Chapter-2 Analytic Functions

Chapter-2: Analytic Functions
Dr. Jajati Keshari Sahoo
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani K.K. Birla Goa Campus
March 01, 2018
J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 1 / 77

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions
3 Limits and Continuity
4 Continuity
5 Derivatives
6 Analytic functions
7 Harmonic functions

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions
4 Continuity
5 Derivatives

Definition
A complex number is a pair (x , y ) of real numbers x , y .
Observe the complex number z = (x , y ), where the real number x is called

the “real part” of the complex number written as x = Re z, and the real
number y is called the “imaginary part” of the complex number z written
in symbols as y = Im z.

Definition
A complex number is a pair (x , y ) of real numbers x , y .
Observe the complex number z = (x , y ), where the real number x is called

the “real part” of the complex number written as x = Re z, and the real
number y is called the “imaginary part” of the complex number z written
in symbols as y = Im z.
The complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ), z2 = (x2 , y2 ) are “added” and

“multiplied” as follows:
z1 + z2 = (x1 , y2 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

Notations
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x ,

Notations
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x , Observe
that from the definition it is clear:

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )
it is also clear that

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )
So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )

identifying (x , 0) and (y , 0) with the real numbers x , y respectively we see
that:

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )

that: (x , y ) = x + (0, 1)y .

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )

that: (x , y ) = x + (0, 1)y .
Note that (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) = −1, so denoting (0, 1) by the symbol i,
we can write a complex number (x , y ) = x + iy , where i 2 = −1.

Observations:
Let C = { Set of complex number}.

Note that every complex number is generated by (1, 0) and (0, 1)
since (x , y ) = x (1, 0) + y (0, 1). Hence C is a vector space with
dimension 2 and B = {(1, 0) = 1, (0, 1) = i} is the standard basis for
C.

Observations:

C.
If we define a map T : C → R2 by T (x + iy ) = (x , y ), then we can
easily show T is a bijective map and hence C ∼
= R2 .

Observations:

C.
If we define a map T : C → R2 by T (x + iy ) = (x , y ), then we can
easily show T is a bijective map and hence C ∼
= R2 .
We can relate some properties of R2 to C such as continuity,
differentiability etc.

Argand plane/ Complex Plane/z− Plane
The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a plane with

coordinated (x , y ),


coordinated (x , y ), this plane is thought to be the plane where the
complex numbers reside, as a result it is called “the complex plane”.


coordinated (x , y ), this plane is thought to be the plane where the
complex numbers reside, as a result it is called “the complex plane”.
Sometime this plane is also called “the Argand plane” after the
mathematician Argand who popularized this visualization method.
Absolute value
The distance from the origin to the point (x , y ) is called the absolute value
of the complex number z = x + iy . Which is denoted by |z| and defined by
q
|z| = x2 + y2

Algebraic Properties
1 |z|n = |z n |.
2 Triangle inequality: |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
3 |z1 + z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||.
4 Conjugate: For a complex number z = a + ib, the complex number
a − ib is called the conjugate of z and it is denoted by z.
5 Using the conjugate one can write |z|2 = zz.
6 |z| = |z|.
7 Observe that z 6= 0 if and only if |z| =
6 0.
8 The conjugate satisfies z1 z2 = z1 z2 .

z1 z1
9 For z2 6= 0 we have z2 = z2 .
10 Parallelogram Law: |z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 − z2 |2 = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 ).

Polar form
A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane has a polar

coordinate description (r , θ) where r = |z|and θ, called the argument of
−1 y
the complex number z or arg(z), is tan x .
The argument of a complex number is decided up to an integer multiple of

2π. The value of the argument in the interval (−π, π] is called the
principal value of the argument. So we can write a complex number
z = |z| cos(arg (z)) + i|z| sin(arg (z))

Polar form
A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane has a polar

coordinate description (r , θ) where r = |z|and θ, called the argument of
−1 y
the complex number z or arg(z), is tan x .
The argument of a complex number is decided up to an integer multiple of

2π. The value of the argument in the interval (−π, π] is called the
principal value of the argument. So we can write a complex number
z = |z| cos(arg (z)) + i|z| sin(arg (z))
arg(z) = Arg(z) + 2nπ, n ∈ Z.
arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).

z1
arg z2 = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ).

De Moivre’s identity
Euler’s formula
The expression e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ is called Euler’s formula.
From the previous slides we can write a complex number z as

z = |z|e iθ where θ = argz.
Applications:
Roots: The distinct nth roots of z0 are obtained by the following
formula
√ θ0
+ 2πk

ck = n
r0 e i n n , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, r0 = |z0 |, θ0 = Arg(z0 ).
Example
1
Find all the values of (1 − i) 3 .

Quetions
1 How to define a real power of a complex number? say iπ ?

Quetions
2 How to define a complex power of a complex number? say ii ?

Quetions
2 How to define a complex power of a complex number? say ii ?
3 Is it possible to get a real number from a complex power of a complex

number?
4 We can answer these problems in Chapter 3.

