Child and Adolescent Dev T Mats
Child and Adolescent Dev T Mats
Child and Adolescent Dev T Mats
Name:_____________________________________________________ Score:______
II. Directions: Identify the stage of development being described and answer as follows:
III. Directions: Match the laws to their description by writing the letters of the correct
answers to the blanks provided.
anins
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
2nd Semester, SY 2009-2010
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Midterm Examination
Name:_____________________________________________________ Score:______
II. Directions: Classify the following disabilities/abnormalities under the correct category.
1. The role of the teacher in the child’s growth and development is:
a. to assist in identifying potentialities
b. to help in developing talents and potentials
c. to provide a learning environment that will reinforce the child’s inherited traits
d. all of the choices
2. Which is not a principle of growth and development?
a. all individuals are unique
b. early foundations determine functional asymmetry
c. the various aspects are integrated
d. none of the choices
3. When a girl reaches puberty and manifests all of the changes that accompany this stage,
which can be assumed?
a. growth has taken place
b. growth and development have taken place
c. growth, development and maturation have taken place
d. maturation has taken place
4. When Ruben writes with his left hand, this is an indication of:
a. cephalocaudal principle c. principle of functional asymmetry
b. proximodistal principle d. epigenetic principle
5. All birds have wings. But the penguin, which is also a bird with wings cannot fly like its
other relatives. This is an example of:
a. epigenetic principle c. phylogenetic principle
b. ontogenetic principle d. none of the choices
6. The teeth become a complete set of 32 at the:
a. early childhood stage c. late childhood stage
b. adolescence stage d. none of the choices
7. Growth spurt is exhibited during the:
a. early childhood stage c. late childhood and adolescence stages
b. adolescence stage d. early childhood and adolescence stages
8. Examples of teratogens are:
a. cigarettes, coffee, alcohol c. drugs, meat, junkfood
b. alcohol, candies, fruits d. none of the choices
9. The reflex action wherein the Baby Joe turns his head and mouth toward the hand that
strokes his cheek.
a. palmar b. plantar c. rooting d. sucking
10. The reflex action wherein Baby Mike throws his arms together when startled.
a. plantar b. grasping c. moro d. rooting
11. Reflex where Baby Gel immediately grips your finger when her palm is touched.
a. palmar b. plantar c. rooting d. moro
12. Play skills like riding a bike or engaging in team sports are developed in the:
a. early childhood stage c. late childhood stage
b. adolescence stage d. none of the choices
13. Handedness is determined at the:
a. early childhood stage c. late childhood stage
b. adolescence stage d. none of the choices
14. Which is a false statement?
a. During high school girls are taller than boys.
b. During elementary girls are taller than boys.
c. Boys experienced the growth spurt later than girls.
d. In general, boys become taller than girls later on.
15. A family with a special child needs support. All of these are correct, except:
a. the child has to be helped
b. the disability is a shame to the family
c. the child may have developmental problems
d. none of the choices
16. These are some problems met by a special child, except:
a. medical treatment c. social restriction
b. anxiety d. manifestation of loving care
17. Which is not a sign of blindness in young children?
a. abnormalities in eye movement c. no blinking observed
b. shuts and opens eyes as needed d. none of the choices
18. Joseph is mildly retarded. He can do the following, except:
a. hold a job c. perform self-help skills
b. use the Pythagorean theorem d. pay his bills
19. Pat is profoundly retarded. Which is the best description of Pat?
a. She is capable of feeding herself.
b. She can say “Mama”.
c. She can tie her shoes and dress herself.
d. Her IQ is between 25 to 39.
20. A teacher who has a visually impaired child in her class does the following, except:
a. does not practice the alphabetical seating arrangement
b. constructs bigger and more colorful visual aids
c. wears eyeglasses
d. check on the work of the child more often than the other students
21. Which is not a cause of hearing abnormalities?
a. very loud music c. overdose of medication
b. untreated infection d. congenital disease
22. The teacher who handles a deaf class knows that:
a. she must hire a sign language expert
b. she must present bigger visual aids in class lessons
c. she needs to maintain eye contact with the students all the time
d. she needs to take formal classes in special education
23. Language problems may be the result of the following, except:
a. emotional trauma c. poor diet
b. brain injury d. retardation
24. Which is not an ADHD symptom?
a. fidgeting hands or feet
b. interrupting or intruding on others’ conversations or activities
c. difficulty waiting in line
d. listening attentively when spoken to directly
25. Because ADHD is not a visible disability nor readily diagnosed:
a. children are often wrongly judged, misunderstood and labeled as “bad”
b. children receive preferential treatment
c. parents should not mind their child’s behavior
d. doctors should prescribe Ritalin to all schoolchildren just to make sure
aanins
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
2nd Semester, SY 2009-2010
CHILD & ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Midterm Examination
TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS
Total 50
Name:_____________________________________________________ Score:______
I. Directions: Complete the table by classifying the following cognitive disorders under the
correct group.
