2-D Elements

7 2-D Elements

7.1 When to use 2-d Elements

Two of the dimensions are very large in comparison to third one

x
z

x , y >>> z

Element shape – quad, tri

Additional data from user - remaining dimension i.e. thickness

Element type – thin shell, plate, membrane, plane stress, plane strain, , axi-symmetric solid etc

Practical applications- Sheet metal parts, plastic components like instrument panel etc.

Why 2-d meshing is carried out on mid surface?

Mathematically element thickness (specified by user) is assigned half in + Z axis (element top) and half
in – Z axis (element bottom). For appropriate representation of geometry via 2-d mesh its necessary
to extract mid surface & generate nodes and elements on the mid surface.
Shapes

Tri Quad

L(3) P(6) L(4) P(8)

Also known as Also known

constant strain as linear strain
triangle triangle

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* L – Linear element * P – Parabolic element

*( ) – Indicates number of nodes/element

7.2 Family of 2-d Elements

1) Plane stress :

Stress in z direction (thickness) is zero(σz = 0). It’s a 2-dimenssional element.

dofs – Ux, Uy (in-plane translations)

2 2 Ux, Uy

x
z 2 2
Total dof = 8

Applications - Thin sheet metal parts, like aircraft skin, narrow beams

2) Plain strain:

Strain in z direction (thickness) is zero (εz = 0). It’s a 2-dimenssional element

dof - Ux, Uy (in plane translations)

2 2 Ux, Uy

2 2
Total dof = 8

Applications : Under ground pipes, wide beams.

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3) Plate: Rx, Ry (in plane rotations) + Uz (out of plane translation)

y
3 3
Uz, Rx, Ry
x
z

3 3

Total dof =12

Practical Application :

Membrane: Ux, Uy (in plane translations) + Rz (out of plane rotation)

y
3 3
Ux, Uy, Rz
x
z

3 3

Total dof =12

Practical Application: Balloon, Baffles

4) Thin shell :

Thin shell element is the most general type of element.

Dofs : 6 dof / node ( Ux Uy Uz Rx Ry Rz).

Thin Shell = Plate + Membrane

(3T+3R)
6 6

6 6

Total dof = 24

Applications - Thin shell elements are most commonly used elements.

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Axisymmetric Solid:

Why there is word ‘solid’ in the name of a 2-d element. This is because though the elements are
planner but it actually represent a solid. Like for generating a cylinder in CAD software we define axis
of rotation and rectangular cross section. Similarly for an axi-symmetric model we need to define an
axis of rotation and cross section (planner mesh). The 2-d planner mesh is mathematically equivalent
to 3-d cylinder.

dofs - Ux, Uz (2 in plane translations, Z axis is axis of rotation )

2 2

2 2

Applications : Pressure vessels, objects of revolutions subjected to axi-symmetric boundary

conditions.

7.3 Thin Shell Elements

7.3.a Comparison of Triangular and Quadrilateral elements:

We will carryout plate with circular hole exercise to compare performance of different elements with
known analytical answer.
1000

Φ 50

1000 10,000 N

10 mm thick

Analytical answer for the problem = 3 N/mm2

For Infinite plate with very small circular hole, Stress Concentration Factor (SCF) =3,
SCF = max. stress / nominal stress
nominal stress = 10,000 /(1000*10) =1 N/mm2,
3 = max. stress / 1
max. stress = 3 N/mm2

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Boundary condition plot for Tria 3 model Result plot for quad 8 femodel

Mesh parameters: Global element length = 100, number of elements on hole = 8, (same for all the
iteration)

Since its first exercise, please donot worry about mesh flow pattern and quality checks. Use automatic
meshing option, apply boundary conditions and solve.

Exact Answer : 3 N/mm2

Type of Element Stress Displacement function

N/mm2
Tri 3 2.06 u = a0+a1x+a2y
(3 nodes – 3 terms in
displacement function)

Quad 4 2.20 u = a0+a1x+a2y+a3xy

(one additional term in
comparison to tria 3, makes it
more accurate)

Tri 6 2.94 u = a0+a1x+a2y+a3x2+a4y2

+a5xy
(6 nodes – 6 terms in
displacement function)

Quad 8 2.98 u = a0+a1x+a2y+a3xy+a4x2

+a5y2 +a6x2y +a7xy2
(two additional terms in
comparison to tria 6, makes it
more accurate)

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Conclusion :

• Quad elements are better than triangular elements.