Neighborhoods
1 Given z0 a complex number and a real positive number, we have a

neighborhood of z0 defined as the set {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < }

Neighborhoods
1 Given z0 a complex number and a real positive number, we have a

neighborhood of z0 defined as the set {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < }
2 A deleted neighborhood of z0 is the set of points

{z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < }.

1 A point z is called an interior point of a set S ⊂ C if there is an
neighborhood of z for some which is completely contained in S.
Im(z)
Re(z)

1 A point z is called an interior point of a set S ⊂ C if there is an
neighborhood of z for some which is completely contained in S.
Im(z)
Re(z)
2 It is called an exterior point if there is a neighborhood which is

completely not contained in S. Or completely contained in the
complement of the set S.

1 It is called a boundary point if it is neither an interior point nor an
exterior point of the set S.
Im(z)
Re(z)
2 The set of boundary points is called the boundary of the set.

1 A set is called open if it contains none of it’s boundary points or every
point is an interior point.

1 A set is called open if it contains none of it’s boundary points or every
point is an interior point.
2 A set is closed if it contains all it’s boundary points.

Im(z)
Re(z)

1 A set is called connected if given any two points in the set there is a
polygonal line connecting the two points.

1 A set is called connected if given any two points in the set there is a
polygonal line connecting the two points.
2 A nonempty open connected set in the complex plane is called a

domain.

1 A domain with some ( none or all ) of it’s boundary points is called a
region.

region.
2 A region is called bounded if it is contained in a circle of radius R for

some R.
H = {z ∈ C : Re(z) > 0} is an example of an unbounded region.

region.
2 A region is called bounded if it is contained in a circle of radius R for

some R.
H = {z ∈ C : Re(z) > 0} is an example of an unbounded region.
3 A point z is called an accumulation point ( or a limit point) of S if

every deleted neighborhood of the point contains a point of the set S.
1

:n∈N
n

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions
4 Continuity
5 Derivatives

Complex functions
A function defined on a subset of the set of complex numbers is

called a complex function.
Mathematically: Let S ⊆ C, a mapping f : S → C is is called a
function if it is well defined and denoted by w = f (z).

Complex functions

The set S is called the domain (you should not confuse with earlier
definition of domain) of the function. Sometime if the domain is not
mentioned then the largest possible set where f is well defined is
taken to be the domain.

Complex functions

The set S is called the domain (you should not confuse with earlier
definition of domain) of the function. Sometime if the domain is not
mentioned then the largest possible set where f is well defined is
taken to be the domain.
Example

1 z
f (z) = Arg z , f (z) = z+z .

Complex functions
We visualise the function in w − plane and represent the function as

f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ), where u and v are respectively called real
and imaginary part of f .

Complex functions

Polar form: Replace z as re iθ or x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. So
w := f (r , θ) = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ).

Complex functions

Polar form: Replace z as re iθ or x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. So
w := f (r , θ) = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ).
Example: Let f (z) = z + z1 . We can easily find u(x , y ) = x + x
x 2 +y 2
and
y
v (x , y ) = y − x 2 +y 2 . Also its polar form is
1 1

f (r , θ) = r + cos θ + i r − sin θ.
r r

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions
4 Continuity
5 Derivatives

Limit
Definition
Let the function f be defined on a deleted neighborhood of a point z0 then
we say
lim f (z) = w0
z→zo
, if for each positive real number there is a positive real number δ such
that |f (z) − w0 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ

Limit
Definition
Let the function f be defined on a deleted neighborhood of a point z0 then
we say
lim f (z) = w0
z→zo
, if for each positive real number there is a positive real number δ such
that |f (z) − w0 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ
As we “move” closer to the point z0 the value of the function moves closer
to the value wo . Note that a limit may or may not exist. But if it exists
then one can show as in the next theorem that it is unique.

Examples
Let f (z) = z + iz. Show that lim f (z) = 1 + i.

z→1
Solution:

Examples

z→1
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|

Examples

z→1
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
≤ |z − 1| + |z − 1| using triangle inequality and |i| = 1

Examples

z→1
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
= 2|z − 1| since |z − 1| = |z − 1|
< 2δ

Examples

z→1
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
= 2|z − 1| since |z − 1| = |z − 1|
< 2δ
Therefore
|f (z) − (1 + i)| < if we chose δ ≤ 2 .
Hence lim f (z) = 1 + i.
z→1

Examples
z→i
Solution:

Examples
z→i
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|

Examples
z→i
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
= |z − i + i(z + i)|
= |z − i + i(z − i)|

Examples
z→i
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
= |z − i + i(z + i)|
= |z − i + i(z − i)|
≤ |z − i| + |z − i| using triangle inequality and |z| = |z|
= 2|z − i| < 2δ

Examples
z→i
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
= |z − i + i(z + i)|
= |z − i + i(z − i)|
≤ |z − i| + |z − i| using triangle inequality and |z| = |z|
= 2|z − i| < 2δ
Therefore
|f (z) − (1 + i)| < if we chose δ ≤ 2 .
Hence lim f (z) = 1 + i.
z→i

Examples
Example
z
Let f (z) = Re(z) . What about lim f (z) ?
z→0

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
If a limit lim f (z) exists then it is unique.
z→z0

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
To prove the assertion let us assume if possible there are more than one
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits.

