Conservation Biology

Conservation biology:
Conservation: The judicious use and management of nature and natural
resources for the benefits of human society and for ethical reasons.

In the narrow sense: Preservation or maintenance of some or all of the

biological components of biological diversity.

In broad sense: Sustainable use of natural resources, biodiversity and its

components or their recovery or restoration or both.

Sustainable use:

It means the use of biological diversity in a way or at a rate that

does not lead to long-term decline of biological diversity there by maintaining its
potential to meet the needs and aspiration of present and future generation.

Nature is composed of 4 systems;

3 are physical

1 is biological

Physical system

1) Atmosphere
2) Lithosphere

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 1

 Conservation Biology

3) Hydrosphere

Biological system

Biosphere

Atmosphere + Lithosphere + Hydrosphere + Biosphere -= Ecosphere

Conservation biology;

 Relatively a new and distinct discipline.

Objectives;
To solve the problems of damage to nature and wild life that existed long before
this subject was conceived.

Concept of conservation biology is ethical / moral on basis of 3 primary ideas.

I. All living things posses’ intrinsic (natural, inherent) value of its own right.
Implying that all the animals and plants have certain rights to exist on their
merit meaning they have “intrinsic value.”
They are not only a commodity with a utilitarian value based on their usefulness
to man.
 Alexander Pope further extended this utilitarian concept and even
advocated legal protection to these non-human creatures and non living land
scopes.
 According to Aldo Leopold land has intrinsic value leading to its own right;
it is not only the store house of natural resources. So whereas “land esthetics”
cannot prevent the use of natural resources (including land alteration and

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 2

 Conservation Biology

management) but it does confirm their right to continue existence in a natural

state. (Leopold 1966).
 Similarly according to “Endangered species Act” endangered spp have the
right to live and liberty apart from any value or service, they provide to
mankind.( Petulla).
II. Conservation biology also confirms the “utilitarian value” of biodiversity and
ecosystem as a result physical environment & organisms in ecosystem produce
materials essential for continuation of human civilization as well as for structure
and function of all the spp. Human welfare, property and even survival are
linked to nature.(Marsh 1965) i.e. climate , land fertility, rainfall and rivers. But if
soil is exhausted of its fertility or its productivity is diminished, it would not able
to sustain human population.
III. Physical environment and its creatures add value, knowledge and meaning to
the experience of being human and appreciation of high values and virtues of
life. Some believe that human civilization with its values and virtues is
dependent upon contact with natural environment. According to Thoreau
(1995) “In wildness is the preservation of the world.” Aldo Leopold claimed
“wildness is the raw material out of which man has hammered the artifact called
civilization.”

Historical perspective of conservation:

In western society this concept of conservation advanced from preservation
to manipulation and management of natural resources.
Wealthy Europeans of the past employed game keepers to ensure an
abundance of favoured spp for hunting. They managed by eliminating poachers
or killing predators , introducing game animals to increase their number and
manipulating habitat by cutting trees and planting desirable plant sp.

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 3

 Conservation Biology

Limitation;
Because of their limited nature, such activities did not achieve a
comprehensive conservation of nature but only satisfied the needs of feudal
lords of the past.

Modern approach;
Development of modern democratic political systems led to a systematic
approach to resource conservation, supported by all the nations and peoples of
the world today. Today most of the fundamental institution and concepts of
conservation such as National parks, wild-life refuges, wilderness areas, forest
preserves, endangered sp act for their protection and other laws to promote
purity of water and air are fundamentally U.S inventions.

Characteristics of conservation Biology;

1)
Conservation biology focuses on the preservation of biodiversity (entire range
of species) and not only management of individual species. This concept arose
from crisis of world-wide extinction and loss of species. Hence, freed to take
care of all plants and animals to prevent their loss and waste.
2)
It is both value laden and mission driven. Mission is based on ethical norms,
recognizing 4 postulates of Michael Soule 1985.
 Biodiversity is good but untimely extinction of population and species is
bad.
 Ecological complexity is good for preservation of habitat and ecosystem
diversity
 Evolution is good to maintain genetic potential of population that permits
adaptations in a changing environment as well as on-going speciation.
 Biodiversity has intrinsic value apart from its utilitarian value. So
conservation biology recognize the value of biodiversity
Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 4
 Conservation Biology

3)
It is mission oriented i.e. to develop new guiding principles and new
technologies to inhale even society to presence biodiversity (Galileans 1992).

