3.

Managing people
Organisational
Management
T-Kit

3.1 Introduction
Who are the people ? Throughout the section suggestions are made
for discussions or brainstorming titles. In some
It has become a cliché to say that an organisa- cases a list of possible answers is also included.
tion’s most valuable resource is its people –
but it is still true. And our people need to be
managed in a way which enables them to be
fulfilled in their work and to reach their poten-
tial – for themselves and for their organisations.

The purpose of many European youth organ- 3.2 Teams and leaders
isations is the development of people and so
it is perhaps wise that we start with those on
the inside – be they paid or unpaid, volunteers, 3.2.1 Teamworking
staff or Board members. Each person – whether and leadership
we see them as groups or individuals – needs
to be managed and led in order to reach their Most if not all European youth organisations
potential and to ensure that their efforts serve are made of people who work in teams. The
the organisation in the most effective and effi- synergy created by people working towards a
cient way. common goal enables much more to be accom-
plished than would be done by individuals who
Each person brings talents and skills and knowl- did not share the same vision. Often however,
edge and experience into their work. For the our teams are geographically disparate and are
purpose of this T-kit we will call this collec- made of a mixture of paid and unpaid staff, full
tion “competence”. Each person has a unique time and part time, young and old and – dare
set of competencies which can be applied in we say it? – competent and incompetent. This
different ways and in different situations. For
variety brings both benefits and challenges.
example, an unpaid Board member may bring
years of financial management experience, the
skill to read and interpret balance sheets and 3
a real talent for explaining figures to others
with less experience. The down side might be Suggestions for training
that this experience comes from a different
sector – the commercial world where the dri- What is a team ?
ving force is profit – and the Board member
A group assembled for a specific com-
might have difficulty balancing that with the
mon purpose ?
social objectives of the organisation. In con-
Prepared to put the goals of the group
trast the youth worker with the ability to
before their personal ones ?
relate well with young people on the street
and a natural talent in counselling, may have What makes an effective team ?
difficulty keeping records of expenditure. Both Communication and feedback skills ?
have a unique set of competencies and both Ability in group maintenance ?
have a significant contribution to make to Support for the leadership ?
the organisation. Managing people is about The balance of relevant competencies ?
making the most of those competencies, for A climate of trust, openness and shar-
as much of the time as possible and ensuring ing ?
that they continue to develop. Full and willing participation ?
Commitment to team objectives ?
This section of the T-kit is dedicated to the
issues of managing people. A significant pro- What are the disadvantages of team
portion is given over to the concepts of team working ?
working and leadership, as this forms the foun- Time consuming ?
dation on which much of the other material is Loss of individual identity ?
based. Having answered the question “who are
the people?”, the following chapters attempt to
answer the question “How do we manage them?”

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The purpose of this section is to provide some direction and focus for the leader and method
tools to enable us to get the most out of our and application for the manager. For exam-
teams. You might start by asking the follow- ple, the leader would be the person who took
ing questions, which can be turned into an the initiative for the development of a strate-
exercise. gic plan, would introduce new concepts and
encourage discussion and criticism of the per-
formance and policies of the organisation.
The manager would be keen to ensure that
Suggestions the agreed policies were adhered to, that indi-
for training cators and measures of performance were
appropriate and were used. S/he would be
concerned with application whilst the leader
• Compare the Belbin
would perhaps be more concerned with design.
team roles (Fig. OM 11)
It is clear that the two elements – leadership
with those of your team
and management – cannot easily be separated.
The reality is that some people in positions of
responsibility have stronger leadership com-
petencies than management competencies and
vice versa. Another good reason for the team
An important piece of work has been carried approach to running organisations.
out by Meredith Belbin in relation to the indi-
vidual roles members of a team take on. As
individual members and especially as leaders, Suggestions for training
we do well to understand the roles to which
we are best suited. Belbin categorised “useful • What are the different functions of
people to have in teams” into 8 types as a manager ?
described in the table below.
Co-ordination
As can be seen, there are both strengths and Encouragement
weaknesses to each of these roles, as indeed Motivation
there are in any individual in a team. The cru- Setting an Example
3 cial issue is that we understand and appreciate
Recruitment
these and that we can see where the gaps are
in the composition of our teams. Target setting
The roles people take in teams are frequently Ensuring the job is done
fluid and dynamic, and often change as the Maintaining an overview
team develops or the situation changes. In one
sense, it is helpful to think of leadership as just
one role that can be taken by an individual and
the same is true for management. The latter in
Organisations come together to achieve a par-
particular can be broken down into a number of
ticular purpose or task. Much of leadership is
functions which might be shared between a
about clarifying that purpose and uniting peo-
number of different people at different times.
ple in their commitment to it. John Adair has
suggested that the achievement of the task
The terms leadership and management are
depends on the attention given by the leader
often used to mean the same thing, when in
to both the needs of individuals, and to the
reality they are two distinct roles. Leaders are
needs of the group (or team) as a whole.
often expected to be good managers and man-
agers are often required to provide leadership As we lead – indeed as we manage – groups of
for those they manage. people, we need to consider the relative amounts
One way to express the distinction is that of time and effort we put into these three areas
“Managers do things right, whilst leaders do (see OM 12). If we work hard on maintaining
the right thing”, alternatively, it is sometimes the identity and the morale of the group but
said that leaders are responsible for effective- fail to attend to the individual needs of its
ness and managers are responsible for effi- members then achievement of the task will
ciency. The significant issues being those of suffer. Likewise, if we give all our attention to

