Tempo in Beethoven

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music
Author(s): Rudolf Kolisch

Source: The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 77, No. 1 (Spring, 1993), pp. 90-131
Published by: Oxford University Press
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Tempo and Character
in Beethoven's Music
Rudolf Kolisch
Although there are many instances in which Beethoven clearly indi-

cated tempo by means of metronome markings, the question of tempo
in Beethoven's music is still hotly debated. His markings have hardly
been accepted as fully valid expressions of his intentions, nor have
they been uniformly adopted in performance practice. On the con-
trary, their existence has generally failed to enter the consciousness of
performing musicians, and they are lacking in most editions. Tradi-
tional performance practice deviates widely from the tempi denoted by
these metronome markings--and when musicians are brought face to
face with this fact, most of them immediately defend (often passion-
ately) the conventional tempi as against those indicated by the com-
poser. This strange situation deserves to be investigated.
The objections to the metronome markings come from all sides.
Sometimes their authenticity is challenged, while at other times it is
acknowledged, but the subjective validity of the markings put into
question: "Yes, the metronome markings are Beethoven's, but they do
not really convey his intentions." (In support of this argument, exam-
ples are cited of composers who are said to have given obviously
absurd metronomic indications -Schumann is most frequently men-
tioned.) From the perspective of musical technique it is claimed that
Beethoven's tempi are "unplayable," and that this fact alone suffices
to dispose of them. Opponents of the metronome will even go so far
as to make the unbelievably nonsensical assertion that our modem
metronome differs considerably from Beethoven's. (My answer: That
could be true only if the speed of the earth's rotation had changed in
the meantime.) Above these specific and practical objections there
hovers a general opposition of a spiritual and esthetic nature: metro-
nomic markings are felt to be "inartistic." They are said to cramp the
freedom of the interpretive imagination; so delicately balanced and
highly developed an organism as a musical artwork cannot, it is said,
be forced onto the Procrustean bed of a mechanical apparatus.
90
Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music 91
These attacks have seriously shaken the status of the metronome

in relation to Beethoven's music; I will attempt to restore it.
Regarding the question of authenticity, a brief account of Mailzel
and his relations to Beethoven will be of interest.
Johann Nepomuk Mdilzel was born in 1772 in Regensburg, the
son of an organ builder and mechanic. He was trained not only as a
mechanic but also as a musician, and is said to have been a good
pianist. He came to Vienna in the same year as Beethoven, 1792, and
set up a mechanical workshop in Stein's piano factory. His inventive
genius and highly developed sense of publicity soon brought him great
success. With his "Panharmonicon," a mechanical orchestra, and with
his "Mechanical Trumpeter," for which many well-known composers
wrote pieces, he toured all over Europe. After returning to Vienna he
constructed a new "Panharmonicon" which incorporated all the
instruments of a military band, and he arranged works for it by famous
composers such as Cherubini, Haydn, and Handel. His steadily grow-
ing fame gained him the title of Hofkammermaschinist ("Court Machin-
ist"). He later extended his travels as far as America and lived for
some time in Philadelphia. It was in the course of a journey from
there to South America that he died.
Beethoven was first led to this extremely gifted mechanic by the
hope of getting a usable hearing-aid from him. Of the four ear-
trumpets that Mailzel constructed for him, he did indeed use one for a
considerable time, but without its actually bringing him much relief.
During the many visits that Beethoven made to Mailzel's workshop,
the two men also discussed the construction of a machine that would
enable a composer to fix exactly the tempo of a piece of music. Malzel
had already been involved for some time with the plans for such a
machine and was working on perfecting it. His relations with
Beethoven had in the meantime become so close that the latter
accepted the proposal to accompany Mdilzel to England in 1813. The
attempts to bring this project to fruition led to all kinds of
complications -even, in the end, to a break between them and the
threat of a lawsuit with Beethoven as plaintiff. Since many false
accounts of this break remain in circulation even though Beethoven
scholarship has brought out the facts quite clearly, I would like to
examine it in somewhat greater detail.1
M~ilzel was faced with the task of coming up with the substantial
funds necessary for the projected journey to London. With his unerr-
ing sense of publicity, he hit upon a plan to exploit in a clever way
the public interest in Beethoven, as well as the patriotism of the audi-
ences in Vienna and London: Beethoven was to write a symphony on
92 The Musical Quarterly
the subject of Wellington's victory at Vittoria for Mailzel's "Panhar-

monicon." Strangely enough, Beethoven not only agreed to do so, but
actually carried out a quite detailed plan drawn up by Mdilzel, who not
only wrote out the drum marches and trumpet calls of the French and
English armies, but also recommended the use of "Rule Britannia,"
"God save the King," and "Malbrouk s'en va-t-en guerre" as themes
for the piece. Beethoven's wholly uncharacteristic acquiesence was
probably due only to his not taking the piece seriously. Mdilzel, how-
ever, considered it important enough to feel that a concert perfor-
mance of the "Battle Symphony" by a large orchestra would be even
more successful than one by the "Panharmonicon," and so persuaded
Beethoven to make an arrangement of it for symphony orchestra. The
first performance was to take place at a concert for the benefit of dis-
abled soldiers, at which Beethoven's new Seventh Symphony was to
be performed for the first time, and further performances were to bring
in the needed amount. Beethoven complied with this wish too, and
thanks to Mailzel, who demonstrated the full range of his publicity
skills (for example, he was able to enlist all the famous musicians who
were in Vienna at the time to collaborate in the performance, includ-
ing Salieri, Meyerbeer, Hummel, Romberg, Spohr, and Moscheles),
the concert, which took place on December 8, 1813, was one of the
greatest successes that Beethoven ever had. Mdilzel had also gauged
correctly the value of the "Battle Symphony" as a sensation: it proved
possible to repeat the work three more times--on December 12, 1813,
and on January 2 and February 27, 1814-on the last occasion with
the new Eighth Symphony. But the last two of these performances
took place without Milzel's participation, and because of his brother's
illness Beethoven had abandoned the plan of going to England. Thus
Milzel not only found himself deprived of a most effective work for
his "Panharmonicon," but also cheated of all the fruits of his efforts.
Believing in good faith that his property rights to the orchestrion
version extended also to the orchestral arrangement, Mailzel sought to
recoup some of his losses through a performance of the "Battle Sym-
phony" in Munich. Beethoven, however, insisted that he alone had
exclusive rights to the piece, and forbade the planned performance.
When negotiations in a lawyer's office proved futile, Milzel had a
copy of the "Battle Symphony" made using parts belonging to some of
the musicians who had participated in the performances; with this
material he produced the work in Munich. This drove Beethoven into
a furious rage, which vented itself in the form of extremely violent
insults and even led to the filing of a legal complaint against Milzel.
Assuming, mistakenly, that Milzel intended to stage a performance of

