lCopMHy FM 22-100

,DEPARTMENT AOF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

MILITARY
LEADERSHIP

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

IUNE 1961
AGO 6223B r,
 FOREWORD

Military history reflects an evolutionary progress in the

methods of warfare-progress which has been closely associated
with our increased ability to control and to make use of our
environment. Scientific and technological advances of recent years,
combined with those which can be foreseen, are causing changes
in our organizational and operational concepts which are better
described as revolutionary rather than evolutionary. No such
dramatic breakthroughs, however, have been achieved in our
knowledge about, or techniques in dealing with, the most decisive
factor in this entire complicated problem-rman himself.
In any war of the future, small unit leaders will have at their
disposal greatly improved means of accomplishing their missions.
At the same time, their units will be subjected to vastly more
powerful forces of destruction. In this situation, the roles of the
individual and of the small unit commander will increase tre-
mendously in importance. How the soldier, acting alone and in
small groups, will react to the increased challenges, stresses, and
strains of tomorrow's battlefield will largely determine the effec-
tiveness with which our combat power is applied, our combat
elements supported, and, in the final analysis, the overall outcome
of any future war.

G. H. DECKER
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
 *FM 22-100

FIELD MANUAL) HEADQUARTERS,

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
No. 22-100 WASHINGTON 25, D.C., 6 June 1961

MILITARY LEADERSHIP

Paragraphs Page
CHAPTER 1. INTROI)UCTION
Section I. General -------------------------------- 1-3 2
II. l)efinitions -............................ 4-13 3
CHAPTER 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP
Section I. General -------------------------------- 14-18 5
II. Concept of military leadership ---------------- 19-26 6
CHAPTER 3. HUMAN BEHAVIOR ---------................. 27-34 9
4. LEAI)ERSHIP TRAITS
.-.................. 35-50 16
5. LEAI)ERSHIP PRINCIPLES
.- ..................
51-62' 27
6. INDICATIONS OF LEAI)ERSHIP - ............ 63-69 38
7. LEADERSHIP PROBLEM AREAS
Section I. Problem solving process --------------------------- 70, 71 43
II. Problem areas -................................. 72-77 44
III. Special considerations -.. 78 .....................
50
CHAPTER 8. LEAI)ERSHIP IN HIGHER COMMANDS ------ 79-86 52
9. LEADERSHIP IN COMBAT ----............ 87-95 59
ArPPENDIX I. REFERENCES --------------------.------- - 68
II. EXAMPLES OF SMALL UNIT LEADERSHIP__ _ 69
III. INI)EX TO TRAINLEAI) FILMS
.-............ 81
INDEX-____ ________________________ ____ 83

*This manual supersedes FM 22-100, 2 December 1958.

TAGO 6223B-May 1
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Section 1. GENERAL
1. Purpose and Scope
a. The purpose of this manual is to provide military leaders,
actual and prospective, with a practical guide for applying the
principles and techniques of leadership.
b. The material in this manual is based on an analysis of out-
standing leadership displayed by both military and civilian leaders.
Although these leaders were not all of the same pattern, and did
not use the same methods of attaining success-all of them suc-
cessfully applied some or all of the principles and techniques of
leadership contained in this manual. A thorough study of these
principles and techniques, combined with actual troop application,
will help to develop and foster the high standard of leadership so
urgently demanded by the complexities of modern warfare. In the
final analysis, war is still waged by men.
c. The material contained herein is applicable without modifica-
tion to both nuclear and nonnuclear warfare and pertains to all
female leaders as well as to male in their relationships with men
and women, military and civilian.
d. Users of this manual are encouraged to submit recommended
changes or comments to improve the manual. Comments should
be keyed to the specific page, paragraph, and line of the text in
which change is recommended. Reasons should be provided for
each comment to insure understanding and complete evaluation.
Comments should be forwarded directly to the Commandant,
United States Army Infantry School, Fort Benning, Ga.
2. Concept of Military Leadership
In the ultimate sense, military leadership is not inherent; it
depends upon traits that can be developed and upon the applica-
tion of principles and techniques that can be learned. It is an art
which can be acquired, developed, and practiced in varying degrees
by anyone properly motivated and possessing the mental and phys-
ical ability, and the moral integrity expected of a commissioned
or noncommissioned officer. Developing this art is a continuing
process.
3. Objective of Military Leadership
The ultimate objective of military leadership is the accomplish-
ment of the mission. Basic to the accomplishment of this objective
2 AGO 6223B
is the development and maintenance of an effective, proficient,
well-disciplined organization possessing high morale and esprit
de corps.

Section II. DEFINITIONS

4. Military Leadership
The art of influencing and directing men in such a way as to
obtain their willing obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal co-
operation in order to accomplish the mission.
5. Leadership Traits
Personal qualities of direct value to the leader in gaining the
willing obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal cooperation of
his men in accomplishing his mission.
6. Leadership Principles
Fundamental guidelines for the selection of appropriate actions
and orders in the proper exercise of command.
7. Leadership Indications
a. Morale-the state of mind of the individual. This depends
upon his attitude toward everything that affects him.
b. Discipline-the individual or group attitude that insures
prompt obedience to orders and initiation of appropriate action
in the absence of orders.
c. Esprit de Corps-loyalty to, pride in, and enthusiasm for a
unit shown by its members.
d. Proficiency-the technical, tactical, and physical ability of
the individual and the unit.
8. Effective Unit
One which accomplishes with the minimum expenditure of
means and time, any mission assigned or implied, for which it
has been organized, equipped, and trained.
9. Leadership Actions and Orders
Anything a leader does or says to enable him to influence and
direct his command.
10. Leader
A person who influences and directs others.
11. Commander
The person formally designated to direct the activities of a unit
of any size.
AGO 6223B 3
 Note. Common practice uses the term leader as the title for a person in
charge of a unit smaller than a detachment; and commander for a person
in charge of a detachment, company, battery, or larger unit. The distinction
in this manual is made to avoid the assumption that leadership and command
are synonymous. One is assigned command of a unit by higher authority,
but he earns the title of leader from his men when he can influence them.

12. Command
Command is the authority a member of the armed forces law-
fully exerts over subordinates by virtue of his rank or assignment.
The commander is responsible for initiating appropriate actions
and for supervising all activities within his command. In fulfill-
ing his responsibility for everything the unit does or fails to do,
it is the commander's duty to receive, comply with, and execute
instructions with exactness and thoroughness, regardless of his
personal feelings.
13. Management
a. The process whereby the resources of men, money, material,
and facilities are utilized to accomplish the missions and tasks of
the organization.
b. The functions of management are: planning, organizing,
directing, coordinating, and controlling.
c. The functions of the manager are: establishing objectives,
motivating, communicating, innovating, maintaining cooperation,
developing subordinates, and making decisions.

4 AGO 6223B
 CHAPTER 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP

Section I. GENERAL
14. Universal Nature of Leadership
The military profession has no monopoly on leadership. Leaders
are found not only in industry and government, but in every other
phase of human endeavor. Progress and success are dependent
upon the quality and effectiveness of leadership.
15. Components of Leadership
Leadership includes understanding, analyzing, predicting, and
controlling human behavior. Also included in successful leader-
ship is the will to lead, together with the character which inspires
confidence. There are certain inherent characteristics which may
aid in the development of leadership. Yet, some individuals pos-
sessing desirable leadership qualities will never attain the stature
of great leaders. Conversely, some persons who are initially defi-
cient in certain leadership qualities may attain a high degree of
success. Any theory that leadership is solely inherited must be
rejected. Any reasonably intelligent person, no matter how in-
experienced, can study, practice, cultivate, and apply the compo-
nents of leadership.
16. Authoritarian and Persuasive Leadership
The styles of military leaders vary between authoritarian and
persuasive leadership. The authoritative leader is recognized by
his dogmatic or arbitrary use of authority or power. The per-
suasive leader takes into consideration the human element with
all its complexities. He recognizes that differences exist among
individuals in their physical and emotional makeup. To a great
extent, the persuasive leader bases his skill in leadership upon
example and ability. He sets high standards of discipline and
efficiency for himself as well as his followers. The effective mili-
tary leader is normally persuasive, but there are times when he
may have to be authoritative to meet the requirements of a
situation.
17. Totality of Leadership
The effectiveness of a leader is dependent upon everything he
does which contributes to cementing the bonds between him and
his subordinates. Everything the leader does in his role as trainer,
teacher, administrator, commander, or counselor either contributes
AGO 6223B 5
to or detracts from the totality of this relationship. The simplest
correction or the sternest admonition, a momentary contact or
long hours of common experience, the briefest suggestion or the
most complete and detailed order-all have within them the poten-
tial of enhancing or decreasing the leader's effective relationship
and personal influence with his subordinates.
18. Relationship Between Leadership, Command, and
Management
The element of effective leadership must be present in order
for command (with its authority) and management (with its
planning and coordination) to attain maximum potential. The
proper application of leadership principles and techniques to com-
mand and management will provide the necessary force and influ-
ence which causes the group to apply maximum effort in striving
toward attaining its common goal.

