15.

2 Born-Haber Cycle

Our calculations of enthalpies so far have involved covalent substances. Now we need to look at the
enthalpy changes involved in the formation of giant ionic lattices.

Lattice enthalpy is defined as either the:

'the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a solid ionic crystal is broken into its ions in the
gaseous state, at standard temperature and pressure. Because all the bonds in the ionic lattice are
broken, it is an endothermic process, ∆H is positive.' The IB uses this definition.

MX (s)
M+ (g) + X- (g)

or

'the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a solid ionic crystal is formed form its ions in the
gaseous state, at standard temperature and pressure. Because all the bonds in the ionic lattice are
made, it is an exothermic process, ∆H is negative.'

M+ (g) + X- (g)
MX (s)

[Remember that bond breaking is endothermic and bond making is exothermic]

Standard lattice enthalpy values for ionic solids are found in the IB Chemistry data booklet.

Sodium Chloride ionic lattice

Born-Haber Cycles (named after Fritz Haber and Max Born) are simply energy / enthalpy cycles that
show how ionic compounds are formed from their constituent elements. They are useful because
they allow lattice enthalpies to be calculated theoretically using empirical data (observations and
data collected from experiments).

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Definitions involved in calculation of lattice enthalpy of NaCl

∆Hf° standard enthalpy of formation of sodium chloride. The enthalpy change when one mole of a
NaCl is formed from its elements under standard conditions. They are exothermic because new
bonds are being made between the atoms of the elements sodium and chlorine.
Na(s) + ½ Cl2 (g)
NaCl(s) ∆Hf° (NaCl) = - 411 kJmol-1

∆H1° standard enthalpy of atomization of chlorine. The energy required to change one mole of
gaseous chlorine molecules into one mole of gaseous chlorine atoms. Endothermic because the
bonds between the Cl-Cl atoms are being broken.
½ Cl2 (g) → Cl (g) ∆H1° (Cl2) = +121 kJmol-1

∆H2° standard enthalpy of first electron affinity of chlorine. The energy released when one mole
of gaseous chlorine atoms gains one mole of electrons to form a -1 charged ion. Exothermic
because the gaseous atom needs to release energy in order to slow down sufficiently to attract and
an electron.
Cl (g) + e- → Cl- (g) ∆H2° (Cl) = -364 kJmol-1

NOTE: Non-metal elements with -2 ions have two electron affinities. For example oxygen and
sulfur form -2 ions and have a first and second electron affinity. The second electron affinity is
endothermic and is defined as the energy absorbed when one mole of electrons is gained by a -1
ion. Energy is absorbed because the negative ion is gaining a negative electron. Because both the
ion and the electron are negatively charged they repel each other so energy needs to be absorbed
in order for the process to take place.

O (g) + e- → O- (g) ∆H°1st electron affinity = - kJmol-1 exothermic

O- (g) + e- → O2- (g) ∆H°2nd electron affinity = + kJmol-1 endothermic

∆H1° standard enthalpy of atomization of sodium. The energy required to change one mole of
solid sodium atoms into one mole of gaseous atoms. Endothermic, energy needs to be absorbed to
change the state from a solid to a gas.
Na (s) → Na (g) ∆H1° (Na) = +108 kJmol-1

∆H4° first ionization energy of sodium. The enthalpy change when one mole of electrons is
removed from a gaseous metal atom. Endothermic, energy needs to be absorbed to remove the
electron.
Na (g) → Na+(g) + e- ∆H4° (Na) = +500 kJmol-1
The second ionisation energy is the energy absorbed when a second electron is released from a
gaseous ion. Endothermic.
X+ (g) → X2+ + e-(g) ∆H4° = + kJmol-1
∆H5° lattice enthalpy of sodium chloride. The enthalpy change when one mole of ions in a solid
ionic lattice is broken. Endothermic, because the ionic bonds between the sodium and chloride
ions need to absorb energy in order to break them.

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 NaCl (s)
Na+ (g) + Cl- (g)
NOTE: The enthalpies of atomization and first ionization energy are always positive (endothermic).
The enthalpy of first electron affinity is negative (exothermic).

Born-Haber Cycle for NaCl

The formation of the ionic compound starts with the elements in their standard states, and ends
with them as ions in a giant ionic lattice.
Na(s) + ½ Cl2 (g)
NaCl(s)
Before the elements can form an ionic lattice they need to be atomized (turned into gaseous
atoms) and then ionized (turned into ions). The process involved are atomization, ionization energy
and electron affinity.

