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A Step-by-Step Guide to the NIOSH Lifting Equation

A Step-by-Step Guide to Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA)

A Step-by-Step Guide to Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA)

A Step-by-Step Guide to the WISHA Lifting Calculator

A Step-by-Step Guide to the Snook Tables

© Ergonomics Plus Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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The Revised NIOSH Lifting Equation is a tool used by occupational health and
safety professionals to assess the manual material handling risks associated
with lifting and lowering tasks in the workplace.

A lifting task is defined as the act of manually grasping an object with two
hands, and vertically moving the object without mechanical assistance. The
NIOSH Lifting Equation considers several job task variables to determine safe
lifting practices and guidelines.

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RWL = LC (51) x HM x VM x DM x AM x FM x CM

The NIOSH Lifting Equation is widely accepted as valid in the field of

occupational ergonomics, providing occupational health and safety
professionals an objective ergonomic risk assessment tool for manual material
handling tasks. The NIOSH Lifting Equation is a great way to identify ergonomic
opportunities and prioritize ergonomic improvement efforts, and it also
provides an objective baseline from which you can document ergonomic
improvements.

Recommended Weight Limit (RWL): Answers the question… “Is this weight
too heavy for the task?”

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The primary product of the NIOSH equation is the Recommended Weight Limit
(RWL), which defines the maximum acceptable weight (load) that nearly all
healthy employees could lift over the course of an 8-hour shift without
increasing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) to the lower back.

Lifting Index (LI): Answers the question… “How significant is the risk?”

In addition, a Lifting Index (LI) is calculated to provide a relative estimate of the

level of physical stress and MSD risk associated with the manual lifting tasks
evaluated. A Lifting Index value of 1.0 or less indicates a nominal risk to healthy
employees. A Lifting Index greater than 1.0 denotes that the task is high risk for
some fraction of the population. As the LI increases, the level of injury risk
increases correspondingly. Therefore, the goal is to design all lifting jobs to
accomplish an LI of 1.0 or less.

Uses of RWL and LI: The RWL and LI can be used to guide or engineer lifting task
design in the following ways:

Individual multipliers that determine the RWL can be used to identify specific
weaknesses in the design.

The LI can be used to estimate the relative physical stress and injury risk for a
task or job. The higher the LI value, the smaller the percentage of workers
capable of safely performing these lifting job demands. So using the LI, injury
risk of two or more job designs could be compared.

The LI can also be used to prioritize ergonomic redesign efforts. For example
jobs can be ranked by LI and a control strategy can be implemented based on a
priority order of the jobs or individual lifting tasks.

RWL = LC (51) x HM x VM x DM x AM x FM x CM

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The NIOSH Lifting Equation always uses a load constant (LC) of 51 pounds,
which represents the maximum recommended load weight to be lifted under
ideal conditions. From that starting point, the equation uses several task
variables expressed as coefficients or multipliers (In the equation, M =
multiplier) that serve to decrease the load constant and calculate the RWL for
that lifting task.

Task variables needed to calculate the RWL:

H = Horizontal location of the object relative to the body

V = Vertical location of the object relative to the floor

D = Distance the object is moved vertically

A = Asymmetry angle or twisting requirement

F = Frequency and duration of lifting activity

C = Coupling or quality of the workers grip on the object

Additional task variables needed to calculate LI:

Average weight of the objects lifted

Maximum weight of the objects lifted

Additional outputs of the NIOSH Lifting Equation:

The Frequency-Independent Recommended Weight Limit (FIRWL) and the

Frequency-Independent Lifting Index (FILI) are additional outputs of the
NIOSH lifting calculator.

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The FIRWL is calculated by using a frequency multiplier (FI) of 1.0 along with the
other task variable multipliers. This effectively removes frequency as a variable,
reflecting a weight limit for a single repetition of that task and allows equal
comparison to other single repetition tasks.

The Frequency-Independent Lifting Index (FILI) is calculated by dividing the

weight lifted by the FIRWL. The FILI can help identify problems with infrequent
lifting tasks if it exceeds the value of 1.0.