Section II. CONCEPT OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP

19. General
The concept of military leadership envisions a leader who is
aware of his responsibilities, capitalizes on his strong traits, cor-
rects his weaknesses, and is guided by the principles of leadership.
He applies appropriate actions and orders to influence and direct
his subordinates. He must also be able to evaluate his unit in light
of the indications of leadership in order to mold the members of
the group into an effective unit (fig. 1).
20. Climate of Leadership
The commander exerts great influence upon the climate of
leadership existing within the command, but does not establish
this climate of leadership per se. His influence is felt through
the manner and degree to which he causes leadership to be prac-
ticed. The climate of leadership is the net result and totality of
the actual practices of leadership by all leaders in a command
regardless of grade or position.

~~~~~~~~~~C.TRAITS
OIT

COMMANDER ACTIONS AND ORDERSS AD

~ THE EFTHFECTVE
COMMAND UNIT
PRINCIPLES o, \ /

Figure 1. Concept of leadership.

6 AGO 6223B
21. Leadership Is an Art
Art is defined as skill in performance acquired by experience,
study, or observation. Leadership can be acquired and developed
in varying degrees by anyone properly motivated and possessing
the necessary mental and physical capabilities. One's leadership
ability is influenced by his willingness to study, practice, and apply
sound leadership techniques.

22. Basic Responsibilities of the Leader

A leader is charged with many responsibilities. However, these
can be reduced to two basic responsibilities: the accomplishment
of the mission, and the welfare of the men. Of the two, accom-
plishment of the mission is preeminent. Nevertheless, the leader
in accomplishing his mission to the highest degree will always
consider the welfare of his men.

23. The Leader Capitalizes on His Strong Traits

The leader must understand his men as they function as indi-
viduals and in small groups. He must also understand himself,
since the effect of leadership depends on the interaction of two or
more personalities. It is necessary for a leader to evaluate him-
self and to determine the personal qualities (traits) he possesses
which will assist him in gaining willing obedience, confidence,
respect, and loyal cooperation from his men. It is important he
make an honest self-evaluation to determine the degree to which
he possesses the desirable characteristics of a leader. After deter-
mining his strong traits, he should capitalize on them and, at the
same time, take steps to improve his weak traits.

24. The Leader Guides Himself by the Principles of Leadership

The principles of leadership are guides to the proper exercise of
command. These principles represent the best generalizatons con-
cerning leadership displayed by successful commanders of the
past. Studies of current and future concepts of warfare indicate
these principles will be equally valid in the future.

25. Leadership Actions and Orders

To prejudge the soundness of an action or order, the leader
should examine his proposed techniques as to whether they:
a. Accomplish or aid in the accomplishment of one or both of
the commander's basic responsibilities.
b. Are guided by the principles of leadership.
c. Take advantage of his strong leadership traits.
AGO 6223B 7
26. The Leader Continually Evaluates His Unit
A leader must learn to evaluate his unit continually in the light
of the four indications of leadership-morale, esprit de corps, dis-
cipline, and proficiency. This evaluation provides a practical ap-
proach in determining leadership problems that exist in the unit,
the effectiveness as the leader, and the probable effectiveness of
the organization.

8 AGO 6223B
 CHAPTER 3
HUMAN BEHAVIOR

27. General
a. The ability to influence and direct other people-the art of
leadership-involves understanding, predicting, and controlling
their behavior. The commander can properly do his job if he
makes a constant effort to thoroughly understand himself and the
soldiers with whom he serves. He need not be a psychologist, but
he must have an understanding of the basic human behavior pat-
terns in order to obtain maximum effectiveness from the mem-
bers of his unit.
b. The leader must realize that his actions and orders will have
a different effect on each of his men and that each of them will
respond differently. The interplay of these reactions among indi-
viduals of the group will result in a group attitude toward the
leader and any mission assigned by him. Thus a leader who can
obtain desirable reactions from individuals in his command, can
also expect to obtain desirable group reaction. This in turn, will
assist him in molding the group into an effective team.
c. A leader actually maintains close personal contact with only
a relatively small group, regardless of the number of people ulti-
mately controlled by him. He must depend upon that small group
to make his will known and to execute his purpose. The success
of a group depends upon the leader's capability to promote effec-
tive relationships between himself, the group, and individual mem-
bers of the group. Such conditions will develop an atmosphere
which will result in highly motivated groups and individuals,
working as a team, with mutual confidence and respect. There-
fore, the leader must understand the importance of this mutual
interaction, how it influences, and in turn is influenced by situa-
tions. All efforts must be directed toward creating conditions that
will contribute to the accomplishment of the mission.
28. Individual Differences Among Men
a. All people are different in varying degrees. Each man's per-
sonality is the dynamic product of all his heredity, environment,
and experiences, as well as the interaction of all his physical, men-
tal, and emotional characteristics. These characteristics vary from
person to person.
(1) Physical and mental characteristics help to determine
types of work for which an individual is best suited. They
also indicate the types and intensity of physical work he
AGO 6223B 9
 can be expected to perform. Some individuals are better
at jobs requiring mechanical ability; others are capable
of performing complex mental tasks requiring reasoning,
deduction, and application. If a "bright" individual is
given a dull job, he may become bored and resentful. If
a man is given a job which is beyond his capability, he
may become discouraged, frustrated, or resentful. A
person who is malassigned cannot be expected to make
his maximum contribution to the team effort.
(2) Emotional characteristics are particularly important
parts of a soldier's personality. The way he reacts to a
difficult problem, to danger, to hardship-all must be
understood by the commander. Under pressure, one man
may become angered while another may quit or run
away; still another may react very calmly.
b. Each individual's personality is unique and is constantly
changing. A man changes physically, mentally, and emotionally
as he matures and gains more experience. Factors which tend to
shape personality are-
(1) Heredity. Each person inherits many characteristics
from his parents. A man may, for example, inherit the
intelligence to become a top scientist. He may inherit
the potential to grow to be 6 feet tall. Whether or not
he will ultimately attain the upper limits of his inherited
potential depends upon his environment and life experi-
ences.
(2) Environment. Those aspects of the world as the soldier
knows them-the family to which he belongs, the churches
and the schools he attends, the types of food he eats-
constitute his environment. It has a pronounced effect
on his personality. Taking the example of the soldier
who inherits the potential to be a 6-footer; the type of
food, the amount of exercise, the health conditions which
are a part of his environment may either help or deter
him from attaining that height. The individual's environ-
ment may accelerate or retard the development of in-
herited mental capacity.
(3) Experiences. Identical twins may be reared in the same
environment, but still develop different personalities.
One will encounter experiences different than the other.
The unique experiences which each person encounters
will affect him mentally and physically. In addition,
these varied experiences will play a definite role in his
emotional growth and in shaping his attitudes. Due to

10 AGO 6223B
 these differences in identity, environment, and experi-
ences, each individual must be evaluated separately.
29. The Roots of Behavior
a. Basic Human Needs. Certain conditions must be met if the
individual's pattern of behavior is to be socially acceptable and
satisfying to himself. These conditions, or roots of behavior, may
be described as basic human needs. Some are physical, while
others are acquired through the learning process as one goes
through life.
(1) Physical needs. The satisfaction of a physical need may
become a goal which motivates the individual to behave
in a specific manner. The physical needs are those per-
taining to food, drink, clothing, shelter, and the normal
body functions.
(2) Learned needs. Learned needs concern man's relation-
ships with other men. They are acquired by the indi-
vidual throughout his life as he learns what is valued
by others in his culture and the importance of others to
his own well being. These needs can be as strong- as the
more basic physical needs, and men will react to achieve
their satisfaction. Although learned needs may be typed
in many classes, three classes are of particular impor-
tance in motivating men. These are security, social ap-
proval, and recognition.
(a) Security. We are able to predict the consequences of
the course of events to a point where we can see that
certain actions on our part may result in emotional,
material, or physical harm. We tend to alter our be-
havior accordingly. Many men will run grave risks to
gain greater security for the future. No one wants to
be injured, but physical security is the motive behind
statements such as "kill or be killed" and "it's either
them or us."
(b) Social approval. The desire for group approval is
one of the strongest urges of man. He will put forth
great efforts to win this approval. Few men will take
a course of action designed to incur the disfavor of the
group. We learn quite early in life that we will go
much farther if we cooperate with other members of
our society. We run the risk of incurring both mate-
rial and physical harm if we radically act counter to
the ideals and expectations of the group.
(c) Recognition. Men feel the need for frequent tangible
proof that they are getting ahead. They work hard to
AGO 6223B 11
 gain some measure of success, and if recognition is not
forthcoming, will eventually quit or try some other
pattern of behavior. Even a single pat on the back
is often enough to reassure a subordinate that his per-
formance is appreciated.
b. Similarities Among Men. The physical needs are similar for
all men. Learned needs tend to be held in common by all people
of the same culture. For example, though different Americans may
feel the need for security, social approval, or recognition to differ-
ent extents, almost all feel these needs to some extent. These over-
all similarities should be recognized and used by the leader to
obtain more effective performance and a more uniformly desirable
reaction from his subordinates. As a word of caution, however,
the leader must remember that learned needs tend to differ be-
tween cultures, and that when he is dealing with foreign troops
he must endeavor to discover the important learned needs of that
culture and use them in dealing with those troops.

30. Spiritual and Moral Values

A person who has matured in our society usually has acquired
certain spiritual and moral values. These values not only strengthen
an individual's character, but also provide him with a source of
inner strength and stability during times-of crisis. Man's need
to live up to the accepted spiritual and moral code of his society
will help him to overcome fear. This will assist in providing cour-
age to face difficult issues in his daily life or to fight effectively in
combat. Other sources that provide stability are discipline, moti-
vation, morale, and esprit de corps. The effective leader recognizes
the inherent strength that can be derived from spiritual sources
and appreciates the importance of the individual's spiritual needs.
He provides opportunities for worship whenever possible. Above
all, the leader must realize his own character has an important
influence on his subordinates. If he demonstrates high moral
principles and integrity, these qualities will influence his subor-
dinates. His religious life, from this standpoint, becomes vitally
important as a factor in producing stable qualities in his men. It
serves as a bulwark in his own life when confronted with difficult
challenges. The leader who thoroughly understands and exhibits
moral and spiritual values will be better prepared to lead his men
in this nuclear era in which men will have to face the danger of
tremendous destructive forces.
31. Goals and Frustrations
a. The struggle to satisfy the physical and learned needs and
past experience in satisfying them, leads us to place certain values

12 AGO 6223B
on objects in life. Highly valued objects become "goals." A steak
may be a goal when we are hungry. Promotion may be a goal if
we are seeking recognition.
b. When we are blocked in our attempts to reach a certain goal,
we may become frustrated. Our energy is blocked and backs up
like water behind a dam. To some degree we all experience frus-
trations varying from minor irritations to major disturbances.
The degree of frustration depends on the value we placed on the
goal in question.
c. The outward evidence of frustration may take various forms
-anger, cursing, weeping, or nervousness. Serious frustrations
that deny the satisfaction of a need for a long period of time can
cause adverse changes in a man's behavior. Absence without leave
may result when a soldier believes he has not been accepted by
his unit. The soldier whose hard work does not earn him a pro-
motion, or even a word of thanks from his leader, may develop
bitterness that will affect not only him, but other soldiers as well.
d. None of us can completely avoid frustration. Instead, the
normal person plans ahead to avoid many frustrations and at the
same time takes steps to adjust to his environment. He may alter
his methods for attaining particular goals if the ways he has tried
are blocked. He may even pick different goals which he feels are
more attainable.
32. Adjustment
a. When a person enters the Army, he leaves an environment
in which he usually had made a satisfactory adj ustment and enters
another, which for some is filled with frustrating circumstances.
When away from his home community, the family and social
restrictions become less meaningful to some soldiers. He must
make physical, mental, and emotional adjustments involving al-
tered methods of attaining his goals and the choosing of new goals.
If he can do this successfully, we say the soldier has adjusted. If
the frustrations are too many and too great, the soldier becomes
maladjusted.
b. The problem of adjustment is a real problem for the Army
as well as for the soldier. Many men were discharged from the
service during World War II for neuropsychiatric disorders, and
others required treatment before they could be retained on active
duty. Approximately 50 percent of all cases of neuropsychiatric
disorders become apparent within 30 days after induction. Less
than 15 percent occurred in the battle zone and the majority of
these were returned to combat after brief medical treatment.
c. An analysis of the causes for this loss of manpower, and the
resultant loss of effectiveness in all units, revealed in many in-
AGO 6223B 13
stances that a number of our leaders were not aware of the needs
of their men; and therefore could not provide assistance in the
satisfaction of these needs. In some cases, poor leaders added to
the men's adjustment problems.
33. Helping the Soldier to Adjust to Army Life
If the soldier feels, consciously or subconsciously, he can satisfy
his physical and learned needs within the Army, adjustment comes
rapidly. A good commander employs many techniques to bring
about this adjustment. Some of the techniques help the soldier
find new ways to reach some of his goals. Many more of the com-
mander's techniques serve to demonstrate to the young soldier
how the attainment of other new goals also results in the satisfac-
tion of his needs. When he accepts these goals as his own, realizes
they are also the Army's goals, and strives to achieve them, he is
well on his way to becoming an effective soldier.

34. Supports and Stresses

a. The diagram below (fig. 2) is a graphical representation of
some of the forces that influence the behavior of men. The internal
and external stresses tend to cause a man to function ineffectively
while the supports help him to function effectively. In varying
circumstances, the emphasis on particular stresses or supports
will change and factors not even shown may become important.
The stresses and supports are interrelated and interdependent;
e.g., success fosters esprit de corps and esprit de corps helps to
insure success; supports may become stresses if they are in-
adequate.
b. It is incumbent upon the leader to be aware of conditions so
he can endeavor to strengthen the supports and relieve the stresses,
and thereby help him to function effectively.

14 AGO 6223B
 S\O~~FG pp,

I\ 1 /

ILLNESS
ENEMY FIRE

ANXIETY FATI

STRESSES / AE

/| DISCIPLINE |

/~SUPPORTS
\W ~
FEnR~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Figure 2. Forces that influence behavior.

AGO 6223B 15
 CHAPTER 4
LEADERSHIP TRAITS

35. General
Leadership traits are distinguishing qualities which, if demon-
strated in daily activities, help the commander to earn the respect,
confidence, willing obedience, and loyal cooperation of his men.
An honest, objective self-evaluation will help him determine his
strong and weak qualities. He can then develop the leadership
traits in which he is weak and further strengthen those in which
his is strong. The attitudes of the men toward a commander may
be greatly influenced by the traits he demonstrates, since the effect
of leadership depends on the interaction of two or more person-
alities. For this reason, the traits demonstrated by a commander
directly affect the behavior of his men and their willingness to
accomplish a mission.
36. Desirable Traits
a. A study of the lives and careers of successful commanders
reveals they possessed many personal qualities or traits that were
similar, although they did not necessarily possess these qualities
to the same degree. It was the extent to which they demonstrated
these traits and other individual characteristics that determined
success. The fact that all successful leaders have not invariably
exemplified to a marked degree each of the traits listed in this
text does not diminish their importance. In cases where successful
leaders have displayed a deficiency in one or more of these char-
acteristics, they succeeded in spite of this shortcoming rather than
because of it. Also, it should be recognized that the leader's goal,
the type of people with whom he is working, and the circumstances
at the time will have a profound effect on which particular trait
or traits need the most emphasis. Therefore, none of the traits
listed in chart I can be singled out as being the most desirable.
b. The list in chart I is not all-inclusive, but it is representative
of those traits most desirable in a military leader. Paragraphs
37 through 50 describe each of these traits and offer some sugges-
tions which will help to develop them.
37. Bearing
a. Bearing, creating a favorable impression in carriage, ap-
pearance, and personal conduct at all times, is a quality a leader
must possess; since oné's bearing, good or bad, tends to establish
the standard which subordinates emulate. Your carriage should

16 AGO 6223B
be upright, your general appearance and the condition of your
clothing and equipment should set the example for the rest of your
unit. You should show alertness and energy in your actions and
movements.
b. Your appearance and manner must depict competence and
confidence, sometimes beyond what you actually feel. By control-
ling your voice and gestures, you can exert a firm and steadying
influence over those around you, especially in combat. All good
leaders know that their apparent confidence in themselves, in their
troops, equipment, and in the outcome of a situation is reflected in
their men. Few things can steady the morale of troops more than
the realization that their leader, with full knowledge of the diffi-
culties of a situation, neither looks nor acts worried as perhaps
he has a right to do. Too much severity and strictness of manner
diminish the sympathy and confidence you must have from your
men. Frequent irritation and loss of temper indicate lack of self-
discipline. One who cannot control himself, cannot expect to con-
trol others.
c. Language is another of the outward marks by which you will
be judged and through which you influence your subordinates.
Speak plainly and clearly. Make your sentences short, simple, posi-
tive, and direct. If you must use terms that may not be clearly
understood, explain their meaning. Avoid talking down to your
subordinates.

CHART 1
LEADERSHIP TRAITS
BEARING INTEGRITY

PHYSICAL
COURAGE < JUDGMENT

MORAL

DECISIVENESS JUSTICE

DEPENDABILITY KNOWLEDGE
ENDURANCE LOYALTY
ENTHUSIASM TACT
INITIATIVE UNSELFISHNES S
Chart 1. Leadership traits.
AGO 6223B 17
]7
 d. It is the responsibility of the commander to make verbal cor-
rections when necessary, and these should be direct, dignified, and
in moderate language. Immoderate language invariably produces
unfavorable results in the individual and in the unit. To use pro-
fane or obscene language or to permit its use by subordinate
leaders, especially in giving orders, is to risk friction, resentment,
quarreling, and even insubordination. Men resent being sworn
at by their superiors. They feel, and rightly so, that the superior
has taken unfair advantage of his authority. The same applies
to any immoderate language. A "bawling out" is commonly re-
sented as a personal attack. It is, in fact, more often an expres-
sion of anger than a proper correction. The point at issue is
obscured and the matter becomes a personal clash between indi-
viduals.
e. Criticism or condemnation of an entire group should be par-
ticularly avoided. It is not likely that you will ever have a unit
which will deserve a wholesale reprimand. Nothing creates resent-
ment so readily in a subordinate as to be included unfairly with
others who may deserve disciplinary action. This is true not only
of verbal reproof, but of all general punishments. If violent lan-
guage ever has any basis for use, reserve it for an extreme emer-
gency on the battlefield. A tongue lashing at that time may have
a stimulating and steadying effect, but it is lost if such speech is
habitual.
f. Sarcasm and irony seldom bring good results. Many men do
not understand sarcasm and irony and are never quite sure of
what their leader means. Even a bantering tone should not be
used often. This does not mean that a joke can never be used, but
too much wisecracking by the leader inevitably results in similar
replies from his troops. The American soldier is too accustomed
to this kind of talk to resist answering back in the same manner
if he thinks he can get away with it. He will have reason to think
he can get away with it if he is always on the receiving end of
such remarks. At the same time, any wise leader will know that
in some circumstances a certain amount of joking is helpful. When
there is discouragement in the air or when exhausted troops must
be called upon for another effort, a flash of humor helps greatly.
It tends to relieve tension and imparts confidence in time of stress,
