88 Fijian Studies Vol 14, No.

Background to Cooperative Learning

In order to succeed in today’s challenging world learners require

'21st century skills'. To develop this skill in mathematics classroom teach-
Role of Teachers in Implementing Cooperative Learning in ers need to face the challenge to start shifting from a 20th to 21st century
Mathematics Classes: Some Considerations from Existing classroom. One of the ways teachers could overcome this challenge is to
Literature move away from traditional chalk and board (or jug and mug) method of
teaching to more student centered learning. According to Johnson, John-
Niranjan Lal son & Holubec (1992) in the current era of education, students are en-
couraged to discover and build their own knowledge through active par-
Abstract ticipation. In this globalized world emphasis is placed on learning
This paper identifies some benefits of cooperative learning meth- mathematics by problem solving rather than memorizing of facts and fig-
ods that can be best implemented in mathematics class to increase ures. In other words teaching mathematics with understanding is encour-
numeracy skills in students. Existing literature on cooperative aged rather than memorizing rules and algorithms to solve problems
learning was examined to provide a conceptual noted on coopera- (NCTM, 2000).
tive learning. Cooperative learning has a number of significant ef- Tasker (1990) has suggested incorporating cooperative learning into
fects on mathematics achievement and attitudes towards mathe- primary school classroom as a way to bring changes in teaching methods
matics. for effective learning. Johnson et. al (1992), also support that the primary
means of achieving the new paradigm of teaching is to use cooperative
learning. Cooperative learning was introduced to teachers in United
Introduction States in 1960 (Slavin, 1995).
Johnson and Johnson (2004) propose that the main aims of coopera-
According to the 2000 Education Commission Report, schools in tive learning are to improve motivation, encourage positive attitudes, and
Fiji are encouraged to provide for effective education in mathematics to better social skills. Johnson and Johnson’s earlier study (1989) supported
increase numeracy skills in students. It is evident that achievement of stu- the finding that cooperative experiences promote higher self-esteem than
dents is strongly linked to high quality teachers. Consequently the ques- competitive and individualistic experiences. Slavin (1995) found that stu-
tion that arises is: what makes a high quality teacher? In this context, the dents who learn cooperatively tend to be more highly motivated to learn.
question would be: what makes a high quality teacher of mathematics? In In cooperative learning small group of students work together,
order to improve student achievements in mathematics, and to raise stan- communicate their ideas and solve problems given to them (Artzt and
dard of numeracy skills in Fiji, it is crucial that primary schools introduce Newman, 1999). In a cooperative learning environment, the role of teach-
effective teaching methods. ers in the classroom changes. The way in which the learning material is
In Fiji, competencies of students in mathematics continue to be an presented to the students and the way in which teachers communicate
issue of major concern. The Ministry has revealed that at the 7th form with students during group work, influences students learning interaction.
level, only 18% of students achieved a pass (50 %+) in mathematics ex- Research has shown that cooperative learning has positive influence
ternal exams, but these figures were elevated through scaling (MOE, on student’s involvement in math’s related materials (Ferreira, 2001).
2014). This paper examines the cooperative learning method with a view Students appear to enjoy working cooperatively and are willing to coop-
towards culling out some key features of this method which may make it erate with others in the group (Knol, Janson, Neerman, Vander, Linder,
easier for policy makers to assess its suitability for Fijian classrooms. 2004). Though cooperative learning is used widely in mathematics class-
room, a growing need exists to examine the role of teachers in this proc-
ess. In particular, there is a need to examine how teachers use this tech-
Fijian Studies Vol. 14 No. 2 © Fiji Institute of Applied Studies
nique in a mathematics classroom setting.
87
 Dialogue: Cooperative Learning in Maths 89 90 Fijian Studies Vol 14, No. 2