______________________________________________________________________________
32. Name one of the senator-hopefuls who attended the Senate Forum?
______________________________________________________________________________
35. Who was judged as Mr. Ramp Model during Education Night? (name or number)
______________________________________________________________________________
aanins
Early Childhood
- start to develop a sense of self-awareness
- understand that other people have thoughts and feelings that may be different from their own
- begin to develop empathy
- become more interested in their peers
- can comfort a peer
- learn to share and cooperate
- learn discipline
Help the young child understand her feelings.
Encourage early friendships.
Let the child take the lead in deciding what to play.
Support the toddlers’ developing skills.
Help the child learn to resolve conflict in healthy, appropriate ways.
Use language to describe feelings and experiences.
Explain the reasons for limits and requests.
Look for ways to make your home culture part of the child’s everyday routines.
Help children learn to resolve conflict in healthy, appropriate ways.
Late Childhood
- self-esteem is developing
- begin to care about what peers think
- want to spend time with friends but still need attention and approval from adults
- begin to experience worry, confusion, excitement or fear
- need support and guidance from parents, but begin to test authority
- social skills emerge, with “best friends” and cliques developing
- become overly concerned with weight and physical appearance
Adolescence
- may begin to experiment with tobacco, alcohol or other drugs.
- seek independence, but find security in parents’ limits and continue to look to them for values
and guidance
- want acceptance from peers
- friendship and romance are important
- become self-conscious
- become concerned over emerging sexuality
- explore different roles, looks, values, lifestyles and friendships
- begin to form their own values and standards
Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory
1. Trust vs mistrust (0-2) – provide the child with his needs
2. Autonomy vs shame/doubt (2-4) – allow the child to be independent, but with guidance
3. Initiative vs guilt (4-6) – same as above
4. Industry vs inferiority (6-12) – recognize the child’s efforts
5. Identity vs role confusion (12-18) – support the teen as he reflects, explores and makes his own
mind
Kohlberg’s Moral Developmental Theory
1. Pre-Conventional Level
2. Conventional Level
3. Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level
Freud’s Psychosexual Developmental Theory
1. Oral
2. Anal
3. Phallic
4. Latency
5. Genital
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory – be a good model to the child
Abnormal Social and Emotional Development - social anxiety disorder/social phobia, separation anxiety
disorder (SAD), school refusal behavior, selective mutism, reactive attachment disorder, oppositional
defiant disorder, attention deficit disorder (ADD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Loving relationships give young children a sense of comfort, safety, confidence, and
encouragement. They teach young children how to form friendships, communicate emotions, and
to deal with challenges. Strong, positive relationships also help children develop trust, empathy,
compassion, and a sense of right and wrong. Starting from birth, babies are learning who they are
by how they are treated. Through everyday interactions, parents, relatives and caregivers send
babies messages like: You’re clever. You’re good at figuring things out. You’re loved. You make
me laugh. I enjoy being with you. These messages shape a baby’s self-esteem.
Young toddlers are starting to develop a sense of self-awareness—that they are separate
and independent from others. This new knowledge helps them understand that other people have
thoughts and feelings that may be different from their own. Realizing this helps children begin to
develop empathy — the ability to put one’s self in another person’s shoes and imagine what he is
feeling. Young toddlers are also becoming more and more interested in their peers, though at this
age they usually don’t play with other children, but next to or nearby. Children will begin to play
more interactively with peers as they near age 3 and beyond.
You will also see a real explosion in pretend play, a critical aspect of children’s
development. Pretend play builds language, thinking, and social skills when children take on
roles and develop their own ideas and stories. Two-year-olds are also capable of empathy—
understanding the feelings of others. You might see a child comfort a peer who is hurt or even
cry when he sees another child who is upset. At the same time, toddlers still love to say “No!”
and struggle with resolving conflicts with friends. Children develop more advanced social play
skills, such as sharing and turn-taking.