• Parabolic elements are better than linear elements.

7.4 Effect of mesh density in the critical region

Conclusion from first exercise is quad elements are better than trias. The second exercise is to know
effect of increasing number of elements in the critical areas.

In the first exercise number of elements on hole were same but element type was varied, in the
current exercise we will keep type of element same i.e. Quad 4 and vary number of elements on hole
(critical area).

Hole : 4 elements 12 elements 64 elements

Exact Answer : 3 N/mm2

No. elements Stress Displacement Nodes Elements

on hole N/mm2
4 1.23 0.00486 136 114
6 1.77 0.00486 277 254
8 2.20 0.00486 369 345
12 2.65 0.00486 428 402
16 2.78 0.00486 493 465
32 2.92 0.00486 1161 1125
64 3.02 0.00486 2530 2478

Conclusion:

• More the number of elements in critical region better is the accuracy

If it is so then why not to always create very fine mesh with max. possible nodes and elements ?

The reason is solution time is directly proportional to (dof )2. Also large size models are not easy to
handle on the computer due to graphics card memory limitations. Analyst has to make a fine balance

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between level of accuracy and element size (dof ) that could be handled satisfactorily with available
hardware configuration.

How Thumb rules are made?

Usually we get instructions from overseas client about specific number of elements on hole, fillete,
specific mesh pattern for bolted welded joints etc. How do they decide these things.

It is based on simple exercise like above. Results of different mesh configuration are compared with
known analytical answers and the one which gives logical accuracy with reasonable solution time is
selected.

Most of the industries follow following thumb rule for number of elements on holes:
Minimum number of elements :
critical areas = 12
general areas = 6

7.5 Effect of biasing in the critical region

15

1
No Bias Bias 15 at the right edge

Biasing is a very useful feature provided by commercial softwares. Like in day to day life we use
the word bias (“My boss is biased, he prefers my colleague even though both of us have equal
qualification and efficiency”), in the same manner when mesh element length is not same on a
edge and biased towards a point then the feature is known as biased meshing. Different commercial
softwares calculate bias differently. One of the simple scheme is bias factor = ratio of max. element
length / minimum element length

No bias bias 5 bias 20

Above geometry was split along the diagonal and bias defined on the diagonals (at the edge point
near circular hole)
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Stress Nodes Elements

N/mm2
No Bias 1.59 168 144
Bias 5 2.13 168 144
Bias 10 2.41 168 144
Bias 15 2.56 168 144
Bias 20 2.65 168 144

Conclusion from previous exercise was more the number of elements in critical area better will be
the accuracy. The exercise on biasing shows even with out increasing number of elements one could
achieve better results just by appropriate arrangement of nodes and elements, that to no extra
computational cost (compare number of nodes in above exercise its same through out).

7.6 Symmetric boundary conditions

Full Plate:

Ux, Uy, Uz, Rx, Ry, Rz Force = 10,000 N

(123456)= 0

z x

Half Plate:
Vertical edge Force = 5,000 N
restraint:
Ux, Uy, Uz, Rx, Ry, Rz
(123456)= 0

Horizontal edge restraint: Uy, Rx, Rz (246)= 0

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Quarter Plate:
Restraint on vertical Force = 5,000 N
edge:
Ux, Ry, Rz (156)= 0

Horizontal edge: Uy, Rx, Rz (246)= 0

Quarter symmetric model is still free to translate along Z axis. FEA linear static solver can not solve
unless all the dof’s are constraint (exception if inertia relief or kinetic dof’s defined in the model). Rigid
body motion of quarter plate could be avoided by constraining Uz (3)=0 {at any edge node away
from critical area (hole)}

Stress Displacement Nodes Elements

Complete model 2.68 0.00486 352 320
Half Symmetry 2.68 0.00486 187 160
Quarter symmetry 2.66 0.00245 99 80

Advantage of symmetric boundary conditions is same accuracy at lesser computational time &
cost.

Symmetric boundary conditions should not be used for dynamic analysis (vibration analysis ).
Symmetric model would not calculate anti nodes.

7.7 Different element type options for shell meshing

1) Pure quad elements

2) Mixed mode

3) Equilateral tria

4) (Rectangular)R-tria

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Mixed mode is the generally preferred due to better mesh pattern (with a restriction of total tria % <
5. Some times for structural analysis or for convergance and better result for non linear analysis pure
quadrilateral element meshing option is selected.