even in the midst of the most confused and strenuous combat.
Indeed, it is often the American way of implying sympathy and
understanding or cooperation in the midst of difficulty.
g. A leader should be dignified. Dignity implies a state of being
worthy or honorable. It requires the control of one's actions and
emotions. A leader who makes a spectacle of himself through loud-

18 AGO 6223B
ness, drink, or lack of emotional control quickly loses the respect
of his men.
h. To develop the bearing of a leader-
(1) Require of yourself the highest standards in appearance
and conduct.
(2) Avoid coarse behavior and the use of vulgar speech.
(3) If you drink intoxicants, drink moderately.
(4) Habitually maintain a dignified manner.
38. Courage (Physical and Moral)
a. Courage is a mental quality that recognizes fear of danger or
criticism, but enables a man to proceed in the face of it with calm-
ness and firmness. It is a quality of mind that gives a man control
over himself, enabling him to accept responsibility and to act prop-
erly in a threatening situation. It is vital to leadership.
b. The leader must have moral as well as physical courage.
Moral courage means knowing and standing for what is right in
the face of popular disfavor. A leader who has moral courage will
admit his errors, but will enforce his decisions when he is sure he
is correct.
c. To help yourself attain and demonstrate courage-
(1) Study and understand your reactions to the emotion of
fear.
(2) Control your fear by developing self-discipline and calm-
ness.
(3) Keep an orderliness in your thought process. Don't exag-
gerate physical danger or adversity in your own mind.
(4) If you fear doing certain things required in your daily
life, force yourself to do these things until you can control
this reaction.
(5) Stand for what is right in the face of popular condemna-
tion.
(6) Accept the blame when you are at fault.
39. Decisiveness
a. The leader should have the ability to make decisions promptly
and to announce them in a clear forceful manner.
b. Many situations have more than one solution. The wise leader
gets all the facts, weighs one against the other, then calmly and
quickly arrives at a sound decision. Decisiveness is largely a matter
of practice and experience.
c. To develop decisiveness-
(1) Learn to be positive in your actions. Don't delay; don't
"beat around the bush."
AGO 6223B 19
 (2) Get the facts, make up your mind, and then issue your
order with confidence.
(3) Recheck decisions you have made to determine if they
were sound and timely.
(4) Analyze decisions made by others. If you do not agree,
determine if your reasons for disagreement are sound.
(5) Broaden your viewpoint by studying the actions of others
and profit from their successes or mistakes.
40. Dependability
a. Dependability, the certainty of proper performance of duty,
is a quality the leader must develop.
b. The dependable leader can be relied upon to carry out actively,
intelligently, and with willing effort the intent of his commander.
This willing and voluntary compliance with the plans and will of
the superior does not mean blind obedience. Most commanders will
listen to the suggestions of their subordinates, but once the com-
mander makes the final decision, the subordinate must give it his
complete and energetic support.
c. The leader who Is a high sense of duty will continually put
forth his best efforts in an attempt to achieve the highest stand-
ards of performance. He will also subordinate personal interests
to military requirements.
d. To develop dependability-
(1) Do not make excuses.
(2) Do every task assigned to you to the best of your ability,
regardless of personal beliefs.
(3) Be exact in details.
(4) Form the habit of being punctual.
(5) Carry out the intent, or spirit, as well as the literal mean-
ing of an order. When a conflict between the two appears
to exist, obtain clarification from appropriate authority.
41. Endurance
a. Endurance, the mental and physical stamina measured by the
ability to withstand pain, fatigue, stress, and hardship is akin to
courage. It is an important quality of leadership which you must
have if you are to merit the proper respect from subordinates. A
lack of endurance may be confused with lack of courage, and brand
the leader a coward because of his poor physical condition. Endur-
ance implies the ability to stick to a job and see it through.
b. To develop endurance-
(1) Avoid nonessential activities that will lower stamina.
(2) Cultivate physical training habits that will strengthen

20 AGO 6223B
 your body. Increase your endurance by undertaking diffi-
cult physical tasks.
(3) Test your endurance frequently by subjecting yourself to
strenuous physical and mental exercises.
(4) Force yourself to continue on occasions when you are
tired and your mind is sluggish.
(5) Finish every task to the best of your ability.

42. Enthusiasm
a. Enthusiasm is the display of sincere interest and zeal in the
performance of duties. It, implies that you work with a cheerful
and optimistic attitude, determined to do a good job. Your attitude
is an example that will be emulated by those you lead.
b. Enthusiasm is particularly important in instructing and
training; where, through example, your interest and enthusiasm
are reflected by your men.
c. To develop enthusiasm-
(1) Understand and believe in your mission.
(2) Be cheerful and optimistic.
(3) Explain to your men the "why" of uninteresting and dis-
tasteful jobs.
(4) Capitalize on success. Enthusiasm is contagious and
nothing will develop it more than the success of the unit
or individual.
(5) Don't get stale. Set aside a period every day to free your
mind of official matters and relax.
43. Initiative
a. Initiative, seeing what has to be done and commencing a
course of action, even in the absence of orders, is necessary in all
ranks. Soldiers unite quickly behind a commander who meets new
and unexpected situations with prompt action. Encourage initia-
tive among your subordinates by assigning them tasks commensu-
rate with their grade and then allowing them to work out the de-
tails and finish the job. This does not mean you can assign tasks
and then do nothing else. You must know the jobs well enough to
supervise properly.
b. Closely allied with initiative is the quality of resourcefulness,
the ability to deal with a situation in the absence of normal means
or methods. Military supply, organization, and training are de-
signed to meet all normal situations, but they sometimes fail, par-
ticularly under combat conditions where the unexpected is normal.
Inactivity or passive acceptance of an unsatisfactory situation, be-
cause of lack of normal means of coping with it, is never justified.
c. To develop initiative-
(1) Stay mentally and physically alert.

AGO 6223B 21
 (2) Train yourself to recognize tasks that need to be done and
do them without having to be told and without hesitation.
(3) Learn to anticipate by thinking ahead.
(4) Look for and readily accept responsibilities.
(5) Utilize available resources in a more effective and efficient
manner.
44. Integrity
a. Integrity, the uprightness of character and soundness of
moral principles, the quality of absolute truthfulness and honesty,
is an indispensable trait in a leader.
b. On the Armed Forces team the stakes are too high to place
the lives of its members in the hands of men with questionable
integrity. For example, battle information is necessary to those re-
sible for making decisions in combat. In the flow of reports from
the smallest unit to the highest headquarters, a departure from
strict truth by any individual can imperil the entire operation.
Unless a man is honest, he cannot be relied upon at all. There is no
compromise. The military profession does not permit the slightest
deviation from the highest standards of personal integrity.
c. To develop personal integrity-
(1) Practice absolute honesty and truthfulness at all times.
(2) Be accurate and truthful in all statements, both official
and unofficial.
(3) Stand for what you believe to be right.
(4) Whenever you are tempted to compromise, place honesty,
sense of duty, and moral principles above all else.
45. Judgment
a. Judgment is the quality of logically weighing facts and pos-
sible solutions on which to base sound decisions. Enhance your
judgment by being as technically qualified as possible.
b. To improve judgment-
(1) Practice making estimates of the situation.
(2) Anticipate situations which require decisions, so you may
be prepared when the need arises.
(3) Avoid making rash decisions.
(4) Approach problems with a common sense attitude.
46. Justice
a. Justice is the quality of being impartial and consistent in ex-
ercising command. Justice involves the rendering of reward and
the meting out of punishment in accordance with the merits of the
case. Anger and other emotions must not enter into a situation.
Prejudice of race or creed must be avoided. Few things will disrupt

22 AGO 6223B
the morale of an organization more quickly than unfairness or
partiality of a leader toward a certain man or group of men.
b. As a leader, you are called upon to render justice in matters
of promotions and punishment. Your decisions are a test of your
fairness. It takes a long time to build up a reputation for being
fair. One thoughtless error or injustice can destroy a good reputa-
tion that took months to establish.
c. To administer justice, you must understand human behavior.
Study people with the idea of learning why certain individuals
behave the way they do under certain conditions while others
behave differently under the same conditions. Analyze the cases
that have been decided, and determine what you would have done
had you been the one to make the decision. This, of course, is a
personal mental process and should never be used as an occasion to
criticize the decision of another leader.
d. To develop the trait of j ustice-
(1) Be fair, consistent, prompt, and impersonal when impos-
ing punishment.
(2) Consider each case on its own merits.
(3) Punish in private, with dignity, and with human under-
standing.
(4) Search your mental attitudes to determine if you hold any
prejudices; and, if so, make conscious efforts not to per-
mit them to influence your decisions.
(5) Analyze cases acted upon by leaders who have a reputa-
tion for being just.
(6) Never punish a group for the faults of an individual.
(7) Be honest with yourself.
(8) Recognize juniors worthy of commendation or award.
Don't be known as one who dispenses only punishment.
(9) Always make the individual feel the punishment is tem-
porary and improvement is expected.
(10) Play no favorites.
47. Knowledge
a. Knowledge is acquired information including professional
knowledge and an understanding of your subordinates. Nothing
inspires confidence and respect more quickly than demonstrating
this knowledge. The individual who knows his job builds confidence
in himself as well as in others. Lack of knowledge cannot be con-
cealed. You cannot bluff your men. If you do not know the answer
to a particular question, admit it; then get the information and
pass it to those concerned.
b. Your know]edge should not be limited to military subjects. A
AGO 6223B 23
broad knowledge of national and international events will give you
a more rounded personality.
c. To increase knowledge-
(1) Keep a military file and a personallibrary.
(2) Study field manuals and other military literature such as
regulations, training directives, and past military cam-
paigns.
(3) Read the service periodicals and books on the Department
of the Army reading list.
(4) Read the daily newspapers and weekly magazines; try to
evaluate current news impartially and correctly.
(5) Form the habit of developing serious conversations.
(6) Evaluate your experience and the experience of others.
(7) Be alert; listen; observe; conduct research on matters you
do not understand.
48. Loyalty
a. Loyalty is the quality of faithfulness to country, the Army,
your unit, your seniors, subordinates, and associates. This quality
alone can do much to earn for you the confidence and respect of
your seniors, subordinates, and associates. Your every action must
reflect loyalty to your command.
b. To develop loyalty-
(1) Be quick to defend your subordinates from abuse.
(2) Never give the slightest hint of disagreement with orders
from your senior when relating instructions to subordi-
nates.
(3) Practice doing every task to the best of your ability and
wholeheartedly supporting your commander's decisions.
(4) Never discuss the personal problems of your subordinates
with others.
(5) Stand up for your country, your Army, your unit, your
seniors, subordinates, and associates when they are un-
justly accused.
(6) Never criticize your seniors in the presence of subordi-
nates.
(7) Be discreet in discussing command problems outside your
unit.
49. Tact
a. Tact is the ability to deal with others without creating offense.
In the field of human relations, tact is the ability to say and do the
proper thing at the right time. Tact involves the understanding of
human nature and consideration for the feelings of others.
b. Tact is important in all personal relationships. Criticism

24 AGO 6223B
must be clear, yet constructive. It should not cause discouragement
or detract from the drive and energy of the subordinate. Every
commander needs to be tactful when advising those who come to
him with embarrassing personal matters. Avoid passing judgment
on these matters; your role is primarily that of a counselor. Some-
times the highest degree of tact is simply to listen with understand-
ing interest and permit the soldier to arrive at his own solution.
You may confirm his solution or suggest a different one.
c. Courtesy is a part of tact you cannot afford to neglect in your
relations with seniors or subordinates. To demand courtesy, and to
fail to return it in full measure, indicates either arrogance or a lack
of interest. The inexperienced officer or noncommissioned officer
sometimes feels politeness in a military command implies softness;
or worse, that from a subordinate it smacks of "bootlicking." This
is not true. Courtesy stems from one's mental attitude and is ex-
pressed in both words and actions. One leader may bark out his
orders impersonally and abruptly. Another may give his orders in
a tone tinged with a courtesy that implies the expectancy of obedi-
ence. Either method may get obedience, but the second of the two
will get more willing obedience and cooperation. In times of emer-
gency, abrupt rapid fire orders become desirable because they save
time and there is no need to imply expected obedience. There are
other times, too, when a forceful tone can well replace a courteous
tone; but even then there is no reason for outright discourtesy.
Usually, a calm, courteous, though firm tone of speech will bring a
quick response. Thus tact and courtesy are closely related to men-
tal attitude as well as to manner and language.
d. To develop tact-
(1) Be courteous and cheerful.
(2) Be considerate of others.
(3) Study the actions of successful officers who enjoy a repu-
tation for being skilled in human relations.
(4) Study different types of personalities to gain a knowledge
of human nature and behavior.
(5) Develop the habit of cooperating in spirit as well as in
fact.
(6) Maintain a tolerant attitude.
(7) Treat others as you desire to be treated.
(8) Know when to be seen both officially and socially. Antici-
pate when your presence or absence may embarrass your-
self or others.
50. Unselfishness
a. The unselfish leader is one who avoids providing for his own
comfort and personal advancement at the expense of others. Place
AGO 6223B 25
the comfort, pleasure, and recreation of subordinates before your
own. If the unit is commended for outstanding work, pass along
the credit for the achievement to the subordinates who made it
possible. No one respects a superior who takes sole credit for the
accomplishments of his unit while failing to assume responsibility
for unsatisfactory work. To be a true leader, you must share the
same dangers, hardships, and discomforts as your men.
b. To develop unselfishness-
(1) Avoid using position or rank for personal gain, safety, or
pleasure at the expense of others.
(2) Be considerate of the problems, military and personal, of
your men and assist them where appropriate.
(3) Give credit to your subordinates for work well done.

26 AGO 6223B
 CHAPTER 5
LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES

51. General
Certain general rules which have stood the test of time, appear
to have guided the conduct and action of successful leaders of the
past. Throughout military history, these rules-known as leader-
ship principles, have in varying degrees affected the actions of
every successful leader. The fact that every leader has not always
made full use of each one of these principles does not make them
any less valid. Although their application may vary with the situa-
tion, a commander who disregards them is risking failure. These
principles, as listed in chart II, and their impact on a command are
discussed in paragraphs 52 through 62.
52. Principle I-Be Technically and Tactically Proficient
a. To know your job thoroughly, you must possess not only spe-
cific knowledge of its details, but also broad general knowledge con-
cerning its area of interest. You should be competent in combat
operations and training as well as in the technical and administra-
tive aspects of your duties. If you demonstrate deficiencies in these
functions, your subordinates will lose confidence in you as a leader.
b. Techniques for application-
(1) Seek a well-rounded military education through attend-
ance at service schools and through independent reading,
research, and study.
(2) Seek out and foster association with capable leaders. Ob-
serve and study their actions.
(3) Broaden your knowledge through association with mem-
bers of other arms and services.
(4) Seek opportunities to apply knowledge through the exer-
cise of command. Real leadership is acquired only through
practice.
(5) Keep abreast of current military developments.
(6) By study and through frequent visits to subordinates,
familiarize yourself with the capabilities and limitations
of all elements of your command.
(7) Take every opportunity to prepare yourself for command
at the next higher echelon.
(8) Understand and apply sound management principles.
53. Principle II-Know Yourself and Seek Self-lmprovement
a. Evaluate yourself and recognize your own strengths and weak-
nesses. No one can become a successful leader until he knows his
AGO 6223B 27
own capabilities and limitations and is, in fact, the master of him-
self. Strive to develop the desirable traits of a leader as discussed
in chapter 4.

CHART 2
LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES

BE TECHNICALLY AND TACTICALLY

PRO FICIENT

KNOW YOURSELF AND SEEK

SE LF-IMPROVEMENT

KNOW YOUR MEN AND LOOK OUT FOR

THEIR WELFARE

KEEP YOUR MEN INFORMED

SET THE EXAMPLE

INSURE THAT THE TASK IS UNDERSTOOD,

SUPERVISED, AND ACCOMPLISHED

TRAIN YOUR MEN AS A TEAM

MAKE SOUND AND TIMELY DECISIONS

DEVELOP A SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY

IN YOUR SUBORDINATES

EMPLOY YOUR COMMAND IN

ACCORDANCE WITH ITS CAPABILITIES

SEEK RESPONSIBILITY AND TAKE

RESPONSIBILITY FOR YOUR ACTIONS
Chart II. Leadership principles.

28 AGO 6223B
 b. Techniques for application-
(1) Analyze yourself objectively to determine your strong
and weak personal qualities. Make an effort to overcome
the weak ones and further strengthen those in which you
are strong.
(2) Solicit, when appropriate, the honest opinions of others
as to how you can improve your leadership traits.
(3) Profit by studying the causes for the success or failure of
other leaders, past and present.
(4) Develop a genuine interest in people; acquire the human
touch.
(5) Master the art of effective writing and speaking.
(6) Cultivate friendly relations with members of the other
arms and services and with civilians.
(7) Develop a philosophy of life and of work. Have a definite
goal and plan to attain it.

54. Principle Ill-Know Your Men and Look Out for Their
Welfare
a. You will have a better understanding of how your subordi-
nates react and function under various conditions when you make
a conscientious effort to observe them, become personally acquainted
with them, and recognize their individual differences. Anticipate
and provide for the needs of your men. This will assist you in ob-
taining their willing obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal coop-
eration.
b. Your men's desire to satisfy certain needs is the basis for
their behavior. Whether they put forth their best effort in the per-
formance of duty will depend upon the adequate satisfaction of
these needs. By knowing your men and providing for their physical
needs while assisting them in satisfying their learned and spiritual
needs, you will increase the productivity of the individuals within
the unit and improve unit proficiency. When men know you are
concerned with their welfare, they will have a better attitude to-
ward the Army and military life.
c. Techniques and application-
(1) See the members of your command and let them see you;
be friendly and appreciable.
(2) Develop an intimate knowledge and understanding of
your subordinates through personal contact and available
records. In small commands, it is important not only that
the leader know and address his subordinates by name,
but also that he be familiar with their characteristics.
(3) Concern yourself with the living conditions of the mem-
AGO 6223B 29
 bers of your command including their environment, food,
clothing, and billeting.
(4) Make adequate provision for, and give personal attention
to, the various personnel services available, particularly
those concerned with personal problems.
(5) Provide for the spiritual welfare of your command by
supporting religious activities.
(6) Protect the health of your command by active supervision
of hygiene and sanitation.
(7) Support actively a safety program.
(8) Determine the mental attitude of members of your com-
mand by frequent informnal visits and by using all avail-
able sources of information.
(9) Administer justice impartially without fear or favor.
(10) Insure fair and equitable distribution of passes, leaves,
rotation, and other privileges.
(11) Encourage individual development by providing educa-
tional opportunities for the members of your command.
(12) Provide sufficient athletic and recreational facilities with-
in the organization, and insure that your command is re-
ceiving its share of quotas for recreation areas and enter-
tainment benefits.
(13) Share the problems of your men so you may better under-
stand them.

55. Principle IV-Keep Your Men Informed

a. Everyone wants to know how well he has done and what is
expected of him. Within the limits of security requirements, a
leader must keep his men informed because this encourages initia-
tive, improves teamwork, and enhances morale. The individual who
knows the situation and his mission is more effective than one who
does not.
b. The well-informed soldier normally has a better attitude to-
ward the leader and the unit as a whole. He can better understand
what is expected of him when he understands the mission of the
unit. With this understanding, the individual can establish a goal
and adjust his behavior to attain the goal. The individual and the
group as a whole appreciate recognition for a task well done or a
mission accomplished. By proper application of an awards pro-
gram and use of an effective information program, the leader can
favorably influence morale, esprit de corps, discipline, and pro-
ficiency. It is usually the unknown that men fear most. By keeping
your men informed you will reduce fear and rumors; you will aid
in the elimination of many conditions that cause panic during
combat.

30 AGO 6223B
 c. Techniques for application-
(1) Explain to your principal subordinates why any particu-
lar task must be accomplished and how you propose to do
it.
(2) Assure yourself by frequent inspections and visits that
subordinates are transmitting necessary information to