Another way to help children begin to learn social skills, stay safe, and begin to learn
values and morals is to provide appropriate discipline from birth. During the first months, the
priority of discipline is keeping babies safe until they can comprehend right and wrong and the
consequences of their actions. Physical punishment such as spanking is not very effective, if at
all, because young children don't understand the cause and effect connection between
misbehavior and punishment.
Self-esteem is developing. They’re beginning to care about what peers think and want to
spend time with friends, but at the same time, they still need attention and approval from adults.
Boys and girls in early childhood are beginning to experience worry, confusion, excitement or
fear. Boys and girls in this stage need support and guidance from parents, but begin to test
authority. Social skills emerge, with “best friends” and cliques developing. Some may become
overly concerned with weight and physical appearance, and some may begin to experiment with
tobacco, alcohol or other drugs.
Development in Adolescence
Early teens seek independence, but find security in parents’ limits and continue to look to
them for values and guidance. As they try to establish their own identities, they want acceptance
from peers. Friendship and romance are important, and some become concerned over physical
changes and emerging sexuality.
Late teens are becoming independent. They explore different roles, looks, values,
lifestyles and friendships, and they begin to form their own values and standards. Youth in late
teens learn how to share as they form more meaningful one-to-one relationships, especially with
those of the opposite sex.
During this period, several issues regarding the adolescent’s relations with others arise.
Some of these are:
Issue #1- Young adolescents have a very strong need to be part of a social group
Giving students “free time” during the school day allows for informal socialization.
Students who are part of groups often feel a bond of trust, or at least a sense that they know the
others in the group. Clubs give students chances to get to know others with similar interests.
Issue #2- There are young adolescents who feel like targets
Young people often pick on others as a way of diverting attention away from themselves,
their differences, or their insecurities. Regardless of the reasons, it happens. As educators, we
need to do what we can to stifle this activity. Be sensitive to the kids who seem to be the outcasts
and never say things like “stop picking on Sam” in front of Sam or other kids who aren’t
involved. This will just make things worse for unfortunate Sam. Instead, we need to find interests
and activities that Sam does well and capitalize on them. Identify kids with similar
interests/skills and arrange for Sam to get together with them. As strange as it may seem, some
kids who become “targets” actually thrive on it in a perverse way. Attention, even though it’s
negative, gives a sense of identity.
Issue #3- Young adolescence is a prime time for shyness, given the self-consciousness of the age
Often shyness may be manifested in blushing, nervous stomach, sweating, and increased
pulse rate. Adolescents may experience these symptoms, but the need to conform to group norms
may cause them to hide the symptoms and appear to be confident. Whether shyness is obvious,
or a hidden malady, it can be painful and viewed as a negative trait by peers and adults. As with
Issue #1, providing a variety of outlets for socialization will help ease shyness. Offering activity
opportunities that vary enough to appeal to a variety of students may help shy students find their
talents and interests, and other students who share them.
Issue #4- Teachers’ social backgrounds may be different from their students’
This is a very common phenomenon. We may teach students with whom we have difficulty
relating. It is essential that educators look seriously at the differences between the social realities
of the teachers and those of the students and be willing to make needed adjustments in
perceptions and in the way they conduct schooling. Learning will be more meaningful if teachers
understand young adolescent realities. Knowing student social realities will assist us in relating
to them and connecting them more fully to school experiences.
The man who did a great deal to explore this concept is Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-
1994) developed a theory about human stage development from birth to death. Erikson focused
on how peoples' sense of identity develops; how people develop or fail to develop abilities and
beliefs about themselves which allow them to become productive, satisfied members of society.
Because Erikson's theory combines how people develop beliefs psychologically and mentally
with how they learn to exist within a larger community of people, it’s called a 'psychosocial'
theory.
Erikson’s stages are, in chronological order in which they unfold: trust versus mistrust;
autonomy versus shame and doubt; initiative versus guilt; industry versus inferiority; identity
versus identity confusion; intimacy versus isolation; generativity versus stagnation; and integrity
versus despair. Each stage is associated with a time of life and a general age span. For each
stage, Erikson's theory explains what types of stimulation children need to master that stage and
become productive and well-adjusted members of society and explains the types of problems and
developmental delays that can result when this stimulation does not occur.
For purposes of our discussion on the child and the adolescent, only those stages
concerning our focus will be emphasized.
