as wall angle, the
shape of the final form, raw material properties, sheet thickness, feed and speed of operation,
machine to be used, and coolant to be applied are studied in detail for better process
optimization in IS513CR2. The model is known to be produced from CAD files rehabilitated
into 3D CAM files. CNC is applied to direct the tool conduit. More recent studies show the
operation of IF in polymers. Inferences obtained from the usage of three axes CNC machines
evidenced the effectiveness of IFP. Particularly on the SPIF modality, the process is defined
as a flat metal sheet, adjoined on a mobile device, and it slides matching to Z-axis. CNC with
ball nose tools glides on the sheet and progressively during upright augmentation (Z). The
outline of the end part is found by the displacement of the tool in three axes. The sheets are
set to imaginative holdup which preserves steady height virtual to the bottom. Hussain et al.
have mentioned that closures avert the movement through the process and finish the plastic
deformation. The wall angles play a major role in the sheet metal deformations. Studies have
revealed that the changes in wall angles have a profound effect on the manufacturing
flexibility and failure of sheet metal forming. If there are maximum wall angle values, that
allow the plastic forming which will not cause any material fractures due to increase in
resistance, leading a little resistance. Be considered to a wall angle, it is formed between the
horizontal plane and the wall of the shaped part. For calculating the final thickness (S1) of the
sheet after forming and wall thickness after forming (t1) are used to sine Law as reported
elsewhere.

25
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on experimental studies reported on the literature, IS513CR2 prototyping

and customization of final product was carried out in this research work. Pro-E software was
used to design the blank. Master CAM software was used for the program generation.

To analyze the true strains (ϕ1 and ϕ2), the experiments analyzed were with the
wall angle (Ø) reached a maximum of 65°. Initially, the wall angle of 55° was taken for the
sheet metal forming, and it is solved by using Hyper mesh® software. The input parameters
include increasing the step depth of 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4, respectively. The experiment is carried
out by an increase in the spindle speed in the range of 100, 200, and 300.

Further, feed is given as 500, 1000, and 1500. The tool is made up of high speed
steel (HSS). Figure shows the stress variation in the sheet metal with a wall thickness of 50°.
From the result, it is inferred that there is a maximum concentration of stress in the bottom
most point of the frustum element. From, the % thinning of the sheet metal with respect to the
feed is identified. Figure shows the plastic strain in the sheet metal after deformation. Further,
Fig shows the forming limit diagram from which the forming of sheet metal is evaluated, and
the variation of forming limit with the variation in the depth is studied.

Following experimentation with the 60 ° wall angle of the SIF cycle, the prototype
model is checked and is compared with the results of the study. It is noticed that there is a
difference in the thickness of the wall with rising frustum depth.

Finally, the experiment was conducted by assigning the wall angle of 66° for the
sheet metal forming. It is numerically analyzed by using Hyper mesh® software. The input
parameters include increasing the step depth of 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4, respectively. Increase in the
spindle speed is in the range of 100, 200, and 300. Further, feed is given as 500, 1000, and
1500.

26
27
 After the experimentation of the SIF process with the wall angle of 65°, the
prototype model is tested and is compared with the analysis results. It is found that there is a
variation in the wall thickness with increasing depth of the frustum. The hardness is also
measured at random points along the wall of the component, and the results are tabulated. It
is also found that the geometry and forming angle remain constant throughout the sheet metal
component.

The setup to perform the ISF is a fixture for holding the sheet metal, single point
forming tool, computer-controlled numerical machinery that regulates device movement. The
integral part of which is a single point forming tool. One of the ISF's complex processes is
designing the fixture for the phase which would satisfy the formation requirements. The
fixture was designed to be shaped according to the size and shape of the sheet metal. Strong
hemispherical devices are used when sheet metal incrementally deforms plastically. Since it
is of asymmetric IF, the solid hemispherical tool is used. High Speed Steel (HSS) tool has
been chosen to reduce friction. The tool has been selected depending on the properties of
28
sheet metal and its wear properties. Further, adequate lubrication has been given to the tool.
Also, the diameter of the ball head has been chosen. Semi-spherical tool of 8 mm diameter
has been chosen for the IF process. It consumes more power during operation since a large
contact angle is involved. The tool diameter has also influenced the surface quality of the
product as well as the manufacturing time. The small tools can reach their loading limit while
forming materials like stainless steel or titanium. The total length of the tool is found to be
110 mm. The fixture is made up of a mild steel plate with the dimensions as shown in the
figure. The raw material is a square-shaped sheet made up of IS513CR2 with a dimension of
200 mm. The manufacturing is supported by the CNC machine with the programs evolved
out from the Master CAM software.

Initially for the micro structural investigation, the sample was sectioned in such a way that
the cross-section of the thickness is obtained. This cross-section of the sample was prepared
for the microstructure evaluations. The images of the microstructure were captured from the
top surface of the incremental forming as starting point and the microstructure is captured at
equal intervals.