the men.
(3) Keep your principal subordinates informed of plans for
future operations, subject only to security restrictions.
(4) Disseminate information concerning the capabilities of
our weapons compared to those of an active or potential
enemy. Where an enemy has an initial advantage, show
how this can be overcome.
(5) Be sure the troops are informed of the capabilities and
limitations of supporting units, arms, and services.
(6) Be alert to detect the spread of false rumors. Stop rumors
by replacing them with truth.
(7) Build morale and esprit de corps by making the most of
all information concerning successes of the command.
(8) Keep your unit informed about current legislation and
regulations affecting their pay, promotion, privileges, and
other benefits.

56. Principle V-Set the Example

a. Your men will look to you for examples they may follow; or,
conversely, use as an excuse for their own shortcomings. Your
individual appearance and conduct must bring forth from your
subordinates respect, pride, and a desire to meet the standards you
set. Set the standard for your entire command by Qutstanding per-
formance of duty. The commander who appears in an unfavorable
light before his men destroys the mutual confidence and respect
that must exist between a leader and his men.
b. Techniques for application-
(1) Be at all times physically fit, mentally alert, well groomed,
and correctly dressed.
(2) Master your emotions. The commander who is subject to
uncontrolled bursts of anger or to periods of depression
will have difficulty in gaining and holding the respect and
loyalty of his subordinates.
(3) Maintain an optimistic outlook. The will to win is in-
fectious. Develop it by capitalizing on your unit's capa-
bilities and successes. Display an attitude of calmness
and confidence. The more difficult the situation, the more
important this becomes.
(4) Conduct yourself so your personal habits are not open to

AGO 6223B 31
 censure. Coarse behavior and vulgarity are the marks of
an essentially weak and unstable character. Failure to be
punctual and tendencies toward selfishness and self-
indulgence in luxuries not available to the command in
general are resented by all ranks.
(5) Cooperate in spirit as well as in fact. Cooperation must
work in two directions. It arises from a wholehearted de-
sire by all members to further the effective operations of
the team.
(6) Exercise initiative and promote the spirit of initiative in
your subordinates.
(7) Be completely loyal to your seniors and subordinates.
Support your subordinates as long as they discharge their
duties conscientiously. The commander who seeks to pro-
tect an incompetent subordinate from correction by a
higher commander is himself being disloyal. Loyalty is an
important trait of a leader and demands unqualified sup-
port of the policies of senior officers, whether the individ-
ual concerned personally agrees with them or not.
(8) Avoid the development of a clique of favorites. It is diffi-
cult to avoid being partial to subordinates with whom you
have had personal association and who have rendered
loyal service over a period of time. However, the tempta-
tion to show partiality should be vigorously resisted.
(9) Be morally courageous. The commander who fails to
stand by his principles where the welfare of his command
is concerned, or who attempts to avoid the responsibility
for mistakes of his command, will fail to gain or maintain
the respect of his associates or subordinates.
(10) Share danger and hardship. A leader who has elements
of his command subject to danger or to hardship of any
kind should visit them as often as possible to demonstrate
his willingness to assume his share of the difficulties.

57. Principle VI-Insure That the Task Is Understood, Super-

vised, and Accomplished
a. Give clear, concise orders. Be sure they are understood. Then
supervise to make sure the order is promptly executed. The able
leader makes wise use of his subordinates to carry out his orders
effectively. Any commander who fails to make proper use of his
staff and subordinates in accordance with their capabilities demon-
strates a fundamental weakness in leadership ability.
b. Men will respond more quickly to orders which are clear, con-
cise, and easily understood. On the other hand, they may become
confused if you overstate the order or instruction by giving too

32 AGO 6223B
many details. Your subordinates like to know that you are avail-
able for advice and counsel if and when needed. However, they will
resent over supervision and harassment. Individual initiative is
developed within subordinates when they can use their imagination
in developing their own techniques in accomplishment of tasks or
missions.
c. Techniques for application-
(1) Be sure the need for an order exists.
(2) Use the established chain of command.
(3) Through study and practice, develop the ability to think
clearly and to issue clear, concise, positive orders.
(4) Encourage subordinates to seek immediate clarification
of any point in your orders or directives they do not
understand.
(5) Question your subordinates to determine if there is any
doubt or misunderstanding as to the task to be accom-
plished.
(6) Supervise the execution of your orders. Your supervision
must be firm and you must insist your desires be carried
out. When appropriate, require your staff officers to visit
subordinates and assist them wherever possible.
(7) Make every possible means available to your subordinates
to assist them in accomplishing their mission.
(8) Vary your supervisory routine and the points which you
emphasize during inspections.
(9) Exercise thought and care in supervision. Over supervi-
sion stifles initiative and creates resentment; under-
supervision will not get the job done.

58. Principle VII-Train Your Men as a Team

a. It is your duty to develop teamwork through training of your
command. Teamwork is the key to successful operations; it starts
in the smallest unit and carries through to the largest organization.
The military organization involves many different arms and serv-
ices, all working together as a team toward a common goal. Each
member must understand where he fits into the team. The com-
mander who emphasizes the development of teamwork while train-
ing his command will usually obtain the desired level of unit pro-
ficiency. Effective teamwork requires a high degree of morale,
esprit de corps, discipline, and proficiency.
b. Since leadership involves an interaction between the members
of the unit and the unit leader and between members within a unit,
the needs and objectives of the group are more easily achieved by
development of teamwork. Individual members of a unit will per-
form more effectively if they have a team spirit. The unit gives its
AGO 6223B 33
individual members identification, thereby assisting in satisfying
the individual need of recognition. The degree of proficiency
attained by the unit in team performance gives the individual a
feeling of accomplishment and security.
c. Techniques for application-
(1) Insure by inspections and training tests that your com-
mand is being developed in accordance with training pro-
grams and doctrine prescribed by higher authority.
(2) Make sure the best available facilities for team training
are provided and that maximum use is made of devices
such as communication exercises and realistic tactical
problems.
(3) Insure that all training is meaningful and the purpose for
it is explained to all members of the command.
(4) Insure that each element of the command is acquainted
with the capabilities and limitations of all other elements,
thereby developing mutual trust and understanding.
(5) Insure that each subordinate leader understands the
mechanics of tactical control for his unit.
(6) Base team training on current realistic conditions.
(7) Insist that each officer and enlisted man knows the func-
tions of those with whom he habitually operates.
(8) Insist that each subordinate leader knows and under-
stands the traits, peculiarities, strengths, and weaknesses
of each member of his team.
(9) Seize opportunities to train with other units, both combat
and service.
(10) Explain to each man his responsibilities and the impor-
tance of his role to the overall effectiveness of the unit.
59. Principle VIII-Make Sound and Timely Decisions
a. You must have the ability to make a rapid estimate of the
situation and arrive at a sound decision. You must be able to reason
logically under the most trying conditions and decide quickly what
action is necessary to take advantage of opportunities as they
occur. The indecisive commander is not only unable to employ his
command effectively but also creates hesitancy, loss of confidence,
and confusion within his command. When circumstances dictate a
change in plans, prompt action enhances confidence in the leader.
Constant study, training, and proper planning will lay the ground-
work for professional competence necessary to sound and timely
decisions.
b. Techniques for application-
(1) Develop a logical and orderly thought process by constant
practice in making objective estimates of the situation.

34 AGO 6223B
 Making an estimate is not restricted to the military. It is
employed in the everyday life of all persons.
(2) So far as time and occasion permit, plan for every pos-
sible event that reasonably can be foreseen.
(3) Consider the advice and suggestions of your subordinates
before making decisions.
(4) Announce decisions in time to allow subordinates to make
necessary plans.
(5) Encourage concurrent estimates and planning in your
command.
(6) Always make sure your staff and subordinates are famil-
iar with your present policies and plans.
(7) Consider the effects of your decision on subordinates and
supporting elements.

60. Principle IX-Develop a Sense of Responsibility in Your

Subordinates
a. Delegation of authority commensurate with responsibility de-
velops mutual confidence and respect between senior and subordi-
nates. It also encourages the subordinate to exercise initiative and
to give his wholehearted cooperation. The leader who, by properly
delegating authority, demonstrates faith in his subordinates will
increase their desire to accept greater responsibilities. Failure to
delegate necessary authority is poor leadership.
b. Techniques for application-
(1) Operate through the chain of command.
(2) Tell your subordinates what to do, not how to do it; hold
them responsible for results. Delegate and supervise, but
do not intervene except when necessary.
(3) Provide as many individuals as possible with frequent
opportunities to perform duties of the next higher echelon.
(4) Be quick to recognize accomplishments of your subordi-
nates when they demonstrate initiative and resourceful-
ness.
(5) Correct errors in the use of judgment and initiative in
such a way as to encourage the individual. Avoid public
criticism or condemnation. Be liberal in openly giving
praise which is deserved.
(6) Give advice and assistance freely when it is requested by
those under your command.
(7) Insure that your personnel are assigned positions in ac-
cordance with demonstrated or potential ability.
(8) Be prompt and fair in backing subordinates to the limit.
Until convinced otherwise, have faith in each subordinate.
(9) Demonstrate your willingness to accept responsibility and
AGO 6223B 35
 insist that your subordinate commanders live by the same
standard.

61. Principle X-Employ Your Command in Accordance With

Its Capabilities
a. You must have a thorough knowledge of the capabilities and
limitations of your command if you are to employ it properly. You
must use sound judgment in the employment of your unit. Failure
to accomplish the mission causes a loss of confidence, which in turn
lowers morale, esprit de corps, discipline, and proficiency.
b. Techniques for application-
(1) Know, understand, and apply the principles of war.
(2) Keep yourself informed as to the relative operational
effectiveness of your command.
(3) Be sure that tasks assigned to subordinates are reason-
able. Do not hesitate to demand their utmost in an emer-
gency.
- (4) Analyze all assigned tasks. If the means at your disposal
appear inadequate, inform your immediate commander
and request the necessary support.
(5) Make every effort to equalize tasks proportionately among
the several elements of your command.
(6) Use the full capabilities of your unit before requesting
assistance.
(7) Make decisions in light of sound management principles.
62. Principle XI-Seek Responsibility and Take Responsibility
for Your Actions
a. You must take the initiative in the absence of orders. By seek-
ing responsibility, you develop yourself professionally and increase
your leadership ability. Accept responsibility for all your unit does
or fails to do. The leader who fails to accept responsibility will lose
the confidence of his men.
b. Techniques for application-
(1) Learn the duties of your immediate superior and be pre-
pared to accept his responsibilities.
(2) Seek diversified command assignments that will give you
experience in accepting responsibility.
(3) Take advantage of any opportunity that offers increased
responsibility.
(4) Perform every task, large or small, to the best of your
ability. Your reward will be increased opportunity to per-
form bigger and more important tasks.
(5) Accept just criticism and admit mistakes.
(6) Adhere to what you think is right; have the courage of
your convictions.

36 AGO 6223B
 (7) Carefully evaluate a subordinate's failure before taking
action. Make sure his apparent shortcomings are not due
to an error on your part. Consider the manpower avail-
able, salvage the individual if possible, and replace him
when necessary.
(8) In the absence of orders, seize the initiative and take the
action you believe your superior would direct if he were
present.

AGO 6223B 37
 CHAPTER 6
INDICATIONS OF LEADERSHIP

63. General
a. Morale, esprit de corps, discipline, and proficiency are indica-
tors of military leadership. These indications provide a gauge to
use in continuously evaluating your unit for proper leadership
application. This evaluation is a sound method of determining
whether your unit is effective and able to perform its mission.
b. As you evaluate your unit, you may discover problems that
are having an adverse effect on one or more of these indications;
resulting in decreased unit effectiveness.
c. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to a discussion of
the indications of leadership to facilitate an understanding of their
meaning and methods for evaluating and developing them.
64. Interrelationship of the Indications of Leadership
All four indications of leadership contribute to the effectiveness
of a unit and are to some extent interdependent. For example, a
low courts-martial rate might well irfdicate not only good disci-
pline but high morale and esprit de corps. Therefore, in the follow-
ing discussion it should be recognized that certain factors may
have an effect on more than one of the indications. Although dis-
cipline, esprit de corps, and proficiency are dependent on the
degree of morale present, all four are of equal importance. The
other three are dependent upon morale because it is the sum total
of all the attitudes of the individual. It can be said that morale is
the fertile soil in which the seeds of discipline, esprit de corps, and
proficiency are sown. Thus, while you should strive for morale in-
itially, your efforts must always be directed toward building all of
the indications of leadership to a degree. The absence or lessening
of one indication will adversely affect or destory the others.
65. Morale
a. Morale may be defined as the individual's state of mind. It
depends upon his attitude toward everything that affects him-his
fellow soldiers, his leaders, Army life in general, and other things
which seem important to him. Morale is closely related to the satis-
fying of a man's basic human needs. If the training, administer-
ing, and fighting of a unit is conducted so as to assist in satisfying
the men's basic needs, a favorable attitude will be developed. High
morale is an affirmative positive state of mind which gives the
soldier a feeling of confidence and well-being that enabIes him to
face hardship with courage, endurance, and determination.
38 AGO 6223B
 b. Evaluation of morale-
(1) The status of morale does not remain the same; rather,
it is constantly changing. The state of morale of the
members of your unit is an important index to the effec-
tiveness of your leadership ability. You can measure
morale by close observation of your men in their daily
activities, by inspections, by formal and informal inter-
views, and by evaluation of operational reports. Specific
things to note are:
(a) Appearance.
(b) Personal conduct.
(c) Standards of military courtesy.
(d) Personal hygiene.
(e) Use of recreational facilities.
(f) Excessive quarreling.
(g) Harmful or irresponsible rumors.
(h) Condition of mess and quarters.
(i) Care of equipment.
(j) Response to orders and directives.
(k) Job proficiency.
(1) Motivation during training.
(2) Administrative reports concerning the status of person-
nel, when properly evaluated, aid in measuring morale.
Particularly valuable are reports which concern:
(a) Arrests, military or civil.
(b) Damage to or loss of equipment through carelessness.-
(c) Family problems.
(d) Indebtedness.
(e) Malingerers.
(f) Men absent without leave and deserters.
(g) Requests for transfer.
(h) Self-inflicted wounds.
(i) Sick call rate.
(j) Stragglers.
(k) Reenlistment rates.
66. Esprit de Corps
a. Esprit de corps is the loyalty to, pride in, and enthusiasm for
the unit shown by its members. It implies devotion to the unit,
acceptance of responsibility by individuals, and jealous regard for
the honor of the unit. Esprit de corps is a spirit above and beyond
the total personalities of the individuals in a unit. It is the unit's
personality and expresses the unit's will to fight and win in spite
of seemingly insurmountable odds. Esprit de corps depends on
the satisfaction the members get from belonging to a unit, their
AGO 6223B 39
attitude toward other members of the unit, and confidence in their
leaders.
b. Following are some of the factors to be considered in evalu-
ating esprit de corps in a unit:
(1) Expressions from the men showing enthusiasm for and
pride in their unit.
(2) A good reputation among other units.
(3) A strong competitive spirit.
(4) Willing participation by the members in unit activities.
(5) Pride in the traditions and history of the unit.
(6) Readiness on the part of the men to help one another.
(7) The belief that their unit is better than any other unit
in the Army.
(8) High reenlistment rate in the unit.
67. Discipline
a. Discipline is the individual or group attitude which insures
prompt obedience to orders and initiation of appropriate action in
the absence of orders. It is the result of effective training and
intelligent leadership which helps the individual to withstand the
shock of battle and face difficult situations without faltering. Since
success in combat frequently depends upon the unit's or indi-
vidual's immediate positive response to orders, discipline de-
manded in a military organization is of necessity more exacting
than discipline in other walks of life. Before a soldier can respond
willingly and intelligently, he must have the ability to carry out
orders, plus confidence in his superiors.
b. Following are some of the factors to be considered in evaluat-
ing the status of discipline in a unit:
(1) Attention to details.
(2) Harmonious relations between units and individuals.
(3) Devotion to duty.
(4) Proper senior-subordinate relationships.
(5) Proper conduct of individuals on and off duty.
(6) Standards of cleanliness, dress, and military courtesy.
(7) Promptness in responding to commands and directives.
(8) Adherence to the chain of command.
68. Proficiency
a. Proficiency is the technical, tactical, and physical ability of
the individual and the unit to perform the job or mission. Unit
proficiency is the sum of the skills of all the individuals in the
unit welded together by the leader into a smooth-functioning team.
Your unit will attain proficiency when you demand high standards
of individual and group performance. Proficiency results largely

40 AGO 6223B
from training; therefore, as a commander, supervision of training
should take most of your time. This is one of the most reliable
methods of judging the proficiency of individuals and of the unit.
b. Following are some of the factors to be considered in evaluat-
ing proficiency in a unit:
(1) Personal appearance and physical condition of the men.
(2) Appearance and condition of weapons, equipment, and
unit area.
(3) Reaction time of the unit under various situations and
conditions.
(4) Professional attitude demonstrated by the unit and its
members.
(5) Troop leading ability of junior leaders.
(6) Promptness and accuracy in disseminating orders, in-
structions, and information.
(7) Degree of skill demonstrated when accomplishing tasks.
(8) Technical and tactical proficiency.

69. Development of the Indications of Leadership

a. The development of the indications of leadership is a con-
tinuous process which must be carried out at all times, particu-
larly during training and operations of your unit. If you under-
stand the factors and forces that produce desired results, you will
be better able to direct your efforts along productive lines.
b. Certain known actions will aid in the development of specific
indications. An action designed to improve one of the indications
of leadership may also affect the others. Following are the indica-
tions and some specific steps that will develop each:
(1) Morale-
(a) Teach belief in the cause and mission.
(b) Instill in your men confidence in themselves, their
leaders, their training, and their equipment.
(c) Insure job satisfaction by carefully considering job
assignments.
(d) Keep your men aware of your concern for and the
Army's interest in their welfare.
(e) Establish an effective awards program.
(f) Make the men feel they are essential parts of the unit.
(2) Esprit de corps-
(a) Start newly assigned men off right by a reception pro-
gram including an explanation of the unit's history,
traditions, and present role.
(b) Develop the feeling that the unit must excel.
(c) Recognize achievements of the unit and its members,
and insure that they are properly publicized.
AGO 6223B 41
 (d) Make use of ceremonies, symbols, slogans, and military
music.
(e) Use competition to develop teamwork.
(f) Make proper use of decorations and awards.
(3) Discipline-
(a) Demonstrate discipline by your own conduct and
example.
(b) Institute a fair and impartial system for punishment
and an equitable distribution of privileges.
(c) Strive for mutual confidence and respect through
training.
(4) Proficiency-
(a) Thoroughly train your men in their individual duties.
(b) Emphasize teamwork through the chain of command.
(c) Establish a sound physical conditioning program.
(d) Provide for cross training.
(e) Participate in realistic training exercises.
(f) Provide as many individuals as possible with frequent
opportunities to perform duties of the next higher
echelon.
(g) Insure by inspections and training tests that your com-
mand is being developed in aceordance with training
programs and doctrine prescribed by higher authority.
(h) Set high standards of performance and insist they be
met.

42 AGO 6223B
 CHAPTER 7
LEADERSHIP PROBLEM AREAS

Section 1. PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS

70. General
a. Leadership requires the solving of a variety of problems.
These problems cannot be ignored, and must be handled promptly
in the most effective manner possible. If you fail to solve these
problems, they will adversely affect the efficiency of your unit.
b. Some of the more common problem areas you will encounter
are those of assumption of command, selection and development
of subordinate leaders, senior-subordinate relationships, and
counseling.
71. Leadership Problem Solving Process