Its mission of preservation of biodiversity is not only important but also urgent,
especially for the benefit and safety of threatened species. Failure to act when
populations of a species in nature is declining or a habitat is living regarded may
lead to and ensure extinction of species or loss of environment

4)
It is integrative and multidisciplinary in nature as it is likely to cross disciplinary
lines among major taxa as plants, animals and between physical and biological
processes and living mission oriented also investigates issues of ethics human
behaviors and cultures, law, politics and sociology, so linked to social sciences to
achieve the actual purpose of conservation.
5)
Also concerned with evolutionary time one is apart from conservation of current
biodiversity it also preserves their genetics heritage (representing their
evolutionary history and potentials) as well as the preservation of ecosystem
processes that promote adaptations innovation and speciation to maintain and
enhance future biodiversity.
6)
It is adaptive science, imperfect, and at times and imprecise.
7)
It is an empowered science as it has received legal and cultural and political
incentives and reinforcement to take action where ever necessary.

All these characteristics provide a defining picture of as to what the

conservation biology is and why it has emerged as a distinct discipline and why it
was not absorbed into earlier older discipline.

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 5

 Conservation Biology

The problem addressed by conservation biologist;

Preserving biodiversity is a complex preposition requiring solutions to a
complex web of related problems indicating multidisciplinary character of
conservation biology.

1) The conservation of genetic diversity;

It is not only the source of physical appearance of species; it also represents
their history of evolutionary adaptation. Thus if genetic diversity is lost, species
loses its ability to adapt to a changing environment as natural selection acting
on a variety of genotypes, generates novel gene combination leading to the
production of new species. If biodiversity is reduced, so would be the world’s
capacity to maintain biodiversity.

2) The conservation of species;

According to old approach, species preservation only requires its protection
from any disturbance or change in habitat or environment. However from view
point of conservation of species, its future levels of density and abundance in
nature are achieved through techniques of population demography and analysis
of processes of birth, death, emigration and immigration that determine
population and growth. Such studies combined with environmental and genetic
factors can help in understanding causes of population decline.

3) Conservation of habitat;
Habitat loss or degradation will be the most significant factor in future species
extinction.
Since population conservation in many ways is habitat dependent, so it serves as
a source or sinks for a population. Populations occur in heterogeneous habitats
with fertile areas producing population surpluses (sources) and areas with poor
plant growth and population cannot replace itself without immigration (sinks).

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 6

 Conservation Biology

This reflects habitats quality and their effects on population’s survival. So it is

not possible to conserve populations without conserving their habitats.
Apart from habitats loss, there may be habitat fragmentation and habitat
isolation. During habitat fragmentation, large blocks of habitat are such divided
into smaller ones. This not only reduces the total amount of habitat available to
a species but also isolates blocks of same habitat from one another. This not
only reduces the movement of habitat dependent species from one to other
block but also creates “habitat islands”, surrounded by urban and agricultural
lands.

4) The management of landscapes through ecosystems processes;

Emphasis of conservation biology on managing ecological processes, rather than

individual species, led the concept of ecosystem management as long-term
preservation of biodiversity can occur only in and through system which are self
sustaining.
There are 3 fundamental basis of ecosystem management.
i. Ecosystem rather than individual organism, population, species or habitat is
considered as the appropriate management unit.
ii. Emphasis is placed on the development and use adaptive management models
at ecosystem level.
iii. All stakeholders (with interest and services of the ecosystem) should
participate in its management decisions.

5) Sustainable development of human economics and human populations;

i. Both human populations and economics are based supplies, distribution and
consumption of natural resources.
ii. Consumption of natural resources and their processing in human economics
requires energy, consume physical space and generate waste.
iii. All these activities affect other species, habitat and ecosystem that sustain
them and humans.
Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 7
 Conservation Biology

iv. Conservation Biologist’s focus on sustainable development forces human

beings to address to 2 questions. How to sustain present human standards of
living. Resources needed for economics use and human consumption as they are
no longer adequate.
v. Studies have established that was the largest Natural resources in the world
today are inadequate to sustain most of the species present in them for long
periods of time unless some new technologies are introduced to let ecosystem
work and permit other species persist along with humans.
vi. Unless humans as individual, cultures and economics change fundamentals
patterns of behavior, world-wide biodiversity will continue to decline rapidly.