Mathematics Education in Fiji Recent Reforms in Fiji

In Fiji poor performance in mathematics at the primary school level According to Toch (2010) the neoliberal ideology involved the con-
has been and still is a subject of much debate among policy makers, cepts of competition, choice, and privatization which over the years have
teachers, parents, educational experts and other stakeholders. As recog- spilled into public education. Levin & Belfeild (2003) and Toch (2010)
nised by the 2000 Education Commission poor achievement in mathemat- state that public education slowly adjusts to new methods and terminol-
ics at the primary level is a significant barrier, which continues through ogy such as accountability, assessment, site based management, evalua-
secondary school and to further education and/or employment. In order to tion products and global competition. Due to globalization and Fiji gov-
improve standards of mathematics in primary schools, it is crucial that ernment's continuing reliance on aid from other countries, particularly in
teachers introduce effective methods for student learning. The Education the development of its education system, the education system also
Commission Report (2000) showed that teacher trainees learn best prac- slowly moves towards neoliberalism. Lots of reforms have taken place all
tice pedagogy during their pre-service training, but once they are posted over the world in relation to improving quality of education and use of
to the classroom, they often revert to rote and dictatorial styles of teach- teaching methods to deliver to the best where no child is left out. Neolib-
ing. eralism is not static in any country.
High performance in examinations, especially external exams (Fiji In a neoliberal education system, public school management/board,
Year 6 exam, Fiji Year 8 exam and LANA for Years 5 and 7), is given as well as privately run schools, gain greater power and authority to man-
high priority by the Ministry. For these, the exam papers are prepared by age their affairs. As a result they could impose conditions which could
the Ministry of Education; they also, of course, prepare the syllabus. For adversely affect children from lower income families. In addition due to
teachers and stakeholders, exam results are of great significance. Due to globalization and evolution of knowledge based economy, additional
exam oriented system teachers get concerned with finishing the syllabus pressures are created for nation states to improve and maintain their com-
and drilling students with exam questions and answers. In some schools petitiveness in the global economic environment.
Saturday classes are conducted by teachers to train and prepare students Recent policy announcements show that primary education (from
towards exams. Because of such exam testing system, teachers get reluc- classes 1 to 8) is now compulsory. Government has started providing as-
tant and sometimes hesitant, in using other approaches to teaching and sistance to encourage parents and students to keep to the policy on com-
learning of mathematics. Some of these alternatives would take up much pulsory education. Assistance provided includes free text books, bus fare
time; they are generally deemed irrelevant to passing exams. allowances, and free milk and cereals for first year primary students. Such
The traditional method - the chalk and talk method - is still being forms of assistance are common in a number of countries. In the US, for
practiced in almost all schools. Children are given rules, definitions and example, the No Child Left Behind policy was a very clear move to en-
examples on the board by the teacher which is later used by the students sure that all students (including the homeless, migrants, special education
to follow and solve given mathematics tasks. In such types of teaching need students and students from all social classes and ethnic back-
students are forced to memorize facts and formulas. As a result, learning grounds) must gain yearly progress and achievement in English language
in mathematics gets divorced from real life situations; learning with un- and mathematics in grades three, five and eight (US department of Educa-
derstanding does not take place. Consequently, the classroom does not get tion, 2012).
lively; they remain without social interaction. The outcome is students In Fiji various reforms have taken place since 2000. The curricu-
losing interest in learning mathematics. In turn poor result in mathemat- lum, teaching methods, and mode of assessment have been reviewed in
ics continues. According to Nairn, Harish, Tiko & Treacy (nd) an analysis order to produce education outcomes which would improve our competi-
of Fiji Islands Literacy and Numeracy assessment test items in one of tiveness in the global marketplace. In 2011 external exams in Primary
their studies showed that students were experiencing difficulty in all areas schools were abolished and schools were encouraged to conduct internal
of mathematics number, measurement, space and statistics. assessment as the form of identifying a child’s ability. In 2014 exams
were brought back in. Government started providing support to schools
by substantially raising financial grants to schools. Pressure on teachers to
 Dialogue: Cooperative Learning in Maths 91 92 Fijian Studies Vol 14, No. 2