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Fig. OM-11 : Useful people to have in teams

Type Typical features Positive qualities Allowable weakness

Company worker Conservative, Organising ability, practical Lack of flexibility and

dutiful and predictable common sense, hard unresponsiveness to
working self-discipline unproven ideas

Chairman Calm, self controlled A capacity for treating No more than ordinary
and self-confident and welcoming all poten- in terms of intellect
tial contributors on their or creative ability
merits and without
prejudice. A strong sense
of objectives.

Shaper Highly strung, Drive and a readiness Proneness to impatience,

outgoing and dynamic to challenge inertia, irritation and provocation
complacency,
ineffectiveness
or self-deception

Plant Individualistic, Genius, imagination, Up in the clouds, inclining

serious-minded intellect and knowledge to disregard practical
and unorthodox details or protocol
3

Resource investigator Extroverted, A capacity for contacting Liable to lose interest once
enthusiastic, curious people and exploring the initial fascination has
and communicative anything new. An ability passed.
to respond to challenge.

Monitor evaluator Sober, unemotional Judgement, discretion Lacks inspiration or the

and prudent and hard-headedness ability to motivate others

Team worker Socially orientated, An ability to respond to Indecisiveness at

rather mild, and sensitive people and to situations, moments of crisis
and to promote team
spirit

Completer finisher Painstaking, orderly, A capacity for follow A tendency to worry

anxious and conscien- through, perfectionism about nothing.
tious A reluctance to “let go”.

Source : Belbin, R.M. (1981) Management Teams, Heinemann ; reprinted by permission of Butterworth Heinemann
Publishers, a division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd.

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Fig. OM-12 : Action centred leadership model

Task functions
Defining the task – Making a plan – Allocating work and resources
Controlling quality and temps of work – Checking performance against the plan – Adjusting the plan

Team maintenance functions

Task
Setting standards – example needs Individual functions
Maintaining discipline
Building team spirit Attending to personal
Praising, motivating, problems
giving a sense of purpose Team Praising individuals
Appointing sub-leaders maintenance Individual Giving status
Ensuring communication needs needs Recognising and using
within the group individual abilities
Training the group Training the individual

An effective leader
A) Is aware of task needs, team maintenance needs and individual needs of his group
B) Has the skill and training to meet those needs, in accordance with the priorities of the situation

Source: Adair, John (1983) Effective Leardership : a Self Development Manual, Aldershot : Gower ISBN 0-330-28100-3

3
the needs (or demands!) of one or two mem-
bers of the group at the expense of group Suggestions for training
cohesion and common understanding, the same
will happen. Furthermore, if we constantly focus • In small groups discuss a leader from
on the task to be achieved, without attending history and what it was which made
to building up the group of people as a team, them successful or effective
or to the development needs of each individ-
ual, then we can expect achievement to be
difficult to sustain and potentially off target.

As teams are fluid and dynamic, so leadership

Responding to need is the raison d’être for
needs to be both flexible and dynamic. The
many, if not all our organisations. Needs are
so-called ruthlessness of famous world leaders
often diverse and changeable and so leader-
through history can perhaps often be interpret-
ship of our organisations needs to be both
ed as single minded commitment to a cause;
a commitment which followers share and which responsive and pro-active. The notion of lead-
overrides all other considerations. But in Euro- ership “style” can help our understanding here.
pean youth organisations at the beginning of If our leadership is to be dynamic and flexible
the new millennium, democracy, shared deci- then the leader needs to be able to read situa-
sion making and a team approach are crucial tions – tasks, teams and individuals – and make
to the achievement of goals. While the phenom- decisions about how they should be responded
enon of leadership by personality still achieves to. A leader’s decisions will also create situations
much; sustainable, empowering and inclusive – new tasks, closer teams, better developed
leadership is able to respond to a wider range individuals (or their opposites). How those deci-
of needs with a wider range of solutions. sions are made is a reflection of style.

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A number of writers have blended their descrip- In this model, distinct stages of development
tion of leadership style with their understand- of a team can be seen. In reality, the stages
ing of how teams develop. Their models can are never so distinct and the team may slide
help in assessing the appropriateness of a down the pole some or all of the way in the
particular style at a particular stage in the course of its development and its achievement
development of a team. of “performance”.