A Born-Haber cycle combines all of the steps above, using the principles of Hess’s Law to determine
the overall lattice enthalpy

The Born-Haber cycle for NaCl (s)

NaCl (s)
Na+ (g) + Cl -(g) ∆H°(Lattice) = 776 kJmol-1

Na+ (g) + Cl- (g)

Formation of negative ion by:

1. ∆H°°1 atomisation ½ Cl2 (g) → Cl (g)
2. ∆H°°2 1st electron affinity Cl (g) → Cl- (g)

Formation of positive ion by:

1. ∆H°°3 atomisation Na (s) → Na (g) ∆H°°5 Lattice enthalpy
2. ∆H°°4 1st ionisation energy Na (g) → Na+ (g) Separating the ions in the
lattice. Endothermic

Na (s) + ½ Cl2 (g) NaCl(s)

(Elements in standard state) ∆H°°f Enthalpy of formation (solid ionic lattice)

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 By Hess’s law:

∆Hfө + ∆H5(Lattice)ө = ∆H1ө + ∆H2ө + ∆H3ө + ∆H4ө

therefore

∆H5(Lattice)ө = (∆
∆H1ө + ∆H2ө + ∆H3ө + ∆H4ө) - ∆Hfө (kJmol-1)

For a born Haber Cycle for NaCl go to http://onsager.bd.psu.edu/~jircitano/BH.html

Exercise
Using the values for the enthalpies of atomisation, first ionization, first electon affinity and
formation given above calculate the lattice enthalpy for sodium chloride.

Answer

∆Hfө + ∆H(LE NaCl)ө = ∆Hatm(Na)ө + ∆H1stIE(Na)ө + ∆Hatm(Cl2)ө + ∆HEA(Cl2)ө

∆H5 ө (LE NaCl) = (∆Hatm(Na)ө + ∆H1stIE(Na)ө + ∆Hatm(Cl2)ө + ∆HEA(Cl2)ө ) - ∆Hfө

= (+108) + (+500) + (+121) + (-364) - (-411)

= 365 - -411

= 776 kJmol-1 endothermic (decimal rule for SF)

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15.2.2 Factors affecting the size of the lattice enthalpy

Recall that lattice enthalpy is defined as the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a solid
ionic crystal is broken into its ions in the gaseous state, at standard temperature and pressure.
It’s magnitude (size) depends on the size (radius) and charge on the positive and negative ions and
can be represented using the following relationship.

Lattice Enthalpy ∝ (charge on positive ion) x (charge on negative ion)

Sum of the ionic radii

As the lattice enthalpy increases the ionic lattice becomes more stable. This is because the
electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative ions becomes stronger, so more energy
is needed to break apart the ions.

Consider the following data:

Lattice
Ionic Cation/Anion/
Enthalpy Explanation
compound Size
(kJ mol-1)
LiCl 826 As the ionic radius of the ions
Cation (+ ion) size increases the lattice enthalpy
NaCl 771 increasing decreases because the positive and
Li+
Na+
K+ negative ions are further away from
KCl 701
one another, decreasing the
NaCl 771 electrostatic attraction between
Anion (- ion) size
NaBr 733 increasing them, making it easier to separate
Cl-
Br-
I- the ions.
NaI 684
NaCl 771 Charge on cation When the charge on the ions
increasing increases the lattice enthalpy
MgCl2 2493 Na+
Mg2+ increases because there is a greater
electrostatic attraction between
MgCl2 2493 the positive and negative ions of
Charge on anion
the lattice and therefore more
increasing
energy is required to separate
Cl-
O2-
MgO 3889 them.

(Ionic radii data can be found in table 8 of the IB Chemistry data booklet)

When the charge increases the lattice enthalpy increases

When the radius increases the lattice enthalpy decreases

NOTE: Remember positive ions (cations) are smaller than their atoms and negative ions (anions) are
larger than their atoms and ionic radius increase down a group of the periodic table and decreases
across a period.

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Therefore the lattice enthalpy will be greatest from a small sized ion with a large charge. The
charge on the ion causes the lattice energy to increase more than the size of the ion (ionic radius).

Why is the lattice enthalpy affected in this way? According to coulombs law a theoretical
mathematical model used to explain lattice enthalpies the size of the force of attraction F of one
ion for another is given by the formula:

F = k q1 q2 where q1 and q2 are the charges on the ion and r2

r2 is the distance between them.