a. You cannot always rely upon your experiences and observa-
tions as guides for determining means of arriving at sound deci-
sions. Problems are often more complex than they appear to the
casual observer and experiences are many times misleading.
Therefore, it becomes necessary that you develop a thought process
which can be used to solve problems in an orderly and analytical
manner.
b. The leadership problem.solving process is a sound and ana-
lytical approach that helps you to arrive at decisions for the solu-
tion of leadership problems. There are three general steps in this
process: recognize the problem, make an estimate of the situation,
and take action.
(1) Recognize the problem. A problem exists in a unit when
an incident occurs or conditions exist which adversely
affect one or more of the leadership indications. How-
ever, to think of the problem as being solely one of
morale, esprit de corps, discipline, or proficiency will not
fully identify the problem, since there are different fac-
tors and conditions in a unit which influence each of
these indications. Therefore, you must evaluate the unit
in light of all indications to determine the full impact
of the problem.
(2) Make an estimate of the situation. Before attempting
to solve a problem, you must clearly define the exact
nature of the problem-who is involved, what are the
circumstances, when and where did the problem occur.
A logical and orderly examination of these factors is
AGO 6223B 43
 facilitated by application of a version of the operations
estimate as indicated below.
(a) Determine the cause. Once you have determined the
exact nature of the problem, you must then determine
why and how the problem arose and ascertain the facts
that bear on the problem. If certain parts of the prob-
lem cannot be substantiated by facts, you may have to
make logical assumptions.
(b) Determine possible solutions. After you have deter-
mined the basic underlying cause or causes of the
problem, you should consider possible solutions to the
problem. Do not rule out a solution on first examina-
tion. Even if it later proves to be worthless, a tenta-
tive solution may contain or suggest ideas of value.
The more solutions you consider, the better your final
solution is likely to be.
(c) Evaluate possible solutions. In evaluating the solu-
tions you have picked, first compare their advantages
and disadvantages. After you have done this with
each solution, compare the merits of one solution
against another to determine which solution is best.
Keep in mind the considerations the leader should make
in selecting an appropriate acfion or order as indicated
in paragraph 25. Be careful not to let prejudice or
personal preference influence your considerations.
Above all, remember that a rash leader who jumps to
conclusions often creates a more serious problem than
the one he is attempting to solve.
(d) Select the best solution. This may be one of the single
solutions considered previously, or it may be a com-
bination of two or more of these possible solutions.
(3) Take action. Put the solution you have chosen into effect.
Do not be content with merely initiating action since suc-
cess generally depends upon your ability and willingness
to supervise and check results of the effort. Remember
that one of the most significant factors which distin-
guishes a successful commander from a mediocre one is
the ability to select and vigorously carry out an effective
course of action.

Section II. PROBLEM AREAS

72. Assumption of Command
Many conditions exist in the military service that require rota-
tion and replacement of leaders. This is expected and considered
as part of one's normal military duties. Special problems do arise
44 AGO 6223B
in cases where a leader must assume command immediately under
unusual conditions. Such special situations are not dealt with
specifically in this text. However, the following techniques are,
with modifications approprlate to the local situation, applicable to
all assumptions of command.
a. In assuming command of a unit, plan every action with the
thought that the first impression you make will be a lasting one.
b. Observe your unit for a period of time before making any
major changes. This insures that your actions and orders will be
based on facts and considered judgment.
c. Evaluate the unit in the light of the indications of leadership
because the majority of leadership problems originate in one or
more of these areas. Wise use of the problem solving process will
expedite the solving of leadership problems. Evaluate your sub-
ordinates to determine their strengths and weaknesses. Use all
possible means to further develop your subordinates. Evaluate
the effectiveness of each subordinate element under your command
with a view toward raising its level of effectiveness.
d. Orient your unit on your policies and desired standards. Set
and maintain the highest standards attainable. The unit must be
motivated to reach the ultimate goal-an effective unit.
73. Selection of Subordinate Leaders
a. No precise method has been devised to determine whether or
not a man will become an effective leader. Successful commanders
with the responsibility for selecting potential leaders have used
the following means to obtain pertinent information about those
being considered:
(1) Interview. A personal interview is a valuable means of
observing potential leadership characteristics. It will
often provide useful information not available from other
sources. Plan the interview and look for the following
qualities during the interview:
(a) Bearing and personal appearance.
(b) Courtesy.
(c) Evidence of sincerity and honesty:
(d) Enthusiasm and positive attitude.
(e) Kniowledge and ability to express ideas.
(f) Unusual attitudes or personality deviations.
(2) Observation. This is a reliable method of gaining in-
formation when conducted over a period of time. Observe
for the following:
(a) Possession of a positive attitude and approach toward
all tasks.
(b) A desire to seek and accept responsibility.
AGO 6223B 45
 (c) The ability to see a problem in its proper perspective,.
This ability is enhanced by judgment, experience, and
the capacity to separate personal emotions from facts.
(d) Loyalty to his subordinates as well as to his superiors.
(e) The ability to perform consistently in a superior man-
ner under adverse conditions, whether in garrison or
in the field.
(f) The ability to achieve the respect and cooperation of
associates.
(g) High personal and professional standards.
(3) Recommendations. Seek recommendations regarding
the abilities of potential leaders. Previous jobs held,
amount of responsibility, and relationship to the recom-
mending officer are among the things that should be con-
sidered in evaluating these recommendations.
(4) Administrative records. When records are available, use
them to obtain background information.
b. Commanders have obtained good results in the past using
the following criteria in selecting men for command positions:
(1) Demonstrated ability to do the job.
(2) Training and experience in the job or similar jobs.
(3) Length of service and seniority.
(4) Favorable impact of personality on associates and sub-
ordinates.
74. Development of Subordinate Leaders
a. The development of leadership in subordinates is a continu-
ous concern; therefore, you must take advantage of every oppor-
tunity to teach junior leaders the components of leadership, and
their application, in order that they may become better leaders.
To do this effectively, you must first know your subordinates well.
Learn which ones require a tight supervisory rein; which ones are
capable of carrying out missions independently. Somne over ag-
gressive subordinates, impelled by esprit and the desire for pres-
tige, may exceed others and create undesirable situations. Other
subordinates may demonstrate under aggressive work habits. You
may find it necessary to curb the more aggressive subordinates
and stimulate the less enterprising. By recognizing the difference
in individuals, you can use suitable techniques to gain the subordi-
nates' obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal cooperation.
b. Following are effective methods of developing subordinate
leaders.
(1) Active encouragement of a planned professional program.
(2) Periodic rotation of duty to promote a broad and diver-
sified background.
(3) Attendance at unit and army service schools.

46 AGO 6223B
 (4) Training inspections and field exercises.
(5) Leadership instruction and wise counseling.
(6) Delegation of maximum authority to subordinates com-
mensurate with their responsibilities.
(7) Operating through the chain of command.
(8) Setting high standards of accomplishment.
(9) Personal example.
c. During this development period you must maintain a direct
and personal relationship with your subordinates. Let them know
what you expect, apprise them of the degree to which they are
achieving established goals, and suggest ways in which they can
improve themselves. Give them credit when due, and be careful
to avoid favoritism.
d. With rapid turnover of leaders in most units, their replace-
ment is a pressing problem. This necessitates that commanders
plan for and train replacements for each position so one or more
substitutes are always available. The planning for replacement
leaders in greater depth becomes more important in combat where
personnel turnover is accelerated.
e. In the future, the leadership ability of subordinate leaders
must be of the highest quality. The threat of nuclear weapons,
or their employment, will require that commanders rely more and
more on the ability and resourcefulness of their subordinates.
Units will be required to operate with greater dispersion and con-
duct independent or semi-independent type operations. Improved
conventional weapons, new tactics, and more advanced means of
communication will place a greater emphasis on leadership at the
lower level. Success or failure will depend to a great extent upon
how effective commanders are in deriving the utmost in terms of
response from their small-unit leaders under conditions offering
minimum opportunity for personal contact. To cope with these
new challenges, commanders at all levels must appreciate the
value of development of their subordinate leaders.
75. Senior-Subordinate Relationship
a. The proper senior-subordinate relationship is one in which
there is strong mutual confidence and respect without over-famil-
iarity. Over familiarity breeds laxness and a tendency to lower the
response of subordinate in demanding situations. As a sub-
ordinate, you must be respectful and obedient to your superiors
before you can expect your men to accord you the same response.
b. Your personal influence is a great asset in building harmoni-
ous relationships among the leaders of your command. Judge each
man in the manner in which he performs his job; never on any
personal prejudice you may hold.
AGO 6223B 47
76. Counseling
a. Counseling is talking over a problem with someone. It in-
volves the clarification of a problem or assisting in its solution by
discussion. The most effective counseling is that which encourages
a person to arrive at his own solution. You accomplish this by
exhibiting an interest in the problem and by encouraging the man
to talk freely. Then, by injecting appropriate ideas and comments,
you guide the man's thinking toward a logical solution to his prob-
lem. Counseling should help to develop in the individual the in-
itiative to take care of himself-to stand on his own feet without
being dependent on others.
b. The range of personal problems arising within a unit is vast
and varied. Problems which may require counseling are those in-
volving grievances pertaining to rank and promotion, job assign-
ment, discrimination by others, financial problems, family troubles,
and many other factors involving the individual's well-being. It
is necessary that you help the individual solve his problems so
his mind will be free from worry, enabling him to concentrate on
the job at hand.
c. Practical understanding of human behavior is an invaluable
asset to you in assisting your men in the solution of their prob-
lems. Always attempt to understand why a man thinks and acts
the way he does before suggesting a course of action.
d. When initiating a counseling program, the following should
be included:
(1) All leaders within a unit should learn the functioning of,
the need for, and the benefits derived from a counseling
program.
(2) Leaders should make themselves available at every prac-
tical opportunity to give guidance and assistance.
(3) The soldier should be taught to seek assistance from his
immediate leader, and not to violate the chain of com-
mand. Emergencies and special considerations will re-
quire occasional exceptions to this general policy.
e. Following are some considerations which have proven effec-
tive in counseling:
(1) Adopt a sincere, understanding, yet impartial attitude.
(2) Use understandable words and phrases in your discus-
sions.
(3) Never talk down to your men.
(4) Information secured during counseling should be held
in confidence.
(5) Make full use of assistance available from the staff, wel-
fare services, and higher headquarters. You should know
what channels to be followed and, if possible, know by

48 AGO 6223B
 name the individuals to whom referrals are made. When
you put the soldier in direct contact with an appropriate
agency or service, you strengthen the soldier's confidence
in your ability and concern for his welfare. Continue to
take an interest in the soldier's problems even after you
have referred him to an agency. Some of these agencies
or services are: Chaplain, Army Medical Service, Ameri-
can Red Cross, Legal Assistance Officer, Army Emer-
gency Relief Society, Inspector General, Personnel Offi-
cer, Information Officer, Education Officer, and Finance
Officer.
(6) Special care should be exercised when counseling an indi-
vidual who appears to have a deep-rooted adjustment
problem. In such special cases, counseling by a leader
who does not have the proper professional training can
do more harm than good. Consequently, these individuals
should be referred to the appropriate agency for their
own welfare and for the good of the military service.
(7) Avoid making decisions for the individual; guide the dis-
cussion in such a manner that the person being counseled
will develop his own workable solution.
77. Reception and Integration
a. The new soldier, finding himself separated from his friends
and family, must develop a feeling of being a part of a group. In
military life he finds he has much less privacy and freedom of
choice than in civilian life. He feels unimportant and tends to
lose his sense of individuality. You can assist in making his ad-
justment less difficult by explaining, during his first few days of
service, the reasons for regimentation. Tell him about the process
of training which makes it impossible for him to live and work as
he did in civilian life. Explain why the Army cannot provide the
conveniences of civilian homes and communities.
b. On the other hand, the new soldier may find in military life
a personal freedom greater than he was allowed in civilian environ-
ment. The restrictions formerly imposed by his parents, teachers,
church, and community are remote to him. This sudden release
may lead to thoughtless and uninhibited behavior. Personal coun-
sel and necessary restrictions can help control this problem.
c. It is particularly important that you devote special attention
to the adjustment of the new men, especially in the first few
months of service. A new member needs a proper reception into
an organization if he is to adjust early and develop rapidly into
an effective member. Regardless of his background, experience,
and nature of the work involved, a new member requires certain
AGO 6223B 49
initial orientation so he will become familiar with the organization
and the requirements of his new job. Likewise, he needs a warm
and sincere reception-no matter how simple-so that he will
develop a sense of belonging and will quickly be integrated into
the unit.
d. New men must be classified and assigned to units and inte-
grated in such a way that the requirements of the various compo-
nent units of the organization are met first. Insure that each
individual is assigned to a position where he can be expected to
perform best. Often problems of morale develop after you have
carefully considered the needs of the unit, the individual's capa-
bilities, and his desires. You can eliminate many such problems
by-
(1) Utilizing noncommissioned officers' experience and knowl-
edge of the men in making detailed assignments within
the unit.
(2) Emphasizing the importance of the individual's job to
the overall mission. The importance a man attaches to
his job is often directly proportional to the leader's at-
tention to and interest in that job.
(3) Stressing during initial orientation and throughout
training the relationship of the individual to the success
of the team as a whole.
e. A good reception program, demonstrating thoughtful con-
cern for the men's comfort and welfare, does much to speed their
initial adjustment and to create in them a favorable attitude
toward their leaders and the Army. In order to accomplish this
you must-
(1) Expedite the reception process. Avoid unnecessary de-
lays and long periods of waiting during processing.
(2) Keep the men informed. Prepare an information pro-
gram to orient men quickly on their assignments to units.
(3) Allow a short readjustment period for transfer between
units. After this period, minimize transfers.
(4) Organize a modified training program for new arrivals
pending commencement of the scheduled training pro-
gram.

Section III. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

78. Relations With Local Civilians
a. No more evident demonstration of the need for intelligent,
exemplary leadership in the Army can be indicated than in the
area of relationships between military personnel and civilians
with whom they come in contact, particularly overseas. A mili-

50 AGO 6223B
tary organization is no stronger than its civilian base, and the
cumulative behavior of individual military personnel in civilian
environments goes far toward determining the degree of com-
munity acceptance of Army elements concerned and the character
of civilian support for the Army and its operations. The impact
of military units on the economy and social patterns of a civilian
community are readily apparent.
b. The behavior and appearance of troops in civilian areas are
directly influenced by the character and example of their leaders
and the degree of mutual cooperation and good judgment exer-
cised by both troop commanders and community officials. This is
especially true in oversea areas where the result of military opera-
tions may be immediately affected by lack of civilian support or
actual hostility brought about by ill-advised actions of commanders
or the aggregate adverse behavior of individuals.

AGO 6223B 51
 CHAPTER 8
LEADERSHIP IN HIGHER COMMANDS

79. General
The higher commander is faced with the problem of creating
an environment conducive of effective leadership within the com-
mand. He does this through face-to-face dealings with his sub-
ordinates, by his policies and the way they are interpreted, by
the manner in which he exercises command, by his ability to make
decisions and solve problems, and by his ability to communicate
within the command through his subordinates.

80. Leadership Environment

a. Dealings with Staff and Subordinates. The higher com-
mander's face-to-face dealings with his staff and immediate sub-
ordinate commanders involves the direct application of the traits
and principles of leadership. It is through these subordinates that
the higher commander influences the leadership environment
within the command; thus, he must strive to assure that his staff
and immediate subordinate commanders develop and practice the
traits and principles of leadership within their respective areas
of influence.
b. The Higher Commander's Policies. Whether an efficient and
cooperative attitude will exist in a larger command is dependent
to a large degree on the commander's policies and the way they
are interpreted. Accordingly, it is essential the commander assure
that his policies are in accord with the principles of leadership
so far as they are consistent with the mission of the unit. The
commander's policies must be reasonable and understandable or
explainable, and must be widely disseminated and thoroughly
understood by those who are expected to comply. Policies must
be either enforced or rescinded. As a normal practice, the higher
commander allows his subordinates to develop the procedures and
techniques to implement his policies. He assures himself that his
policies are understood and enforced at the lower levels through
his usual inspection routines.
c. Exercise of Command. As noted before, the leader may be
authoritarian or persuasive. Both types are necessary and the
superior leader is one who can utilize each as the situation de-
mands. Knowledge of the effects of organization on leadership,
and his ability to delegate and decentralize intelligently and effec-
tively, are essential skills of the higher commander in applying
the principles of leadership throughout the command. In the

52 AGO 6223B
process of delegation, the higher commander assigns responsi-
bility for decision making to the lowest level at which information
and capabilities exist to make the decision; however, he retains
all of his original responsibilities. Effective delegation is an es-
sential element in developing a sense of responsibility among sub-
ordinates and in employing the command in accordance with
capabilities.

81. Organization and Control

a. General. The organization of the unit affects the results a
leader can achieve through his unit. The relationships created
between the leader and his subordinates, his associates, and his
superiors should be designed to increase his effectiveness as a
leader. For this reason the leader must understand the principles
of sound organization.
b. Principlesof Organization.
(1) Essentiality. Each part of the organization must be
needed to accomplish the mission of the organization.
(2) Balance. Each element of the organization must be
designed to do its part of the job effectively, but with-
out duplicating the missions of the other parts of the
organization.
(3) Coordination. The organization must provide for com-
plete coordination of the work to prevent gaps or over-
laps in the overall job.
(4) Flexibility. The organization must be designed to per-
form its mission without disruption as the job alters in
scope or the environment changes.
(5) Efficiency. The organization must make the fullest use
of men, money, material, and facilities.
c. The Organizing Process.
(1) Organizing is the process of developing and maintaining
a unit structure which facilitates control and provides
assurance that the mission of the unit can be accom-
plished efficiently. It requires the leader to determine
each function which must be performed to accomplish
the overall job. He must then arrange the organization
to provide just enough means to complete each function.
The resulting functional organization provides a frame-
work within which individuals can work together effi-
ciently to attain their common goal-accomplishment of
the unit's mission.
(2) Attainment of efficient organization involves three con-
siderations:
(a) First determine the task. The job as a whole must be

AGO 6223B 53
 determined; then it must be broken down into compo-
nents or functions to be performed. When a complete
list of these operations has been made, related tasks
must be grouped together for assignment to organiza-
tional elements. Capabilities of these elements must
be interrelated to assure integrated effort, to preclude
duplication or omission of effort, and to define respon-
sibilities clearly. In this step the good leader considérs
the probable capabilities of the men and equipment to
be used in accomplishing the job and the conditions