Fig. OM-13 : How to choose a Fig. OM-14 : Greasy Pole

leadership pattern Model

An alternative presentation of this is : PERFORM • Positive direction

• Creativity
• Initiative
Retained Authority Area • Flexibility
• Open, honest relationships
• Commitment, pride in the
team, team spirit
Shared Authority Area • Maturity

NORM • New goals

Tells Sells Tests Consults Joins • Atmosphere of Honesty,
Tolerance and Listening
Tells • Deeper relationships,
Manager Thinks Plans Decides understanding each others
Group Submits Conforms Gives Assent values and contributions
• Do task according to
Sells individual and team abilities
Manager Decides then puts decision to the • Establish own
team to get agreement team disciplines 3
Group Listens to ideas and gives assent • Develop assertiveness

STORM • Express feelings about

Tests
Manager Plans and puts various solutions
each other
to the group and then decides • Emotional
Group Gives views on solutions then gives • Lack of direction
assent to chosen solution • Insecurity
• People going
Consults against expectations
Manager Presents problems to group and asks
for possible solutions then decides
FORM • Who follows who
Group Participates in the thinking and solv- • Poor listening
ing of problems but not in the deci- • Feelings kept hidden
sion or control • Shallow relationships
• Inflexible
Joins • Status conscious
Manager Shares all decisions and control • Do as others expect you to
Group Shares control and becomes • Thinking of your own
a democratic body needs and problems

Source : Tannenbaum, R and Schmidt, W.H., “How to choose Source : Tuckman, B. W. (1965) “Developmental sequences
a leadership pattern” in Harvard Business Review, in small groups” in Psychological Bulletin vol. 63, p.
May-June 1973. Copyright © 1973 by President 384-399. Copyright © 1965 by the American
and Fellows of Harvard College ; all rights reserved. Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.

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The model above indicates that authority or

decision making power, is transferred gradu-
Suggestions for training
ally to a group as it develops the competen-
cies – both in individuals and collectively – it
needs to carry out a task. The group which is Some questions to ask trainees (indi-
perfectly capable and experienced in carrying vidually, and collectively)
out a task will not respond well to a “telling” • Make two lists – one to describe the
(or authoritarian) style of leadership. Likewise things which happen in ideal teams
the team which has only just come together e.g. communication, decision mak-
– even if it is made up of highly competent ing, trust, support etc etc ; and one
individuals – needs to be given information and to describe the types of people you
direction early on so that it can progress towards need in an ideal team e.g. leader,
shared authority for decision making. resource finder, time keeper, co-ordi-
nator, worker. Compare these lists
As with any other role or function in a team, with the team you are currently a
leadership – of whatever style – requires the part of ; where are the gaps and
development of competencies; not least in the repetition ?
choosing which style to use and when. The
term delegation needs some attention here • What do you consider to be the key
as it is used both as a style of leadership in its skills and attributes of the ideal
own right, and as one of the skills applicable leader in your organisation ?
to many styles. Delegation, when used to • In response to the slippery pole model
describe a style of leadership, implies that (figure 3) choose a team which you
authority for decision making is handed over lead and discuss what stage of devel-
to team members. It requires a level of trust in opment you feel it is at. What style
both leader and team, and a full understanding of leadership is most appropriate to
of the task and the competencies of the team. ensure development and achieve-
As a generic skill, delegation still requires trust ment of the task ?
and understanding; furthermore it requires the
ability to decide what tasks or responsibilities
should or should not be delegated.
3

Fig. OM-15 : The “best fit” option

Autocratic Style Democratic

Leader

Led

Task

Context

Reproduced by permission from B600 “The Capable Manager” The Open University, 1994.

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In conclusion then, we have considered teams If we select one thing from these lists e.g.
as dynamic developing groups and leaders as Money, we can then consider how that item
dynamic, flexible people within them. We have can be both a motivator and a demotivator.
seen the need for a balance of attention to be Herzberg presented the idea that some things
given to the task, the needs of the individuals satisfy us, but the absence of them does not
and the needs of the group as a team. necessarily produce dissatisfaction. Likewise,
some things dissatisfy but the absence of them
Elsewhere in this document we have consid- is not necessarily satisfaction, rather no dissat-
ered the context of our organisation; internally, isfaction.
in terms of organisational culture and externally
in terms of the Social, Technical, Economic,
Motivating Factors = satisfiers = job
Political and Environmental context (STEPE)
content = Maslow’s higher order needs
in which we work.
Hygiene Factors = dissatisfiers = job
Leadership is crucial in all of this, and the most
conditions = Maslow’s lower order needs
effective leadership will have found a “best fit”
for the demands of the following four elements:
The leader’s preferred style, the team’s preferred
style, the style most appropriate to the task and Suggestions for training
the style most appropriate to the context.
• Returning to your lists, which items
As we move into the next section we will con- would you classify as Hygiene factors
sider issues and competencies which help to and which ones would be Motivating
make teams work. factors ?