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The NIOSH Lifting Equation can be calculated by hand, but it’s much easier and
a big time saver to use a calculator. We have developed a cloud-based NIOSH
Lifting Equation calculator as a part of our ErgoPlus Industrial platform that can
be used to efficiently conduct a NIOSH Lifting assessment, calculate the score
and save your results. The task variables are simply selected or entered into the
calculator fields. When the “calculate” button is pressed, the multipliers and the
RWL and LI outputs are automatically calculated and can then be saved to your
database. You can check out the application here: ErgoPlus Industrial.

The first step is to gather the needed information and measurements for lifting
task variables.

Task variable data needed:

H = Horizontal Location of the object relative to the body

V = Vertical Location of the object relative to the floor

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D = Distance the object is moved vertically

A = Asymmetry Angle or twisting requirement

F = Frequency and Duration of lifting activity

C = Coupling or quality of the workers grip on the object

L = Average & maximum Load or weight of the object

You can use a paper worksheet to assist you with data collection as pictured
above, or you may prefer to enter data directly into the calculator as variables
are determined:

The following task variables are evaluated to calculate the multipliers that are
used in the NIOSH equation to determine the RWL. Here are some quick
explanations and guidelines that you can use to gather the needed
measurements:

Horizontal Location of the Hands (H) – Measure and record the horizontal
location of the hands at both the start (origin) and end (destination) of the lifting
task. Measure and record the horizontal location of the hands at the end
(destination) of the lifting task only if significant control is required. The
horizontal location is determined by measuring the distance between the point

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projected on the floor directly below the mid-point of the hands grasping the
object (load center), and the mid-point of a line between the inside ankle bones
as pictured below:

Vertical Location of the Hands (V) – Measure and record the vertical location of
the hands above the floor at the start (origin) and end (destination) of the lifting
task. The vertical location is measured from the floor (or standing surface) to the
vertical mid-point between the hand grasps as defined by large middle knuckle
(3rd MCP joint) of the hand.

Vertical Travel Distance (D) – The vertical travel distance of a lift is determined
by subtracting the vertical location (V) at the start of the lift from the vertical
location (V) at the end of the lift. For a lowering task, subtract the V location at

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the end from the V location at the start. If you’re using ErgoPlus Industrial,
there’s no need to worry about this one, the calculator will do this work for you.

Asymmetric Angle (A) – Measure the degree to which the body is required to
twist or turn during the lifting task. The asymmetric angle is the amount (in
degrees) of trunk and shoulder rotation required by the lifting task. Note:
Sometimes the twisting is not caused by the physical aspects of the job design,
but rather by the employee using poor body mechanics. If this is the case, no
twisting (0 degrees) is required by the job. If twisting is required by the design of
the job, determine the number of degrees the back and body trunk must twist or
rotate to accomplish the lift. (i.e. 90° as pictured below)

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Coupling (C) – Determine the classification of the quality of the coupling
between the worker’s hands and the object as good, fair, or poor (1, 2, or 3). A
good coupling will reduce the maximum grasp forces required and increase the
acceptable weight for lifting, while a poor coupling will generally require higher
maximum grasp forces and decrease the acceptable weight for lifting.

• 1 = Good – Optimal design containers with handles of optimal design, or

irregular objects where the hand can be easily wrapped around the
object.
• 2 = Fair – Optimal design containers with handles of less than optimal
design, optimal design containers with no handles or cut-outs, or
irregular objects where the hand can be flexed about 90°.
• 3 = Poor – Less than optimal design container with no handles or cut-
outs, or irregular objects that are hard to handle and/or bulky (e.g. bags
that sag in the middle).

Frequency (F) – Determine the average number of lifts per minute of the lifting
task being evaluated, this is the lifting frequency. This information can often be
verified by asking for average production rates from a group leader, supervisor,
or production manager. You can also accomplish this by determining the
number of lifts per minute during a short sampling period. NIOSH recommends
a 15-minute sampling or observation period. The Frequency (F) value will be
between 0.2 lifts/minute and 15 lifts/minute. For lifting tasks with a frequency
less than .2 lifts per minute (>1 lift every 5 minutes), you will use the minimum
frequency of .2 lifts/minute.

Load (L) – Determine the weight of the object lifted. If necessary, use a scale to
determine the exact weight. If the weight of the load varies from lift to lift, you
should record the average and maximum weights lifted.