under which they will most often work.
(b) Setting up the structure comes next and results in the
creation or visualization of an organizational chart.
The chart shows graphically how each element of the
organization relates to the other elements and shows
the chain through which authority passes. Again, the
good leader considers the probable capabilities of the
men who will man the organization.
(c) Allocating resources is the final step in organizing.
Military units usually are allocated resources by a
Table of Organization and Equipment (TOE), or by
a Table of Distribution (TD) and Tables of Allow-
ances (TA) related to it. These show what personnel,
equipment, and other resources the unit leader will
have available to him.
d. Organizational Limitations of the Leader. The leader of a
unit organized under TOE, or TD and TA uses it as directed by
competent authority. This limits his prerogatives in developing
a new or modifying an existing organization. Within the limita-
tions imposed by higher authority he may organize his staff and
subordinate elements in the manner he believes will best accom-
plish the mission of his unit. Such rearrangement may be required
to fit the needs of a particular operation, to take advantage of
special capabilities of his personnel or equipment, or to eliminate
ineffectiveness caused by shortcomings of his personnel or equip-
ment.
82. Span of Control
a. The span of control is the number of immediate subordinates
one person can control, supervise, or direct effectively. Since more
effective employment of the unit is the goal of leadership, a good
leader must understand thoroughly the span of control and what
affects it.
b. One factor affecting the span of control is the span of atten-
tion; the ability of an individual to divide his attention between
54 AGO 6223B
two or more tasks. Each of us has an upper limit beyond which
he cannot pay attention to additional work. Even below this limit,
assignment of a new task tends to detract from the efficient per-
formance of those already undertaken. Further, our ability to
divide attention decreases as mental or physical exhaustion ap-
proaches. Thus, the maximum span of control diminishes with
decreased mental or physical vigor.
c. Another factor affecting the span of control stems from the
attitude of the individual. If he has predetermined views, his
ability to reason logically is impaired. He may misinterpret or
misunderstand what he sees and hears to fit his preconceptions.
This in turn affects his ability to control, supervise, or direct his
subordinates. In the end, his maximum span of control may
diminish to the vanishing point.
d. The interaction of human relationships also affects the span
of control. For instance, if a leader has two subordinates, he has
two human relationships-one with each of them. Each of these
relationships is affected by a third relationship, that which exists
between the two subordinates. The greater the span of control,
the more complex become the effects of these interacting relation-
ships, and they become more difficult to control.
e. Most authorities agree that the economically minimum span
of control is three. The maximum span of control varies greatly.
If it is exceeded, the organization becomes cumbersome and diffi-
cult to lead. Some of the factors which will influence the upper
limit of your span of control are:
(1) Your experience and training.
(2) The experience and training of your subordinates.
(3) The amount of clearly understood communication be-
tween you and your subordinates.
(4) The degree of similarity among your subordinate's jobs.
(5) The distance by which you and your subordinates are
separated.
(6) The time available for your organization to translate
your decisions into actions.
(7) Your personality and the personality of each of your sub-
ordinates.
(8) The mental and physical condition of you and your sub-
ordinates.
(9) Complexity of the organization.
83. Chain of Command
a. The chain of command is the succession of commanders
through which authority passes and commands are given. It is
the formal channel through which orders are disseminated, re-
AGO 6223B 55
ports submitted, and two-way communication effected. Through
the chain of command definite lines of responsibility, authority,
and supervision are established; this avoids both overlaps and
gaps in duties and responsiblities and facilitates control. Thus,
the leader must understand and properly use the chain of com-
mand to have an effective unit.
b. Effective operation of the chain requires that:
(1) Sufficient authority be delegated to subordinates so they
can accomplish the tasks for which they are responsible.
(2) Each subordinate be assigned definite responsibility for
each task he is to accomplish.
(3) Men know for whom they are working and to whom they
are responsible.
(4) Subordinates be required to make all requests through
their immediate commander or his staff.
(5) Every man be aware of his place in the chain of com-
mand.
(6) No man have more than one superior giving him orders
covering the same area of responsibility.
84. The Commander-Staff Officer Relationship
a. The primary function of each staff officer is to assist the
commander to perform his duties. Thus, the good staff officer con-
tinually views things as nearly as he can from the commander's
point of view. This requires him to subordinate his personal views
to the desires of his commander.
b. The responsibilities of command remain with the commander
and cannot be delegated to members of his staff since they are not
in the chain of command. Therefore, staff officers issue only orders
of and for the commander.
c. An effective staff officer keeps himself informed by frequent
visits to the commanders of subordinate units. He interprets and
explains the policies, orders, and directives of his commander as
necessary, but gives none of his own. He observes the execution
of the commander's desires and keeps him informed of the extent
to which they are being carried out.
d. A good staff officer needs to be tactful. His relationships
with higher and adjacent headquarters, subordinate commanders
and staffs, troops, and other members of his own staff may be
seriously jeopardized by lack of tact. His effectiveness depends
upon his ability to generate an atmosphere of genuine cooperation
and coordination, as well as upon his professional knowledge and
ability.
e. The commander, therefore, logically expects a staff officer to:
(1) Work in close harmony with other staff members, higher
and lateral commands, and subordinate units.

56 AGO 6223B
 (2) Correctly analyze, properly evaluate, and recommend
sound courses of action on problems arising within the
command.
(3) Prepare directives to subordinate commands in conso-
nance with the commander's policies.
(4) Keep the commander completely informed about the
status of subordinate units without creating resentment
or distrust in them.
(5) Develop in lower units a feeling of trust in the staff offi-
cer and his actions so his visits to the unit are welcome.
(6) Insure that complete coordination is made before he takes
or recommends an action.
f. The staff officer must avoid any tendency to inform the com-
mander only of matters he feels the commander wants to hear.
He must constantly strive to present information to the com-
mander in an unbiased and objective manner. Once the com-
mander has announced his decision or policy, the staff officer must
wholeheartedly and enthusiastically support the decision and not
allow personal feelings to interfere with the accomplishment of
the task.
g. On the other side of the commander-staff officer relationship,
the members of the staff rightly expect the commander to:
(1) Establish and maintain a close relationship with them.
(2) Create an atmosphere which fosters mutual confidence
and respect.
(3) Give clear, positive, and timely decisions to provide ade-
quate guidance for staff actions.
(4) Consider staff recommendations fully and objectively
before making a final decision.
(5) Foster the expression of new ideas, frank appraisals,
and honest convictions through personal encouragement.
(6) Recognize and reward conscientious and productive effort.
(7) Support their actions which are in keeping with the com-
mander's policies.
85. Decision-Making and Problem-Solving
Many of the higher commander's problems will stem from or
will be complicated by the actions or inexperience of his subordi-
nates; therefore, it is essential the higher commander apply the
traits and principles of leadership to his decision-making and
problem-solving process. He will be guided, in a general sense,
by the estimate of the situation (FM 101-5) and the problem-
solving process (ch. 7) in performing these functions; however,
since his decisions will often have an effect on personnel several
steps down the chain of command, he must continually keep in
AGO 6223B 57
mind the principles of personnel management and the fundamen-
tals of human relations. Failure to do so can result in an imper-
sonal attitude toward the lower elements of the command which
the commander will find detrimental to his efforts to create
an environment conducive to effective leadership throughout the
command.

86, Communication Within the Command

a. The degree to which a higher commander makes his policies
and decisions understood and accepted by his organization will
materially affect his effectiveness as a leader. Communication is
one of the most difficult and important areas of command respon-
sibility. Communication, to be effective, must not only convey
information to the recipient, but the recipient must be motivated
to want to receive and understand the information transmitted.
Without effective communication there can be no cooperative
action. The decision-making process itself is dependent upon the
reliability and completeness of information brought to bear upon
the issues to be resolved.
b. It is the responsibility of the commander to keep his sub-
ordinates informed. It is not enough to issue an order with the
expectation that it will be executed exactly as visualized by the
commander. Subordinates should be given every opportunity to
participate in the development of plans, policies, and procedures.
Through such participation they will have a better understanding
of the problem and the reasonis for the decision.
c. The passing down of information should not be limited to
orders or directives. Background or related information should
also be included. While it is normal procedure to issue orders or
guidance in writing, it is often effective to provide related infor-
mation orally to subordinates. When using both methods to trans-
mit information, it is imperative that the commander be consistent,
clear, and concise. If he fails to do so, his written orders may be
jeopardized by an erroneous interpretation of his oral explanation.
d. The higher commander, by applying the principles of leader-
ship, can develop the desire on the part of his subordinates to con-
tribute to the useful interchange of information throughout the
comtnand, including reporting of information to the commander
promptly. Fear of being criticized or penalized, a lack of desire
to complete corrective action, or failure to meet objectives are
often the under-reasons for failure of subordinates to report infor-
mation promptly. The commander who has the confidence, respect,
and loyal cooperation of his subordinates will have little difficulty
in effecting the interchange of information.

58 AGO 6223B
 CHAPTER 9
LEADERSHIP IN COMBAT

87. Willingness for Combat of the American Soldier

a. How do unfavorable attitudes developed in the soldier during
training relate to his combat performance? Many commanders
have stated: "Suppose that many combat soldiers did have un-
favorable attitudes. What of it? They fought, didn't they?" The
question still remains: How well did they fight in relation to their
potential abilities?
b. The Department of the Army has conducted a series of
studies on the willingness for combat of the American soldier.
These studies support the belief that attitudes and performances
during training are related to performance in combat, and that
individuals who had the least satisfactory attitude during training
later tended to be relatively poor combat soldiers. The results of
these surveys also showed that at least 24 percent of the men said
that they would rather not, or felt they could not, kill an enemy
soldier. It is vitally important that the leader in training be sensi-
tive to the men's attitudes and strive to build an attitude of con-
fidence in their combat skills.
c. Further studies indicated that a large percentage of the
available firepower in units was never fully developed. This fail-
ure to fire was due, in part, to the soldier's belief that firing his
weapon would reveal his position and entail increased exposure.
Other causes resulted from such fears as being wounded or dis-
figured or lack of confidence in his weapons, leaders, fellow sol-
diers, or in himself.
88. Factors Adversely Affecting Combat Effectiveness
a. Factors adversely affecting the combat potential of a com-
mand include fear, panic, discouragement, isolation, and lack of
confidence by the individual in himself, in his unit, or in his leaders.
The presence of fear and a tendency to panic vary with changes
in condition of the troops, in degree of tactical success, and in the
physical conditions on the battlefield. Normally, it is the com-
mander of the small unit who must sense the development of situ-
ations which may be interpreted by the troops as critical, and who
must take personal action to eliminate conditions which cause
fear and panic. However, it is largely the commander of the
major unit who trains and indoctrinates the small unit commander,
and who initiates policies that later help him to counteract fear
and panic.
AGO 6223B 59
 b. The disruption of mutual support among elements of a com-
bat unit sometimes results in the isolation of units on the battle-
field. These conditions will adversely affect the combat effective-
ness of a unit which is not prepared to meet them. Paragraph 94
contains a discussion of these considerations.

89. Fear
a. Fear, although it is an emotion that may at times cause a
soldier to be incapacitated, is nature's way of preparing the body
for action. Body functioning is stepped up; sugar and adrenalin
are released into the blood to act as fuel for the fight ahead; there
is a temporary loss of any feeling of fatigue. Even blood clots
more readily !
b. Nevertheless, it is sometimes difficult for a tense, frightened
soldier to look upon fear in the light of body chemistry, especially
if his period of fright is prolonged. He may become helpless and
demoralized, or completely paralyzed by his fear.
c. Effective training and proper discipline minimize conditions
of this type. Training will teach the soldier to respond from force
of habit to specific battle orders, even though battle commands
often cannot be given as in training. It will become second nature
for him to carry out his own job as a member of the fighting team
-to begin the action that will relieve his fear.
90. Rumors
a. Rumors are essentially anonymous communications that are
easily spread. Those which seem plausible under existing condi-
tions circulate more rapidly. Rumors destroy confidence and create
uncertainty. In combat, when soldiers may be uncertain and in-
secure, rumors may create an illusion that a critical situation exists
whereas, in reality, none does. Thus rumors create a condition of
high susceptibility to emotional and irrational behavior. Indi-
viduals may become excited and may react in an unreasonable
fashion even to weak suggestions. Over a short range period,
rumors satisfy a need for information which troops experience in
a state of expectation. In a longer range, rumors erode the con-
fidence of troops in their chain of command and in themselves.
In this way, rumors both increase the stress felt by the individual
soldier and decrease the potential effectiveness of the unit. Totally
irrational rumors are short lived. However, rumors based on half-
truths and those which are found to be completely true, exist for
longer periods and cause more harm.
b. A rumor that supports a suspicion or a hatred, verifies a fear,
or expresses a hope will be repeated and reinforced by the emotions
of the teller. When rumors spread rapidly and far, it means that

60 AGO 6223B
hates, fears, or hopes are common to the many people doing the
repeating. Rumors are repeated even by those who do not believe
them because they provide a chance to express an emotion which
would otherwise have to be suppressed.
c. Confidence sometimes varies between over-confidence and
shaken confidence. Rumor causes violent fluctuations between
these extremes. For this reason, rumors must be controlled. Effec-
tive rumor control requires an attentive ear to detect and identify
rumors and specific action to discredit and eliminate them at the
source. Rumors originated by the enemy necessitate counterintel-
ligence measures to determine their source. Specific control meas-
ures applicable to all rumors include-
(1) An effective information program.
(2) Disseminating information on plans and operations as
completely as security requirements permit. Give the
troops as many facts as possible.
(3) Finding out and attempting to eliminate the basic con-
ditions creating uncertainty and frustrations before they
accumulate.
(4) Keeping informed of current rumors in the unit. A long
range program of instilling faith in the information
passed out by the chain of command is better than a
point-for-point rebuttal of rumors passed along the
"grapevine." Soldiers want information. If factual in-
formation is not quickly supplied by the chain of com-
mand, then the "rumor campaigns" take over. The obvi-
ous disadvantage of not replying directly to rumors is
that rumors thus may be reinforced and given credibility.
(5) Developing confidence in individuals toward their leaders.
d. Keeping men informed assumes a major role on the battle-
field. A soldier who is well informed as to the situation and his
mission is more effective than one who is uninformed. Also, men
must know what is expected of them and what means they have
at their disposal to assist them in accomplishing the mission.
Troops who are aware beforehand of the enemy's capabilities
exert a positive influence toward successful accomplishment of
the mission.
91. Panic
a. Panic develops when a soldier is overcome with fear. It may
be evidenced by sudden flight or by freezing in place. Panic may
develop in a group faced with sudden catastrophe or from a few
individuals fleeing from danger in a critical situation. The critical
situations responsible for the mass emotion of fear may be real, as
in the case of fallout from a nuclear ground burst; or imaginary;
AGO 6223B 61
 in situations created by enemy propaganda and malicious gossip.
The seeds of panic are always present in troops as long as they
believe physical danger is near.
b. The emotion of fear reaches panic proportions only when
individuals believe themselves incapable of overcoming a critical
situation. When emotional tension is produced by a critical situa-
tion, individuals become excitable and highly susceptible to sug-
gestion. Nothing is more likely to cause a unit in combat to panic
than the sight of a few of its members in full and unexplained
flight to the rear. Sudden and unexplained motion in the wrong
direction is an open invitation to disaster. As panic spreads, a
man will join a disorganized fleeing crowd without stopping to ask
why they are running. When discipline breaks, only a small
minority of the most hardy individuals will retain self-control.
The others cannot stand fast if the circumstances appear to justify
flight. The obvious fear among the panicked troops is evidence
that there is something to be afraid of and to escape from.
c. Any suggested or observed movement may be interpreted as
a means of escape and cause of sudden flight. This flight is not
generally focused upon a known goal other than escape, but is
rapidly canalized in a certain direction. Someone has to be the
first to break and run. Studies of local panics during the Korean
crisis revealed that lack of information was the real crux of the
fear. This lack of information, when compounded with the sight
of running men, led to panic. The leader can minimize the possi-
bility of such a panic by- keeping his men informed at all times.
This in turn will enable them to use initiative and take positive
action to halt the panic, restore the situation, and proceed with
the accomplishment of the mission.
d. The emotion of fear is reinforced by escape action to such a
degree that reason is greatly reduced. A soldier in panic runs
without much rational thought. His fear is increased by the fears
of his fleeing companions, and his field of attention is narrowed.
He is forgetful of honor and discipline.
e. Troops in combat are continually in the presence of a situa-
tion threatening death or bodily harm. During such times of stress
they are subject to all of the anxieties and fears conducive to
panic. Experienced troops who are well trained, organized, dis-
ciplined, and led, seldom give way to panic because they are con-
fident of their ability to master any situation regardless of its
critical nature. This power to resist fear and panic fluctuates
according to psychological and physiological conditions of the
troops, the degree of tactical success, and the physical conditions
of the battlefield. The leader must constantly measure and
strengthen the confidence of his command. Leaders must realize

62 AGO 6223B
that even experienced and well-trained troops have panicked in
situations which, as a result of rumor or unfavorable circum-
stances, appeared beyond their control. They must sense the devel-
opment of situations interpreted by the troops as critical and take
action to eliminate or minimize conditions which contribute to
panic.
f. Commanders should recognize and compensate for or mini-
mize the following conditions that lead to uncertainty and panic:
(1) Physical conditions-scarcity of arms and ammunition,
insufficient supporting weapons, fog, darkness, woods,
baptism of fire, and introduction of new enemy weapons.
(2) Physiological conditions-hunger, thirst, extreme cli-
matic conditions, and exhaustion.
(3) Psychological conditions-danger (real or imaginary),
anxiety, insecurity, ignorance of the military situation,
tension, and expectant waiting.
(4) Morale conditions-homesickness, unexplained lack of
mail, boredom, rumor, defeatist attitude, and lack of
belief in the cause.
(5) Tactical conditions-destruction of organization, heavy
losses, reverses, conflicting orders, and poor communica-
tions. Panic is rarely caused by the strength of enemy
action. There is danger of panic in a withdrawal. For
this reason, carefully control withdrawals at all times.
During a rearward movement, keep troops fully informed
within the limits of security, as to why they are with-
drawing, and how and where the new battle area will
be established.
(6) Leadership conditions-absence of leaders, loss of good
leaders, and lack of confidence in the ability of leaders.
g. The ultimate defense against panic lies in its prevention by
means of effective leadership during training and in combat.
h. At the first sign of panic, immediate and decisive action must
be taken. Unity of action is often restored by the prompt action
of the leader of a few volunteers, who stands squarely in the path
of flight and commands the men to turn back, without hesitating
to manhandle those men who come within reach or to threaten the
others with weapons. Likewise, to the soldier who is in terror and
verging on panic, no influence can be more steadying than to see
some other soldier near him, and especially the leader, retaining
his self-control and doing his duty.
i. A logical course of action to control panic includes the fol-
lowing:
(1) Decisive action on the part of the commander and his
subordinate leaders.
AGO 6223B 63