Microstructure of IS513CR2 at 150X Microstructure of IS513CR2 at 150X

magnification-starting point magnification-Last point

29
 Microstructure of IS513CR2 at 150X Microstructure of IS513CR2 at 150X
magnification-starting point magnification-2mm from starting
point

Microstructure of IS513CR2 at 150X Microstructure of IS513CR2 sample at 150X

magnification- starting point
magnification-end point

The thickness of plain incrementally formed samples is measured at various

locations as depicted in figure. The hardness value of the plain sample is found to be 97.1 HV
measured at 0.5kg load.

The microstructural photographs are studied at various locations of the plain

sample and the following inferences are observed. The microstructure shows worked grains
along the direction of the rolling of the sheet. The grain orientation is along the direction of
rolling. This is the microstructure at the mounting part of the process where the sheet is fixed
in the machine.

30
 Then the Microstructural analysis is done with liquid nitrogen as coolant and
thickness values and hardness are measured out. Microstructure is taken at the cross-section
from the top of the formed zone to the down at an interval of 3.0 mm.

The microstructure shows partially elongated grains of pearlite and ferrite in

ferrite matrix with magnification of 150X. The grains have shown further strained due to the
cold forming incremental process. The grains of pearlite are elongated along the direction of
the forming tool.

This zone is the center zone. Here there is maximum thinning with severe banding
and the grains have come closer. The microstructure shows severe banding of the ferrite and
ferrite grains along the direction of the forming.

This microstructure is comparable to the first half as shown in figure. The zone
close to the parent metal at the bottom with the constituents reaching the parent metal
microstructure.

To generalize the incremental forming of sheet metal, it is necessary to optimize

the lubricant used in the process. The major focus is to analyze the various failure modes of
Single point incremental forming by the usage of Liquid nitrogen and the microstructural
results are analyzed. The hardness of the samples are compared at 0.5 Kg load in which the
results have proved comparative increase in the hardness of the sheet when treated with liquid
nitrogen.

Incremental forming is well known for customized production of sheet metals. It

overcomes many major drawbacks of die forming process. Generally, sheet metal products
are formed using dies and punches according to the required shape and sizes, but this method
of production turns out to be shape specific, also manufacturing of different dies for different
sizes is found not to be cost efficient as the cost of die and punches is extremely high. There
are various method for the forming of sheet metal among which incremental forming is found
to the cost cutting and efficient. Single point incremental forming is the sheet metal forming
process which has high potential economic payoff and is suitable for small scale production.
In a SPIF process the blank holder is used in order to hold the sheet metal in place during the
process, through which the rotating single point forming tool runs with a specified spindle

31
speed, the path of the tool is defined by a dedicated CNC program, the tool moves both
horizontally and vertically according to the tool path program to produce the desired shape on
the sheet metal. The sheet material chosen for the experiment was commercially available
IS513CR2, it is a type of low carbon steel which finds its application in various interior and
exterior application such as petrol tanks, hinges, vehicle frames and refrigerators and it is
well known for its low formability and repeatability and only limited study has been done
with the microstructure of this material. The sheet size of 100 x 100 mm and a thickness of 1
mm was used for the experiment.

The experimentation was carried out in a 6 axes milling machine, the setup had a
clamping plate and backing plate. The blank holder is utilized for clamping and holding the
sheet in position during SPIF. The backing plate supports the sheet in position. The forming
tool is utilized to form the sheet metal into pyramidal shape, the path is generated by a CNC
centre. During the forming process there is no backup die supporting the back surface of the
sheet. The sheet was clamped to the backing plate with the help of the holes made for the
clamping screws. Forming was done by running the preprogrammed CNC code and a
pyramidal structure was obtained. Keeping the outcome in mind, the structure was sectioned
and points were marked at different locations to study the microstructure variation.

32
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Experiment work is carried to study the characteristics such as hardness, thickness

distribution, and strain. Micro structural analysis has also been carried out to find the effect of
wall angle, spindle speed, step depth, feed and tool material. Experimentation was conducted
under the application of cryogenic treatment on the sheet metal. This research will be highly
useful to the industries and research community to understand the effect of forming
parameters on different characteristics. Practical studies have shown the good applicability
of CAD / CAM and CNC machining center software using the ISF process and SPIF
modality from IS513CR2 surface with 1 mm thickness. Further, it can be surely stated that
ISF is, probably, the answer to the challenge of increasing flexibility in the field of sheet
forming. The majority of the last work focused on improving the part's performance, were
successful, and new processing methods occurred, solving one of the weak points — the
material's uncontrolled springback. Present work also proved the reliability and accuracy of
sheet metal IF when compared with other forming operations. Therefore, innovations must
optimize the design of the CAM module that governs the movement of the instrument, which
is capable of ensuring the correct forming strategy depending on any hollow type. Superior
sheet metal deformation of IS513CR2 is possible at SPIF. Small tool size is the option to get
the required form at a quicker rate but breakdown possibilities due to localized stress are
greater.

33
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