Biodiversity;
A) Concept
B) Measurement
C) Multiple levels
D) Value

A) Concept;

According to Wilson and Peter there are several definitions of biological diversity.

The best one was given by Scandland, Hinder and Brown in 1992.

“It is the structural and functional variety of

life forms at genetic, population, community

and ecosystem levels.”

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 8

 Conservation Biology

It is the array of biological variety not simply a collection of individual species ,

biological diversity exists at multiple biological levels.

So it refers to total variety of life

i.e. total number of varieties or species of microbes plants and animals in a

system, so complex beyond the understanding and valuable beyond the measure.

B) Measurement of biodiversity:

It is measured and expressed at three levels of diversity;

a) Alpha
b) Beta
c) Gamma

a) Alpha diversity is diversity of species within an ecological community, more

practically.

“The species richness of standard sample site”

Richness is the number of of species in a community.

Community means all the populations of different species occupying a given area
at a particular time.

Apart from species richness 2nd dimension is the evenness species distribution in a
community. E.g site A with relatively fewer B species and dominated by only one
or few species and rare species are at the risk of extinction. In contrast site B has

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 9

 Conservation Biology

more species and more equally abundant hence site B will be more diverse with
important implication for conservation.

b) Beta diversity unlike alpha, it measures the diversity of species A among

communities. Thus, beta diversity provides an approximation of area
diversity or regional diversity. Also known as “beta richness” as it measures
the rate of change in species in species composition in communities across
a landscapes due to environmental gradients.
c) Gamma Diversity refers to the diversity of species across landscapes.

Thus it denotes the diversity of different kinds of communities (ecosystem) within

a landscape as forests, Grassland, lake, pond and river.

The three types of diversities can change independent of one another but in real
ecosystems they are often correlated.

High levels of diversity, whether alpha, beta and gamma almost always leads to
some form of natural verity

1. As more species are added to a community (during its enrichment) the

number of individuals in the populations of other species typically decline, a
phenomenon called alpha verity.

2. Beta verity occurs in species that are habitat specialists. They are abundant in
one habitat (environment) but rare or absent when slightly change in any one
factor (pH, moisture etc) of habitat or environment.

3. Gamma verity describes species restricted to particular geographic areas (with

broad environmental tolerance) but are lost with increasing distance from their
population centers.

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 10

 Conservation Biology

C) Biodiversity at Multiple Biological Levels

1) Diversity of species composition within a community:

The richness of species in an

ecosystem (e.g. forest, grassland or desert) is referred to as species diversity.
These species of microbes, plants, and animals react or interact with one another
as well as with abiotic environment.

2) Diversity of Biotic communities and Ecosystem:

Such as forests, grassland,

lakes, Ponds Rivers and wetlands with their characteristics biotic communities of
flora and fauna depending upon their abiotic resources and environmental
conditions.

3) Diversity of Genetic organization within a species:

Within a species, exists a

number of varieties, races or strains differing from one another in one, two or
more characters (as shape, size, quality, resistance to disease or pests, water and
weather stresses due to variation in their genetic organization and referred to
genetic diversity. These with large no. of races, strains/ varieties are rich of
diverse in genetic organization.

C) Value of biodiversity (Why to conserve biodiversity):

 Exocentric value of biodiversity;

Biodiversity through mutual interaction of all of its species

play important role in the persistence and health of the ecosystem itself and such
values of biodiversity are called ecocentric values of biodiversity. It has 2 aspects

The effects of species on one another

The effects of species on general ecosystem, structures and function.

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 11
 Conservation Biology

 Instrumental values of biodiversity:

3 major categories of this value as

 Agriculture/ genetic resources;

World’s major crop plants as corn, wheat, rice, barley,

potatoes, tomatoes and coffee etc have their origin in wild tropical plants.

 Medicinal value

Tropical plants are used directly in medicines. As Digitalis sp used

for heart disease/ hypertension and Rarewolfia serpentine is used for
hypertension, anxiety and schizophrenia. And Ephedra sp is source of ephedrine
used for amoebic dysentery.