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits. So for each positive there are
δ1 , δ1 positive

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
δ1 , δ1 positive such that |f (z) − w1 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and
|f (z) − w2 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 .

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
|f (z) − w2 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 . So whenever we have
|z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 }

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
|z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 } we have
|w1 − w2 | = |(f (z) − w2 ) − (f (z) − w1 )| ≤ |f (z) − w1 | + |f (z) − w2 |
< 2

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
|z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 } we have
|w1 − w2 | = |(f (z) − w2 ) − (f (z) − w1 )| ≤ |f (z) − w1 | + |f (z) − w2 |
< 2
Note that above inequality is available to us for arbitrary positive real
number .

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
|z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 } we have
|w1 − w2 | = |(f (z) − w2 ) − (f (z) − w1 )| ≤ |f (z) − w1 | + |f (z) − w2 |
< 2
Note that above inequality is available to us for arbitrary positive real
number .
We choose an smaller than |w1 − w2 |/2 we arrive at a contradiction
|w1 − w2 | < |w1 − w2 |.
Examples
Example
z 2 −z 2
Let f (z) = z . Find lim f (z).
z→0

Examples
Example
z 2 −z 2
Let f (z) = z . Find lim f (z).
z→0
Example
1−z
Let f (z) = 1−z . Find lim f (z) if exists ?
z→1
Solution:
x (1,0)

Examples
Solution:
Along horizontal line y = 0, the limit is:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x

Examples
Solution:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x
Along vertical line x = 1, the limit is:

1−z 1 − (1 − iy ) −iy
lim = lim = lim = −1.
z→1 1 − z y →0 1 − (1 + iy ) y →0 iy

Examples
Solution:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x

1−z 1 − (1 − iy ) −iy
z→1 1 − z y →0 1 − (1 + iy ) y →0 iy
Therefore, the limit does not exist.

Examples
Solution:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x

1−z 1 − (1 − iy ) −iy
z→1 1 − z y →0 1 − (1 + iy ) y →0 iy

z
Example: Show that lim does not exist.
z→0 z

Examples
Solution:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x

1−z 1 − (1 − iy ) −iy
z→1 1 − z y →0 1 − (1 + iy ) y →0 iy

z
Example: Show that lim does not exist.
z→0 z
Example: Show that lim z = 0.

z→0

Theorem
Let f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ) where z = x + iy . Also let z0 = x0 + iy0 and
w0 = u0 + iv0 then
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
if and only if
lim u(x , y ) = u0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
and
lim v (x , y ) = v0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Note:

Theorem
Let f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ) where z = x + iy . Also let z0 = x0 + iy0 and
w0 = u0 + iv0 then
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
if and only if
lim u(x , y ) = u0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
and
lim v (x , y ) = v0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Note:
This theorem will help disproving existence of limits.

Examples
Example
z
Find lim if exists.
z→0 z

Examples
Example
z
Find lim if exists.
z→0 z
Solution:
x 2 −y 2
Since f (z) = z
z = x 2 +y 2
+ i x 22xy
+y 2
.

Examples
Example
z
Find lim if exists.
z→0 z
Solution:
x 2 −y 2
Since f (z) = z
z = x 2 +y 2
+ i x 22xy
+y 2
.
So the non existence of the limit lim v (x , y ) implies the non

(x ,y )→(0,0)
z
existence of lim .
z→0 z

Basic Properties
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0

Basic Properties
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Then:
1 lim (f (z) + g(z)) = w0 + p0
z→z0

Basic Properties
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Then:
1 lim (f (z) + g(z)) = w0 + p0
z→z0
2 lim f (z)g(z) = w0 p0
z→z0

Basic Properties
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Then:
1 lim (f (z) + g(z)) = w0 + p0
z→z0
2 lim f (z)g(z) = w0 p0
z→z0
f (z) w0
3 If p0 6= 0 then lim =
z→z0 g(z) p0
The proof is follows from definition and properties of limits.

Limit at ∞ and Infinite Limit
Extended Complex Plane: C∞ = C ∪ {∞}.

Note: There is no −∞ in complex place. One single point
compactification.
Theorem
1
1 lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if lim =0
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)


compactification.
Theorem
1
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)
1

2 lim f (z) = w0 if and only if lim f = w0 .
z→∞ z→0 z


compactification.
Theorem
1
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)
1

2 lim f (z) = w0 if and only if lim f = w0 .
z→∞ z→0 z
1
3 lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if =0
z→∞ lim f (1/z)
z→0

Examples
Example
1
Show that lim = ∞.
z→1 (z − 1)3
Solution:

Examples
Example
1
z→1 (z − 1)3
Solution:
1
lim = lim (z − 1)3
z→1 f (z) z→1
= 0.
1
So by part (1), of the above theorem, we get lim = ∞.
z→1 (z − 1)3

Examples
Example
4z 2
Show that lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Solution:

Examples
Example
4z 2
Show that lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Solution:
 
4
1

z2
lim f = lim 
 
2 
z→0 z z→0 1
−1
z

Examples
Example
4z 2
Show that lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Solution:
 