the work in London as well, Beethoven, in order to forestall him, had
a copy of the piece made at his own expense and sent it to the Prince
Regent. But this action failed its purpose completely; the Prince
Regent took no notice of the present, and in fact Mailzel had no
intention of performing the symphony in London. When his rage had
subsided, Beethoven seemed himself to have recognized how precipi-
tous his behavior had been, and the matter was settled by a compro-
mise in which each party paid half of the court costs.
At any rate, the two men were already fully reconciled by the
time Mailzel returned to Vienna in 1817; the merry canon Ta, ta, ta,
which was sung at a festive gathering in honor of the inventor of the
metronome, bears witness to that fact. The metronome had mean-
while been put into production and was being marketed from Paris. In
the enthusiasm with which Beethoven greeted the new invention
there is no longer any trace of the unpleasant disagreement between
the two men. Beethoven published the following declaration jointly
with Salieri in the [Viennese] Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung on Febru-
ary 14, 1818:
Malzel's metronome is here! The usefulness of this invention of his will reveal
itself more and more; and all composers of Germany, England, and France have
accepted it; we have, however, considered it not unnecessary to recommend it,
in accordance with our conviction, to all beginners and students as well,
whether in singing or in playing the pianoforte or any other instrument, as
useful, in fact indispensable. Through its use they will be able to learn and
practice the values of the notes with the greatest ease. Also within the shortest
time they will arrive at the point of being able to perform without difficulty
and with enthusiasm; for since the pupil, after having had the appropriate di-
rections and explanations from his teacher, is thus prevented even in the ab-
sence of the latter from straying arbitrarily from the tempo in singing or
playing, his feeling for time will in a short time become so developed and di-
rected that in this respect there will soon be no further difficulties for him. We
think it necessary to illuminate this so generally useful invention of Malzel's
from this standpoint, too, since it appears that in this respect it has not yet
been sufficiently appreciated.2
But he had already given concrete evidence of his esteem for the
metronome in 1817 by having S. A. Steiner in Vienna publish a pam-
phlet entitled Bestimmung des Musikalischen Zeitmaf3es nach MALZEL's
Metronom. Erste Lieferung. Beethoven Sinfonien Nr. 1-8 und Septett
von dem Autor selbst bezeichnet ["Determination of Musical Tempo
According to MAiLZEL's Metronome. First Installment. Beethoven
Symphonies Nos. 1-8 and Septet, designated by the Author Himself"]

(publisher's number 2811). This pamphlet contains metronomic indi-
cations for all the movements of the Septet and the eight symphonies
that had been composed up to that point. Soon thereafter a similar
booklet followed as the second installment (publisher's no. 2812),
covering the string quartets composed before 1817: op. 18/1-VI, op.
59/I-III, op. 74, and op. 95. In 1872 the respected Beethoven scholar
Nottebohm wrote that "it was not possible to get a copy of it."3 This
facile comment led Beethoven scholarship in general to view the met-
ronome markings with the greatest scepticism--as already mentioned
they are missing in most editions--and this in turn provided interpret-
ers with the welcome opportunity simply to overlook them. But good
luck allowed me to find a copy of the second pamphlet during the
course of my research in the Drexel Collection of the New York Pub-
lic Library.
What follows is a list of the other works for which Beethoven
provided metronomic indications, along with the documentary evi-
dence of their authenticity:
Op. 106 (Piano Sonata in B-flat). A letter to Ries dated April
16, 1819, contains the indications for this work, unfortunately the
only piano sonata for which we have such data:
Here, dear Ries! are the tempi of the sonata. First movement Allegro, but only
Allegro; you must remove the assai. MIlzel's metronome = 138. Second
movement Scherzoso. M's metronome J. = 80. Third movement. M's metro-
nome
that , =say
is to 92.[...]Here I must
Fourth pointIntroduzione.
movement. out that the first
Largo. bar still
M ilzel's has
metro- to be inserted,
nome = 76. Fifth movement. time. [. . .] and the last movement: Milzel's
metronome = 144.4
Op. 112 (Meeresstille und Gliickliche Fahrt). There are metro-

nomic indications in Beethoven's own hand in the manuscript.
Op. 121b (Opferlied). There is the remark in the manuscript:
"M.M. J = 66 according to the composer's instructions."
Op. 125 (Ninth Symphony). The metronome specifications are
contained in a letter to Schott dated October 13, 1826:
I am using what remains of the fine weather to take a holiday here in the
country, since it was impossible for me to leave Vienna this summer. Mean-
while I have worked out the metronome markings for the whole symphony and
am enclosing the tempi . . . You may also have them engraved separately. Do
not forget what I told you about the second movement.
I will soon let you have the metronome markings for the Mass as well.5
The final remark shows that Beethoven had the intention of

fixing the tempi for the Missa solemnis, which he unfortunately did not
carry out. He had similar intentions for many of the later piano sona-
tas as well.
The evidence for the authenticity of these markings thus seems
conclusive. What is much harder to establish is their subjective valid-
ity: Do they really represent the composer's conceptions of tempo?
And is tempo in general an integral part of a musical work of art,
capable of being fixed as an objective category and thereafter immuta-
ble? This question leads far beyond the domain of performance prac-
tice to the very heart of musical creation. Let us attempt to answer it,
at least as concerns Beethoven.
First, the subjective question: Did Beethoven himself consider
tempo an essential component of his musical idea? To help answer
this question I would like to cite just one passage among many utter-
ances in conversations and letters, from a letter to Schott dated
December 18, 1826:
The metronome markings [for the Missa solemnis] will be sent to you very soon.
Do wait for them. In our century, such markings are certainly necessary; moreover
I have received letters from Berlin informing me that the first performance of
the [Ninth] Symphony met with enthusiastic applause, which I ascribe largely
to the metronome markings. We can hardly have any tempi ordinarii any longer,
since one must be guided by the ideas of unfettered genius.6
Thus we see that observing the proper tempo could, in Beethov-

en's opinion, determine the success of a new work!
On the question of the extent to which tempo is an immutable
constituent of the musical idea, I would like to cite Beethoven's letter
to Hofrat von Mosel in 1817, which gives us profound insights into
his conception of the tempo question:
Noble Sir! I am heartily delighted that you share my own opinion concerning
the terms to indicate tempo, which still stem from the barbarous days of music;
for, to take only one example, what can be more nonsensical than allegro
which simply means merry, -how far away we often are from this notion of this
tempo, so that the music itself says the opposite of the indication. -As far as these
four principal tempi are concerned, which incidentally do not possess anywhere
near the truth or importance of the four principal winds, we would gladly do
without them. But the words that indicate the character of the piece are a dif-
ferent matter. These we cannot abandon, since the tempo is really more the
body of a piece, while these terms refer to its very spirit. -As far as I am con-
cerned, I have long been thinking of abandoning these nonsensical terms alle-
gro, andante, adagio, presto, and M~ilzel's metronome gives us the best
opportunity to do so. I give you my word here and now that I will never use
them again in any of my new compositions. Another question is whether by
doing so we will further the much needed proliferation of the metronome-I
hardly think so. But I have little doubt that we will be decried as tyrants and
yet, if the cause itself were really served in the process, it would be better at
any rate than to be accused of feudalism. That is why I believe it would be
best, especially for our countries, in which music has become a national neces-
sity, and every village schoolmaster must be urged to use the metronome, for
Malzel to try to sell a certain number of metronomes by subscription at higher
prices, and as soon as his costs have been covered by that number he will be in
a position to provide the remaining metronomes for the musical needs of the
nation so cheaply that we may surely expect their most widespread use and dis-
tribution. It goes without saying that a few people must lead the way, to stimu-
late others to follow; as far as I am concerned, you can surely count on me,
and I await with pleasure the task which you will assign me in this regard.
I am, noble Sir, with great respect,

Your most devoted
Ludwig van Beethoven.7
Thus we see that the old Italian terms seemed "nonsensical" to