 Industrial value

Tropical plants also contribute to textile raw material into fibers, fats,
oils, resins, rubber, fuels, dyes and other resources for industrial processes. Many
such compounds can replace petrochemicals. These phytochemicals unlike
petrochemicals are renewable and considerably less polluting.

 Non instrumental values of biodiversity;

Although economic value of biodiversity is impressive and a strong argument

for its preservation. However at the time, biotic diversity has intrinsic or non
intrinsic instrumental value regardless of its utilitarian value. A careful
examination and analysis of argument for intrinsic value of biodiversity becomes
even more important.

 Moral values of Biodiversity:

According to this concept individual species have a

right to exist as member communities to which they belong. It is argued that the

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 12

 Conservation Biology

species are to be respectful as they are product of natural selection during the
course of evolution.

 Obligation and virtue based ethics of biodiversity preservation;

According to Norton 1995, recognition of the worth of biodiversity and the

process that creates and sustain biodiversity make it obligatory for humans to
preserve biodiversity. These obligation are rooted in the facts that

Humans should restore the biodiversity that they have reduced or destroyed.

Conserve the current frame work of biodiversity for future generation of humans
and non human creatures.

Conserve it as recognition of its inherent beauty, complexity, integrity and

evolutionary achievements.

The value of species

Value refers to a general basis for an estimation of work.

Values represent judgments of relative worth, merit, usefulness, importance or

degree of excellence. Values can also justify or explain concrete objectives such as
conserving biodiversity but they are not the same as objectives.

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 13

 Conservation Biology

In conservation biology value must be carefully analyzed, measured and

understood.

Classification or categories of values:

No single universally accepted system

Two accepted ones are

I) General system
II) Stephen Kellert system

I) General system;

Two basic categories

A) Intrinsic values; That resides within an object itself, so this value is not
derived from its utility but independent of any use or function. It may have
relation to something else.

This value is either through simply knowing that it exists (existence value) or
because it embodies or is associated with something good (moral value).

Instrumental values; measure the usefulness of the species in meeting a need or

providing a service to another species (usually humans) thus facilitating human
welfare or happiness.

It is further classified into;

a) Non use values

b) Use values

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 14

 Conservation Biology

a) Non use values; are given to items that are not used by anyone but have
value in option to use.
 Quasi-option values are given to items that have no use at present but with
further knowledge may prove useful.
 Option values; items with option values (recreational areas) are important,
not because the item is frequently used but because the option to use is
valued.
b) Use values; are associated with consumers.

Again divided into 2 categories;

 Direct value; It is a measure of consumers’ demand.

 Indirect value; an item has indirect value if it supports the product with
direct value.

II) Stephen Kellert’s system (seven values of wild life)

1) Naturalistic and outdoor recreation values

2) Ecological values
3) Moral or existence values
4) Scientific values
5) Aesthetic values
6) Utilitarian values
7) Cultural, symbolic or historical values

1) Natural and outdoor recreation values; Related to enjoyment from direct

contact with wildlife.
2) Ecological value; Values associated with the importance of a species to
other flora and fanna and to the maintenance of ecosystem processes

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 15

 Conservation Biology

3) Moral or existence value; Values associated with rights or spiritual

importance of species.
4) Scientific values; Actual or potential values associated with a species
contribution to enhancing human knowledge and understanding of the
natural world.
5) Aesthetic values; values associated with a species possession of beauty or
other qualities admired by humans.
6) Utilitarian value; Values associated with species as sources of material
benefit or use.
7) Cultural, symbolic or historical values; Values associated with strong
personal or cultural attachments of human cultural groups to a species
especially associated with

In this system, moral and existence value are examples of intrinsic value of
species. All other categories represent same form of instrumental value. Both of
the categories are discussed and analyzed further.