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Duration (Dur) – Determine the lifting duration as classified into one of three
categories: Enter 1 for short-duration, 2 for moderate-duration and 8 for long-
duration as follows:

• 1 = Short – lifting ≤ 1 hour with recovery time ≥ 1.2 X work time

• 2 = Moderate – lifting between 1 and 2 hours with recovery time ≥ 0.3 X
lifting time
• 8 = Long – lifting between 2 and 8 hours with standard industrial rest
allowances

After task variables are determined, enter data into the calculator to determine
the RWL and LI.

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The worker lifts and transfers containers from the rack pallet (Origin) to the
picking cart (Destination), stepping toward the cart and pivoting his feet to
perform this task. Significant control of the object is not required at the
destination, therefore the only task variable needed at the destination is the
vertical location of hands (V) which is needed to determine the Travel Distance
(D).

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The Horizontal Location (H) of the hands is 15” at the origin. The Vertical
Location (V) of the hands is 12-30”at the origin, but we will use the lowest level
to assess the worst case. The Vertical Location (V) is 42” at the destination,
therefore the Travel Distance (D) is 30”. The Asymmetric Angle (A) is 30 degrees
at the origin. The container is of optimal design with handholds; therefore,
coupling is defined as “good”. The average frequency of lifting in this manner is
1 lift every 2 minutes (.5 lifts per minute) over a duration of an 8-hour period.

Example 1 summary of task variable data:

H = 15” at the origin

V = 12” at the origin and 42” at the destination

D = 30” (calculated for you)

A = 30° at the origin

C = 1 (good – container is of optimal design with handhold cutouts)

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F = .5 lifts/minute (1 lift every 2 minutes)

L = 28 lb. average load and 28 lb. maximum load

Dur = Long (lifting between 2 and 8 hours with standard industrial rest
allowances for lunch and rest breaks)

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This assembly worker is required to lower a container of parts periodically
throughout an 8-hour shift. The worker lowers the container from an upper
incoming conveyor (Origin), stepping and pivoting to place the container on the
workstation staging location (Destination). Significant control of the container is
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required at the destination to guide it to a precise staging location, so task
variables will need to be determined at both the origin and destination.

The Horizontal Location (H) is 16.75” at the origin, and 12” at the destination.
The Vertical Location (V) is 49.5” at the origin, and 31” at the destination. The
Travel Distance (D) is 18.5”. The Asymmetric Angle (A) is 25 degrees at the origin.
Since pivoting the feet and stepping toward the destination is not restricted by
job design and the container stays directly in front of the body (mid-sagittal
plane), I would use 0 degrees for (A) at the destination.

(Note: Regarding (A) at the destination in this example: Remember that the
lifting equation applications manual recommends that you assume that
workers will not step and pivot. NIOSH acknowledges that this assumption may
cause an overestimation of the Asymmetric multiplier’s reduction in the RWL
but indicates that this assumption will provide the most conservative evaluation
of the RWL. It’s obviously your call, but I prefer to stay away from such
assumptions and try my best to evaluate the actual conditions of the lifting or
lowering task.) The container is of optimal design with handholds (good), but
the Coupling (C) is rated as fair because the high vertical hand position at the
origin requires re-gripping. The average Frequency (F) of lowering this container
is 1 lift every 12 minutes (< 0.2 lifts per minute) for 8 hours. Average and Max.
Load (L) = 28 lbs.

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Example 2 summary of task variable data:

H = 16.75 at the origin, 12” at destination

V = 49.5” at the origin and 31” at the destination

D = 18.5” (calculated for you)

A = 25° at the origin and 0° at the destination

C = 2 (fair -high vertical hand position at the origin requires re-gripping)

F = <.2 lifts/minute (1 lift every 12 minutes)

L = 25.4 lb. average load and 25.4 lb. maximum load

Dur = Long (lifting between 2 and 8 hours with standard industrial rest
allowances for lunch and rest breaks)

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(source) NIOSH Lifting Equation Applications Manual [Original PDF]

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The Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) was developed to “rapidly” evaluate
risk of musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) associated with certain job tasks.

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The REBA tool uses a systematic process to evaluate both upper and lower parts
of the musculoskeletal system for biomechanical and MSD risks associated with
the job task being evaluated.

A single page worksheet (above) can be used to evaluate required or selected

body posture, forceful exertions, type of movement or action, repetition, and
coupling.

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REBA was developed with the following objectives in mind:

1) To provide a simple postural analysis system sensitive to musculoskeletal

risks in a variety of tasks.