produce better results also increased. Since 2015, autonomy of schools analyze their own and their group's abilities to work collaboratively.
has been reduced as the Ministry of Education has embarked on putting in An important aspect of the lesson instruction component is the
place greater controls on schools and school boards. But the greater con- teacher's role. The teacher must (a) have students transition quickly after
trol is still within a neo-liberal environment. While teachers are employed direct instruction, (b) have activities and materials ready, (c) monitor stu-
by the Government, employment contracts have now become the norm. dent progress in groups, and (d) reinforce the occurrences of collaborative
This allows the Ministry greater authority on appointing, elevating, de- behaviours. During cooperative learning activities, teachers should circu-
moting or terminating the employment of teachers. late among groups, monitoring students' abilities to complete the assigned
mathematics activity and demonstrate the targeted collaborative skills.
Cooperative Teaching and learning The teacher can facilitate group work by asking questions to help students
redirect their work, by providing additional instruction to some students
Cooperative groupwork learning is where members of the allocated who may be struggling with the task, and by reinforcing students' efforts
group work with their group members to accomplish a common goal (Kil- for working collaboratively and seeking solutions to problems.
len, 2007). Cooperative learning is considered to be an effective method Correspondingly the teacher who is the sole in-charge of his class
to improve teaching and learning processes in classrooms (Johnson & should play the crucial role in making sure the four principals of coopera-
Johnson, 1990; 1999). The concept is based on the belief that education tive learning are applied to ensure effective teaching and learning is tak-
should be learner-centered and learner-directed; that learners can be ing place. It is well-established that the employment of new teaching
teachers, and that the teacher is a guide and facilitator rather than the methodology can only come through the teacher (Cohen, 1994; Hintz,
source of all knowledge and direction (Coelho, 1994). 1990; Rich, 1990). The success or failure of new educational ideas de-
To achieve all the goals the members in the group are interdepend- pends greatly on the role of the classroom teacher. If the teacher is well
ent; they work with each other rather than working alone. The success of versed and trained in use of cooperative learning, and implements coop-
the group depends on the student’s ability to cooperate. Students in the erative learning with dedication, improvements will be noted in mathe-
group must trust each other, support each other and respect each other to matics learning. Learning is identified as social in nature; the teacher
overcome difficulties that may hinder their progress (Kagan, 2004). Co- functions as a catalyst and not the main source of learning. Student’s par-
operative learning does not take place in a vacuum (Johnson & Johnson, ticipation is encouraged, and they are motivated to learn from each other
1994). Consequently by dividing or placing students together in different (Cohen, 1993). In cooperative learning teachers are to encourage students
groups in a maths class doesn’t mean that cooperative learning is taking to discuss, explain, listen, encourage and provide academic help to their
place in the class. Cooperative learning is not just simple group work. peers (Johnson and Johnson, 1983). In a prudent structuring of coopera-
According to Johnson and Johnson (1994) and Kagan (2004) in coopera- tive learning students are 'cognitively, physically, emotionally, and psy-
tive learning the following principles should always be present: positive chologically actively involved in constructing their own knowledge'
interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual accountability, group (Johnson et. al., 1992: 11).
behaviour, and group processing. There are specific roles that teachers need to follow in order to em-
Positive interdependence means that students see the importance of ploy cooperative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). The objective of
working as a team and realize that they are responsible for contributing to the lesson needs to be specifically stated by the teacher prior to the class.
the group's effort. Face-to-face interaction involves students working in A well thought out plan needs to be created by teachers to group students.
environmental situations that promote eye contact and social space so that Finally teachers have to monitor and guide group interaction, which is
students can engage in discussions. Individual accountability suggests followed by teacher’s assessment of group collaboration and student per-
that each person is responsible to the group and must be a contributing formance. Cooperative learning in mathematics offers pleasant learning
member - and not be someone who lets others do all of the work. Group situation for all students, as all students have equal opportunity. Competi-
behaviour refers to those interpersonal, social, and collaborative skills tion is amended as friendship, the spirit of cooperation and participation
needed to work with others successfully. Finally, group processing is a is reinforced and all students are entitled to be thoughtful and creative
time after the cooperative learning task is finished when team members (Keramati, 2001; Lavasani Khandan, 2011).
 Dialogue: Cooperative Learning in Maths 93 94 Fijian Studies Vol 14, No. 2