Beethoven; they now indicate only a tempo and no longer the "char-
acter" of a piece. These two categories are now separated, their juxta-
position deepened by the metaphorical antithesis "body--spirit." The
discrepancy between the sense of the old Italian terms and the new
"characters" of the pieces is felt to be very disturbing. At times this
discrepancy even becomes an actual contradiction! But the metro-
nome has rendered these old "barbaric" designations superfluous. The
categories of tempo and character can be expressed independently
from each other: tempo in absolute and exact fashion by means of the
metronome; character by means of the adequate and discriminating
terms of the vernacular.
But it is not only the indications of tempo that have become
inadequate; the very tempi indicated by them are no longer suitable.
The conventional categories of tempo-the tempi ordinarii--are no
longer suited to embody the "New Spirit." This "New Spirit" charac-
terizes Beethoven's colossal and revolutionary achievement and mani-
fests itself in the new types of expression with which he enriched the
language of the Vienna Classic Style. These new types of expression-
characters -correspond to new tempi, which can no longer be indi-
cated unambiguously by the old Italian terms, despite all sorts of
modifications. The inherited, early Classic types now appear only
infrequently: "We can hardly have any tempi ordinarii any longer."
We see that Beethoven sensed the problem very clearly and drew
the necessary conclusions from it. He was aware of tempo as an essen-
tial part of his language, coordinated with that mysterious category

which he himself termed "character." If further evidence is needed
that Beethoven was aware of this interrelation, and that his concep-
tion of tempo was compelling and unambiguous, it may be found in
the fact that he indicated the same tempo for different pieces of the
same character. Beethoven's construction of typical tempo categories,
corresponding to categories of expression, eliminates any suspicion
that his metronomic indications could be merely casual expressions of
subjective ideas of interpretation. No: the tempo of a piece is born with
the conception of the music itself, and is an integral component of it.
But can the required tempi be realized in practice? It is often
maintained that Beethoven's inability to hear the realization of his
music had distanced him so far from the practical considerations of
musical performance that his tempo indications became "abstract,"
conceived without consideration of their practical possibility. They are
that, of course-for they are, after all, a part of his compositional
idea. But this idea is not derived from the instrument; it does not
even meet the instrument half-way.8 Thus, if a given tempo should
really prove to be impossible in practice, this would only indicate the
inadequacy of our technique. I can, however, affirm in good con-
science and on the basis of experience that the tempi required by
Beethoven of stringed instruments, at least, are perfectly playable with
today's average technique.
Nor do I believe that difficulties of instrumental technique are
the real reason-at least not the sole reason-for the past and present
disregard of Beethoven's tempi. The real reason is rather that Beetho-
ven's language, because of its newness, was not understood by his
contemporaries, and that therefore the new tempi for his unprece-
dented expressive characters simply could not be conceived. The fol-
lowing comment by Beethoven in the Wiener Vaterlandische Blatter of
October 13, 1813, confirms this:
[. . .] I consider the invention of the metronome a welcome means of assuring

that the performance of my compositions everywhere will be in the tempi that
I conceived, which to my regret have so often been misunderstood.
Contemporary musicians were also aware of this difficulty, as is

demonstrated by the following letter from Galitzin, dated December
30, 1823:
I should also have wished that you would have sent me the tempi for all the
movements of the Mass according to Malzel's metronome, which will give us a
more exact idea of the manner in which you wish them to be performed. I
even urge you strongly to do this for all the works you have composed; for I
have often observed great variations in the manner in which your music is per-
formed, and in order to resolve the question and the differing opinions, what is
needed is your own word as to the tempi in which you wish all your composi-
tions to be played. Mdilzel's metronome seems to me very valuable for this pur-
pose.9
In light of all this, we may consider it demonstrated, in my opin-

ion, that Beethoven was aware of the importance of tempo in his
music and considered it an integral element of its "character"--that
category which he felt to be most essential to his music.
How, given all this, can the use of an apparatus for fixing tempo
still be called "inartistic"? This attitude on the part of amateurs and
"creative" interpreters is the result of a serious misunderstanding. The
violent opposition to the metronome stems from the widespread
assumption of an antithesis between mechanical apparatus and artistic
freedom. But this antithesis simply does not apply here! To be sure,
the metronome is a machine; but its only purpose here is to measure
exactly an absolute quantity-the relation of music to time. This is
not unlike the function of modem musical notation (itself no longer
modem) which gives the exact pitch, another departure from "the
barbarous days of music" when this was not the case. The enormous
differentiation of tempo and its close relation to "expression" has
made precise specification necessary; the metronome is no more "inar-
tistic" than a well-tuned piano.
It seems to me that the opponents of the metronome misunder-
stand something crucial: they believe its use demands that a piece of
music be played from beginning to end according to the unvarying
beat of the metronome. That, however, would not only be inartistic;
it would destroy the meaning of the music. Except in special cases,
such as a perpetuum mobile or certain 6tudes and marches, there is
hardly a measure in music in which the beats have equal time-value.
The use of the metronome to establish a tempo does not involve using
it to compare the length of beats-it can be used for that, too, though
that is a question of rhythm-but simply to determine the basic
"speed." It affords the interpreter complete rhythmic freedom and
complete "artistic freedom" for the performance as a whole. It serves
only to establish objectively an objective category. But it removes this
category from the domain of subjective caprice, upon which it would
otherwise be helplessly dependent (and unfortunately still is).
Attempts to reduce the fixing of tempi ad absurdum are fre-
quently made by pointing out the inaccuracy of composers' own con-
ceptions of tempo. Composers have often changed or disavowed their
own tempo indications, it is said. They have often failed to notice

deviations from their instructions when listening to their own works,
and even when they have performed their own works themselves their
tempi have always varied. These objections bring us to the important
question of quantity in tempo indications. How exact is the concep-
tion of tempo? Variations of tempo in the interpretation of their own
works prove little about the exactness of composers' conceptions.
Every interpreter will confirm that it is very difficult to realize a pre-
conceived tempo, particularly when one is not the sole performer
involved in producing it. As for changes by composers of their own
previous tempo indications, these only prove that the first notation
was not quite right, just as other elements of composition are some-
times inaccurately set down the first time. Insensitivity on the part of
composers towards deviations from a tempo they themselves estab-
lished seems to constitute a strong argument against the idea that
tempo is a binding and integral part of their conception. But in the
first place, the present investigation concerns only Beethoven, about
whom we have no evidence of such insensitivity; on the contrary, we
know that he took the greatest pains to make sure that the tempi he
intended were followed. In the second place, what really matters is
the extent of the deviation. 10
Slight deviations do not in general disturb the meaning of the
music. A metronome number indicates a tempo category which allows
more or less leeway. It is only when this category is abandoned that
the tempo becomes essentially mistaken, and distorts the character of
the music. How wide this leeway is cannot, of course, be determined
in general terms. (Many composers begin their tempo indications with
"ca."; or they write, for example, J = 126-132.) As far as Beethoven
is concerned, we may say that the leeway is narrower where the tempo
categories lie closer together and wider where they encompass a larger
range. (The table which follows below will make this clear in detail.)
But what matters is always, of course, only significant divergences
which destroy the meaning--never mere nuances within the categories!
The deviations which are traditional in Beethoven performance
are, however, quite significant; in some cases they lead to a complete
distortion of his idea. We have already seen how these deviations
arose; we will also understand how it is that they have held their
ground so stubbornly when we consider that the works have been
handed down in this distorted form by tradition, and that the distor-
tions have then been firmly established by the performance practice of
leading contemporary musicians. These distortions have thus been
taken up, "petrified" as it were, into the inventory of "mankind's
sacred heritage" and are deeply rooted in the consciousness of the