2) To divide the body into segments to evaluate individually with reference to

postures and movement planes.

3) To provide a scoring system for muscle activity caused by static, dynamic,

rapid changing or unstable postures.

4) To consider coupling as an important variable in the handling of loads.

5) To give an action level output with an indication of urgency.

6) To provide a user-friendly assessment tool that requires minimal time, effort,

and equipment.

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REBA Limitations:

1. Does not consider the duration of the task, available recovery time, or
evaluate hand-arm vibration risk.

2. Only allows the evaluator to assess one employee’s worst-case posture at one
point in time, requiring the use of representative postures.

3. Requires separate assessment of right and left sides of the body, although in
most cases you will be able to quickly determine which side of the body has the
greatest exposure to MSD risk.

The output of the REBA assessment tool is the final REBA Score, which is a single
score that represents the level of MSD risk for the job task being evaluated. The
minimum REBA Score = 1, and the maximum REBA Score = 15. Outlined in the
above chart are the REBA level of MSD risk descriptions and cut points.

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We have developed a cloud-based REBA calculator as a part of our ErgoPlus
Industrial platform that can be used to efficiently conduct an assessment,
calculate the score and save your results. Simply select the appropriate body
segment positions/postures, load force, coupling, and activity to calculate the

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REBA score and risk index. The ErgoPlus REBA web-based calculator is shown
above and you can also check out the application here:

ErgoPlus Industrial

The evaluator should prepare for the assessment by interviewing the worker
being evaluated to gain an understanding of the job tasks and demands and
observing the worker’s movements and postures during several work cycles.
Selection of the postures to be evaluated should be based on 1) the most
difficult postures and work tasks (based on worker interview and initial
observation), 2) the posture sustained for the longest period of time, or 3) the
posture where the highest force loads occur. The REBA can be conducted
quickly, so multiple positions and tasks within the work cycle can usually be
evaluated without a significant time/effort cost. When using REBA, only the right
or left side is assessed at a time. After interviewing and observing the worker,
the evaluator can determine if only one arm should be evaluated, or if an
assessment is needed for both sides.

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The REBA assessment requires that you determine postural angles of six
different body positions. In most cases, you will be able to determine the body
position angle in the field as you observe the task. However, we find that it’s
very helpful to take pictures or video of the task being performed from several
angles if possible. You can then display the pictures on your computer monitor
and use a goniometer (as pictured on left) or an overlaid transparent protractor
image (as pictured on right) to measure the body segment angles. These
methods are both very quick and easy and will give you the assurance that
you’ve obtained the correct body position angles for the assessment.

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Neck:

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The neck position score will be between 1-3. The score is based on the degree of
neck flexion or extension, along with any adjustment for neck twisting or side
bending (lateral flexion). Neck flexion is movement of the chin towards the chest
from a neutral neck position. Neck extension is moving the chin away from the
chest (backwards) from a neutral neck position.

In this example, neck flexion is less than 20 degrees. There is no twisting or side
bending required, so no selection is made under neck adjustments.

Trunk:

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The trunk position score will be between 1-5. The score is based on the degree
of trunk flexion or extension, along with any adjustment for twisting or side
bending (lateral flexion) of the trunk/back. Trunk flexion is defined as anterior
(forward) movement of the trunk in the sagittal plane (think toe touching).
Trunk extension is defined as posterior (backward) movement of the trunk in
the sagittal plane.

In this example, trunk flexion is less than 20 degrees. When viewed from behind,
the trunk was in a side bending position so the side bending adjustment is
selected.

Leg:

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The leg position score will be between 1-4. The score is based on bilateral or
unilateral weight bearing on the legs, along with any adjustment for the degree
of knee flexion. Knee flexion is defined as bending or decreasing the angle
between the femur and tibia bones of the limb at the knee joint.

In this example, there is bilateral weight bearing on the legs. Because the knees
are not flexed, no leg adjustment is applicable.

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The Force/Load score will be between 0-2. For this selection you will need to
determine the load or force required to perform the task. Often, you can obtain
the weight of the load from company production or shipping records. If
necessary, use the nearest scale in the facility or a force measurement gauge to
determine the exact weight of any load being moved or lifted.