Metzler (2011) defines cooperative learning as a methodology in the students to practice hands-on activities which will be connected to
which students learn with, from and for their peers. A cooperative learn- real life situations in local contexts. Thus a well-planned cooperative les-
ing classroom should not be teacher-centered; 'ideally teachers are trained son will have a space where children will be given an opportunity to teach
to take their existing lessons and restructure them to be cooperative' so as themselves and each other in the same group. By teaching and helping
to allow small groups to work together to maximize their own and each each other in the groups students will actively engage with their peers.
other’s learning' (Johnson & Johnson, 2008: 26 ;Marashi & Dibah, 2013). Secondly mathematic teachers should take note that relevant spe-
cific measurable objectives are stated which will provide a sense of direc-
Teachers’ Role in Implementing Cooperative Learning tion. Through assessments, oral questioning, observation and group ac-
tivities the teacher has to re-plan and re-teach the same concept if the ob-
In order to have effective cooperative learning to take place in a jectives are not being met.
mathematics classroom, teachers play a crucial role. To organize effective During group-work monitoring, a teacher is 'both an academic ex-
cooperative learning group, teachers should know their students very pert and a classroom manager' (Johnson & Johnson, 1990: 112). The
well. According to Bettenhausen (2002) a teacher’s role in cooperative teacher monitors the functioning of the learning groups and intervenes to
learning generally includes: grouping students, specifying objectives, ex- teach collaborative skills and provides task assistance when it is needed.
plaining tasks, monitoring group work and evaluating achievement and Though he remains the technical expert, the teacher functions more as a
cooperation. Grouping of students can be a difficult process and must be consultant to promote effective group functioning. Typical statements a
done with care. In a normal classroom there are students who come from teacher may make are, 'Check with your group'; 'Does anyone in your
different family backgrounds, with different cultural values, beliefs, gen- group know'; 'make sure everyone in your group understands’ (Johnson
ders and personalities, and have different learning abilities. and Johnson, 1991: 61).
Cooperative learning groups in mathematics class should have a It ought to be noted that there remain significant differences on
mixture of different ethnic groups, and different learning abilities so that methods proposed by proponents of cooperative learning for effective
students can work interdependently with their peers sharing mathematics outcomes. Kagan (1985) suggested that teachers should be freed even
ideas from different cultural perspectives. Smarter students in the group more in group investigation to allow students to assume responsibility for
could be classified as 'more knowledgeable others' (MKO) who could learning. Teachers typically consult with groups and suggest ideas or pos-
provide scaffolding to his or her group members to reach the common sibilities for exploration. Cohen (1991, 1994) observed that students re-
goal of the group. Thus in organizing an effective cooperative group, stu- duced the amount of cooperation and communication between each other
dents tend to learn from their peers while the teacher should act as a good after the teacher intervened. Therefore, he proposes minimizing monitor-
facilitator. Rogoff (1990) refers to scaffolding as a specific mechanism ing to help students become more interdependent, autonomous, and self-
used by adults and children during guided participation, comprising a va- directed. His preferred method is to use the quick-response strategy in
riety of physical and/or verbal aids, aiming at facilitating children’s pro- which teachers provide brief comments and questions, then move away
gress towards competence. from the group so that students can continue their discussions.
If teachers do not provide clear and explicit assistance when stu- Johnson and Johnson (1990), Kagan (1985), and Cohen (1991,
dents need them, students are unlikely to engage in task-specific learning 1994) encourage teachers to monitor the group's on-task behaviour and
(Cohen, 1994). Lack of teacher assistance has been found to be the most cooperative skills and to provide task assistance when necessary. There-
important reason for low achievement of students in group-learning set- fore, the teachers' role in cooperative-learning classrooms is aimed at
tings (Webb, 1989). For any lesson the teacher takes, the lesson plan acts helping 'improve effective group functioning than an instructor who con-
as a good road map to achieve what is expected in that lesson. Thus in a tributes information or scaffolds students' learning' (Meloth & Deering,
mathematics class, teachers should devote ample time to prepare effective 1999: 244).
lesson plans for cooperative learning. Finally in the evaluation phase or at the end of a cooperative
In planning a cooperative mathematics lesson plan a teacher should mathematics lesson, teachers need to evaluate students' learning and give
see that he/she has included relevant teaching aids which will be used by feedback on how their work compares with the preset criterion of excel-
 Dialogue: Cooperative Learning in Maths 95 96 Fijian Studies Vol 14, No. 2