consumers of music. This explains the surprisingly strong resistance to
the restoration of Beethoven's original tempo intentions. 11
But if what really matters to us is that Beethoven's music appear
in its intended form, and if we believe that his intended tempo is
crucial to the realization of the characters of his music, then we must
insist with great decisiveness that his tempo prescriptions be observed.
Unfortunately he provided explicit tempo markings for only twenty-
four of his ca. 150 principal works with opus numbers; for the remain-
ing works we would seem to be left in the dark, dependent upon our
"instincts," our "healthy musical sense." But this only seems to be the
case, for it is possible to deduce the tempi for those works that
Beethoven did not mark by studying those for which he did provide
such indications. In order to lay the foundation for such deductions, it
will first be necessary to examine the principle according to which
Beethoven noted his tempi.
Except in very few instances, Beethoven employed the scorned
Italian tempo marks-Adagio, Andante, Allegretto, Allegro, Presto-to
designate his tempi. For slow tempi he also employed Largo, Larghetto,
and Lento, without making any fundamental distinctions among these
terms. These tempo categories are modified quantitatively by additions
such as molto, poco, ma non troppo, or assai; supplementary indications
such as serioso, mesto, scherzoso, and grazioso are used as a means to
characterize the music. In general, Beethoven regularly used the same
tempo designation for the same tempo.
The absolute measure of the tempo indicated by one tempo des-
ignation varies, however, according to the meter signature and the
relation between the metric unit and the tempo unit. (I use the term
"metric unit" to indicate the unit in which the meter is expressed,
e.g.which
to J in the
4, ,tempo
in -, marking
in ". Therefers,
metric unit
I call or sum
"tempo of e.g.
unit," the ?metric
in units
Allegro.) It is essential, in deciding tempo questions in Beethoven, to
understand this aspect of his practice thoroughly, for if there is no
metronome marking given, his notation does not always indicate
clearly to which metric unit his tempo indications refer (e.g. Adagio
, Allegro '). The measure of the tempo varies within the tempo-
category according to the number of metric units constituting the
tempo unit. The greater this number, the slower the measure of the
tempo.
Thus, for example, in Beethoven the tempo category Allegro
(ordinario) encompasses a tempo between 88 and 176. In a 8 Allegro,
the tempo indication refers either to one metric unit (one quarter) or
to a sum of three metric units (a full measure). In the former
instance,
where , = 152-168;
the tempo in the
unit embraces threelatter
smaller=metric
88-100. In
units, a 6 Allegro
ff) = 104-112. In Allegro alla breve and in 2 meter, the tempo unit
coincides with the metric unit, just as in 4, meter. But since an alla
breve or 2 measure contains only two tempo units, the tempo is con-
siderably slower, i.e. J = 112-132 in , , = 120-132 in 4, , = 144-

176 inwhich
table, ,.12 contains
This principle is occurring
the tempi observed inconsistently. The following
Beethoven's works
arranged according to meter signatures and tempo categories, illus-
trates the systematic nature of their notation:
Allegro
Unit PFestissimo
Meter Temipo Adagio Andante Allegretto moderat mna non troppo (ordinario) con brio vivace/molto Presto,
C J = c60-63 = 100-120 = 120-138 = 144-176 = 152-200 = 224-288
J= 0-3 J= 46-50 = 69-88 = 112-132 = 132-168 = 152-176
3= 2-40 = 50-66 = 66-76 = 84-90 = 92-96 = 120-132 = 144 = 144-160 = 160-184
4 . =76-80 = 18
= 40-i50 = 72-88 = 88-92 = 152-176
81 . . = 24-30 . = 50-60 . =72 ). = 84-92 =. =104-112 .

= 6-44 =60-76 = 100 = 116-144 = 152-168 = 180-216 = 240-300
4 J. J. = 63-84 J. = 88-10 . =10

: J. J. =?~40-46 5 0 _ _
__ J = i52 = 72 92-1-10 = 168
I . J. =72-88
As has already been remarked, the tem

not always enable one to classify a piece
tempo category. Sometimes the system o
strictly maintained, and then frequently
to the tempo unit remains an open quest
scherzo form in op. 18/IV, op. 18/V, o
are all marked "Menuetto" and/or "Alleg
movements is in a different tempo, and t
means mere nuances; on the contrary, th
to J = 252! Only the meaning of the mu
correct. What we must first decide is whe
with a true minuet, in which the quarte
waltz-type compositions, in which whole
tempo units. This decision will be possibl
nation of the specific musical nature of
Thus we must determine the essential quality of the music, its

"spirit." Then we can assign to the spirit its proper "body." Beethoven
undertook this himself for most of his character-types by means of his
metronome markings. Thus if we succeed in identifying a piece as
having a certain specific character, we shall have determined its
tempo. Musical character manifests itself in the musical form. Simi-
larity of form in different pieces permits us to infer identity of charac-
ter. In the specific discussion which follows, I have attempted to carry
out such a phenomenological identification of all of Beethoven's
character-types. Such a taxonomy does not undermine the individ-
uality of particular works. The systematic model being set up here
does not imply that all pieces grouped within one type are identical
in their form of expression. Nor am I attempting to simplify the infi-
nite complexity of musical phenomena. Among all their varied mani-
festations, I am simply emphasizing the commonality of one single
element: character.
The decisive question in determining the tempo of the slow

movements in Beethoven is the question of which metric unit the
tempo indication refers to. The answer to this question is by no means
always obvious, and it is here that violence is most often done to
Beethoven's intentions. It seems that German Romanticism, and the
traditional performances inspired by it, believed that one could only
do justice to the "profundity" of the Beethoven Adagio by means of an
extremely slow tempo.13 This interpretation sometimes leads, how-
ever, to a complete distortion of the musical idea such that it is no
longer recognizable.
1) Adagio 4 J = 30-33
Piano Concerto No. 1, op. 15 Largo
Piano Sonata, op. 26 Marcia funebre C
Piano Sonata, op. 27/II Adagio sostenuto
Violin Sonata, op. 30/II Adagio cantabile
Romance, op. 40 (no tempo marking)
Romance, op. 50 Adagio cantabile
String Quartet, op. 59/II Molto Adagio C J = 60
Piano Concerto No. 5, op. 73 Adagio un poco mosso
Symphony
String No. 9,
Quartet, op.op.
131125 Adagio
No. molto
1. Adagio maenon
cantabile
troppoCe, mol
= 6
espressivo
String Quartet, op. 132 Canzona di ringraziamento. Molto adagio
C
The alla breve Adagio, which I refer to as the "chorale type" on

account of its articulation in half-notes, has not been accepted as such
by most editors; even the Breitkopf & Hirtel Gesamtausgabe took
away most of the alla breve signs. This unwillingness to let the tempo
marking refer to large note values naturally has its counterpart in
performance practice. The tempo is applied to the quarter-notes,
which are then however not played really Adagio (j = 30-40)-which
would be completely absurd-but rather in an Andante tempo (ca.
J = 50). This makes the tempo seem faster than it would be if played
correctly, despite the faster quarter notes (j = 60), for what deter-
mines perceived tempo is the distance between two accentuated
points. By suppressing the emphasis on the second and fourth quarters
one can make it possible to feel the tempo as really applying to the
half-notes, revealing the intended character as a broad Adagio. 14
Op. 27/Il
Adagio sostenuto
Op. 30/11I
Adagio cantabile
u P F w t
------ - -i
Op. 59/II
L Molto Adagio
"F I _ r "
it -! , , ':" .
Igol 't.
Op. 73
Adagio un poco mosso
45
Op 125
Adagio molto e cantabile
M IJT' N IEl m
Op. 131
Adagio ma non troppo e molto espressivo
Op. 132
Molto Adagio
_ -T-
In the Adagio movements notated in 2 meter, the problem con-

sists in finding out whether the indication "Adagio" applies to the
quarter-notes, resulting in a true 4, or to the eighth-notes, which
would produce a 4 meter. Beethoven, however, never used a 8 signa-
ture. Thus the notation by itself again does not give us sufficient
information; we must seek it in the music.
2) Adagio = 32-40
String Trio, op. 3 Adagio