In doing this we will build up a kit of manage-

ment tools and discuss the choices managers
make in their use. Maslow presented his hierarchy of needs as
in the diagram below, suggesting that once
one level of need is satisfied then a person
3.2.2 Motivating people moves on to the next level of need.
3
Without the satisfaction of the lower order of
In chapter 2 we considered the concept of self needs (1, 2 and 3) then the higher ones will
motivation. In the following section we con- not be relevant.
sider how we motivate others, particularly in
the light of some theoretical models. As we consider the people we manage it, would
seem that effort first needs to be put into meet-
ing the lower order needs – the dissatisfiers
– Herzberg’s hygiene factors. Often, but not
Suggestions for training exclusively, our organisations can say that
those lower order needs have been met and
By way of introduction to the subject that the role of the manager is to focus on
of motivation we need to ask the fol- meeting higher needs such as achievement,
lowing questions. recognition, self esteem, personal development
and self realisation.
• In working (paid or unpaid) for your
organisation, what is it that gives you
pleasure and/or satisfaction, and
what is it that gives you displeasure Suggestions for training
and/or dissatisfaction ?
• How, as a manager do I ensure that
• Think of other jobs you might do in those who work for me are having
this or other organisations – what, if their higher order needs met ? How
anything, would change on your list ? do I ensure that they are sustained ?

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Motivating Factors (higher order, growth needs) McGregor’s theory X and theory Y suggested
control quality of working life and the quality that manager’s styles fell into two categories
of experiences at work. Some are inherent in due to theories about people’s motivation to
the job e.g. achievement of tasks; and others work. Theory X states that most people are lazy,
come from good management e.g. respect for are unable to discipline and control their work,
and from other people, opportunities for devel- prize security and avoid responsibility. Thus
opment and challenging work. people need external incentives and to be told
what to do.
Alderfer (in Handy, 1990) grouped Maslow’s
hierarchy into three sections – Existence needs Theory Y states that all people find work nat-
(Maslow 1&2), Relationship needs (Maslow 3 ural, accept self discipline, seek responsibility
& part of 4) and Growth needs (part of 4, & 5). and like commitments. Thus people can only
He stated that these needs are Chronic – always realise their potential if they are allowed to
there, or Episodic – sometimes there. There are use their imagination and creativity.
some clear links here with the Action Centred
Leadership model of John Adair, as outlined
in the previous section (Figure 12); Existence Suggestions for training
needs might be paralleled with Task needs,
Relationship needs with Team needs, and
• Consider your experience of manag-
Growth needs with Individual needs.
ing people and of being managed.
How do you respond to the two the-
Suggestions for training ories ? What evidence can you see
to support each one ?
• Consider what effect style of leader-
ship might have on the motivation of
your team members. Do some styles
of leadership focus on Hygiene Factors
and some on Motivating Factors ? Source : Maslow, A.H. Motivation and Personality, © 1954.
Reprinted and electronically reproduced by per-
mission of Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey
3
Fig. OM-16 : Individual needs

Self-realisation
Growth
Personal Development
Accomplishment

Self Esteem
Self Respect Status Recognition

Social
Belonging to group(s)
Social Activities Love Friendship

Safety
Security Protection from danger

Physiological
Hunger Thirst Sleep Etc.

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3.2.3 Empowerment On a personal level we have the responsibility