This formula shows that increasing the charge on either ion will increase the force between them.
Decreasing the size of one or both ions will decrease the distance between them and thus increase
the attractive force.

NOTE: This example has the lattice enthalpy as exothermic, the IB uses the endothermic process.
When the ionic radius of the negative ion increases the lattice enthalpy becomes less positive.

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5.2.4 Using lattice enthalpy to predict ionic or covalent character

Born-Haber cycles can be used to deduce how ionic a substance is. The table below shows lattice
enthalpies calculated from Born-Haber cycles using both empirical data (from experiments) and
from theoretical mathematical models (using coulombs law).

Lattice enthalpy (kJ mol-1) % difference (error)

Compound
Experimental Experimental – theoretical x 100
Theoretical
Born-Haber experimental

AgCl 905 770 (770-905)÷905 x 100 = 14.9 %

NaCl 771 766 (766-771)÷771 x 100 = 0.649 %

Sodium chloride has a much smaller % difference between its experimental and theoretical values
than the silver chloride.

The larger difference for AgCl means that it is not as close to the theoretical mathematical model
suggesting that it is probably less ionic in nature and has other bonding present.

Evidence for the existence of covalent bonding is provided by electronegativity values. The
difference in the electronegativity between the silver and chlorine is small (Ag(3.0) - Cl(1.9) = 1.1)
suggesting that silver chloride is covalent in nature. Remember according to Pauling’s
electronegativity values differences greater than 1.8 tend to occur between elements that are more
ionic in nature and a small electronegativity difference (0-1.8) are more likely to indicate a covalent
bond.

Further evidence of this covalent nature can be found by examining melting points. The melting
point of the silver chloride (455°C) is considerably lower than that of sodium chloride (801°C),
suggesting that silver chloride is more covalent in nature. Remember a low melting point indicates
a substance is molecular covalent and a high melting point an ionic lattice.

Questions
1. Draw and label a Born-Haber cycle for the formation of calcium oxide.

2. Calculate the lattice enthalpy of calcium oxide from the following data.
enthalpy of atomisation of Ca(s): 178 kJmol-1
first ionization energy of Ca(g): 590 kJmol-1
second ionization energy of Ca(g): 1150 kJmol-1
enthalpy of atomization of O2(g): 249 kJmol-1
first electron affinity of O(g): -141 kJmol-1
second electron affinity of O(g): 844 kJmol-1
enthalpy of formation of CaO(s): -635 kJmol-1

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3. The lattice enthalpy of calcium bromide is the energy change for the reaction

A) Ca(g) + 2Br(g) 
CaBr2(g)

B) CaBr2(s) 
Ca(g) + 2Br(g)
C) Ca(s) + Br2(l) 
CaBr2(s)
D) CaBr2(s) 
Ca(g) + Br2(g)
E) CaBr2(s) 
Ca2+(g) + 2Br-(g)

4. The standard enthalpy of formation of KCl(s) is -437 kJmol-1. In a Born-Haber cycle for the
formation of KCl(s), which enthalpy change(s) are exothermic?

A) the lattice enthalpy and the electron affinity of chlorine

B) the electron affinity of chlorine
C) the formation of Cl(g) from Cl2(g)
D) the enthalpy of atomization of K(s) and the first ionization energy of
K(g)
E) lattice enthalpy

5. Calculate the lattice enthalpy of silver chloride from the following data.
enthalpy of atomisation of Ag(s): 284 kJmol-1
first ionization energy of Ag(g): 731 kJmol-1
enthalpy of atomisation of Cl2(g): 122 kJmol-1
first electron affinity of Cl(g): -349 kJmol-1
enthalpy of formation of AgCl(s): -127 kJmol-1
A) 1037 kJmol-1
B) 661 kJmol-1
C) 915 kJmol-1
D) 1613 kJmol-1
E) 1359 kJmol-1

6. Calculate the first electron affinity of iodine from the following data.
enthalpy of atomisation of Ag(s): 284 kJmol-1
first ionization energy of Ag(g): 731 kJmol-1
enthalpy of atomisation of I2(g): 107 kJmol-1
Lattice enthalpy of AgI (s): 889 kJmol-1
enthalpy of formation of AgI(s): -62 kJmol-1
A) - 295 kJmol-1
B) 889 kJmol-1
C) 295 kJmol-1
D) -161 kJmol-1
E) 765 kJmol-1