Serenade, op. 8 Adagio
String Trio, op. 9/III Adagio con espressione C
Piano Sonata, op. 10/I Adagio molto
Piano Sonata, op. 13 Adagio cantabile
Violin Sonata, op. 30/I Adagio molto espressivo
Symphony No. 3, op. 55 Marcia funebre. Adagio assai = 80
Sextet, op. 81 b Adagio
Violin Sonata, op. 96 Adagio espressivo
The articulation of these themes in quarter-notes leaves no doubt

that the Adagio indication applies to the quarter-notes. (The relation-
ship between the Sonata op. 13 and the Ninth Symphony op. 125
confirms this inference.) The Funeral March of the Third Symphony
op. 55 constitutes a special case, since the considerable rhythmic
variety of its theme has almost always led to its being interpreted as a
2 Adagio. What makes such an interpretation untenable is principally
the Maggiore section.
The String Trio, op. 9/III, contains the only movement in 4
meter in which the Adagio tempo indication refers to the quarter-
notes. In all other similarly notated instances it refers to the half-
notes. But the structure of the piece shows clearly that what we are
dealing with here is not a real meter but two measures, since the
third quarter has the force of a down-beat.
Op. 3
1 Adagio
PA-------------- - -
Op. 9/III
Adagio con espressione
PP
Adagio molto
Op. 13
1 Adagio cantabile
Op. 55
Marcia funebre. Adagio assai
tP VII
-- --------------
S --Adagio-- -
Op.
61Xlb
Adagio
Op. 96
Adagio espressivo
3) Adagio (4) = 40-50
Piano Sonata, op. 2/III Adagio

String Quartet, op. 18/VI Adagio, ma non troppo = 80
String Quartet, op. 59/I Adagio molto e mesto = 88
Piano Trio, op. 70/I Largo assai ed espressivo
Woodwind Sextet, op. 71 Adagio
Cello Sonata, op. 102/II Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto
Figurations such as those contained in op. 59/I or op. 70/I dem-

onstrate that in these works the Adagio applies to the eighth-notes as
is, in fact, clear from the physiognomy of the themes.
Op. 2/III
Adagio
Op. 18NI
Adagio, ma non troppo
Op. 59/1
Adagio molto e mesto
f"- L" E" - A""

16; p
-Jl -ii
Op. 70/I
Largo assai ed espressivo
Op. 102/11
Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto
1 9 i 1 1' 1
/ ......
4) Adagio , . = 24-30
Piano Trio, op. 1/II Largo con espressione
Piano Sonata, op. 10/III Largo e mesto
Cello Sonata, op. 102/I Andante > = 88
Piano Sonata, op. 106 Adagio sostenuto. Appassionato e con
molto sentimento ? = 92
String Quartet, op. 135 Lento assai, cantante e tranquillo
String Quartet, op. 127 Adagio, ma non troppo e molto cantabile

12
8
In 6 meter the tempo indication always refers to the dotted

quarter.
Op. 10/III
1 Largo e mesto
IT.I-Iopa, ,-
,- ~ ~ tt .11 I . " I wt .
Op. 106
Adagio sostenuto
1 Appassionato e con molto sentimento
lma ('orda nle::. 1O'c
-dd
Op. 135
Lento assai, cantante e tranquillo
" -&--- r --
Op. 127
Adagio, ma non troppo e molto cantabile
I I "f I'-
:JoLZ,, , 1
5) Adagio s j = 36-44
Piano Trio, op. 1/I Adagio cantabile
Piano Sonata, op. 2/I Adagio
Piano Sonata, op. 2/II Largo appassionato
Piano Sonata, op. 7 Largo, con gran espressione
Piano Trio, op. 11 Adagio
Violin Sonata, op. 12/III Adagio con molta espressio
String Quartet, op. 18/II Adagio cantabile , = 72
Piano Concerto No. 2, op. 19 Adagio
Violin Sonata, op. 24 Adagio molto espressivo
Piano Sonata, op. 27/I Adagio con espressione
String Quintet, op. 29 Adagio molto espressivo
Piano Sonata, op. 31/II Adagio
Symphony No. 4, op. 60 Adagio J = 84
Woodwind Trio, op. 87 Adagio cantabile
String Quartet, op. 130 Cavatina. Adagio molto espressivo
The ' Adagio is by far the most common type among the Ada-
gios; in it the tempo indications always refer to the quarters.
Op. 12/111
Adagio con molta espressione
P
sfp
Op. 18/11
Adagio cantabile
Op. 24
Adagio molto espressivo
Op. 60 .0Ji
Adagio
"Op. I 3(
Cavatina. Adagio molto espressivo
1. .
6) Adagio 8, ,. = 40-46; . = 50
String Trio, op. 9/I Adagio, ma non tanto, e cantabile 4
String Quartet, op. 18/I Adagio affetuoso ed appassionato J = 138
Septet, op. 20 Adagio cantabile J = 132
Piano Sonata, op. 22 Adagio con molta espressione
Piano Sonata, op. 31/I Adagio grazioso
Piano Sonata, op. 111 Arietta. Adagio molto semplice e cantabile