 (2) Presence of the commander and his display of a calm,
confident attitude.
(3) Physical restraint on the part of the commander and
subordinate leaders to stop men who are in a state of
panic.
(4) Threatening men with a weapon if all other means fail.
(5) Constant alertness for the development of conditions
which produce panic.
92. Spirit of the Offensive
a. The creation of a desire to close with and destroy the enemy
is highly important in developing aggressiveness in military units.
In a large measure it is gained by sound training, by the fostering
of individual and unit confidence, and through success in combat.
Aggressive action is essential to secure objectives with minimum
combat losses. The problem of maintaining aggressiveness is in-
tensified during periods of inactivity.
b. Attainment of objectives sometimes depends on restoring
the effectiveness of those units weakened by enemy action. With
the rapid movement of modern warfare, it is imperative that in-
effective men and equipment be replaced quickly. This entails
efficient movement, proper reserve and support positions, and
assignment of missions to units within their capabilities. To retain
combat effectiveness, leaders should:
(1) Insure that the chain of command remains intact.
(2) Maintain momentum and utilize firepower fully.
(3) Instill in men an aggressive attitude and desire to destroy
the enemy.
(4) Effectively use supporting fires to supplement organic
firepower.
(5) Teach the unit to lean into supporting fires when at-
tacking.
(6) Teach men to "talk it up" and support one another when
moving.
(7) Constantly train to improve proficiency in weapon utili-
zation and tactical maneuvers.
(8) Stress battlefield discipline and individual responsi-
bilities.
(9) Set the example they desire their men to emulate.
93. Restoration of Fighting Effectiveness
a. The fighting effectiveness of a unit decreases after sustained
action, heavy losses, or during prolonged defensive situations and
periods of inactivity. Units suffering heavy losses in men and
equipment require time in a reserve position to absorb replace-
ments and to reorganize.

64 AGO 6223B
 b. One of the most effective means of restoring the confidence
and esprit de corps of a unit which has failed or performed poorly
in battle is to have it carry out creditably a similar or commensur-
ate task. The situation may dictate additional training or a change
in command.
c. The following actions will help to rebuild confidence, esprit de
corps, and insure the maintenance of combat effectiveness:
(1) Keep informed on the status of personnel, weapons,
equipment, and training so replacements of personnel and
equipment are made rapidly, and provisions are made for
the proper integration of new men.
(2) Personally observe units in action in order to assess
better their capabilities. Require additional training of
units if the situation warrants.
(3) Stress improvement of battle techniques and disseminate
proven methods to the units.
(4) Carefully observe the physical, emotional, and mental
state of the troops. Disseminate information on enemy
casualties, the number of prisoners captured, and- the
amount of enemy equipment destroyed.
(5) Improve the health and welfare of the troops by empha-
sizing discipline in the field to reduce unnecessary losses
from all causes. These may include trenchfoot, disease,
and poor field sanitation as well as enemy fire.
(6) Insure that the chain of command remains intact by
prompt replacement of commanders lost in action.
(7) Orient troops on the situation, pointing out that inactivity
or defense is always a prelude to offensive combat.
(8) Commend and reward aggressiveness on the part of indi-
viduals and units. Express confidence in the unit's com-
bat ability.
(9) Provide for and insure the proper use of the fire support
plan.

94. Support of Isolated Units

a. The effect of enemy action sometimes results in the isolation
of units on the battlefield. The possibility of enemy action dis-
rupting communication in conjunction with expected battlefield
dispersion, will require that subordinate commanders be capable
of independent action. Small units must be trained for such situa-
tions. This can best be accomplished by requiring them to carry
out mission-type orders while operating under conditions of de-
centralized authority. In such situations, units must be assured the
commander fully appreciates their position and is confident of
their ability to extricate themselves from the situation to perform
AGO 6223B 65
their mission creditably. To prevent a deterioration of confidence
and aggressiveness, the commander must furnish every possible
support to isolated units.
b. Some specific steps include:
(1) Never let a unit think it has been abandoned.
(2) Immediately furnish all possible fire support.
(3) Make a positive attempt to assist the isolated unit.
(4) Reconstitute a chain of command if necessary.
(5) Keep the unit informed of all actions being taken to
assist it.

95. Leadership for Attached Units to Include Allied Units

a. One of the major leadership problems that confront the com-
manders of larger commands such as groups, divisions, corps, and
armies is the proper handling of attached units. Especially in an
army corps there is a frequent turnover of divisions and separate
units during the course of a campaign. The corps commander has
the difficult problem of integrating newly attached units into the
corps effort and of giving them a sense of belonging to the team.
This calls for leadership techniques of a special nature in addition
to the more general techniques previously discussed. To integrate
newly attached units into his command, the commander should:
(1) Insure that personal liaison is established with a unit as
soon as he learns it is to be attached.
(2) Establish wire or radio communication with a newly at-
tached unit at the earliest practical time.
(3) Deliver promptly a brief of all current standing operating
procedures and administrative policies to the commander
and staff of a newly attached unit.
(4) Make all necessary administrative arrangements for the
efficient reception of a unit newly attached to his com-
mand.
(5) Insure that administrative and logistical responsibility
for attached units is clearly defined and properly carried
out.
(6) Require only necessary reporting to his headquarters by
attached units.
(7) Require his staff to follow the chain of command in deal-
ing with attached units.
(8) Visit attached units, even though they may be further
attached to subordinate units.
(9) Require his staff to visit newly attached units to ascertain
what assistance his command can render.
(10) Be familiar with the background of every unit attached
to his command.

66 AGO 6223B
 (11) Insist that subordinate commanders accord attached
units equal consideration in recommendations for decora-
tions and awards, letters of appreciation, and other forms
of recognition.
(12) Encourage commanders of attached units to make their
problems or suggestions known to him.
(13) Check plans of subordinate commanders to see attached
units are accorded the same consideration as organic
units in the assignment of missions.
(14) See that attached units receive their proportionate share
of all privileges and welfare activities. Make these units
feel they are an integral part of his team.
b. With the many alliances the United States has made with the
nations of the world, senior commanders can expect to have allied
units attached on many occasions. All of the actions listed for
normal attachments also apply to attached allied units plus the
following measures:
(1) Every effort must be made to obtain interpreters when
needed and to assist the attached commander with any
problems peculiar to his army.
(2) Let the allied units know their abilities are recognized
and their services will be appreciated.
(3) Show a sincere and intelligent interest in their history,
traditions, and customs, disseminate this information to
the command.
(4) If locally authorized, allow them to wear the patch and
insignia of the unit to which they are attached to increase
their sense of belonging.
(5) Assign them missions consistent with their organization,
equipment, training, and other capabilities. Normally,
this will mean assignments will be comparable to those
given to United States units.

AGO 6223B 67
 APPENDIX I
REFERENCES

FM 21-5 Military Training.

FM 21-6 Techniques of Military Instruction.
FM 21-13 Soldier's Guide.
FM 21-30 Military Symbols.
FM 33-5 Psychological Warfare Operations.
FM 101-1 The G1 Manual.
FM 101-5 Staff Officer's Field Manual; Staff Organi-
zation and Procedure.
DA Pam 108-1 Index of Army Motion Pictures, Filmstrips,
Slides, and Phono-Recordings.
DA Pam 310-Series Military Publications Indexes.
DA Pam 600-2 The Armed Forces Officer.
AR 320-5 Dictionary of United States Army Terms.
AR 320-50 Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity
Codes.

68 AGO 6223B
 APPENDIX II
EXAMPLES OF SMALL UNIT LEADERSHIP

EXAMPLE 1: While the Eighth Army was in a static position

in Korea, an officer took over a company which was low in combat
effectiveness. The battalion commander warned the officer of this,
and told him the battalion would go into a limited attack in two
weeks.
The new company commander decided to observe his men for
four days and try to get to know his platoon leaders and non-
commissioned officers before making any radical changes in the
company routine. However, just to let the company know it could
expect changes in policy, he immediately corrected a few minor
deficiencies as they came to his attention.
After four days he called his platoon leaders to an orientation
meeting. He told them he had been studying the company situation
for the past few days and had found nothing basically wrong, but
had found several things which had to be accomplished to get the
men on their toes again.
For their health and comfort, he told the platoon leaders to have
their men construct squad shelters and dig squad latrines; he added
that he wanted the platoon leaders to check with the squad leaders
every day to see the men were massaging their feet and changing
socks frequently enough to ward off trenchfoot.
As a matter of self-discipline, he wanted the men to shave daily
and wear their helmets; and he told his platoon leaders to check
the ability of every man to fire effectively and clean his weapon
adequately. He further directed they spend half an hour each day
on bayonet training.
To improve patrolling, he gave talks on the subject through the
use of an open forum discussion. He personally took out a platoon
patrol to demonstrate correct patrol procedure.
When his company went into the attack, it secured its objective
in a minimum of time and with fewer casualties than any other
company in the battalion. After the attack, the men of the com-
pany gave their commander full credit for transforming them into
an efficient combat unit. Officers and men said, "We couldn't let
our CO down."
ANALYSIS. It is doubtful whether the work of this company
commander could have been better performed by anyone. He sized
up the situation, worked with his subordinates through the chain
of command, and issued only those orders that were needed to
improve the training and welfare of his men. Several leadership
AGO 6223B 69
principles stand out as the basis for this commander's work, the
most prominent being-set the example; know your men and look
out for their welfare; and insure that the task is understood,
supervised, and accomplished.
EXAMPLE 2: After the Remagen bridgehead was secured and
during.the breakout that followed, the commander of one of the
leading companies was assigned the mission of attacking a forti-
fied hill to his front. In his orders for that operation, the battalion
commander specified the direction of attack for the company.
The company commander made his reconnaissance. During this
reconnaissance he discovered that the direction of attack as pre-
scribed by the battalion commander had serious disadvantages.
The company commander was not a man who disobeyed orders, but
he felt in view of the information he had obtained, he should
recommend that his battalion commander authorize a change in
plans.
On the strength of his reconnaissance, the company commander
recommended to the battalion commander a different avenue of
approach for the attack. At first the battalion commander was
reluctant to accept a change in his plans. But after examining
all the information the company commander had discovered dur-
ing his reconnaissance, and after listening to his reasons for select-
ing a different direction, he consented.
The company launched its attack using the new direction of
attack recommended by the company commander. It secured its
objective, suffering only a few casualties. Moreover, the company
captured 75 prisoners and destroyed two tanks.
After this action was completed, a reconnaissance disclosed some
startling facts. Had the company attacked according to the origi-
nal plans, it would have hit, head on, the enemy's final protective
lines as well as his defensive wire; it would have been exposed to
direct fire from enemy tanks; it would have had a large number
of casualties; and it might not have secured its objective.
ANALYSIS. The importance of personal reconnaissance as well
as the use of skillful maneuver is clearly seen. By stating and
adhering to his own convictions, the company commander exer-
cised the leadership trait of moral courage. By evaluating the
information gained during his reconnaissance and recommending
an effective plan of maneuver for the attack, he also displayed the
traits of initiative and knowledge.
EXAMPLE 3: The first night after the Chinese intervened in
the Korean hostilities was a tough one. Company E was engaged
in a heavy firefight as part of a task force ordered to delay the
enemy. The company repulsed two battalion-size assaults, inflict-
ing heavy casualties on the enemy, but due to the frozen ground

70 AGO 6223B
and the time factor Company E had not been able to dig in and its
own casualties were excessively high. Also, communication with
the company CP was knocked out and ammunition for the mortars
and recoilless rifles was desperately short.
The enemy withdrew at 0400 to regroup. During the lull, the
weapons platoon leader drew the last of the 60-mm and 57-mm
ammunition from the task force ammunition distributing point.
In the first few minutes of thé next assault, the weapons platoon
fired its last round of ammunition. The platoon sergeant then
turned to his platoon leader in hopeless frustration and asked,
"What do we do now, Lieutenant?"
"We're going to disassemble the breachblocks from the 57's and
hide them," the lieutenant said. "Hide the mortars too. Then
we're going to turn ourselves into a rifle platoon and join the fire-
fight on the hill. Get the word to the mortar men over in the
draw."
The men worked fast. They armed themselves with whatever
weapons they could lay their hands on. Acting as a rifle platoon,
they fought their way up the hill and engaged the enemy in hand-
to-hand combat. Thirty minutes later the enemy called it off for
the night. Company E had 55 men still on their feet-26 of these
were from the weapons platoon.
ANALYSIS. This platoon leader was outstanding in displaying
the leadership traits of initiative, decisiveness, and courage. He
made a sound and timely decision to have his men operate as a rifle
platoon. He sought responsibility and took responsibility for his
actions. His initiative in the absence of orders meant the difference
between victory and defeat for his company.
EXAMPLE 4: Company L was assigned the mission of attack-
ing and seizing a bunker on a hill to its front. This bunker served
as an enemy observation post from which mortar and artillery fire
was being directed. As with the other frontline companies in the
division, Company L was understrength as a result of months of
hard fighting. Sergeant commanded a platoon which
was then little more than a squad-only 12 men. With this team of
12 men and one tank, he was assigned the task of taking the
bunker.
The sergeant studied his map and made a personal reconnaiss-
ance. As he went over his plans, he recalled that the battalion S2
had said there was a long trench directly behind the bunker. He
then met with the tank commander, and the two men worked out
their plan of attack point by point. Next, he brought the 12 men
of his platoon together and carefully oriented them on the attack.
The tank-infantry team moved out together. The tank was to
AGO 6223B 71
keep firing as long as possible without endangering the advancing
foot soldiers.
When they arrived within 350 yards of the bunker, enemy artil-
lery, mortar, and machinegun fire started coming in. Sergeant
- - called for his own artillery support. He kept the platoon
moving toward the enemy as fast as they could walk. Every man
in the platoon could hear him yelling, "Keep moving, you! They
can't hit us !"
Just after his own artillery and tank fire was lifted, the platoon
reached the bunker. The sergeant dropped a couple of hand
grenades inside. Leaving two men to guard the bunker, the
sergeant prodded the rest of his platoon on until they reached the
trench-the one the S2 had mentioned. There he found 31 stunned
Chinese ready to surrender.
After having all prisoners searched, he then searched the bunker
and sent the prisoners to the rear. Then he began setting up his
defense. Only nine of his men were left now, but they dug in to
defend their position throughout the night. The next morning
help arrived.
ANALYSIS. This leader was technically and tactically pro-
ficient because he made a detailed plan based on careful recon-
naissance after conferring with his tank commander. He set the
example by leading the attack. He had his troops advance close
behind friendly artillery fire, for he knew the hazards of enemy
fire were greater than the hazards of short rounds. When he came
under enemy artillery and mortar fire, he pressed his men on
toward the objective because he knew the enemy seldom shortens
his range when his fire is already falling close to his own position.
His immediate reorganization and eétting up of a defense on his
captured position clinched the success of the operation he had so
carefully planned.
EXAMPLE 5: During his early training, the lieutenant had
learned well the devastating effects contaminated water could
have on the human body. Now he was in command of the 3d Pla-
toon of one of the first engineer companies to fight in the Korean
conflict.
In the early days of fighting in Korea, the only watering points
available were the nearest streams, wells, or rice paddies-all of
which were contaminated. Usually a detail of one or two men
collected the empty canteens from the other men of the platoon,
filled them at the nearest source of water, and returned them to
their owners. Each man was supplied with halazone tablets and
had been instructed to use them. However, on inspection, the lieu-
tenant found that few of his men had voluntarily used their tablets.
To guard against the effects of contaminated water, the lieutenant

72 AGO 6223B
first issued an order that no soldier could fill his own canteen-all
empty canteens were to be turned in at his CP. When enough
canteens were collected to warrant a trip to the watering point, the
lieutenant sent a couple of men to fill them. They were ordered to
return the full canteens to the CP-not to their owners. Upon the
return of the detail, the lieutenant personally saw to it that the
required number of halazone tablets were dissolved in each canteen
before issuing them to their owners.
The men complained because they did not like the taste of the
halazoned water. A few tried to fill their own canteens on the sly,
but the lieutenant put a quick stop to that. Then he called his men
together and patiently explained the dangers that lurk in untreated
contaminated water.
The results of the lieutenant's careful supervision over the
treatment of each man's drinking water are evident in the records
of his company. His was the only platoon in the company that did
not evacuate one man with dysentery.
Because of actions like these-some of which at first seemed to
be needless-his men soon acquired a feeling of deep respect for
their leader.
ANALYSIS. This platoon leader thoroughly understood and ful-
filled his obligations to his men by looking after their welfare. He
had the moral courage to do an unpopular thing in order to main-
tain an efficient fighting unit. However, he did not remain unpopu-
lar for long, because his actions soon proved to his men their wel-
fare was of great concern to him.
Some men take little care of themselves even though the rules
for maintaining good health under fighting conditions are re-
peatedly explained to them. Some will try every conceivable sub-
terfuge to avoid taking inoculations and internal preventive medi-
cines. It is the leader's responsibility to see that all health meas-
ures are carried out by each of his men.
EXAMPLE 6: A transportation truck company was bivouacked
in a muddy little orchard with a narrow, slippery road leading out
of it. Enemy heavy mortar and artillery fire was falling around
the area and began creeping in on the company. It was obvious the
enemy had spotted the bivouac. The company commander told his
vehicle commanders to bring their trucks out and move them about
500 yards to the reverse slope of a hill. Considerable confusion
ensued, and the drivers began to get panic-stricken.
The company commander recognized the situation and deliber-
ately moved onto the road. There he motioned each vehicle onto
the road, just as if he were directing traffic in his hometown. He
knew that if one vehicle slid into the ditch, the others would be
unable to get out of the orchard. However, each driver seeing the

AGO 6223B 73
 company commander calmly standing in the road, drove out of the
orchard as if he were driving out of a vehicle park. One of the
sergeants later said that if the company commander had not been
there he would have taken off in flight.
ANALYSIS. It is essential that a leader cultivate a calm con-
trolled manner. Often an act is less. important than the manner
in which it is done. A leader, particularly, must control his
physical reactions and facial expressions. An outward appearance
of calmness on his part will do much to instill confidence in his men.
This demands self-control and self-discipline by the leader.
EXAMPLE 7: At this stage of fighting in Korea no reserve
units were available to relieve elements in contact. The platoon had
suffered 16 casualties within the past two weeks and the platoon
sergeant was now the acting platoon leader. The men were dead-
tired, but the platoon was ordered to attack a high ridge to the
front.
Intelligence reports indicated the ridge was held by a handful
of enemy who might be knocked off their positions without too
much difficulty.
The platoon attacked and advanced slowly to a point within 50
yards of the top of the ridge. At this point the enemy was evidently
out of small arms ammunition and began throwing concussion
grenades.
The concussion grenades used by the Communists in Korea at
the time of this attack were hardly much more dangerous in the
open than a giant firecracker. Unfortunately, the men in this
attacking platoon did not understand this. The exploding grenades
made a terrific noise which caused the men to drop behind what-
ever cover they could find. Their advance was stopped. By the
time the platoon sergeant had evaluated the situation, many of the
men had already turned and withdrawn to their original line of
departure.
The sergeant did not give in but told his men, "I'll show you
there is no danger." He climbed the ridge alone and proceeded to
walk its entire length, outlining himself against the skyline. Im-
pressed by the daring of their platoon sergeant and realizing the
situation was not as dangerous as they had thought, the men
readily resumed the attack under the command of the assistant
platoon sergeant. The objective was taken without casualties.
ANALYSIS. The sergeant realized that no threats of punish-