to manage workloads: it is an irony that in
The concept of empowerment is intertwined
many values-driven organisations the assump-
with all of this. Referring to the Tannenbaum
tion is often made that staff of any kind will
and Schmidt model in the previous section
automatically take on greater and greater work-
(Figure 13), we can see that leaders (and/or
loads – “for the love of it”! We need to make
managers) can retain or devolve power to others
ourselves accountable to friends and family
through their style of leading (or managing).
for the amount of time we give to our jobs and
Empowerment need not necessarily imply that
for the ways in which we allow work to affect
the power is handed over from one in authority
our health and general wellbeing. This of course
to a subordinate. Some thinkers would argue
is a consideration for the managers who either
that everyone has the power already and all the
“empowerer” does is enable the realisation of it. condone, by doing nothing to stop such work-
In working with young people in particular, we ing practice, or positively encourage by simply
need to consider where we are withholding or asking more and more of their workers.
over burdening them with power and where we
are “disempowering” by not enabling their knowl- At another level, managers need to consider
edge or abilities or creativity to come forward. the issue of professionalism – both for them-
selves and their staff. Lack of payment is no
We return again to the idea that the purpose of excuse for unprofessional conduct and so this
many of our organisations is to enable young peo- applies as much to volunteers and Board mem-
ple to reach their full potential. An empowering bers as it does to paid staff. We need to con-
attitude to the management of those who work sider the limits of personal relationships in the
with us is primarily about realising the full poten- work place, issues of prejudice and discrimi-
tial of the human resource of the organisation. nation, health and safety and honesty and
integrity. At an organisational level, we need
Finally, we need to consider again the dynamism to consider the systems we have in place to
factor. People and organisations change, as do safeguard workers against accusations of mis-
their environments and contexts. This has to conduct in any of these areas. This will no
affect motivation: Through past experience doubt have implications on financial and other
(upbringing, education, experience in and out resources. There is much legislation around
of work); through their present situations (the these issues but the values of our organisa-
individuals own perspective and one’s own tions should also have an influence on the
3
view of the perspectives of colleagues); and commitment we show to them.
through our perceptions of the future (prospects
in this organisation and outside, personal aspi- At a higher level still, the nature of European
rations, paid or unpaid). The young volunteer youth organisations is such that we have
who has a stable family background, good edu- responsibilities outside of our organisations too.
cation and the encouragement of peers and We have to be accountable to funders and per-
leaders will have a very different kind of moti- haps above all, to the people we exist to serve.
vation to the person without such encouragement The quality of services and information we
and whose previous experience is of failure deliver will be a reflection of the seriousness
or rejection. Both may be well motivated, but with which we take all our responsibilities.
the combination and origin of the hygiene
and motivating factors outlined above, may be
very different. Maslow’s highest needs centre on
personal growth and the realisation of potential.
An empowering approach, built on an awareness
3.3 Training, development
of and commitment to meet the progressive and assessment
needs of those we work with, is the route to
motivation in all parts of our organisations.
3.3.1 The learning organisation
Many European youth organisations focus on
3.2.4 Responsibility the development of young people in an holis-
In a world where legislation is increasingly tic way. How this is done is a feature of each
used to highlight and define responsibilities, individual organisation. The emphasis given
managers need to consider their responsibili- to the development of staff and workers will
ties at several levels. also be unique to each organisation. The fact

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that many of our organisations are values dri- A further temptation is that we insist on train-
ven is sometimes at odds with the hard reali- ing courses as the only way in which we learn.
ties of running programmes with very limited The term “training and development” is recog-
resources. This can lead to compromise when nised to include more than simply going on
it comes to the amount of time and money courses and the word “learning” is becoming
devoted to learning. We can however, identify widely used as a catch all for any experience
some key features of organisations which would which, when appropriately facilitated, leads
be classed as “learning organisations”. to personal growth. As managers of learning
organisations we need to be open to seeing
At the heart of this concept is the idea that opportunities for our staff which will help
organisations develop through the individ- them grow and consequently be more effec-
ual, personal development of those who work tive in their jobs. This might relate to compe-
in them. Some key principles are outlined in tence – including knowledge and skills – or it
the bullet points below. might relate to motivation or self confidence
or team working. It might also relate to the
• The benefit and value of continuing devel- perspective from which an individual looks
opment is recognised by staff and volunteers on a problem or on the organisation itself, for
• All workers – paid and unpaid – are encour- example, a visit to another branch of your
aged to take responsibility for their own organisation – or even to an other organisation
learning and development all together, may result in the member of staff
• Organisational structures are both sufficient- seeing a problem differently and consequent-
ly well designed and flexible enough to allow ly finding a previously overlooked solution.
for personal growth and development Examples of non-training-course learning
• A learning climate is encouraged in which opportunities include job shadowing, (where
learning from experience and feedback is a staff member or volunteer spends a period
facilitated and in which mistakes are allowed of time along side another worker – literally
• Strategies and policies are developed though being their “shadow”, either in the organisa-
consultation and as consciously structured tion or in a different organisation, to see what
learning processes that job entails and how that person does it),
• Financial commitment is made through on the job training, conference attendance,
effective budgeting, to support the learning learning sets.
process
3 Assessment of work performance is mentioned
later in this section but it is worth noting here
Suggestions for training the value of both planning learning in the con-
text of a regular work review and of record-
ing and accrediting any learning which does
• Ask participants to consider their
take place. Personal development logs are an
organisations in the light of these
ideal tool for this.
principles. Where are the strengths,
and where are the weaknesses ?
What are the blocks and what are
the opportunities ? Suggestions for training

• Ask your group to consider the last

three occasions when they felt they
There is a temptation, when encouraging learn- learned something. Ask them to
ing – especially in young people – to forget explain the value of that learning to
that the personal development is intended to their organisations and to describe
result in organisational development. Without the process by which they learned.
clear organisational goals and mission, it is • Who were the key players in the most
impossible to assess whether or not personal significant instances of personal
learning will assist in meeting them; or indeed growth or development in the last
whether it is justified to expend both time and three years ? What made them key
money. Spending time and money for example, players ?
on language training course in Spanish will be
difficult to justify for people in organisations
whose primary area of work is in Belarus!