If quads are better than trias then why not to mesh using only quad elements, why FEA
softwares provide option of tria elements?

1) Mesh transisition:

In structural and fatigue analysis rather than uniform mesh what helps is small element size in the
critical areas and coarse or bigger elements in genral areas. Which ultimately results in good accuracy
with managebale dofs. If we mesh entire part with very small element size than it would result in very
high dof’s. Trias help in smooth mesh transition from dense to coarse.

2 ) Complex geomtry:

Geomtry features like rib ends or sharp cutsdemand for use of triangular elements. If quads are used
instead of trias then it will result in poor quality elements.

3) Better mesh flowlines:

For crash or non linear analysis systematic mesh flow lines with all the elements satisfying required
quality paramaters is very important. Mix-mode instead of pure quad results in better flow lines &
convergance of the solution.

4) Tetra meshing (conversion from Tria to Tetra):

For tetra meshing, all the outer surfaces are meshed via 2-d triangular elements & then trias are
converted to tetras. This methodology is discussed in detail in next chapter.

5) Mold flow analysis :

Mold flow analysis requires triangular elements.

Comparison between Equilateral tria and R(rectangular) – tria meshing.

Default tria mesh in comercial softwares produces equilateral triangles while R-tria option generate
rectangular traingle (generating a rectangular or square mesh and then spliting along diagonal to get
2 trias per element). Ideal shape for triangular element is equilateral triangle & is theoretically better
than R-trias. But for following specific applications R-trias have advantage over equilateral trias

1) Tetra meshing –

For defining contact similar mesh pattern on the two surafes is required. Equilateral elements produce
ziz-zag mesh and also there is no control over mesh pattern. Similar mesh requirement could be
achieved by generating structured quadrilateral mesh (mainting exactly same number of elements
on two cotact surfaces) and then spliting it to trias (R-tria). Typical applications are as follows

a) Bolt hole and washer area

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b) Bearing contact surfaces: Contact surfaces meshed with quad elements and converted to trias
before tetra conversion.

2) Variable thickness of ribs for mold flow analysis

Ribs are modeled via quad elements in three layers as shown and then split to R-trias. Average section
thickness is assigned to different layers.

1 mm

t1avg = 1.5 mm

2 mm

t2avg = 2.5 mm

3 mm

t3avg = 3.5 mm

4 mm

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7.8 Geometry associative mesh

In practice associative mesh is rarely used by CAE groups. But this option is provided by many low
end CAE softwares meant for design / CAD engineers. For getting quick results (approximate, first
hand calculation), automatic meshing is carried out by picking surfaces or volume of the geometry,
simple boundary conditions are applied and solution is obtain. Generated mesh is associative with
geometry.

Advantages :

1) If geometry is changed mesh will also change automatically.

2) Boundary conditions could be applied on geometry (edges, surfaces instead of nodes and
elements etc) which is more user friendly.

Original geomtery Geometry based mesh

Geometry modification auto update of mesh

7.9 Quality checks

Why quality checks?

Element quality ∞ Result quality

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Ideal shape for quad elements – Square –

Ideal shape for triangular elements – equilateral triangle -

Different quality parameters like skew, aspect ratio, included angles, jacobian, stretch etc. are the
measures of how far a given element deviates from ideal shape. Square means all the angle 900 and
equal sides, while equilateral triangle is all angles 600 and equal sides. Some of the quality checks are
based on angles (like skew, included angles) while others on side ratios & area ( like aspect, stretch).

To reduce solution time elements are mapped to local coordinate system (individual for every
element at centroid) instead of using a single one coordinate system (global) and effectiveness of
this transformation is checked by jacobian and distortion. Ideally all the nodes of quad element
should lie in the same plane but at curvatures and complicated geometry profiles it is not possible.
Measure for out of plane angle is warp angle.

Following are general definitions of various quality checks. Though the names sound same but exact
definitions may differ from software to software.

Warp angle: warp angle is out of plane angle.

Ideal value = 00

Acceptable value < 100.

Warp angle is not applicable for triangular elements.

It is defined as angle between normals to two planes formed by splitting the quad element along
diagonals. Max. angle out of the two possibalities is reported as warp angle.

Aspect = max. element edge length / minimum element edge length.

Ideal value = 1,
Acceptable value < 5.