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7. Calculate the lattice enthalpy of magnesium chloride from the following data.
enthalpy of atomisation of Mg(s): 148 kJmol-1
first ionization energy of Mg(g): 736 kJmol-1
second ionization energy of Mg(g): 1450 kJmol-1
enthalpy of atomisation of Cl2(g): 122 kJmol-1
electron affinity of Cl(g): -349 kJmol-1
enthalpy of formation of MgCl2(s): -641 kJmol-1
A) 2521 kJmol-1
B) 1239 kJmol-1
C) 2748 kJmol-1
D) 3917 kJmol-1
E) 2635 kJmol-1

8. State with a reason whether the following steps in the Born Haber cycle of potassium
chloride are exothermic or endothermic.
a) ½ Cl2 (g) → Cl (g)
b) Cl (g) → Cl- (g)
c) K (s) → K (g)
d) K (g) → K+ (g)
e) K+(g) + Cl-(g)
KCl(s)

9. Define the following terms and then using MgO as an example write equations to represent
each term. State whether the process is exothermic or endothermic. Include states.
a) standard enthalpy of formation
b) standard lattice enthalpy
c) standard enthalpy of atomization for a metal and non metal
d) standard enthalpy of 1st ionization
e) standard enthalpy of 2nd ionization
f) standard 1st electron affinity
g) standard 2nd electron affinity

10. Which one of the following quantities is not involved in the Born-Haber cycle?

A. ionization energy B. lattice enthalpy

C. electronegativity D. enthalpy of formation

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11. The Born-Haber cycle for the formation of potassium chloride includes the steps below:

I. K (g) → K+ (g) II. ½ Cl2 (s) → Cl (g)

III. Cl (g) + e- → Cl- (g) IV. K+ (g) + Cl- (g) → KCl (s)

Which of these steps are exothermic?

A. I and II B. III and IV
C. I, II and III only D. I, II and IV only

12. The lattice energy is dependent on two main factors, the size of the ions and the charge on
the ions. Which combination of these would produce the greatest lattice enthalpy?

13. Which one of the following solids would you expect to have the greatest lattice enthalpy?
A. RbCl B. CaS C. BaI2 D. LiF

14. Which of the following has the largest lattice enthalpy?

A) MgCl2(s)
B) KCl(s)
C) LiCl(s)
D) NaCl(s)
E) AgCl(s)

15. Explain why the melting points of the group 1 metal chlorides decreases down the group.

16. Of what use are theoretical values produced using mathematical models for helping
chemists understand the nature of ionic and covalent bonds?

17. Consider the following theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpies and then deduce the
order of increasing covalent character.

Lattice enthalpy (kJ mol-1)

Compound
Experimental Theoretical

KF 801 795

CaO 3513 3477

LiO 744 728

18. Describe and explain the trend in ionic radius across the 3rd period and down groups 1 and
7.

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Bibliography
Clark, Jim. Chem Guide. 2008. <http://www.chemguide.co.uk/>.
Clugston, Michael and Rosalind Flemming. Advanced Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000.
Derry, Lanna, et al. Chemistry for use with the IB Diploma Programme Higher Level. Melbourne:
Pearson Heinemann, 2009.
Green, John and Sadru Damji. Chemistry for use with the International Baccalaureate Programme.
Melbourne: IBID Press, 2007.
Neuss, Geoffrey. IB Diploma Programme Chemistry Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2007.
—. IB Study Guides, Chemistry for the IB Diploma. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Organisation, International Baccalaureate. Online Curriculum Centre.
<http://occ.ibo.org/ibis/occ/guest/home.cfm>.
—. "Chemistry Data Booklet." International Baccalaureate Organisation, March 2007.
—. "Chemistry Guide." International Baccalaureate Organisation, March 2007.
—. "IB Chemistry Examination Papers ." Cardiff: International Baccalaureate Organisation, 1999-
2008.