1. Infancy: Birth to 18 Months
Ego Development Outcome: Trust vs. Mistrust
Basic strength: Drive and Hope
Erikson also referred to infancy as the Oral Sensory Stage where the major emphasis is
on the mother's positive and loving care for the child, with a big emphasis on visual contact and
touch. If we pass successfully through this period of life, we will learn to trust that life is
basically okay and have basic confidence in the future. If we fail to experience trust and are
constantly frustrated because our needs are not met, we may end up with a deep-seated feeling of
worthlessness and a mistrust of the world in general.
Incidentally, many studies of suicides and suicide attempts point to the importance of the
early years in developing the basic belief that the world is trustworthy and that every individual
has a right to be here.
Not surprisingly, the most significant relationship is with the maternal parent, or whoever
is our most significant and constant caregiver.
2. Early Childhood: 18 Months to 3 Years
Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame
Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage, and Will
During this stage we learn to master skills for ourselves. Not only do we learn to walk,
talk and feed ourselves, we are learning finer motor development as well as the much appreciated
toilet training. Here we have the opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as we gain more
control over our bodies and acquire new skills, learning right from wrong. And one of our skills
during the "Terrible Two's" is our ability to use the powerful word "NO!" It may be pain for
parents, but it develops important skills of the will.
It is also during this stage, however, that we can be very vulnerable. If we're shamed in
the process of toilet training or in learning other important skills, we may feel great shame and
doubt of our capabilities and suffer low self-esteem as a result.
During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative
in creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie's and Ken's, toy phones and
miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we
believe it means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world
— "WHY?"
While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the
psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this
stage we usually become involved in the classic "Oedipal struggle" and resolve this struggle
through "social role identification." If we're frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may
easily experience guilt.
During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and
accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is
also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy
and inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-
esteem.
As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and the
neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are
still important.
5. Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years
Ego Development Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Basic Strengths: Devotion and Fidelity
Up to this stage, according to Erikson, development mostly depends upon what is done to
us. From here on out, development depends primarily upon what we do. And while adolescence
is a stage at which we are neither a child nor an adult, life is definitely getting more complex as
we attempt to find our own identity, struggle with social interactions, and grapple with moral
issues.
Our task is to discover who we are as individuals separate from our family of origin and
as members of a wider society. Unfortunately for those around us, in this process many of us go
into a period of withdrawing from responsibilities, which Erikson called a "moratorium." And if
we are unsuccessful in navigating this stage, we will experience role confusion and upheaval.
A significant task for us is to establish a philosophy of life and in this process we tend to
think in terms of ideals, which are conflict free, rather than reality, which is not. The problem is
that we don't have much experience and find it easy to substitute ideals for experience. However,
we can also develop strong devotion to friends and causes.
It is no surprise that our most significant relationships are with peer groups.
Kohlberg’s Moral Developmental Theory
Pre-Conventional Level
At this level, the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or
wrong, but he interprets the labels in terms of either the physical or hedonistic consequences of
action (punishment, reward, exchange of favors) or the physical power of those who enunciate
the rules and labels. The level is divided into the following three stages:
Stage 0: Egocentric judgement. The child makes judgements of good on the basis of what he
likes and wants or what helps him, and bad on the basis of what he does not like or what hurts
him. He has no concept of rules or of obligations to obey or conform independent of his wish.
Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation. The physical consequences of action
determine its goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning or value of these
consequences. Avoidance of punishment and unquestioning deference to power are values in
their own right, not in terms of respect for an underlying moral order supported by punishment
and authority (the latter is stage 4).
Stage 2: The instrumental relativist orientation. Right action consists of what instrumentally
satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others. Human relations are viewed in
terms such as those of the market place. Elements of fairness, reciprocity, and equal sharing are
present, but they are always interpreted in a physical, pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a matter of
"you scratch my back and I'll scratch your", not loyalty, gratitude, or justice.
Conventional Level
At this level, the individual perceives the maintenance of the expectations of his family,
group, or nation as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious consequences.
The attitude is not only one of conformity to personal expectations and social order, but of
loyalty to it, of actively maintaining, supporting, and justifying the order and identifying with the
persons or group involved in it. The level consists of the following two stages:
Stage 3: The interpersonal concordance or "good boy-nice girl" orientation. Good behavior is
what pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much conformity to stereotypical
images of what is majority or "natural" behavior. Behavior is frequently judged by intention --
"he means well" becomes important for the first time. One earns approval by being "nice".
Stage 4: The "law and order" orientation. The individual is oriented toward authority, fixed
rules, and the maintenance of the social order. Right behavior consists in doing one's duty,
showing respect for authority, and maintaining the given social order for its own sake.