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Lmax

Lmin

Skew :
Ideal value = 0
Acceptable < 450

Skew for quadrilateral element = 900 - minimum angle between two lines joining opposite mid-
sides of the element (α).

Skew for Triangular element = 900 - minimum angle between the lines from each node to the
opposing mid-side and between the two adjacent mid-sides at each node of the element

Jacobian:
Ideas value = 1.0
Acceptable value > 0.6

In simple language, jacobian is a scale factor arising because of transformation of co-ordinate system.
Elements are tansformed from global coordinates to local coordinates (defined at centroid of every
element), from faster analysis point of view.

Distortion :
Ideal value = 1.0
Acceptable limit > 0.6
Distortion is defined as - | Jacobian | * Aear(LCS) / Area(GCS)
LCS – Local Coordinate system
GCS – Global Coordinate system

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Stretch:
Ideal value: 1.0
Acceptable limit > 0.2
For quadrilateral elements stretch = Lmin * √ 2 / dmax ,

Lmax
Lmin
R
dmax

Stretch for Triangular element = R * √ 12 / Lmax

Included angles – Skew is a check based on overall shape of element and it does not take in to
account individual angles of quadrilateral or triangular element. Included or interior angle check is
applied for individual angles.

Quad - Ideal value = 900. Acceptable value = 45º < θ <135º

Tria: Ideal value = 600, Acceptable value = 20º < θ < 120º

Taper:

Ideal value = 0

acceptable value < 0.5.

A4
A1
A3 A2

Taper = ∑ | (Ai – Aavg ) / Aavg |

Aavg =(A1 + A2 + A3 + A4) / 4

Minimum element length: This check is very important for crash analysis (time step calculations). It
is also applied in general to check for minimum length feature captured and presence of any zero
length element.

Chord deviation: It helps in determining how well curvatures have been modeled It is defined
as distance between mid node of element edge to curved surface. It is applicable only for linear
elements.

How to improve quality of poor elements?

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1) Manual adjustment – By translating the nodes manually or remeshing in the poor mesh region.
This method consumes lot of time & was the only technique available before few years.

2) Node drag – In order to reduce quality improvement time, drag node facility was developed. It
works much faster than the manual operations. Also added advantage is it instantaneously shows
effect of dragging the node on all the attached elements.

3) Auto quality improvement programs – With present day softwares quality improvement is even
more simple and faster due to introduction of auto mesh quality improvement. Submit the mesh for
quality improvement, special software program tries to improve the elements automatically.

There is a word of caution for use of auto mesh improvement programs. For warpage improvement
(2-d meshing) and Jacobian, distortion improvement (3-d, 10 nodded tetra meshing) some times
software move the node out of the geometry by considerable amount, resulting in visible kinks and
distortion of the geometry..

Apart from above listed standard checks following additional check should also be applied before
submitting the model to customer or for analysis.

7.10 Other Mesh Check

1) Element free edges :

What is free edges ?

Any single quad element has 4 free edges.

Two elements

In this case middle edge is shared and no more free. For a real life femodel, free edges should match
with geometry outer / free edges. Additional free edges is an indication of unconnected nodes.

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2) Duplicate Element :

Mistakes during operations like reflect, translate etc. results in duplicate elements. These extra
duplicate elements donot cause any error during the analysis but increases stiffness of the model
and results in lesser displacement and stress. For example consider a simple plate (thickness = 2
mm) subjected to tensile load. Assume that due to some meshing operation all the elements are
duplicated and if analysis is carried out it will show half stress and displacement.

3) Duplicate node:

Operations like copy, translate, orient, reflect etc results in duplicate nodes.

4) Shell Normal

Consider following example.

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After deformation top surface of cantilever beam is under tension while bottom under compression.
For 2-d meshing mid surface is extracted, and analysis is carried out on mesh generated on mid
surface.

What do you feel whether the default result plot shown by software as below corresponds to neutral
/ mid surface or top surface or bottom surface?

Shell element normal helps us in viewing top or bottom side stresses. Every element has elemental
(or local) coordinate system. Shell normal is direction of element normal (common practice is
to represent normal via Z axis, assuming element is oriented in xy plane). For viewing stress post
processors provide options known as top / bottom or Z1/Z2 indicating positive and negative
direction to shell normal. The top or bottom is not decided by how the femodel or geometry is

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oriented on the screen but as per + Z-axis orientation of the elements.