4
1

z2
lim f = lim 
 
2 
z→0 z z→0 1
−1
z
lim 4
z→0
= 2
lim (z − 2z + 1)
z→0
4
= = 4.
1

Examples
Example
4z 2
Show that lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Solution:
 
4
1

z2
lim f = lim 
 
2 
z→0 z z→0 1
−1
z
lim 4
z→0
= 2
lim (z − 2z + 1)
z→0
4
= = 4.
1
4z 2
So by part (2), of the above theorem, we get lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Examples
Example
z2 + 1
z→∞ z − 1
Solution:

Examples
Example
z2 + 1
z→∞ z − 1
Solution:
1 1/z − 1
lim = lim
z→0 f (1/z) z→0 (1/z)2 + 1

Examples
Example
z2 + 1
z→∞ z − 1
Solution:
1 1/z − 1
lim = lim
z→0 f (1/z) z→0 (1/z)2 + 1
1−z

= lim z
z→0 1 + z2
= 0 × 1 = 0.
z2 + 1
So by part (3), of the above theorem, we get lim = ∞.
z→∞ z 2 − 1

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions
4 Continuity
5 Derivatives

Definition
A complex function is called continuous at a point z0 if the following
conditions are satisfied:
1 lim f (z) exists.
z→z0
2 f (z0 ) exists.
3 lim f (z) = f (z0 ).
z→z0

Definition
1 lim f (z) exists.
z→z0
2 f (z0 ) exists.
3 lim f (z) = f (z0 ).
z→z0
, δ definition
Given > 0 real number there is a δ > 0 real number such that
|z − z0 | < δ =⇒ |f (z) − f (z0 )| < .

Definition
1 lim f (z) exists.
z→z0
2 f (z0 ) exists.
3 lim f (z) = f (z0 ).
z→z0
, δ definition
Given > 0 real number there is a δ > 0 real number such that
|z − z0 | < δ =⇒ |f (z) − f (z0 )| < .
We sometime say “f is a continuous function” to mean that the function

is continuous at all the points of it’s domain or the region in context.

Properties of continuous functions
Let f (z), g(z) be two functions defined on a domain D and continuous at

z0 , then:
1 f (z) + g(z), f (z) − g(z) are continuous at z0 .
2 f (z)g(z) is continuous at z0 .
3 If g(z0 ) 6= 0 then the quotient f (z)/g(z) is continuous at z0 .
4 The composition function f ◦ g or g ◦ f are continuous.

Properties of continuous functions
Let f (z), g(z) be two functions defined on a domain D and continuous at

z0 , then:
1 f (z) + g(z), f (z) − g(z) are continuous at z0 .
2 f (z)g(z) is continuous at z0 .
3 If g(z0 ) 6= 0 then the quotient f (z)/g(z) is continuous at z0 .
4 The composition function f ◦ g or g ◦ f are continuous.
Corollary (a) A polynomial function is continuous at any point z0 .
Corollary (b) f n is continuous.
Example: Show that |z|n (n ∈ N) is continuous.

Theorem
If a function f is continuous and non-zero at a point z0 then there is a
neighborhood around z0 where the function is non-zero.

Theorem
The proof is simple so left for students.

Theorem
A function f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ) is continuous at z0 = x0 + iy0 if and
only if the functions u(x , y ), v (x , y ) are continuous at (x0 , y0 ).

Theorem

Theorem
A demonstration of this theorem is easy and is left to the reader.

Theorem
If a function f is continuous in a closed and bounded region R, then there
is a real number M > 0 such that |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ R and
|f (z)| = M for at least one z ∈ R.

Theorem

Theorem
A demonstration of this theorem is easy and is left to the reader.

Theorem
If a function f is continuous in a closed and bounded region R, then there
is a real number M > 0 such that |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ R and
|f (z)| = M for at least one z ∈ R.
Proof The assertion follows from calculus of two real variables.

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions
4 Continuity
5 Derivatives

Definition
Let f be a function defined in a neighborhood of a point z0 . Derivative of
f (z) at z0 is defined to be the limit
f (z) − f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim
z→z0 z − z0
If we use a new variable ∆z = z − z0 then we have:

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z

Examples
Example
Discuss the differentiability of |z|2 .
Solution: Case-I (Consider at z = 0)
f (0 + ∆z) − f (0)
f 0 (0) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z

Examples
Example
f (0 + ∆z) − f (0)
f 0 (0) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
|∆z| 2
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z

Examples
Example
f (0 + ∆z) − f (0)
f 0 (0) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
|∆z| 2
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z
∆z∆z
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z
= lim ∆z = 0.
∆z→0

Examples
Solution: Case-II (Consider at z = z0 , where z0 6= 0)
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )

f 0 (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z

Examples
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )

f 0 (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
(z0 + ∆z)(z0 + ∆z) − z0 z0
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z

Examples
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )

f 0 (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
(z0 + ∆z)(z0 + ∆z) − z0 z0
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z
(z0 + ∆z)(z0 + ∆z) − z0 z0
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z
∆z∆z + z0 ∆z + z0 ∆z
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z

Examples
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )

f 0 (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
(z0 + ∆z)(z0 + ∆z) − z0 z0
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z
(z0 + ∆z)(z0 + ∆z) − z0 z0
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z
∆z∆z + z0 ∆z + z0 ∆z
= lim
∆z→0 ∆z
∆z
= 0 + z0 + z0 lim = 0.
∆z→0 ∆z
Therefore, f 0 (z0 ) does not exist since the limit does not exist.