I) Instrumental value;
All human cultures are sustained directly or indirectly by through goods and
services derived from living organism.
Direct services;
 Biotic resources supply all food and directly or indirectly most of our fuels
and medicines. Plants are source of human clothes, structural material, enhance
land value, reduce soil erosion and used to beautify personal property. In
unmechanized past societies, animal services were used in agriculture,
transportation and forestry. These services provided even in today mechanized
society to a less extant. Animals and plants play significant role for human
entertainment and recreation in varied economical ways (landscapes, gardens,
zoos, circus etc).
Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 16
 Conservation Biology

 Indirect services;
Further, biotic system also perform essential services as water purification,
soil formation and retention, flood control, oxygen production and CO2
absorption.
Above description not complete but enough to illustrate those biotic
resources are instruments of human satisfaction and survival. However, these
resources are also scarce but potentially renewable. At the same time they are
also potentially degradable and exhaustible.
 From viewpoint of conservation biology since species survival is a
precondition for the use of the species as a resource, the preservation problem
in principle precedes all other biotic resource issue (Randall 1986).
 From economic assessment viewpoint, five value categories recognized
from two basic categories of use value and non use value.
 Use value is value derived from actual use of a resource and easiest to
measure.
 Non use value further classified into 4 categories.
i) Option value; refers to the expected further use of the resources.
ii) Quasi-option value; (speculation value), based on expectation that
increase in knowledge might lead to further use of the resources.
iii) Bequest value; is the value knowing that something is preserved
for further generation.
iv) Existence value; the value of knowing that something existence
(Randall, 1986). Here you drive pleasure and satisfaction simply
knowing that a resource is there. It not related to any actual or
potential use of the biotic resource.
v) Kellert and others carried out social surveys to access
[human attitude] to determine human values of wildlife
and insight into what people value in conservation and why
based on these surveys, Kellert developed or topology of

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 17

 Conservation Biology

wildlife values and attitude with 10 categories of values or

attitude.
1. Naturalistic: related to enjoyment from direct contact with wildlife.
2. Ecologistic: values associated with the importance of a species to
other flora and fauna and to the maintenance of ecosystem processes.
3. Moral: values associated with inherent rights or spirituals importance
of species with understanding of natural world.
4. Scientific: Species actual or potential values associated with
contributions in enhancing human knowledge.
5. Aesthetic: values associated with species possession of beauty or
other perceived qualities admired by humans.
6. Dominionistic: associated with the mystery or control of animals
especially through sport.
7. Utilitarian: associated with species as source of material benefit or
use.
8. Negativistic: attitude of avoidance of animals due to dislike or fear.
9. Neutralistic: attitude of passive avoidance of wildlife due to lack of
interest.
10.Theistic: values associated with the belief that a super natural force
creates, sustains and values wildlife.

According to Kellert (1991) Japanese attitudes towards wildlife were

humanistic (strong affection for particular animal species) or negativistic.
As compared to American, Japanese were more Dominionistic and less
moralistic and Ecologistic. Furthermore, humans around the world are
most concerned for creatures (wildlife) that are large, aesthetically
attractive and phylogenetically similar to humans with capacities for
feelings, threats and pain.

Shepherd (1978) referred to them as “phenomenological” significant

animals. Consequently such animals are often chosen as emblems for

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 18

 Conservation Biology

major conservation organization such as “the world wildlife fund (giant

panda) as representative for Govt agencies e.g. U.S forest service (Smoky
Bear, Woody Owl) or as a country’s national symbol (i.e. the bold eagle for
USA).

Another aspect is “user satisfaction” is the level of personal satisfaction

an outdoor recreationist experience in a particular recreational activity or
area. This measure is use to evaluate the quality of natural environment
and preferences or values of those who use them.

2. Intrinsic Value: intrinsic value resides in an object when the object is valuable
on its own and not on the basis of its utility to humans or other species. However
some ethicists assert that intrinsic values do not really exist and all values are due
to human consciousness and perception i.e. anthropocentric and subjected to
economic evaluation.

Controversy;

 According to Aldo Leopold, intrinsic value of a species is based on its

contribution to ecological stability and integrity of the ecosystem.
 Intrinsic value implies a right to life of living creatures.
 Second foundations of Leopold view point on intrinsic value was based on
evolution of life, he viewed current members of biotic communities as the
products of long processes of speciation, adaptation and the change that
fitted them in their place in the natural world. All this evolutionary process
gives these species a value that should not be destroyed by momentary
and thoughtless acts of humans. These views of Leopold are known as
ecocentrism.
 Ecocentrism asserts that value of a species is due to its value to the
integrity, health, function and persistence of the community of which it is a
part.

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 19

 Conservation Biology

 Collicott (1994) expressed it in more modern ecocentric terms as “A thing is

right when it tends to protect the health and integrity of the ecosystem. It
is wrong when it tends otherwise.

Composed by: M.Mushtaq Page 20