Top side (or Z1) = + z axis (along the direction of arrow as shown in figure)

Bottom side (or Z2) = - z axis

What would happen if shell normals are not aligned properly ?

From analysis process point of view there is no error. All the calculations will be carried out properly.
But while post processing i.e. viewing the results for 2-d elements, software does not understand
tension or compression it recognize only shell normal orientation. It can show either stresses along
+ Z axis or –Z axis. Suppose in the above figure one of the element’s shell normal is in opposite
direction. While viewing the results on bottom side all the elements except the reverse shell normal
orientation shows Tensile (+) stresses the odd one will show compressive (-) stresses. This could be
avoided by applying consistent shell normal check (all shell normals aligned in one direction).

5) Geometry deviation

After completion of meshing geometry as well mesh should be viewed together (mesh line option
off ). Mesh should not deviate from the geometry.

6) Delete free// temporary nodes

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Free node if not deleted results in rigid body modes. When auto singularity option is turned on,
software adds spring elements with very small stiffness and connect the nodes with parent structure,
resulting in warning message during the analysis.

7) Renumber nodes, elements, Properties etc before export operation

When the CAE group is uses multiple pre-processing softwares, frequent import – export operations
could lead to very big numeric figure for nodes and element labels. Some softwares refuse to read
the file if nodes / elements label numbers are greater than specific limit. This could be avoided by
renumbering nodes. elements etc.

8) Observe different type of elements (element summary for comlete model)

Whenever mesh is imported from a preprocessor, element type, family etc should be checked
carefully. Some times due translator problem or if properties are not defined properly or for non
supportive elements, either elements are not exported at all or family is changed (like membrane
elements converted to thin shell etc). Plot, trace lines, element free edges, free faces if any should be
deleted.

9) Recheck number of elements, nodes and quality checks by importing final mdoel with
appropriate template / translator

It’s a common observation that quality limits set appropriately might get disturb slightly (say warpage
adjusted to 150 prior to export might show few elements failing the criteria if exported and imported
again) due to translation process. It’s a good practice to import the final mesh model again with
appropriate template, data translator and check number or elements, nodes, quality checks etc.

10) Check Mass ( Actual mass Vs FE model mass )

When prototype / physical model of the component is available femodel mass should be compared
with actual one. Difference means missing or additional components or improper material or physical
properties.

11) Free-Free run or dummy linear static analysis

Before delivering the final mesh to client or analyst free –free run should be performed. 6 rigid modes
indicate all the parts in the assembly connected to each other properly. Incase if its meshing for
single component, linear static analysis with dummy boundary conditions should be performed.

12) Request your colleague to check the model

Due to continuos working on project our mind tend to take some of the things for granted and
there is a possibility of missing some of the points. It is a advisable to cross check the model via your
colleague in the group.

7.11 How not to mesh

1) Back to back triangles should be avoided. Two tria elements should not be connected to each
other directly.

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2) On plane surfaces triangular element should be avoided.

not recommended not recommended recommended

3) No mesh transition on constant radius fillets / curvatures

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Mesh transition could be carried out on planer surfaces

4) Avoid tria elements on outer edges, holes

5) Circular holes should be modeled carefully with washer (1.5 to 2 times d) and minimum two layers
around the hole

6) Hole should be modeled with even number of equally spaced elements:

For better representation of geometry of circle and smooth mesh flow lines, holes should be modeled
with even number of elements (like 6, 8, 12,16 etc rather than 5, 7, 9 or 13)

7 elements on hole (odd number),

not recommended

7) Nodes should lie properly on the surface, no deviation (& no kinks)

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Switch off element mesh lines and adjust light options in the software and observe contour (in
particular at curvatures), kinks as above are not acceptable.

8) Follow the feature lines (nodes exactly on the fillet / curvature edges)

9) Instead of zig-zag distribution, structured or smooth mesh is recommended (nodes aligned in

straight line)

not recommended recommended

Use of “smooth” option provided by most of the commercial softwares helps in achieving systematic
mesh.

10 ) Crash analysis mesh flow line requirement –

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Diamond elements are not

allowed

11) For crash analysis rotating quads are not allowed.

Rotating quads recommended

12) For Crash modeling : Constant mesh size (by using trias) is preferred

Recommended for crash analysis

variable mesh size not recommended for crash but recommended for structural analysis

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