9
16
The identity of the pieces notated in 9 meter, i.e. their common

reference to the dotted-quarter, is clearly shown in op. 9/I, which is
notated in 3 time.
The unique case of the Piano Sonata, op. 111, notated in ,96
meter, surely reflects an attempt to do justice to the special character
-and tempo-of this piece. This movement lies between a 9 Adagio
(J. = 40-46) and a 3 (Adagio J = 52-72).
Op. 9/1
Adagio, ma non tanto, e cantabile
P ------
Op. I 8/I
Op. 20
Adagio cantabile
... . . . I I I ] I I IF
lp If I r
Op. ill
Arietta. Adagio molto semplice e cantabile
: ; , .. .,,------------
-.771
At OF
7) Adagio' ,s = 52; , = 72
Piano Concerto No. 3, op. 37 Largo
Triple Concerto, op. 56 Largo
String Quartet, op. 74 Adagio ma non troppo , = 72
The two movements marked Largo are similar to the ' Adagio
while the slow movement of op. 74 is on the way to an Andante.
(The Larghetto from the Second Symphony op. 36 belongs completely
to the Andante category; see type 16.)
Op. 37
1 Largo
PP
" , M TI --.... . . .lt
Op. 56 SS
1 Largo l.OO
pT------ T I 11.i
Op. 74
Adagio ma non troppo
Lr 6
8) Andante C J = 60-63
Violin Concerto, op. 61 Larghetto
String Quartet, op. 130 Andante con moto, ma non troppo. Poco
scherzoso
The Larghetto of the Violin Concerto is probably the piece that has
undergone the most extensive distortion in performance: it is played
nearly twice as slowly as intended. It is treated as if it were an Adagio
with the tempo referring to the quarter notes, and is articulated (and
"beaten" by the conductor) in eighth notes at a tempo of J6 = 71-74.
As a result, this light, spirited, gracious Andante movement is made
into a solemn, devotional hymn. To me it is inconceivable how this
misunderstanding could arise, and even more inconceivable that it
could persist for so long. The incoherence of such an interpretation
should have been evident immediately from the sixteenth-note ara-
besques encircling the theme [at the violin's first entrance] which must
now be played with a solemn profundity weighted down by a cantabile
espressivo. But this conception becomes completely absurd in the con-
trasting middle section where the melodic progression is articulated in
half notes. When the Adagio diction settles on two trills in whole
measures, all the virtuosi steeped in tradition run out of breath and
abbreviate this resting point considerably.
The unusual marking Larghetto may have contributed to the gross
misunderstanding of this piece; it appears only one other time, in the
second movement of the Second Symphony where Beethoven estab-
lishes it as equivalent to Andante by marking it Jh = 92. Though the
Violin Concerto has no metronome markings from Beethoven's own
hand, we still have proof that he conceived the piece as an Andante
(despite the precious term Larghetto-whose diminutive form was per-
haps supposed to indicate its light character): Beethoven marked the
transitional cadenza to the third movement, which he wrote for the

piano arrangement of the concerto, as "Transition from the Andante
to the Rondo."
Op. 61
Larghetto i .. .... 1
C;wdad lib.
L~ --
Op. 130
a) Andante con moto ma non troppo. Poco scherzoso
b)
14
p A h..
C)
P w
9) Andante `2_ J. = 50
Symphony No. 6, op. 68 Andante molto mosso J. = 50
Op. 68
Andante molto mosso
10) Andante 4 J = 46-50

Piano Sonata, op. 14/II Andante
Piano Sonata, op. 27/I Andante
The Andante alla breve appears once in the form of a variation

movement and then later as a three-part song-form.
Op. 14/11
Andante
Op. 27/1
Andante
.PP I...
11) Andante 2 = 50-66
Piano Trio, op. 1/III Andante cantabile con Variazioni

Serenade, op. 8 Tema. Andante quasi Allegretto
Violin Sonata, op. 12/I Tema con Variazioni. Andante con moto
String Quartet, op. 18N Andante cantabile J = 100
Septet, op. 20 Andante J = 120
Serenade, op. 25 Andante con Variazioni
Violin Sonata, op. 47 Andante con Variazioni
Rondo (for Piano), op. 51/II Andante cantabile e grazioso

Piano Sonata, op. 57 Andante con moto
String Quartet, op. 131 No. 4. Andante ma non troppo e molt
cantabile
In light of the intermediate position of the Andante between t

Adagio and the Allegretto, we find in this category some pieces tha
closer to the Adagio and some that already have the character of a
Allegretto. Between them lies the true Andante type: the ' variatio
theme with folk-song character.
Op. 1/Ill
Andante cantabile
I
Op. 12/I
Andante con moto
p Ei i. -.4
Op. Ix/V
Andante cantabile
Op. 20
Andante
Op. 47
Andante
Op. 57
I Andante con moto
Op. 131
Andante ma non troppo e molto cantabile
tl~,l6r:9
12) Andante ' (4) = 72-88
Piano Quintet, op. 16 Andante cantabile

Piano Sonata, op. 81 a Andante espressivo
Op. 81a
Andante espressivo
In gehender Bewegung, doch mit viel Ausdruck
15
IMk P I I ff I F I O I F : 1 : 1.'f
LZ....
A-: : i i ..
LAR 1 . . ..1 -r i l310i
13) Andante . = 50-60
String Trio, op. 9/II Andante quasi Allegretto

Woodwind Octet, op. 103 Andante
String Quartet, op. 59/III Andante con moto quasi Allegretto

J. = 56
Symphony No. 6, op. 68 Allegretto ,. = 60
Op. 9/II exhibits the Scherzando character of op. 18/IV (2nd

movement--see type 22) and is thus virtually a 2 x . The melan-
cholic minor movement from op. 59/III is an isolated case which has
no scherzo elements.
Op. 9/11
Andante quasi Allegretto
P On_
Op. 59/III
Andante con moto quasi Allegretto
Op. 68
Allegretto
9-
Op1. 68
14) Andante 4 = 60-76
Violin Sonata, op. 30/III Tempo di Minuet

grazioso
Piano Trio, op. 97 Andante cantabile
Piano Sonata, op. 109 Gesangvoll, mit innigster Empfindung.
Andante molto cantabile ed espressivo
Piano Sonata, op. 110 Moderato cantabile molto espressivo
String Quartet, op. 131 No. 6. Adagio quasi un poco andante
The Andante appears twice as a variation theme: op. 97 and

op. 109.
Op. 30/111
Tempo di Minuetto
67 ma nolto moderato e grazioso
Op. 97
Andante cantabile
Op. 109
(;esangvoll, mit innigster Empfindung
1 Andtante molto cantabile ed esprcssivo
Op. 110
Moderato cantabile molto espressivo
A n -m c ah a ieili?t- e P
Modeato antaile oltoesprssiv
I
.
.._.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M in== ...fJ .... J :: :: I,=== --",J .
15) Andante 8 J. = 50
Piano Sonata, op. 79 Andante
Op. 79
Andante
p c777
_-. ~ gJ. IF_ 14j _ '-J.. . -- -- -
L77 !q
16) Andante 8s = 120; J = 92
String Trio, op. 3 Andante

Symphony No. 1, op. 21 Andante cantabile con moto = 120
Piano Sonata, op. 26 Andante con Variazioni

Symphony No. 2, op. 36 Larghetto J = 92
Symphony No. 5, op. 67 Andante con moto 1 = 92
Andante (for Piano), WoO 57 Andante grazioso con moto
Op. 3 and op. 21 are borderline cases which tend in two direc-
tions: conceived in whole measures (J. = 40), they belong to the
realm of the Adagio; but the articulation in eighth-notes relegates
them to the domain of the Allegretto. They represent Mozart's
"Andantino"-a term Beethoven did not use.
Op. 21
Andante cantabile con moto
1
'0
PP
Op. 26
Andante
S f
Op. 36
LOarghetto
Op. 67
Andante con moto
(p . /
WoO 57
Andante grazioso con moto ,
.' pc/ ,~ t r rPl--.. . .,
17) Allegretto C j = 100-120

Piano Sonata, op. 2/II Rondo. Grazioso
Piano Sonata, op. 6 Rondo. Moderato
Piano Trio, op. 11 Allegretto
The rondo form offers Beethoven much less of an opportun

exercise his power of creating new character-types than does t
sonata form. In the Allegretto tempo the rondo pieces all share
basic character of the Grazioso in duple meter, which leads us to des-

ignate this group the "Grazioso-type."
Op. 2/11
Grazioso
I I I-r
Op. 11I
Allegretto
F F. Op..
. . . .. . .MW
. ,. . . ?6
. . . .
:;b,, I,.!
., I,,.,I
J Il I -"' J
,.! 1.1 IJ - J-i -
I.I ] J ' iJ -- J IIF
12 ,1,1ad
18) Allegretto J = 66-76; J = 60