lence (Johnson and Johnson, 1986). The cooperative mathematics group ideas, think critically and help others to learn. Teachers need to train stu-
then processes the information, assesses how well they have worked to- dents to record and describe members’ behaviour in their group. In addi-
gether, and plan on improving their effectiveness for future activities. tion the teacher should help students to believe that they will be better off
Thus, in cooperative learning there is a shift from teacher centered if they worked together productively. The teacher should help students to
to student centered activities where students are given opportunity to understand the skills and give students opportunities to practice skills
teach each other, share ownership of content, and construct new knowl- regularly (Graves and Graves, 1990). Teachers should teach students how
edge (Hannon and Ratliffee, 2004). In cooperative learning mathematics to do each of the assigned group task, how to help members without do-
classroom teachers should take an important role in organizing and man- ing the job for them and how to check on what their group members are
aging the classroom. Consequently, a well-organized teacher will make doing by listening, encouraging and suggesting (rather than taking over)
sure that relevant teaching and learning materials are made available so (Cohen, 1994).
that students need not run around and search for them. The classroom The third essential element of cooperative learning in mathematics
should be well set up, and be safe and conducive towards learning. is that teachers should encourage equal opportunities for success by form-
Teachers need to understand the essential elements of cooperative ing heterogeneous groups. Students are not of the same learning abilities;
learning to enable them to employ effective methods in mathematics some are slow learners and some learn fast; some learn skills and con-
classroom. cepts just through teacher explanation, while some need greater scaffold-
Slavin (1986, 1987) proposes three essential elements in an effective ing to move on with the task. To assist slow learners teachers need to pre-
cooperative learning method. First, the role of the teacher here is to pro- pare tasks that take into account each group member’s strengths and
vide some type of meaningful reward to group members to encourage that weaknesses. In designing the task structure of learning activities and so-
desirable behaviour occurs again. In order to have positive effect of coop- cial skills, mathematics teachers need to consider the cognitive ability and
erative learning take place in a classroom, students must be motivated; it social skills required to undertake activities cooperatively (Corden, 2000).
is that intrinsic motivation, the desire to learn and achieve the most,
which is important. This comes from the learner himself. Looking at ex- Conclusion
trinsic motivation, the teacher as the facilitator of cooperative learning
plays a crucial role by motivating students using rewards and praises to For successful implementation of cooperative learning in mathemat-
enable students to maintain their interest and desire to learn what is being ics classrooms, mathematics teachers must have a good understanding of
taught. Positive classroom culture includes teacher receptiveness to stu- cooperative learning and its elements. They need good classroom man-
dents’ ideas, equality (and not just control or domination), and honesty, agement skills to manage time and students' work towards effective learn-
warmth and friendliness (such as smiles, eye contacts, reassuring ges- ing. Cooperative learning in mathematics reduces teacher talking time
tures); teachers do not act on a stage but walk around the classroom and gives more opportunities to students to learn through social interac-
(Jolliffe, 2007). In addition to this teachers need to respect the pupils feel- tion. Of critical importance is the need for the teacher to plan and prepare
ings (empathy), putting themselves in the pupils shoes. the activities appropriately. As a good mathematics teacher clear lesson
The second element is individual accountability. The teacher should objectives need to be stated for each mathematics lesson. This will pro-
make sure that each member is given equal opportunity to demonstrate vide the students a sense of direction. In any cooperative group work eve-
knowledge learned in the group without the help of other group members. ryone is a part of the team and each member’s active participation is re-
Thus a good teacher should assign individual responsibility to students in quired. The teachers should set a conducive classroom environment, pre-
groups which will encourage students to perform their given responsibil- pare adequate learning resources, and motivate and encourage students
ity. Students in groups can take the role of explainer, recorder, checker towards active participation to achieve academic outcomes.
and encourager. Thus with the assigned roles students will feel part of the
group and participate effectively.
Killen (2007) supports the view that teachers need to ensure that
every student has an opportunity to talk about their learning, exchange
 Dialogue: Cooperative Learning in Maths 97 98 Fijian Studies Vol 14, No. 2

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