Differentiation formulas and Properties
d n
1
dz z = nz n−1 for any natural number n.
d d d
dz (f (z) + g(z)) = dz f (z) + dz g(z).
2

d n
1
d d d
dz (f (z) + g(z)) = dz f (z) + dz g(z).
2
d d d
dz f (z)g(z) = f (z) dz g(z) + g(z) dz f (z).
3
d d
4
dz cf (z) = c dz f (z) for any c ∈ C.

d n
1
d d d
dz (f (z) + g(z)) = dz f (z) + dz g(z).
2
d d d
3
d d
4
d d
d f (z) g(z) dz f (z)−f (z) dz g(z)
5
dz g(z) = g(z)2 .

d n
1
d d d
dz (f (z) + g(z)) = dz f (z) + dz g(z).
2
d d d
3
d d
4
d d
d f (z) g(z) dz f (z)−f (z) dz g(z)
5
dz g(z) = g(z)2 .
6 The chain rule: If F (z) = g(w ), w = f (z) then

d d d
dz F (z) = dw g(w ) dz f (z).

Cauchy-Riemann Equation
Next we will find a method to test whether a function is differentiable or

not ?.
Let f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ). Then the following equations
ux (x , y ) = vy (x , y )
uy (x , y ) = −vx (x , y )
are called Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Next will discuss some necessary and sufficient conditions for

differentiability.

Necessary Conditions for Differentibility
The following conditions are necessary for differentiability:

Theorem
If a complex function f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ) is differentiable at a point
z0 = x0 + iy0 , then
(a) the first order partial derivatives of the functions u and v must exist


Theorem
(b) u and v must satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations at (x0 , y0 ).


Theorem
(c) f 0 (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ).


Theorem
(c) f 0 (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ).
Note: This theorem helps to disprove differentiability.

Examples
Test whether the following function is differentiable or not ?
(a) f (z) = z.
(b) f (z) = Im(z).
(c) f (z) = Re(z).
(d) f (z) = 2x + ixy 2 .
(e) f (z) = e z = e x e −iy .

Sufficient Conditions for Differentiability
We will show that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are also sufficient for
differentiability under certain conditions.

Theorem
Let the function f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ) be defined in some
neighborhood of a point z0 = x0 + iy0 , and suppose that
(i) the first partial derivatives of the functions u and v exists everywhere
in the neighborhood.

Theorem
(ii) those partial derivatives are continuous at (x0 , y0 ) and satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations at (x0 , y0 ) :
ux = vy ;
uy = −vx ;
then f 0 (z0 ) exists and it is equal to ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ).

Theorem
(ii) those partial derivatives are continuous at (x0 , y0 ) and satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations at (x0 , y0 ) :
ux = vy ;
uy = −vx ;
then f 0 (z0 ) exists and it is equal to ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ).
Note: This theorem helps not only existence but also finding the derivative.
Examples
Test whether the following function is differentiable or not ? If so, then

find f 0 (z).
(a) f (z) = iz + 2.
(b) f (z) = x 2 + iy 2 .
(c) f (z) = zIm(z).
(d) f (z) = e −z = e −x e −iy .

Some more application of Cauchy-Riemann
equations
Example. Show that the function f (z) = e z is differentiable everywhere.

equations
Solution. The function is f (z) = e x +iy = e x e iy = e x cos y + ie x sin y .

equations

So u(x , y ) = e x cos y , v (x , y ) = e x sin y are continuous throughout the
complex plane and also all the partials exist.

equations

Let us calculate the partial derivatives

ux = e x cos y , uy = −e x sin y , vx = e x sin y , vy = e x cos y .

equations

Let us calculate the partial derivatives

ux = e x cos y , uy = −e x sin y , vx = e x sin y , vy = e x cos y .
So we see that ux = vy and uy = −vx satisfies CR equations everywhere.

So the function is differentiable everywhere on the complex plane.

Examples
Example. Show that the function f (z) = |z|2 is not differentiable

anywhere other than at the origin.

Examples

Solution.
The function can be written as f (z) = (x 2 + y 2 ) + i0,

Examples

Solution.
The function can be written as f (z) = (x 2 + y 2 ) + i0, u = x 2 + y 2 and

v = 0, the partials are ux = 2x , uy = 2y , vx = vy = 0,

Examples

Solution.
The function can be written as f (z) = (x 2 + y 2 ) + i0, u = x 2 + y 2 and

v = 0, the partials are ux = 2x , uy = 2y , vx = vy = 0,
the partials are continuous, but they don’t satisfy CR unless x = y = 0.

Examples
p
Example. Show that the function f (z) = |xy | satisfies CR equations
but not differentiable. Explain why.

Examples
p
but not differentiable.
p Explain why.
Solution. u = |xy |, v = 0, so the partials at the origin are
ux = uy = 0 = vx = vy , so it satisfies the CR equations.