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The reality of many European youth organisa- of our people, then we need a mechanism for
tions is that they are not learning organisations. reviewing this on a regular basis. Many com-
There is too frequently a lack of induction into mercial organisations use the concept of the
the organisation itself and it is often the case annual appraisal as a tool within their “per-
that paid staff work very much in isolation – formance related pay schemes”. It is also used
sometimes at odds with their Boards of Man- this way in some NGOs. The difficulty arises
agement. The ability to network – either within when the focus of such an assessment is on
your own organisation or with others in sim- the past performance rather than on the future
ilar ones – is a crucial part of the Learning potential. The term “work review” is perhaps less
Organisation in practice. threatening and provides a balance between
the two. The regularity and frequency of work
reviews needs careful consideration: A full
3.3.2 Learning Styles review annually, with a six month interim
As we promote the idea of personal learning, review of progress towards agreed goals, is a
we need to acknowledge that each individual well tried norm.
will have a preferred way, or style, of learning.
Some people prefer to get at a subject by solving It is a sad reflection that Boards often let down
a real problem. Others prefer to hear some the- their staff – and their fellow volunteers – by
ory and make generalisations before applying not carrying out work reviews. Where the rel-
it to their situation. evant competencies are not present in a Board
then training should be sought, or outside help
In the previous section on management of self, found to provide the service. Regular work
we introduced the concept of learning styles. reviews are a useful tool to check the relevance
In this section we need not reiterate the details and accuracy of job descriptions of staff and
but we do need to consider the way in which volunteers. Job descriptions can also used to
learning styles of those we manage affect the provide an agenda for a work review. Work
way in which we manage them. reviews are also useful as a tool for overcom-
ing resistance to change as they provide an
As managers do we get the most from activists ideal opportunity to consider the individual’s
by letting them “jump in the deep end”?, or do contribution to the development of the organ-
we ensure that the reflectors in our teams have isation at a strategic level.
sufficient time to absorb and consider infor- In assessing past performance, for whatever 3
mation before they are pressed for decisions. reason, a number of criteria may be useful to
Do we allow theorists to question things and do ensure equality and agreement.
we make the most of the pragmatist’s ability to
transfer learning from one situation to another? 1. The assessment needs to be planned. – The
process needs to be clearly explained and
Likewise when we consider the type of learn- time given for planning and preparation.
ing experience we encourage our people to The plan also needs to include advice on
engage in: Does the learning style match the the kind of evidence which might be used
learning delivery? One advantage of the expe- to demonstrate performance.
riential learning cycle as described by Kolb, is 2. Performance needs to be measured against
that it contains elements which are of relevance something. – Targets set at the beginning
to each of the four learning styles described by of an assessment period need to have been
Honey and Mumford. Activists enjoy the doing
agreed from the outset and any changes
phase, Reflectors find it easier to engage in the
noted. The measures or standards against
reviewing phase, theorists participate most
which assessment takes place need to be
effectively when allowed to draw out the key
clear and relevant to the job. Again this
learning points and Pragmatists are most able
where reference to the job description and
to apply their preferred style in the application
person specification can be useful. J.W.
of the learning to a new situation.
Humble was particularly associated with
Management by Objectives (MBO) and the
importance of Key Results Analysis (KRA).
3.3.3 Assessment of performance
Criticism of his ideas were that the process
and work review
of using a job description which listed the
If our organisations are to continually grow and main responsibilities, lines of communica-
develop through the growth and development tion, objectives and budgets as the basis for

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the setting of Key Results was too mechan- 4. A record of the performance assessment and
ical. The mechanism normally associated the plans and commitments for the future
with the process meant that there was a should be written and agreed by both man-
strong preference for quantitative targets ager and staff members.
and that these targets may not have led to
the business performance which was sought. The points above are intentionally written in
Given that the whole process was linked the formal style often used when introducing
with financial reward then it is easy to procedures for work reviews or performance
understand resistance to being “processed” assessments. The reality – perhaps more so in
in this way. The temptation for large organ- European youth organisations – is that the
isations to adopt this or variations of this benefits of such a procedure are more or less
system, is obvious. Uniformity and objec- controlled by the quality of the relationships
tivity as well as precision are all proposed between staff and managers – be they paid or
as advantages. unpaid. Open and honest relationships and the
3. Feedback must be clear and constructive. ability to give and receive feedback as a daily
– Only the set and agreed criteria can be norm will ensure that regular work reviews are
used to make judgements and all available profitable and even enjoyable experiences.
evidence should be used. Where further evi-
dence is available but has not been collect-
ed, opportunity to do so should be given.
Where inconsistencies arise then these Suggestions for training
should be clarified and resolved. Giving and
receiving feedback can be very divisive • Ask course participants to design a
and it is essential that both are done with plan for a regular work review. What
sensitivity and honesty. The idea of the would be the time scales? What ques-
hamburger – top and bottom made up of tions would be asked before and
positive comment, praise and recognition, during the review.
and the middle made up of points for
• Consider the outcomes of a regular
improvement – is a common approach to
work review. How do we make them
this. Feedback needs to be well timed, accu-
SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achiev-
rate, specific, relevant and must point to
able, Realistic, Timed) ?
the future.
3
• The exercise given at the end of the section
on coaching is an ideal way to practice and
receive feedback on your feedback!