ment would cause his men to attack. By setting a courageous ex-
ample himself, he helped his men to control their fear and continue
the attack.
When men become afraid on the battlefield, the sight of their
leader calmly performing his duties with no obvious fear will
inspire them to continue their mission.
74 AGO 6223B
 EXAMPLE 8: On 2 November 1950, orders were received by
an infantry battalion to move from its present position, north
about 40 miles, to cover the withdrawal of a regiment. The batta-
lion was on the new position at dusk of the same day. The Chinese
Communists had just entered the conflict. The next morning the
regiment passed through the battalion position. As it cleared the
position, the battalion commander received orders to withdraw to
the village of ANJU, some 5 miles south across the CHON-CHON
River. He made plans for the withdrawal and directed the heavy
weapons company commander to have the 81-mm mortar platoon
remain in position to cover, by fire, the withdrawal of the other
units.
The Chinese attacked while the withdrawal was in progress.
Lieutenant Mike, the mortar platoon leader, had his platoon con-
tinue to fire until all the 81-mm ammunition was expended. He
then took stock of the number of men with him, their weapons,
ammunition, food, water, and whether or not they were wounded.
He had only 11 soldiers. From his position on the reverse slope
of one of the highest hills in the area, he could see the Chinese
columns in the valley behind him and on many of the ridges to
either flank. His only vehicle had been destroyed by enemy
artillery. He made a quick estimate of the situation and decided
that the platoon must evade capture and rejoin the battalion, and
that the mortars should be destroyed in place. While thermite
grenades were being placed in all mortar tubes, Lieutenant Mike
looked for areas which were not occupied by the enemy in an
attempt to locate an escape route for the platoon.
It was early afternoon as the platoon began to move in the direc-
tion of the CHON-CHON River, utilizing a small ridge which ran
in that direction. They had moved approximately 800 yards when
an enemy patrol about platoon size was observed a short distance
to the north, moving in their direction. This caused them to change
their direction. As they came opposite their previous battalion
command post, they could look down into the area. Men were walk-
ing around and vehicles were in a normal position-the scene was
very peaceful.
Lieutenant Mike cautioned the men to move quickly and quietly
past the area. However, one of the men could not resist and called
out, "Are you guys GI's?" The answer came in the form of
machinegun and rifle fire. Two men were killed and all but one of
the platoon were wounded. Enemy soldiers started in their direc-
tion. Lieutenant Mike urged the men to move quickly along the
ridgeline while he remained behind to delay the enemy patrol. His
efforts enabled the platoon to escape. Shortly afterwards he re-
joined his platoon. It was dark by this time and the men wanted to
AGO 6223B 75
 stop and sleep. Lieutenant Mike allowed the men to rest a short
period before he required them to move out to take advantage of
darkness. They managed to reach the bank of the frozen CHON-
CHON River without being detected by the enemy. They could hear
talking across the river, but remembering their earlier experience,
Lieutenant Mike decided to conceal the group in a ravine near the
river and await daylight which was just an hour or two away. At
dawn Lieutenant Mike left the concealed platoon and made a
reconnaissance. After he had clearly identified United States
forces on the far side of the river, he led his platoon into the
friendly positions.
ANALYSIS. Situations will occur on the battlefield which will
place a leader under great stress. This was one of those instances.
Lieutenant Mike had shown his dependability by attention to duty
on a difficult mission. He used a keen sense of judgment in estimat-
ing the situation and deciding on a course of action. He made a
sound and timely decision when, after expending all ammunition,
he planned to evade capture and return to friendly lines. He re-
membered his basic responsibility of looking out for the welfare
of his men by taking stock of their condition. During the evasion,
one of the men created quite a problem for Lieutenant Mike by
yelling and drawing enemy fire on the platoon. Lieutenant Mike
quickly got the survivors moving and with a demonstration of
courage and unselfishness made possible their escape. By a
knowledge of evasion tactics he kept the platoon moving at night,
and then carefully planned the daylight move into friendly lines.
EXAMPLE 9: The 3d Platoon of Company A was engaged in
unit training. On this particular day they were preparing defen-
sive positions in a training area. The platoon leader had assigned
defensive areas to the squad leaders who in turn had determined
the location of individual positions. The platoon sergeant had been
instructed to assist in supervising the preparation of the defensive
area.
While checking one of the squad areas the Lieutenant saw his
platoon sergeant, Sergeant Able, approach a man who was digging
an AR position. He was able to overhear Sergeant Able say,
"Smith, why are you locating this weapon here? I want it over
there, just forward of the knoll." To this, Private Smith replied,
"My squad leader, Sergeant Baker, told me to dig it here." The
platoon sergeant then said, "I don't care what Sergeant Baker told
you, just do what I say."
The platoon leader did not interfere, but continued checking his
platoon area. At the first opportunity, the Lieutenant discussed the
incident in private with the platoon sergeant, during which time
he stressed the necessity of adhering to the chain of command. He

76 AGO 6223B
pointed out that although the position location he chose may have
been better, he had confused the private by countermanding the
squad leader's order. He advised Sergeant Able that in the future
while supervising unit activities, he should make changes or recom-
mendations through the unit leader. The following Saturday, after
inspection, the Lieutenant assembled his platoon and discussed the
chain of command, its importance, and how it functions.
ANALYSIS. Had the platoon leader stopped the platoon ser-
geant and reprimanded him at the time the incident occurred, Ser-
geant Able would have been degraded in the eyes of the private. It
would be much easier for the private to overcome his frustration
and anger at having to dig another position than it would be to
restore the loss of respect incurred by an immediate reprimand of
the sergeant. The Lieutenant made a sound and timely decision
and demonstrated the leadership traits of tact and loyalty to his
subordinates.
EXAMPLE 10: Lieutenant Brown, a newly commissioned offi-
cer, was assigned to Company B. After his orientation, the com-
pany commander assigned him as Platoon Leader, 2d Platoon. The
men in the platoon displayed an unfriendly attitude toward him,
and the Lieutenant could foresee it would be difficult to get to know
them. Although they obeyed his orders, they responded rather
slowly-almost reluctantly. He decided to take a closer look at his
subordinates. He conferred with the company commander and
checked the individual service records. He found his platoon ser-
geant was an "old soldier" who had seen combat duty as a platoon
leader on several occasions during his fifteen years of service. The
"old soldier" had been in command of the platoon for eight months
prior to the arrival of the new lieutenant.
It soon became obvious to Lieutenant Brown the platoon ser-
geant felt he was still in command and the lieutenant had been
assigned merely to "learn the ropes." It was also possible the
sergeant had the impression Lieutenant Brown had been assigned
to "shape up the platoon." This caused a feeling of resentment.
At the end of the second week Lieutenant Brown held a forma-
tion and complimented the platoon on the work they had done since
his assignment. He told them that in talking with other members
of the company, including the company commander, he had heard
nothing but compliments regarding the platoon. He urged them to
continue their performance and emphasized the importance of
teamwork to achieve unit proficiency.
The following week the battle group participated in a field test.
Company B was in reserve. Lieutenant Brown's platoon was given
the mission of establishing the combat outpost. He immediately
took command of the situation by making his reconnaissance and
issuing a clear, concise order to his squad leaders. The lieutenant
AGO 6223B 77
assigned specific duties to the platoon sergeant, one of which was
to take charge of a small covering force which later proved to be
the key to the effective withdrawal of the combat outpost. In the
critique that followed the exercise, Lieutenant Brown and the 2d
Platoon were rated superior in the accomplishment of their as-
signed missions.
At the first opportunity Lieutenant Brown commended the pla-
toon. Additionally, he voiced praise on the manner in which the
platoon sergeant and the small covering force performed. Sub-
sequently, the platoon displayed a high degree of esprit de corps
and continued to be the best platoon in the company.
ANALYSIS. Lieutenant Brown made excellent use of the prob-
lem-solving process. He recognized the problem, determined the
cause, considered and evaluated all possible solutions, and took
what he determined to be the best course of action in eliminating
the problem. He displayed tact and used sound judgment. He
demonstrated his technical and tactical proficiency in the field
exercise which greatly increased the men's confidence in his ability
as a leader. Through his actions, he displayed the leadership trait
of knowledge and utilized leadership principles in making sound
and timely decisions and keeping his men informed. He developed
a sense of responsibility in his subordinates by assigning specific
duties.
EXAMPLE 11: Lieutenant Green was transferred from G1 to
one of the units of the division where he was assigned as the
Administrative Office and Chief of the Administrative Section.
Upon reporting for duty in his new position, he found the Adminis-
trative Sergeant was serving in the dual capacity of section com-
mander and chief clerk. This arrangement had existed for some
time, but was obviously unsatisfactory as the organization of the
section was inadequate, procedures were ineffective, and volume
and quality of work were poor. Morale was low as indicated by an
excessive number of transfers. Appearance of personnel and office
facilities were below desired standards, as men were dressed in a
variety of untidy uniforms and papers were spread over desks and
file cabinets.
Lieutenant Green quickly realized the value of strong leadership
in a situation of this type; therefore, he proceeded at once to de-
termine the underlying cause of this condition.
He first talked with the Administrative Sergeant and then called
in each member of the section for private discussion to determine
their military background and get opinions on operating procedure.
He found that the section was understrength which resulted in
increased individual workloads and longer working hours, fre-
quently including Saturday afternoons. While individuals ap-

78 AGO 622:3B
peared to be experienced and qualified, procedures, precedent, and
standards of work had not been established. Little supervision or
direction was being given by the sergeant in charge due to exces-
sive workload. Individual officers and noncommissioned officers
from the companies were continually harassing clerks for work
not related to the section.
Having determined the cause of these conditions, the new section
chief wasted no time in initiating corrective action. His first effort
was to prepare an SOP and explain its contents to each member of
the section. This was followed by well-defined work standards, and
for a period of time each piece of correspondence leaving the
office was personally checked to insure its quality. Definite duty
hours were prescribed and strictly adhered to in order to provide
time for recreational activities. A system of awards was estab-
lished to recognize meritorious service. The section was brought
up to, and kept at, authorized strength. Frequent inspections were
conducted to insure proper standards of training and appearance
as prescribed by training schedules and uniform regulations. The
lieutenant made sure his personal appearance and working habits
were above reproach at all times.
Emphasis was placed on the necessity of adhering to the chain
of command in negotiations between the section and companies.
This eliminated unnecessary harassment. With these actions,
within a short period of time the section was a smooth-running
organization. Its members developed pride in turning out top
quality work and were pleased to be members of an effective unit.
ANALYSIS. By utilizing the problem-solving process, Lieu-
tenant Green determined what had to be done and used good judg-
ment in choosing what he considered the best course of action. He
set the example for his men by his personal appearance and work-
ing habits. In the solution of morale problems of this section, he
applied the principle of know your men and look out for their wel-
fare. Other leadership principles employed were: be technically
and tactically proficient; insure that the task is understood, super-
vised, and accomplished, and train your men as a team.
EXAMPLE 12: Lieutenant Doe was in charge of training a
group of new replacements as 81-mm mortar crewmen. Time avail-
able was critical due to the unit's pending recommital into combat.
They had completed mechanical training, crew drill, and a mini-
mum of other required classes which would allow them to start
the live-firing phase of the program. On the first day of firing,
Lieutenant Doe realized the men were green and had very limited
previous experience. Experienced assistant instructors could not
be placed on each weapon. Therefore, Lieutenant Doe carefully
reviewed the safety precautions for the crewmen and then started
the firing problem.
AGO 6223B 79
 The exercise ran smoothly through the first few rounds of
registration. However, when the fourth round was dropped in the
tube, there was a misfire. Although they had been trained in re-
moving misfires, the crew panicked. The assistant gunner yelled,
"Misfire, she's going to blow up," with the result that the crew ran
from the weapon.
The lieutenant called the crew back to the weapon and calmly
explained again the procedure for handling a misfire. He then
demonstrated the proper method of removing the misfired round,
assisted by one of the safety noncommissioned officers. Thereafter
in firing exercises, all gun crew members were capable of removing
misfires, and safely did so on several occasions.
ANALYSIS. The lieutenant displayed the leadership traits of
knowledge, courage, and initiative. Many principles of leadership
were utilized by the lieutenant, the most important being set the
example. His calmness and courage in immediately setting the ex-
ample by performing the task himself instilled confidence in the
men and enabled them to do their job properly.

80 AGO 6223B
 APPENDIX III
INDEX TO TRAINLEAD FILM

Listed below are Trainlead films which are available through

training film libraries to the instructor as an aid in presenting
leadership instruction. "Trainlead" is a short title of the words
"leadership training" in which a series of precommissioned and
postcommissioned type films have been developed to supplement
and/or replace currently used written or orally presented practical
exercises. These films are open end in nature and are intended to
be a thought-provoking instructional vehicle designed to stimulate
student interest, encourage class participation, and facilitate stu-
dent learning. A realistic situation is depicted in each film which
terminates at a critical moment when a decision must be made.
This presents the student with a leadership problem which he re-
solves through selection of proper actions and orders. By the use of
leading questions, the instructor can generate discussion and de-
velop the leadership principles and techniques involved.
Prior to integrating a Trainlead film into a period of instruction,
the instructor should be familiar with the situations depicted in
the film. Also, he should ascertain what teaching points are con-
tained in the film, develop leading questions, and be prepared to
guide the students' discussion so as to achieve the instructional
goal. At the time the instructor introduces the film he may, at his
discretion, designate individuals or groups of students to assume
the role of one or more of the principal characters in the film and
to be prepared to discuss the problems presented from the view-
point of that character. The instructor should have had experience
in a leadership capacity and should have a comprehensive knowl-
edge of the concept of leadership and its application as set forth
in FM 22-100.
Attention is directed to the appropriate Department of the Army
Instructors' Film Reference for film synopsis, running time, sug-
gested introductory remarks, and other pertinent information
regarding the use of each film.

AGO 6223B 81
FILM NUMBER SUBJECT AREA
Precommissioned Series
TF 7-2636 Assumption of Command-Problem #1
TF 7-2637 Assumption of Command-Problem #2
TF 7-2638 Assumption of Command-Problem #3
TF 7-2639 Senior-Subordinate Relations-Problem #1
TF 7-2640 Senior-Subordinate Relations-Problems #2
TF 7-2641 Senior-Subordinate Relations-Problem #3
TF 7-2642 Physical Leadership-Problem #1
TF 7-2643 Physical Leadership-Problem #2
TF 7-2644 Physical Leadership-Problem #3
TF 7-2645 Instructional Techniques for Small Unit Leaders-
Problem #1
TF 7-2646 Instructional Techniques for Small Unit Leaders-
Problem #2
TF 7-2647 Chain of Command-Problem #1
TF 7-2648 Chain of Command-Problem #2
TF 7-2649 Chain of Command-Problem #3
Postcommissioned Series
TF 7-2700 Staff-Subordinate Commander Relationship-Prob-
lem #1
TF 7-2701 Staff-Subordinate Commander Relationship-Prob-
lem #2
TF 7-2702 Staff-Subordinate Commander Relationship-Prob-
lem #3
TF 7-2706 Handling of Subordinate Leaders in Combat-Prob-
lem #1
TF 7-2707 Handling of Subordinate Leaders in Combat-Prob-
lem #2
TF 7-2708 Handling of Subordinate Leaders in Combat-Prob-
lem #3
TF 7-2709 Utilization of Personnel-Problem #1

82 AGO 6223B
 INDEX

Paragraph Page

Adjustment of the soldier -------------------------------- 32 13

Characteristics of leadership:
Actions and orders --------------------------------- 25 7
Authoritarian and persuasive leadership- .. .. 16 ............
5
Basic responsibilities of the leader-......................... 22 7
Climate of leadership .--- -....... 20 6
Components of leadership ------------------- 15 5
General concept of leadership -.................. 19 6
Leader capitalizes on his strong traits.--------------- 23 7
Leader evaluates his unit -------------................... 26 8
Leader guides ---------------------------------- 24 7
Leadership is an art ---------- .-----------
~------------ 21 7
Relationship between leadership, command, and management 18 6
Totality of leadership- .--......... - 17 5
Types of leadership - .----------- -- 16 5
Universal nature of leadership ------------------ 14 5
Concept of military leadership ------------------- 2 2
Definitions: -4-13 3
Command -................ 12 4
Commander ..-
................ 11 3
Effective unit ------------------- 8 3
Leader -------------------------------------------- 10 3
Leader traits -- -------------------- -------------- 5 3
Leadership actions and orders ---------------------------- 9 3
Leadership indications- ----- 7 3
Leadership principles -------. ........... 6 3
Management ----------------------------- 13 4
Military leadership - .......- 4 3
Examples of small unit leadership -............................ App. II 69
Goals and frustrations -................................ 31 12
Human behavior: -.---- - --- 27 9
Adjustment --------------------..---.... 32 13
Differences among men; heredity, environment and experiences 28 9
Helping the soldier to adjust to Army life -.------------- 33 14
Roots of behavior; learned and physical needs ------------- 29 11
Supports and stresses -.---------------- -------- 34 14

Index of trainlead films -.. .................... App. III 81

Indications of leadership: -----------------........... 63 38
Discipline --- ---------------------------- 67 40
Development of indications ----...---- 69 41
Esprit de corps ----------------------- ---- --..-- 66 39
Interrelationship of the indications of leadership---------- 64 38
Morale --.... ...----------.-------------- 65 ...-------------
38
Proficiency - -- ---------------------------- 68 40
Leadership in combat:
Factors adversely affecting combat effectiveness ------------- 88 59
Fear-----------..--.---------- . . -----.. 89 60

AGO 6223B 83
 Paragraph Page
Leadership in combat-Continued
Leadership of attached units.------------......... 95 69
Panic---------------------------------- 91 61
Restoration of fighting effectiveness --- 93 64
Rumors -----..------------.- -90 60
Spirit of the offensive .-................ 92 64
Support of isolated units ------........................... 94 65
Willingness for combat ------ 87 59
Leadership in higher commands --------........... 79 52
Chain of command ..-....... 83 55
Command-staff officer relationship- ----------------------- 84 56
Communication - ........... 86 58
Decision-making and problem-solving.-......... _ 85 57
Environment -.................................... 80 52
Organization and control -.----------------- 81 53
Span of control ------............. 82 54
Leadership principles ----------------------------- 51-62 27
Leadership traits:- .- -------... 35, 36 16
Bearing- .. --- 37 16
Courage (physical and moral).-.......................... 38 19
Decisiveness -39 19
D)ependability ------------- 40 20
Endurance -.. 41 ..................................
20
Enthusiasm -- ..-------------------.----------.---------- 42 21
Initiativce .--------------------------
- 43 21
Integrity --------------------------- 44 22
Judgment .-................ 45 22
Justice- ............................... 46 22
Knowledge .---.--- --------- 47 23
Loyalty -............................... 48 24
Tact_- .... 49 24
Unselfishness ------------------ .------------- --------- 50 25
Objective of military leadership ------------------- 3 2

Problem areas: --------................---....---.. 70 43

Assumption of command .-....................... 72 44
Development of subordinate leaders -....................... 74 46
Relations with local civilians- .. ... 78 ..............
50
Selection of subordinate leaders -........................... 73 45
Senior-subordinate relationship -.......................... 75 47
Reception and integration -... .----------------------- 77 49
Problem-solving process: -.. ------....... 71 43

References- ----
.-----------.------------.........--- App. I 68

Spiritual and moral values -... 30 12

84 AGO 6223B
 BY ORDER OF THF SECRETARY OF THE ARMY:

G. H. DECKER,
General, United States Army,
Official: Chief of Staff.
R. V. LEE,
Major General, United States Army,
The Adjutant General.

I)istribution:
Active Army:
To be distributed in accordance with l)A Form 12-7 requirements for FM
22-Series (Unclas) plus the following:
I)SCPER (2) l)iv (2)
ASCI (2) Bde (5)
I)CSLOG (2) Regt/Gp/bg (5)
DCSOPS (2) CC (5)
ACSRC (2) Bn (5)
CRI) (1) Co/Btry (5)
CoA (1) USAARMS (1000)
CINFO (1) USA Med Svc Sch (500)
TIG (1) PMG Sch (150)
TJAG (1) USAAMS (1700)
TSG (1) USAIS (2860)
Tech Stf, l)A (1) USAQMS (340)
ARAI)COM (2) USACAS (200)
ARAI)COM Rgn (1) USATSCH (160)
Seventh USA (5) USA Fin Sch (100)
EUSA (5) USA Ord Sch (775)
Corps (3)
NG: State AG (3); units-same as active army except allowance is three copies
to each unit.
USAR: Same as active army except allowance is one copy to each unit.

OU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1960-570523

AGO 6223B 85