Examples
p
p Explain why.
ux = uy = 0 = vx = vy , so it satisfies the CR equations.But the partial
derivatives are not continuous since away from x = 0

Examples
p
p Explain why.
derivatives are not continuous since away from x = 0 the partials of u are
1/2 1/2
ux = 12 |y |
|x | if x > 0 and ux = − 12 |y |
|x | if x < 0 and at (0, 0) it is 0,
so ux is not continuous.

Examples
p
p Explain why.
derivatives are not continuous since away from x = 0 the partials of u are
1/2 1/2
ux = 12 |y |
|x | if x > 0 and ux = − 12 |y |
|x | if x < 0 and at (0, 0) it is 0,
so ux is not continuous. One can show that the √ function is not
|∆x ∆y |
differentiable by showing that the limit lim∆z→0 ∆z does not exist by
choosing some appropriate lines of approach.

Examples
Example
Let (
1
|z|2 sin |z| if z 6= 0.
f (z) =
0 if z = 0.
Show that the function f is differentiable at z = 0 but the partial
derivative of Re f (z), i.e, ux (x , y ) is not continuous at (0, 0).

Remark on C-R equations
Let z = x + iy . So x = z+z z−z
2 and y = 2i .
Now, if f = F (x , y ), then by chain rule
∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y 1 ∂f ∂f

= + = +i . (1)
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y

2 and y = 2i .
∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y 1 ∂f ∂f

= + = +i . (1)
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y
Using equation (1), we can easily show that, if f = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ), then
∂f 1
= [(ux − vy ) + i(uy + vx )] (2)
∂z 2

2 and y = 2i .
∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y 1 ∂f ∂f

= + = +i . (1)
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y
Using equation (1), we can easily show that, if f = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ), then
∂f 1
= [(ux − vy ) + i(uy + vx )] (2)
∂z 2
From equation (2), it follows the following theorem,
Theorem
∂f
Let f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ). Then ∂z = 0 if and only u and v satisfies
the C-R equations.

Cauchy-Riemann Equation in polar form
Sometime it is useful to know CR equations in polar form. Let us consider

a function
f (z) = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ), z = re iθ
Since x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, it is easy to show
∂x ∂y
ur = ux + uy
∂r ∂r
= ux cos θ + uy sin θ.
Similarly
vθ = −vx r sin θ + vy r cos θ = uy r sin θ + ux r cos θ.
Therefore, rur = vθ . Similarly we can show uθ = −rvr .

Cauchy-Riemann Equation in polar form
Let f (z) = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ). Then the following equations
rur = vθ
uθ = −rvr
are called Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar form.
Next will discuss some necessary and sufficient conditions for

differentiability.

Sufficient Conditions for Differentiability in
polar form
Theorem
Let the function f (z) = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ) be defined in some
neighborhood of a point z0 = r0 eiθ0 , and suppose that
(ii) those partial derivatives are continuous at (r0 , θ0 ) and satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations at (r0 , θ0 ) :
rur = vθ ;
uθ = −rvr ;
then f 0 (z0 ) exists and it is equal to e −iθ (ur (r0 , θ0 ) + ivr (r0 , θ0 )) .

Examples
Example
√
Let f (z) = r e iθ/2 (r > 0, α < θ < α + 2π, α ∈ R). Check the
differentiability of f (z) ? Also find f 0 (z) if exists.

Examples
Example
√
Solution: f 0 (z) = √1
2 r e iθ/2
.

Examples
Example
√
Solution: f 0 (z) = √1
2 r e iθ/2
.
Question: Why θ defined like this ?

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions
4 Continuity
5 Derivatives

Analytic functions
Definition
A complex function f is called analytic ( or regular or holomorphic ) at a
point z0 in it’s domain if it is differentiable at each point in some
neighborhood of z0 .

Analytic functions
Definition
Example: f (z) = |z|2 is nowhere analytic since it is only differentiable at

the origin.

Analytic functions
Definition

the origin.
Note that if a function is analytic at a point then it is also analytic in a
neighborhood of that point.
definition
A function is called entire if it is analytic everywhere on the complex plane.

Analytic functions
Definition

the origin.
Note that if a function is analytic at a point then it is also analytic in a
neighborhood of that point.
definition
A function is called entire if it is analytic everywhere on the complex plane.
The polynomials are entire functions, e z (exponential function) is also

entire.

Singular Points
If a function f fails to be analytic at a point z0 but is analytic at some

point in every neighborhood of z0 then the point z0 is called a singular
point of the function or singularity of f .

Singular Points

Example: z1 is analytic at all point except at 0, and it is not analytic ( not

even defined ) at 0 so the origin is a singular point for the function. Using
polar form, you can also check f is differentiable everywhere except 0.

Singular Points


Example: The functions f (z) = |z|2 has no singular points since it is not
analytic anywhere.

Singular Points


analytic anywhere.
Example: The functions f (z) = z has no singular points since it is

nowhere analytic.

Singular Points


analytic anywhere.
Example: The functions f (z) = z has no singular points since it is

nowhere analytic.
Example: The function f (z) = xy + iy has no singular points since it is

nowhere analytic.