In this example, the load being lifted is 11-22 lbs. There is no shock force, rapid
buildup of force, or sudden exertion required by this task.

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Upper arm:

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The upper arm position score will be between 1-6. The score is based on the
degree of shoulder flexion or extension, along with any adjustment for the
shoulder being raised and/or abducted. Shoulder flexion is defined as anterior
movement of the upper arm in the sagittal plane (forward reaching). Shoulder
extension is defined as posterior movement of the upper arm in the sagittal
plane (backward reaching). Shoulder abduction is defined as sideways
movement of the upper arm away from the body.

In this example, the right upper arm is raised more than 90 degrees for a score of
+4. Two adjustments are added because the shoulder is raised (+1) and the
upper arm is abducted (+1).

Lower Arm:

The lower arm position score will be 1 or 2. The score is based on the degree of
elbow flexion or bending.

In this example, the elbow is flexed less than 60 degrees.

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Wrist Position:

The wrist position score will be 1-3. The score is based on the degree of wrist
flexion or extension, along with an adjustment of +1 for wrist deviation or
twisting.

In this example, the wrist is flexed more than 15 degrees. The wrist is also
twisted, so under wrist adjustments select wrist twisted for an adjustment of +1.

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The coupling score will be between 0-3. Select Good when there’s a well-fitting
handle with mid-range power grip, Fair when acceptable but not ideal hand
hold or coupling acceptable with another body part, Poor when and hold not
acceptable but possible, and Unacceptable if no handles, awkward, and unsafe
with any body part.

In this example, the coupling was determined to be Fair.

The activity score will be either 0 or 1, as the criteria are mutually exclusive.

In this example, repeated small range actions (more than 4x per minute) are
required.

Calculate Results

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After all entries are selected, press the calculate button for the results of the
assessment. The ErgoPlus REBA calculator will display the Risk Index and the
overall REBA score. The REBA score represents the level of MSD risk for the job
task being evaluated. The minimum REBA Score = 1, and the maximum REBA
Score = 15. The design goal for the REBA assessment is a score of 4. The Risk
Index answers the question… “How significant is the risk?” A Risk Index value of
1.0 or less indicates a nominal risk to healthy employees. A Risk Index greater
than 1.0 denotes that the task is high risk for some fraction of the population. As
the Risk Index increases, the level of MSD risk increases correspondingly.
Therefore, the goal is to design job tasks to accomplish a Risk Index of 1.0 or
lower.

In this example, the final REBA score of 9 and a risk index of 2.25 indicates high
risk and calls for further investigation with engineering and/or work method
changes to reduce or eliminate MSD risk.

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The Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) was developed to “rapidly” evaluate
the exposure of individual workers to ergonomic risk factors associated with
upper extremity MSD. The RULA ergonomic assessment tool considers
biomechanical and postural load requirements of job tasks/demands on the
neck, trunk and upper extremities.

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The RULA tool uses a systematic process to evaluate required body posture,
force, and repetition for the job task being evaluated. A single page worksheet
(above) can be used to evaluate required or selected body posture, muscle use
frequency, and forceful exertions.

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RULA was developed with the following objectives in mind:

1) To provide a method of screening a working population to assess exposure to

significant risk of work-related upper extremity disorders.

2) To identify the muscular effort which is associated with working postures and
excessive forces while performing static or repetitive work, and which may
contribute to muscle fatigue.

3) To provide a simple scoring method with an action level output that identifies
an indication of urgency.

4) To provide a user-friendly assessment tool that requires minimal time, effort,

and equipment.

RULA Limitations:

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1) Does not consider the duration of the task, available recovery time, or hand-
arm vibration.

2) Only allows the evaluator to assess one employee’s worst-case posture at one
point in time, requiring the use of representative postures.

3) Requires separate assessment of right and left sides of the body, although in
most cases you will be able to quickly determine which side of the body has the
greatest exposure to MSD risk.

The output of the RULA assessment tool is the final RULA Score, which is a single
score that represents the level of MSD risk for the job task being evaluated. The
minimum RULA Score = 1, and the maximum RULA Score = 7. Outlined in the
above chart are the RULA level of MSD risk descriptions and cut points.