In identifying further learning needs, the fol- 3.4 Coaching, mentoring

lowing criteria may be useful. and counselling
1. Individuals should be able to identify their
current competence and their own long 3.4.1 Coaching
term goals. The competencies required to
achieve the latter should be established. Coaching is a process which aids improvement
in performance – traditionally we understand it
2. Learning opportunities should clearly match
best in the context of sport. Here, performance
the learning need. The preferred style of the
is about winning races or competitions, or
learner should be taken into account and
exceeding previous records.
choices made from as wide a range of oppor-
tunities as possible. The coach is a person who enables improve-
3. Managers need to commit to continued ment by using a selection of approaches,
support. The assessment meeting should styles and techniques appropriate to the
be seen as part of an ongoing process in sport, the competition and the individual
which the manager has a vital interest. concerned.
Assistance in choosing learning experiences,
preparing for them and reviewing their It is a feature of coaching that it normally
outcomes should be agreed and built into involves a one to one relationship, and this is
the plan for the coming period. also true when applied to the world of work.

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Fig. OM-17 : Coaching spectrum

Directive Facilitative

Characteristics Characteristics

Coach identifies problem Coachee identifies problem

Coach decides on solution No telling

Tells Asks open questions

No Questioning Listens

Little Listening Coachee identifies solutions

Intrusive on coach’s time in long term Coachee owns the solution

Coachee may not “buy in” Coachee gains new skills

Becomes less intrusive,

saves long term cost and time

3

Useful Useful
– to solve an immediate, urgent or – to develop coachee’s confidence

Stressful problem – open up their potential

– when learner has no background knowledge– improve coachee’s perfor-

mance

Effective Coaches :
Operate flexibly along the spectrum to meet circumstances

Ineffective Coaches :
Tend to operate directively but without sensitivity

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Coaching may result from the work review 4. Make sure that feedback is given as soon
process or may be provided as a result of as possible after the observations are made.
other situations such as the start of a new job 5. Using a facilitative approach will leave the
or project. In the Action Centred Leadership coachee the time to work on his or her
model mentioned earlier (figure 12), coaching own solutions. Open questioning will help
applies primarily to the circle marking the in this process.
needs of the individual. Indeed relationship is
once again a key word in the use of coaching. Receiving feedback also requires skill, and per-
haps most importantly, the desire to learn. Some
As with leadership, coaching – which can per- practical tips include:
haps best be described as one of the many tools
of a leader or manager – can be applied using 1. Remember that the person giving feedback
a spectrum of behavioural style; from directive is on your side. They may be taking a risk
to facilitative. in talking this way.
2. Consider your body language. What signals
are you sending through your eye contact
and body posture?
Suggestions for training 3. Listen carefully, seek clarification when nec-
essary, don’t seek to justify or defend unless
• Consider the issues, problems or tasks asked to.
which may benefit from coaching
amongst staff, paid or unpaid in your
organisation.
Suggestions for training
• Consider how important it is for the
coach to understand the technical • Choose an activity where a coach
detail of the job of the coachee. How can observe another member of the
does this differ from other elements course carrying out a task (eg giving
of leadership ? a presentation). Provide time to pre-
pare and then set up a coaching
interview where a third member of
3 the group can observe and give feed-
back on the feedback !
The model below shows the importance of
relationship within the coaching process. Trust
enables a relationship which can then approach
a number of objectives in a cyclical manner.
3.4.2 Mentoring
Feedback is an essential part of coaching. If While coaching is generally seen as a tool used
Coaching is about helping people fill the gaps in by a manager, mentoring in common modern
their performance, then feedback is the letting usage is often, but not exclusively, a relation-
people know how well they have filled the gaps. ship which happens outside of the manag-
er/subordinate situation. The word comes from
Giving feedback requires skill and is both the Greek mythology where Ulysses entrusted
result of and the reason for the trusting relation- his son to the care of his old friend Mentor.
ships mentioned earlier. As a practical check Coaching and counselling are often used to
list, consider the following: mean mentoring, but it is hoped that this sec-
tion will provide a sufficiently clear distinction
1. Start and finish on a positive note – think of between the three.
feedback like a hamburger, with positive
comments being the bun and items for In the introduction to David Clutterbuck’s book
improvement being the meat in the middle. “Everyone Needs a Mentor” 1991 a great range
2. Concentrate on facts and be prepared to of definitions are given. In brief, phrases like
give specific examples. “mixture of parent of peer”, “a role model, a
3. Think about your body language. What guide, a coach and a confidant”, “a protected
signals are you giving through your pos- relationship in which learning and experi-
ture and eye contact (or lack of it)! mentation can occur, potential skills can be

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Fig. OM-18 : Trooper diagram