String Trio, op. 9/II Allegretto
Violin Sonata, op. 12/II Andante, piui tosto Allegretto
Violin Sonata, op. 23 Andante scherzoso, pih Allegretto
Piano Sonata, op. 49/I Andante
Piano Trio, op. 70/II Allegretto
Symphony
String No.
Quartet, op.7,
95 op. 92 Allegretto
Allegretto , = 76
ma non troppo = 66
Piano Sonata, op. 7 Rondo. Poco Allegretto e grazioso

Piano Sonata, op. 22 Rondo. Allegretto
Piano Sonata, op. 53 Rondo. Allegretto moderato
Piano Sonata, op. 54 Allegretto
The two outstanding representatives of Beethoven's Allegretto in

4 meter are not identical in character. The theme of op. 92 has a
solemn, marching character-one might almost interpret the half
notes (J = 38) as the pace of a funeral procession; the harmony
changes with the measures. The theme of op. 95, on the other hand
is more cantabile in character, and is on the borderline between All
gretto and Andante. 15 The two pieces are nevertheless related. Their
affinity manifests itself in the four-measure "raising of the curtain"
op. 95, which exhibits the same march character as op. 92, and in
the dolce Maggiore section of the latter, which in turn shows clear
kinship in character with the theme of op. 95. Also interesting is the
similarity in the structure of the development, which in both cases
adds a sixteenth-note counterpoint to a fugal theme derived from the
primary material.
The anomalous notation of op. 53 (doubled note values!) makes
this piece a1 meter; this is apparent by comparison with op. 7.
Op. 12/II
Andante, piu tosto Allegretto
Op. 23
Andante scherzoso, piu Allegretto
Op. 70/II
1 i-Allegretto
1P - l , - I? b
,~'~"
.I I
lll('2i
II
Ifl(',
l
Op. 92
Allegretto
Op. 95
1 Allegro ma non troppo
Op. 92 02
T F
(p(p) )
Op. 95
Op. 7
, PP P ! . . . . .
Poco Aegretto e grazioso
Op. 22
Allegretto
Op. 53
Allegretto moderato
""I '"' / I P---------"

AcA
pp .Vemp,re
Op. 7
Poco Allegretto e grazioso
Op. 54
1 Allegretto d(,.
KO
19) Allegretto Z (2) 1 = 88-92

String Quartet, op. 18/III Andante con moto 1 = 92
Piano Sonata, op. 28 Andante
Symphony No. 8, op. 93 Allegretto scherzando J = 88
The second movement of op. 93 is noteworthy for the fact t

it is in 4 meter-although Beethoven does not indicate this here a
more than in his Adagio movements. The motivic function of th
32nd notes makes this clear. This movement has a special relation
the metronome, for the idea behind it was inspired by the metro
nome's beat. The humorous text to the canon using the theme of
movement, which Beethoven wrote to be sung at an evening of
ment in Milzel's honor, shows that the pulsing sixteenths "semp
staccato" are an imitation of the "tick-tock" of Malzel's instrument.
Whether the canon preceded the symphonic movement or whether
the theme from the movement was employed for the canon-a ques-
tion upon which Beethoven scholars disagree--in either case, this
work provided the metronome with an everlasting monument within
Beethoven's work.16
Op. 18/111
Andante con moto
op
17~i~f
Op. 28
Andante
Op. 93
Allegretto scherzando
PP imih.
PP
20) Allegretto_8 aJ. = 72

Piano Sonata, op. 101 Etwas lebhaft und mit der innigsten Emp-
findung. Allegretto, ma non troppo
The fact that here there exists only one instance of the " Alle-
gretto type which was so common in Mozart's work-and that even
this instance is not of true Allegretto character--is certainly remark-
able, and illustrates the transformation in the vocabulary of the
Vienna classic composers.
Op. 101
Etwas lebhaft und mit der innigsten Empfindung
Allegretto. ma non troppo
v I F
21) Alle
Serenade, op. 8 Allegretto alla Polacca

Triple Concerto, op. 56 Rondo alla Polacca
Polonaise for Piano, op. 89 Alla Polacca, vivace
Op. 56
Rondo alla Polacca
Op. 89
Alla Polacca, vivace
p F9oh'1
>: ".. ..' ':.,:., + -" 'Z JAV I P g Ir ra-
22) Allegretto s = 168
String Quartet, op. 18/IV Andante scherzoso q

J. = 56
String Quartet, op. 59/I Allegretto vivace e sempre scherzando
J. = 56
The relationship between these two movements is striking to

both eye and ear. They form an isolated pair, and it is certainly
remarkable, from the viewpoint of the history of style, that six years
after op. 18/IV and in an idiom that had developed considerably in
the interim, Beethoven once again employed the idea of the Allegretto
scherzando for the same setting--and then never again. The difference
in the indications for the same tempo is striking.
Op. 18/IV
Andante scherzoso quasi Allegretto
pp......
pp
Op. 59/1
Allegretto vivace e sempre scherzando
4
23) Allegretto quasi Allegro J. = 88
String Quartet, op. 18/VI Allegretto quasi Allegro . = 88

Piano Sonata, op. 31/II Allegretto
Here there is a slight inconsistency in the tempo indications: op.

31/II is marked simply "Allegretto." But the similarity of the motives
leaves no room for doubt that the same tempo is intended as in op.
18/VI.
Op. 18/VI
Allegretto quasi Allegro
P I I I P- -
Op. 3 1/11
Allegretto
(TO BE CONTINUED)
Notes
Rudolf Kolisch's "Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music," originally writ-

ten in German, was given as a talk before the Greater New York Chapter of the
American Musicological Society on December 29, 1942 in a translation by Arthur
Mendel, and published the following year in Vol. XXIX of The Musical Quarterly (pp.
169-187 and 291-312). In 1961 Mr. Kolisch developed a shortened version of the
German text as part of a lecture-demonstration for West German radio. In the 1970s,
when David Satz was Mr. Kolisch's teaching assistant at the New England Conserva-
tory, he and Mr. Kolisch worked for several years to revise the article for publication
by Universal Edition (Vienna).
The revision was not finished at the time of Mr. Kolisch's death on August 1,
1978. The most that could then be done was to present the available material in the
best possible condition; but by the time the manuscript was ready for submission,
Universal felt that it could no longer undertake the project. It was agreed instead that
the Munich-based publication series Musik-Konzepte, which had shown great interest
in Rudolf Kolisch's work, would publish the article. Regina Busch, a musicologist who
had participated in the Schoenberg seminars in M6dling, Austria, led by Rudolf
Kolisch and Rudolph Stephan, assumed primary responsibility for editing the text.
Her edition, upon which the present translation by Thomas Y. Levin and David Satz
is based, has just been published under the title Rudolf Kolisch, Tempo und Charakter in
Beethovens Musik (Musik-Konzepte 76/77, July 1992). It offers extensive notes and
commentary on the sources plus a substantial collection of supplementary research
material, and is highly recommended for those wishing to study this article in depth.
Unless otherwise indicated, all footnotes below are by Rudolf Kolisch. For rea-
sons of length the article is being published in two parts, the second of which will
appear in the following issue.
1. Once, in a conversation about Beethoven's metronome marks, a well-known

conductor refused to consider them, on the ground that Beethoven had brought suit
against Milzel because his metronome had proved wholly unreliable! What passions
must be raging in a musician's heart if his mind can believe such an absurdity!
2. Reprinted in Beethovens s2imtliche Briefe und Aufzeichnungen, ed. Fritz Prelinger