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We have developed a cloud based RULA calculator as a part of our ErgoPlus
Industrial platform that can be used to efficiently conduct an assessment,
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calculate the score and save your results. Simply select the appropriate body
segment positions/postures, load force and muscle use selections to calculate
the RULA score and Risk Index. The ErgoPlus RULA web-based calculator is
shown above and you can also check out the application here:

ErgoPlus Industrial

The evaluator should prepare for the assessment by interviewing the worker
being evaluated to gain an understanding of the job tasks, and by observing the
worker’s movements and postures during several work cycles. Selection of the
postures to be evaluated should be based on:

1) the most difficult postures and work tasks (determined during worker
interview and initial observation), 2) the posture sustained for the longest
period of time, or 3) the posture where the highest force loads occur.

The RULA can be conducted quickly, so multiple positions and tasks within the
work cycle can usually be evaluated without a significant time and effort. When
using RULA, only the right or left side is assessed at a time. After interviewing
and observing the worker, the evaluator can determine if only one arm should
be evaluated or if an assessment is needed for both sides.

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The RULA assessment requires that you determine postural angles of six
different body positions. In most cases, you will be able to determine the body
position angle in the field as you observe the task. However, we find that it’s
very helpful to take pictures or video of the task being performed from several
angles if possible. You can then display the pictures on your computer monitor
and use a goniometer (as pictured on left) or an overlaid transparent protractor
image (as pictured on right) to measure the body segment angles. These
methods are both very quick and easy and will give you the assurance that
you’ve obtained the correct body position angles for the assessment.

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Upper Arm Position:

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The upper arm score will be between 1-6. The score is based on the degree of
shoulder flexion or extension, along with any adjustment for the shoulder being
raised and/or abducted. Shoulder flexion is defined as anterior movement of the
upper arm in the sagittal plane (forward reaching). Shoulder extension is
defined as posterior movement of the upper arm in the sagittal plane (backward
reaching). Upper Arm (shoulder) elevation and abduction are possible
adjustments that may apply. Also note the scoring adjustment (-1) possibility
that is used if the worker’s shoulder is supported or the worker is forward
leaning in such a way that gravity assists the shoulder position.

In this example, the shoulder is flexed slightly less than 90 degrees for a score of
+3, with an upper arm adjustment (+1) selected for shoulder abduction.

Lower Arm Position:

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The lower arm score will be between 1-3. The score is based on the degree of
elbow flexion or bending. Select the lower arm adjustment if either lower arm is
working across the midline or to the outside of the body.

In this example, the elbow is flexed slightly less than 60 degrees for a score of +2.
There is no adjustment for the arm working across the midline.

Wrist Position:

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The wrist score will be 1-4. The score is based on the degree of wrist flexion or
extension, along with a potential adjustment of +1 if wrist deviation is required.
Select wrist twist pronation or supination) if the wrist is twisted in the mid-range
of if the wrist is twisted at or near the end of range.

In this example, the wrist is flexed greater than 15 degrees for a score of +3 and
the wrist is deviated significantly, so the wrist adjustment (+1) should be
selected as shown above.

Wrist Twist:

Determine and select the degree of wrist twist depending on the degree of
forearm pronation or supination. Pronation is defined as rotation of the hand or
forearm from a neutral (thumb up) position so that the surface of the palm is
facing downward. Typical range of motion for pronation is 80-90 degrees.
Supination is defined as rotation of the hand or forearm from a neutral (thumb
up or handshake) position so that the surface of the palm is facing upward.
Typical range of motion for supination is 70-80 degrees.

In this example, the wrist is twisted in the mid-range.

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The muscle use (arm & wrist) score box will be checked if the posture of the task
is mainly static (i.e. held>1 minute), or if action repeated occurs 4X per minute. If
neither condition exists, there is no entry made for the muscle use score.

Make one of the following selections for the Load / Force score.

If load < .4.4 lbs. (intermittent) when action occurs < 4x per minute

If load 4.4 to 22 lbs. (intermittent) when action occurs < 4x per minute

If load 4.4 to 22 lbs. (static or repeated) when held > 10 minutes, or if action is
repeated occurs 4x per minute

If more than 22 lbs. or if repeated or shocks such as hammer use is required

In this example, the muscle use score is 0 and the load weight is between 4.4 –
22 lbs.