Coaching : The “TROOPER” Process

TRUST

RELATIONSHIP

OBJECTIVE

OPTIONS REVIEW

PLAN EVALUATE

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developed and in which results can be mea- 2. Has a genuine interest in seeing people
sured in terms of competencies rather than advance and can relate to their problems
curricular territory covered”. 3. Has a wide range of current skills to pass
on
Mentoring then is about personal growth which 4. Has a good understanding of the organisa-
does not have to relate to the job of the protégé tion; how it works and where it is going
directly. It has the character of a long term 5. Combines patience with interpersonal skills
relationship in which an individual is encour- and an ability to work in an unstructured
aged to explore, discuss, experience, discuss programme
some more, and maybe draw some conclusions 6. Has sufficient time to devote to the rela-
along the way. The trust and integrity are cru- tionship
cial once again, as is long term commitment 7. Can gain a protégé’s respect
from both mentor and protégé. 8. Has his or her own network of contacts
and influence
Some people choose mentors from outside
of their organisations whilst others prefer It is regarded as healthy practice that mentor
the closer understanding of the organisa- relationships have clear beginnings and end-
tion brought by a colleague. Peer mentoring ings. It is not uncommon for these relations
in young organisations, or those which are to develop into friendships which last for years.
only staffed by young people can be equally The original relationship is one of consider-
beneficial. It can also be a mutually beneficial able responsibility – frequently set up at the
process – particularly if a staff member is men- request of the organisation and with the ulti-
tored by a volunteer or Board member. mate goal of benefiting the organisation.

Mentoring relationships in large commercial

Suggestions for training organisations are frequently based around
specific pieces of work or clearly defined pro-
• One commentator’s summary of the jects. This perhaps gives a focus to profession-
role of a mentor is given below. al growth. Where the mentoring relationship
Consider first how competent you uses the day to day experiences as dictated
would be to carry out each part of by day to day pressures of work in a non profit
3 the role ; and secondly who you NGO then the focus might be rather different.
currently know who might be able Once again we come across the concept of
to fulfil the role for you. personal growth for the sake of it – a part per-
haps of the value base of our organisations.
The mentoring relationship can aid personal
MENTORS growth across as wide a spectrum of life as
Manage the relationship both mentor and protégé decide.
Encourage the protégé
Nurture the protégé
Teach the protégé
Offer mutual respect Suggestions for training
Respond to the protégé’s needs
• Ask participants to consider how they
might use a mentor relationship.
What issues would they consider it
beneficial to discuss with a mentor.
Using this model, it is hard to argue against How “deep” would they be prepared
peer mentoring. to go ?

If the role of mentor is as described then this

will help us in finding mentors – and conversely
assessing our own suitability to become one.
Clutterbuck provides a checklist. He suggests
3.4.3 Counselling
we look for a mentor who:
Counselling is another word which we find
1. Already has a good record for developing being interchanged with others and being
others used in a range of different contexts. For the

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purposes of this section, we will take it to Action: This is the main problem solving phase
mean a process or interaction, used within a and it may involve drawing the problem using
range of relationships, which assists a person a mind map or flow chart. It might involve a
in thinking through an issue or problem. We range of problem solving questions (eg SWOT
will not discuss here the professional coun- – Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and
selling which brings a range of specialist Threats), a then-and-now-analysis or starting
skills albeit based on the principles of active with the objective (the solution) and working
listening described below. In this section, the backwards.
term client is used as this is the one used, in
English, by professionals in the field Review: If you agree to follow up the coun-
selling session after an agreed period of time,
As such counselling techniques are used by you will introduce an element of supported
leaders, managers, coaches, mentors and a accountability for the decisions made. You will
whole spectrum of peer relationships. also ensure that the ongoing support is mon-
itored.
Counselling is basically about solving prob-
lems. It frequently follows the progression: Warning. Counselling can result in a range of
outcomes. The client may feel good and moti-
Contract – Exploration – Understanding – vated to follow through the agreed actions.
Action – Review The s/he may however only have come as far
as having a fuller understanding of the prob-
A contract is an agreement between the coun- lem but needs further specialist help in resolv-
sellor and client. It needs to cover time con- ing it. But in some cases the client may feel
straints, limits of confidentiality and expecta- even more unsettled then previously. A major
tions about the process. problem may have been exposed and a way
forward may not be obvious.
Exploration is the phase where active listening
is the key. The mnemonic EARS may be of help From the counsellors point of view, there may
here: be great satisfaction in having helped a team
member or colleague, but the counsellor may
Encourage also feel burdened with the client’s problem.
Ask There may be personal growth through 3
Reflect empathising with the client but there may
Summarise also be shock and distress.

During the understanding phase, the aim is In professional counselling, supervision and
to make sure that both counsellor and client support for counsellors is crucial. As a man-
understand the issues clearly and fully. Para- ager in a counselling role, it is essential that
phrasing, encouraging specificity, challenging you consider your own support structure. If
contradictions and clarifying implications are you are unsure about your ability to deal
all part of the process. with problem then seek external help.

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