(Vienna/Leipzig: C. W. Stem, 1911), 5:13f; reprinted in Beethoven. Das Problem der
Interpretation, Musik-Konzepte 8 (April 1979), 80.
3. Gustav Nottebohm, Beethoveniana (Leipzig: Verlag C.F. Peters, 1872), 1: 131.
4. Emily Anderson, ed. and trans., The Letters of Beethoven (New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1961; New York: Norton, 1985), 2: 806.
5. Letters of Beethoven, 3: 1314-1315.
6. Letters of Beethoven, 3: 1325; trans. modified.
7. Letters of Beethoven, 2: 727-728; trans. modified.
8. "I don't consider your lousy fiddles when the spirit comes over me," Beethoven is
reported to have said to Schuppanzigh; see Adolph Bernhard Marx, Ludwig van
Beethoven. Leben und Schaffen. 4th Ed. ed. Dr. Gustav Behncke (Berlin: Verlag von
Otto Janke, 1884), 2: 41.
9. For the original French of this letter, see the Deiters edition of Alexander Whee-
lock Thayer's Ludwig van Beethovens Leben (Leipzig: Reimann, 1908), 5: 558 (Appen-
dix II).
10. Most interesting in this context is the case of Bdla Bart6k, whose conception of
tempo was so exact that the indications given on the metronome scale were not suffi-
cient for him. Thus he might indicate = 130, but would note right away, as I had
repeated occasion to observe, the slightest deviation from that tempo.
11. In Europe, where for understandable reasons the traditional deviations are much
more firmly rooted than in the United States, this resistance has sometimes taken on
passionate forms. I remember with pleasure an occasion in Paris when, after a perfor-
mance of op. 95 which I had played according to Beethoven's metronomic markings,
a professor from the Conservatoire, a true keeper of the Holy Grail of Tradition,
could hardly wait for the last note to die away before crying out, "Tout qa trop vite!"
[That's all much too fast!] This promptly led to a fistfight.
Nowadays such resistance may have other sources as well, for "mankind's sacred
heritage" has become to a great extent a tool of commercial advertising. Its value for
commodity culture would be seriously affected if it were essentially transformed, ren-
dering it, if not entirely unrecognizable, then at least unfamiliar.
12. Kolisch's manuscripts reflect a continuing struggle not only with the wording of
these two paragraphs but also with the choice of phenomena to be considered in them
as the factors that influence the tempo. From his notes it is clear that he was still not
be satisfied with this formulation of the "tempo principle." I believe that a complete
explanation would need to include the note value of the tempo unit as an inverse
factor.--"Metric unit" is not always used by Kolisch as a special term; sometimes it is
simply equivalent to "note value" [D. S.].
13. This is probably still due to the influence of Wagner, who once wrote of the
Adagio, "In a certain subtle sense one may say that the pure Adagio can not be taken
slowly enough" ("About Conducting," in Richard Wagner, Prose Works, trans.
William Ashton Ellis [New York: Broude Bros., 1966], 4: 314).
14. The lower limit of the metronome scale at that time was 50. Therefore when
Beethoven gives a tempo between 50 and 100 we cannot conclude that the smaller
note values are meant as the tempo unit [D.S.].
15. But only on the borderline; there is hardly a piece by Beethoven that has been
made more banal by the mere placing of it in a conventional category, that of
Andante cantabile, than this particular one, of which the unique quality lies in the
very fact that it hovers between the cantabile (but never purely lyric) elements of the
theme and the sinister footsteps of the opening. Too slow a tempo would resolve this
indefiniteness in favor of the conventional singing character. The interpretation of
the sixteenth-note counterpoint as a jolly, bouncing spiccato also contributes, by the
way, to this banalization.
16. The authenticity of the Mdilzel canon has long presented a historical puzzle; as
Nottebohm points out, in the year of Milzel's return to Vienna his device was still
known as the "Chronometer" and there is no particular evidence that the later name
of the device was known to Beethoven in advance. There is no manuscript source
other than in a conversation book from Schindler, whose refusal to accept Beethov-
en's position on the metronome and questions of tempo led him to falsify nearly every
statement he ever made on the subject [D.S.].

Tempo in Beethoven

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Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

Author(s): Rudolf Kolisch

Although there are many instances in which Beethoven clearly indi-

These attacks have seriously shaken the status of the metronome

the subject of Wellington's victory at Vittoria for Mailzel's "Panhar-

Assuming, mistakenly, that Milzel intended to stage a performance of

Symphonies Nos. 1-8 and Septet, designated by the Author Himself"]

Op. 112 (Meeresstille und Gliickliche Fahrt). There are metro-

The final remark shows that Beethoven had the intention of

Thus we see that observing the proper tempo could, in Beethov-

I am, noble Sir, with great respect,

Thus we see that the old Italian terms seemed "nonsensical" to

tial part of his language, coordinated with that mysterious category

[. . .] I consider the invention of the metronome a welcome means of assuring

Contemporary musicians were also aware of this difficulty, as is

In light of all this, we may consider it demonstrated, in my opin-

own tempo indications, it is said. They have often failed to notice

sacred heritage" and are deeply rooted in the consciousness of the

siderably slower, i.e. J = 112-132 in , , = 120-132 in 4, , = 144-

81 . . = 24-30 . = 50-60 . =72 ). = 84-92 =. =104-112 .

4 J. J. = 63-84 J. = 88-10 . =10

As has already been remarked, the tem

Thus we must determine the essential quality of the music, its

The decisive question in determining the tempo of the slow

The alla breve Adagio, which I refer to as the "chorale type" on

In the Adagio movements notated in 2 meter, the problem con-

String Trio, op. 3 Adagio

The articulation of these themes in quarter-notes leaves no doubt

3) Adagio (4) = 40-50

Piano Sonata, op. 2/III Adagio

Figurations such as those contained in op. 59/I or op. 70/I dem-

f"- L" E" - A""

String Quartet, op. 127 Adagio, ma non troppo e molto cantabile

In 6 meter the tempo indication always refers to the dotted

lma ('orda nle::. 1O'c

Piano Sonata, op. 111 Arietta. Adagio molto semplice e cantabile

The identity of the pieces notated in 9 meter, i.e. their common

String Quartet, op. 74 Adagio ma non troppo , = 72

" , M TI --.... . . .lt

transitional cadenza to the third movement, which he wrote for the

10) Andante 4 J = 46-50

The Andante alla breve appears once in the form of a variation

11) Andante 2 = 50-66

Piano Trio, op. 1/III Andante cantabile con Variazioni

Rondo (for Piano), op. 51/II Andante cantabile e grazioso

In light of the intermediate position of the Andante between t

12) Andante ' (4) = 72-88

Piano Quintet, op. 16 Andante cantabile

13) Andante . = 50-60

String Trio, op. 9/II Andante quasi Allegretto

String Quartet, op. 59/III Andante con moto quasi Allegretto

Symphony No. 6, op. 68 Allegretto ,. = 60

Op. 9/II exhibits the Scherzando character of op. 18/IV (2nd

14) Andante 4 = 60-76

Violin Sonata, op. 30/III Tempo di Minuet

The Andante appears twice as a variation theme: op. 97 and

16) Andante 8s = 120; J = 92

String Trio, op. 3 Andante

Piano Sonata, op. 26 Andante con Variazioni

Andante grazioso con moto ,