Properties of Analytic functions
The sum and difference of two analytic functions is analytic.
The product of two analytic functions is analytic.
The quotient is also analytic wherever defined.
The composition of two functions if defined is analytic.

Theorems based on Analytic function
Theorem
If f (z) is a complex constant then f 0 (z) = 0.
Theorem
If f 0 (z) = 0 for all z ∈ D in a domain (open and connected). Then f (z)
constant for all z ∈ D.

Theorem
Theorem
Since f 0 (z) = 0 = ux + ivx = vy − iuy = 0 or all the partials are zero.

Theorem
Theorem
Since f 0 (z) = 0 = ux + ivx = vy − iuy = 0 or all the partials are zero. This
means the functions u, v are constant along any line parallel to the
coordinate axes.

Theorem
Theorem
coordinate axes. Now any two points in the domain D can be joined by
paths with segments parallel to the axes.

Theorem
Theorem
paths with segments parallel to the axes. As the functions are constant on
the segments it is constant throughout.

Theorem
Theorem
paths with segments parallel to the axes. As the functions are constant on
the segments it is constant throughout.
Question: Is the above theorem true when f is defined on non connected

set ?

Counter Example
Example
Define f : C \ {z : 1 ≤ z ≤ 3} → C by
(
0 if |z| < 1.
f (z) =
i if |z| > 3.
Clearly f is analytic and f 0 (z) = 0 on both sets but f is not constant.

Some more Applications
Example
If f (z) and f (z) are both analytic in a domain then f is constant on the
domain.

Example
domain.
Solution. Let us write f (z) = u + iv since f is analytic the CR equations
are satisfied everywhere ie ux = vy and uy = −vx ,

Example
domain.
are satisfied everywhere ie ux = vy and uy = −vx , Now f (z) = u − iv is
also analytic so the CR equations are satisfied for this function hence
ux = −vy and uy = vx , together these equations mean
ux = vx = uy = vy = 0,

Example
domain.
are satisfied everywhere ie ux = vy and uy = −vx , Now f (z) = u − iv is
also analytic so the CR equations are satisfied for this function hence
ux = −vy and uy = vx , together these equations mean
ux = vx = uy = vy = 0, so by the theorem above f is constant on the
domain.

Some more Application
Example
Let f (z) be an analytic function on a domain D. If any one of the
following holds
(i) Re f (z) is constant,
(i) Im f (z) is constant,
(i) Arg f (z) is constant,
then f is constant on that domain.

Some more Application
Example. Let f (z) be an analytic function on a domain such that |f (z)| is

constant on the domain, then f (z) is also constant on that domain.

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions
4 Continuity
5 Derivatives

Harmonic functions
A class of functions related to the analytic functions, very important for

applications, is the harmonic functions. Let us define the harmonic
functions.

Harmonic functions

functions.
Definition
A function H : R2 → R is called harmonic if it satisfies Laplace’s equation,
ie Hxx (x , y ) + Hyy (x , y ) = 0.

Harmonic functions

functions.
Definition
A function H : R2 → R is called harmonic if it satisfies Laplace’s equation,
ie Hxx (x , y ) + Hyy (x , y ) = 0.
Harmonic functions play a pivotal role in Physics and Engineering as many

problems in such fields arise as Laplace’s equation.

Necessary conditions for Analytic
Theorem
Let f (z) = u + iv be an analytic function then u, v are harmonic functions.

Theorem
One sees the proof immediately, as ux = vy we have uxx = vxy and

uy = −vx so uyy = −vxy

Theorem

uy = −vx so uyy = −vxy thus uxx + uyy = 0.

Theorem

(Why ux is differentiable again ? It is because we will show in Chapter-4
that if a function f (z) is analytic at a point z0 , then all its derivatives of
all orders are also analytic

Theorem

(Why ux is differentiable again ? It is because we will show in Chapter-4
that if a function f (z) is analytic at a point z0 , then all its derivatives of
all orders are also analytic
Similarly we show that v is harmonic.

Necessary and sufficient condition for
Analytic
Definition
If u, v are harmonic functions defined on a domain D such that they
satisfy the CR equations namely ux = vy ; uy = −vx , then we will call v
to be a harmonic conjugate of u.

Analytic
Definition
Theorem
A function f (z) = u + iv is analytic if and only if v is a harmonic
conjugate of u.

Analytic
Definition
Theorem
conjugate of u.
The proof is simple,

Analytic
Definition
Theorem
conjugate of u.
The proof is simple, if v is a harmonic conjugate of u then they satisfy the

CR equations and continuous (since harmonic). Thus differentiable in D
and hence analytic.

Analytic
Definition
Theorem
conjugate of u.
The proof is simple, if v is a harmonic conjugate of u then they satisfy the

CR equations and continuous (since harmonic). Thus differentiable in D
and hence analytic. The convere follows from previous theorem and
differentiability of f .

Remark on Harmonic conjugate
It is not always true that if v is a harmonic conjugate of u then u is a

harmonic conjugate of v ,


harmonic conjugate of v , let us give an example to demonstrate it:


Example. Let u(x , y ) = x , v = y , now f (z) = u + iv = x + iy is analytic.