The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have
validity and application apart from the authority of the groups of persons holding them and apart
from the individual's own identification with the group. The level has the two following stages:
Stage 5: The social-contract legalistic orientation. Right action tends to be defined in terms of
general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by
the whole society. There is a clear awareness of the relativism of personal values and opinions
and a corresponding emphasis upon procedural rules for reaching consensus. Aside from what is
constitutionally and democratically agreed upon, right action is a matter of personal values and
opinions. The result is an emphasis upon the "legal point of view", but with an additional
emphasis upon the possibility of changing the law in terms of rational considerations of social
utility (rather than freezing it in terms of stage 4 "law and order"). Outside the legal realm, free
agreement, and contract, is the binding element of obligation. The "official" morality of the
American government and Constitution is at this stage.
Children have to develop sexually and form a gender identity. This developmental
channel is unique because it spans developments across the other physical, psychological, and
social channels. Early on, children learn how their bodies work and look and what it means to be
a boy or a girl; they learn how boys and girls are different. As they grow older and enter
adolescence and puberty, they continue to learn how their bodies work sexually and how to
responsibly handle their sexuality so as to balance their sexual desires and appropriate behavior.
They continue to decide for themselves what it means to be masculine or feminine throughout
their lifespan.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way
parents dealt with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their
personalities developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults. Freud
believed that there are specific stages in which an individual has a specific need, and if needs are
left unfulfilled or overstimulated, according to Freud there are dramatic effects on an individual’s
behavior. Freud’s explanation of these developmental stages provided early psychosocial
explanations for an individual’s deviance or abnormal behavior. Freud outlined five stages of
development: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, the latency stage, and the genital
stage.
Stage 1, from 0 - 2 years, is the oral phase. At this age, babies learn about the world by
putting things in their mouths. They see toys or cookies or anything, and the first thing they'll do
is put it in their mouth. If a person becomes fixated (stays in) at this stage, s/he will exhibit oral
behaviors as an adult, like smoking, compulsive eating, etc.
Stage 2, from 2 - 4 years, is the anal phase. This is when children are beginning to potty
train, and become aware of this part of their anatomy. There's a lot of focus on it because of toilet
training, and a child (who doesn't cooperate) can react one of two ways: anal retentive, or anal
expulsive. The anal retentive child refuses to use the toilet at all, because he cannot go where he
pleases. As an adult the anal retentive person is fussy, meticulous, overly organized, and
sometimes anti-social. The anal expulsive child reacts violently, by soiling his pants or other
areas, in protest against using the toilet. He proves he will put his feces anywhere he likes. The
anal expulsive adult is brash, unorganized, and often unconcerned with others' feelings.
Stage 3, from 4 - 6 years, is the phallic stage. At this age, children become aware of their
genitals and frequently masturbate. How they react depends on how their parents react, should
they catch them in the act. If their parents are upset, they may find the genitals dirty and
shameful. If their parents ignore the behavior, it may or may not have consequences.
During stage 3, the Oedipus and Electra complexes occur. The Oedipus complex is easily
described as "when a young boy wants to kill his father and marry his mother," and it is so
named after the Greek myth, Oedipus Rex. However, the complex is not so literal.
A young boy, according to Freud, idolizes his mother and therefore feels a type of
attraction to her. He is jealous of the attention she gives his father; he wants all the attention for
himself. He must get over his resentment of his father, and learn to emulate him instead, in order
to get past this complex. He must also begin to see his mother in a more human light.
Most people can recognize young children going through an "idolizing" stage with the
parent they are least like (the opposite-sex parent), and even being jealous of the attention the
same-sex parent gives him/her. Others might disagree and say this occurs because the opposite-
sex parent is a novelty, and jealousy occurs because children are very self-centered at a young
age. Regardless; Freud saw it as a sexual focus.
Stage 4, from 6 - 12 years, is what Freud called the 'latency period.' He thought no
psychosexual development occurred during this time.
Stage 5, from 12 - 18 years, is the genital phase. This is when puberty is occurring and
children reach sexual maturity. Their early attempts at sexuality will guide their adult behavior.
Children that are shunned may grow up to be isolated, or to behave wantonly. Children that are
exposed to healthy sexuality will grow up as functional, whole adults.
Freud thought that all development was complete by the time a person reached adulthood,
and that any tendencies the person had from their early years would always show through.
Psychologists today disagree with this approach to development; they believe that it continues
throughout life.