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15.2 Lattice Enthalpy ANSWERS

1.
Ca2+ (g) + O2- (g)

Formation of anion by:

1. ∆H1 atomisation ½ O2 (g) → O (g)
2. ∆H2 1st electron affinity O (g) → O- (g)
3. ∆H3 2nd electron affinity O- (g) → O2- (g)

Formation of cation by:

1. ∆H4 atomisation Ca (s) → Ca (g) ∆H7 Lattice enthalpy
2. ∆H5 1st ionisation energy Ca (g) → Ca+ (g) Separating the ions in
3. ∆H6 2nd ionisation energy Ca+ (g) → Ca2+ (g) the lattice. Endothermic

Ca (s) + ½ O2 (g) CaO(s)

(Elements in standard state) ∆Hf Enthalpy of formation (solid ionic lattice)

∆Hfө + ∆H7(Lattice)ө = ∆H1ө + ∆H2ө + ∆H3ө + ∆H4ө + ∆H5ө + ∆H6ө

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15.2 Lattice Enthalpy ANSWERS

2.
∆Hfө + ∆H7(Lattice)ө = ∆H1ө + ∆H2ө + ∆H3ө + ∆H4ө + ∆H5ө + ∆H6ө

∆H7(LE CaO)ө = ∆H1ө + ∆H2ө + ∆H3ө + ∆H4ө + ∆H5ө + ∆H6ө - ∆Hfө

= 178 + 590 + 1150 + 249 + (-141) + 844 – (-635)
= 2870 – (-635)
= 3505 KJmol-1

3. E The lattice enthalpy is defined as the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of
a solid ionic crystal is broken into its ions in the gaseous state, at standard
temperature and pressure.

4. B The first electron affinity and enthalpy of formation are the only processes that are
exothermic.

5. C
∆H(LE AgCl)ө = ∆HatmAgө + ∆H1st IEө + ∆HatmCl2ө + ∆H1st EA ө - ∆Hfө
= 284 + 731 + 122 + (-349) – (-127)
= 788 – (-127)
= 915 KJmol-1
6. A
∆H(LE AgI)ө = ∆HatmAgө + ∆H1st IEө + ∆HatmI2ө + ∆H1st EAө - ∆Hfө

∆H1st EAө = ∆H(LE AgI)ө - ∆HatmAgө - ∆H1st IEө - ∆HatmI2ө + ∆Hfө

= 889 – 284 – 731 – 107 + (-62)

= - 295 KJmol-1

7. A
∆H(LE MgCl2)ө = ∆HatmMgө + ∆H1st IEө + ∆H2nd IEө + ∆HatmCl2ө + ∆H1st EAө - ∆Hfө

= 148 + 736 + 1450 + 2(122) + 2(-349) – (-641)

= 1880 – (-641)

= 2521 kJmol-1

Because there are 2 moles of Cl in MgCl2, the standard enthalpy of atomisation and first electron
affinity values need to be multiplied by 2. This is because these definitions are based on one mole,
not two.

8. a) atomization - endothermic energy needs to be absorbed to break the

bonds between chlorine molecules.

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 b) electron affinity - exothermic energy is the gaseous atom needs to release energy in
order to slow down and be able to attract and an electron.
c) atomization – endothermic energy needs to be absorbed to change state from solid
to gas.
d) first ionization energy - endothermic energy needs to be absorbed to remove an
electron
e) exothermic – reverse of lattice enthalpy - energy needs to be released to bring ions
together
9. See page 2

10. C Electronegativity. Born Haber cycles are for ionic compounds.

11. B
I Ist ionization energy - endothermic
II atomization – endothermic
III electron affinity – exothermic
IV reverse of the lattice enthalpy – exothermic
The first electron affinity (III) and reverse of the lattice enthalpy (IV) are the only processes that are
exothermic.

12. The lattice enthalpy will be greatest from a small sized ion with a large charge
(The charge on the ion causes the lattice energy to increase more than the size of the ion)

13. B Both Ca and S are have the largest charge (+2)

14. A magnesium chloride, due to +2 ion for magnesium

15. LiCl, NaCl, KCl;

Electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative ions in the ionic lattice decreases;
So less energy needs to be absorbed to break the bond;

16. Shows that ionic compounds have different amounts of covalent character.

17. KF (difference = 0.749%), CaO (difference = 1.025 %), LiO (difference = 2.15 %)

18. Ionic radius increases down groups 1 and 7;

because the number of shells increases ;

Ionic radius decreases across the 3rd period;

For the metal ions even though the number of protons is increasing for each additional
electron lost the remaining electrons have a greater share of the positive charge which
increases the attractive force between the positive protons and the negative electrons
causing the electron shells to be attracted more strongly to the atom;
Likewise for the non-metal ions even though the number of protons is increasing the
extra electrons gained increases the amount of electron-electron repulsion in the outer
shell, increasing the ionic radius.

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