Hence v is a harmonic conjugate of u.



Suppose on contradiction. Let u be harmonic conjugate of v . So by the

above theorem v + iu = i(u − iv ) = iz is not analytic (Think about |z|2 ).
Which is the contradiction. Therefore u is not harmonic conjugate of v in
general.



Suppose on contradiction. Let u be harmonic conjugate of v . So by the

above theorem v + iu = i(u − iv ) = iz is not analytic (Think about |z|2 ).
Which is the contradiction. Therefore u is not harmonic conjugate of v in
general.
Question: What will happen to f when both u and v are harmonic

conjugate to each other ?

Results on harmonic conjugate
Exercise
Let f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ) defined on a domain D. If u is harmonic
conjugate of v and v is harmonic conjugate of u, then f is constant.
Solution: Since v is a harmonic conjugate of u. This implies
ux = vy , uy = −vx . (3)

Exercise
ux = vy , uy = −vx . (3)
Similarly as u is a harmonic conjugate of v , we have
v x = uy , vy = −ux . (4)

Exercise
ux = vy , uy = −vx . (3)
Similarly as u is a harmonic conjugate of v , we have
v x = uy , vy = −ux . (4)
Combining equation (3) and (4), we obtain ux = vx = 0 and hence

f 0 (z) = 0. Thus f is constant.

Question: Which function will be harmonic conjugate of v ?
Exercise
Let f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ) defined on a domain D. Show that −u is a
harmonic conjugate of v .

Existence and construction of harmonic
conjugate
Let us describe a method to construct a harmonic conjugate from a given

function u.
Theorem
Let u be a harmonic function defined on a domain D. Then harmonic
conjugate of u is exists and equal to v , where
Z y Z x
v (x , y ) = ux (x , t)dt − uy (s, 0)ds.
0 0

Examples

Examples
Example Find a harmonic conjugate of u(x , y ) = y 3 − 3x 2 y .

Examples
Solution:
Find the partials: ux = −6xy , uy = (3y 2 − 3x 2 ).

Examples
Solution:
Evaluate: ux (x , t) = −6xt, uy (s, 0) = −3s 2 .

Examples
Solution:
Evaluate: ux (x , t) = −6xt, uy (s, 0) = −3s 2 .
Now,
Z y Z x
v (x , y ) = ux (x , t)dt − uy (s, 0)ds
0
Z y Z 0x
= −6x tdt + 3 s 2 ds
0 0
= −3xy + x 3 + C ,
2
where C is the complex integration constant.

Exercise
Example. Show that any two harmonic conjugates of a harmonic function

u differs at most by an additive constant.

Exercise

Solution. let us say v is a harmonic conjugate and also v + g(x , y ),

Exercise

Solution. let us say v is a harmonic conjugate and also v + g(x , y ), so
f (z) = u + iv is analytic and f1 (z) = u + iv + ig(x , y ) is also analytic

Exercise

f (z) = u + iv is analytic and f1 (z) = u + iv + ig(x , y ) is also analytic so
the difference is analytic,

Exercise

the difference is analytic, namely f1 − f = ig(x , y ) is analytic,

Exercise

the difference is analytic, namely f1 − f = ig(x , y ) is analytic, call this
function h(z) = ig(x , y ) any constant multiple of an analytic function is
analytic hence

Exercise

analytic hence −h(z) is also analytic, but −h(z) = h

Exercise

analytic hence −h(z) is also analytic, but −h(z) = h now since both h(z)
and h(z) are analytic h(z) must be constant.

Chapter-2 Analytic Functions

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Chapter-2: Analytic Functions

Dr. Jajati Keshari Sahoo

March 01, 2018

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 1 / 77

3 Limits and Continuity

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 2 / 77

3 Limits and Continuity

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 3 / 77

Observe the complex number z = (x , y ), where the real number x is called

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 4 / 77

Observe the complex number z = (x , y ), where the real number x is called

The complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ), z2 = (x2 , y2 ) are “added” and

z1 + z2 = (x1 , y2 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 4 / 77

Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x ,

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 77

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 77

it is also clear that

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 77

it is also clear that

So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 77

it is also clear that

So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 77

it is also clear that

So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 77

it is also clear that

So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 77

Let C = { Set of complex number}.

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 6 / 77

Let C = { Set of complex number}.

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 6 / 77

Let C = { Set of complex number}.

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 6 / 77

The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a plane with

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 7 / 77

The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a plane with

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 7 / 77

The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a plane with

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 7 / 77

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 8 / 77

A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane has a polar

The argument of a complex number is decided up to an integer multiple of

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 9 / 77

A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane has a polar

The argument of a complex number is decided up to an integer multiple of

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 9 / 77

From the previous slides we can write a complex number z as

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 10 / 77

1 How to define a real power of a complex number? say iπ ?

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 11 / 77

1 How to define a real power of a complex number? say iπ ?

2 How to define a complex power of a complex number? say ii ?

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 11 / 77

1 How to define a real power of a complex number? say iπ ?

1 Given z0 a complex number and a real positive number, we have a

1 Given z0 a complex number and a real positive number, we have a