The deepest feelings of pleasure, according to Freud, come from sexual relationships with
other adults. Freud believed that gratification during each stage is important to prevent an
individual from becoming fixated in any particular level. Fixation, as Freud described it, is
attaching oneself in an unreasonable or exaggerated way to another individual or one particular
stage of development. Freud claimed that such a fixation at one particular stage can cause bad
habits or problems in an individual’s adult life. There are many examples of this. For example, if
a person is orally fixated (according to Freud, they are stuck in the oral stage of development), a
person may bite their nails, chew on pens. Freud also blamed smoking on fixation at the oral
stage. On the other hand, if an infant does not receive adequate oral gratification, the individual
may be prone to excessive eating or drinking in adult life. Many psychotherapists who are
advocates of this theory blame many sexual disorders such as fetishes and pedophiles on being
fixated at the genital stage. According to this theory, there is a delicate of balance that must be
met at each stage. If an individual a strict anal stage and had a tough toilet training, Freud said
that individual was more likely to be obsessively neat in adulthood. This is where the expression
“anal-retentive” comes from when describing someone that is excessively neat and orderly. On
the other hand if the child had a not so strict toilet training experience, Freud claimed it was
more likely that the individual would grow up to be a creative adult. In general each stage of
development places demands on an individual and arouses conflicts that must be resolved. One
of the most important conflicts occurs during the phallic stage when the pleasures of self-
stimulation pave the way for what is called the Oedipus complex. Oedipus, according to Greek
mythology, unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. According to Freud, each
young boy symbolically relives the Oedipus drama. He has incestuous cravings for his mother
and views his father as a hated rival. Even though the father is considered a rival, the boy also
fears his father. Freud suggested that the boy feels castration anxiety and as a result repressed his
sexual desire for his mother . Eventually if all goes well, the boy identifies with the father and
comes to have harmless affection for the mother. The Electra complex is the female counterpart.
It is based on the view that each girl wants to possess her father and replace her mother. For
either sex, resolution of this conflict is considered essential if a young adult is to develop.
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura states: "Learning
would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the
effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is
learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action." Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.
Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans
both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura's theory improves upon the strictly
behavioral interpretation of modeling. Bandura’s work is related to the theories of Vygotsky
which also emphasize the central role of social learning.
Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression
and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification.
The most common examples of social learning situations are television commercials.
Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will
make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component
processes involved we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product
being advertised.
Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into
words, labels or images rather than merely observing results in better retention.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer
and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.
Children with separation anxiety disorder (SAD) have intense anxiety about being
away from home or caregivers that affects their ability to function socially and in school. The
child may cling to parents, refuse to go to school, or be afraid to sleep alone.
School refusal behavior refers to children who are entirely absent or truant from school
or leave during the day.
Reactive attachment disorder usually begins before 5 years of age and is associated
with parental neglect, abuse, failure to meet the child’s basic physical or emotional needs. The
disturbed social relatedness may be evidenced by the child’s failure to initiate or respond to
social interaction or indiscriminate sociability or lack of selectivity in the choice of attachment
figures.
If left untreated, oppositional defiant disorder can lead to conduct disorder. This
disorder is characterized by persistent antisocial behavior in children and adolescents that
significantly impairs their ability to function well in social or academic situations. Symptoms are
clustered in four areas:
Young people with conduct disorder have little empathy for others, low self-esteem, poor
frustration tolerance and temper outbursts. This disorder is associated with early onset of sexual
behavior, drinking, smoking, use of illegal substances, and other reckless or risky behaviors.
Many of these children are diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder as adults.
Evaluating social and emotional capability in young children can be difficult. Accuracy
of the child’s behavior often depends upon certain variables including the age of the child, when
the behavior occurs, the setting where it occurs, and which adults are present at the time.
Developmental and cultural variability, differences in adult and child temperament, and changing
behavioral expectations are some factors that make social and emotional assessment particularly
challenging. For example, one family may tolerate loud talking and throwing of play toys while
another family may tolerate only quiet voices and no throwing of objects indoors. A two-year-
old who throws herself on the floor at the supermarket and screams because she can’t have a
chocolate donut will not be labeled “unusual” while an eight-year old who does the same would
be.
Young children, for example, have to learn to understand and recognize their own
feelings, but then they increasingly learn to associate verbal labels to those feelings, to learn that
others have feelings too, and to begin to sympathize with others. As children grow older, they
learn to manage their emotions to block feelings of anxiety, sadness, or frustration, and to delay
gratification in order to achieve a goal.
Name:_____________________________________________________ Score:______
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