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The neck position score will be between 1-6. The score is based on the degree of
neck flexion or extension, along with any adjustment for neck twisting or side
bending (lateral flexion). Neck flexion is movement of the chin towards the chest
from a neutral neck position. Neck extension is moving the chin away from the
chest (backwards) from a neutral neck position. Experts in biomechanics use a
variety of landmarks and methods to define the neutral position (or the zero
point between flexion and extension) of the neck. To keep it really simple, I
would define neutral as the posture of the head/neck when the trunk of the
body is erect (sitting or standing up straight) and looking at a visual target
directly ahead at eye level.

In this example, the neck position was determined to be between 10 – 20

degrees. In addition, side bending of the neck was observed.

Trunk Position:

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The trunk position score will be between 1-6. The score is based on the degree
of trunk flexion or extension, along with any adjustment for twisting or side
bending (lateral flexion) of the trunk/back. Trunk flexion is defined as anterior
(forward) movement of the trunk in the sagittal plane (think toe touching).
Trunk extension is defined as posterior (backward) movement of the trunk in
the sagittal plane (think painting the ceiling).

In this example, the trunk position was observed to be flexed more than nuetral
up to 20 degrees. There is no significant trunk twisting or side bending, so the
trunk adjustments do not apply and neither box is checked.

Leg Position:

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The leg position score will be 1 or 2. If legs and feet are supported with even
weight distribution the score is +1. If the legs and feet are not supported or there
is uneven weight distribution, the score is +2.

In this example, the legs and feet are supported and weight is evenly ditributed,
therefore the leg score is +1.

The muscle use (neck, trunk & legs) score box will be checked if the posture of
the task is mainly static (i.e. held>1 minute), or if action repeated occurs 4X per
minute. If neither condition exists, there is no entry made for the muscle use
score.

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Make one of the following selections for the Load/Force score for the neck,
trunk, & legs.

If load < .4.4 lbs. (intermittent) when action occurs < 4x per minute

If load 4.4 to 22 lbs. (intermittent) when action occurs < 4x per minute

If load 4.4 to 22 lbs. (static or repeated) when held > 10 minutes, or if action is
repeated occurs 4x per minute

If more than 22 lbs. or if repeated or shocks such as hammer use is required

In this example, the muscle use score is 0 and the load weight is between 4.4 –
22 lbs.

After all entries are selected, press the calculate button for the results of the
assessment. The ErgoPlus RULA calculator will display the overall RULA score
and Risk Index. The RULA score represents the level of MSD risk for the job task
being evaluated. The minimum RULA Score = 1, and the maximum RULA Score =
7. The design goal for the RULA assessment is a score of 3. The Risk Index
answers the question… “How significant is the risk?” A Risk Index value of less
than 1.0 indicates a nominal risk to healthy employees. A Risk Index of 1.0 or
more denotes that the task is high risk for some fraction of the population. As
the Risk Index increases, the level of MSD risk increases correspondingly.

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Therefore, the goal is to design job tasks to accomplish a Risk Index of 1.0 or
lower.

In this example, the final RULA score of 7 and a risk index of 2.33 indicates high
risk and calls for further investigation and engineering and/or work method
changes to reduce or eliminate MSD risk.

To reduce the level of MSD risk, the assembly process was changed to install the
access plate prior to riveting the can together. A fixture was fabricated to hold
the can open while the access plate is being installed. A straight or “in-line”
pneumatic screwdriver (on a tool balancer) is now used to improve upper
extremity work postures and eliminate the force required.

A follow-up analysis using the ErgoPlus Industrial software RULA calculator was
performed upon completion of this ergonomic process and tool improvement.
The results are pictured above. When using the new work process and tools, the
RULA total score is reduced from 7 to 1 and the risk index is reduced from 2.33 to
.33.

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The WISHA Lifting Calculator is a very effective and practical risk assessment
tool for manual material handling tasks. Developed by the Washington State
Department of Labor and Industries, this lifting calculator is very simple in
design and application.

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The WISHA Lifting Calculator is an adaptation of the Revised NIOSH Lifting
Equation (1,2), which is based on scientific research on the primary causes of
work-related back injuries. It can be used to perform simple ergonomic risk
assessments on a wide variety of manual lifting and lowering tasks and can also
be used as a screening tool to identify lifting tasks which should be analyzed
further using the more comprehensive NIOSH Lifting Equation.

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The WISHA Lifting calculator has some limitations in that it uses less precise
measurement of lifting task variables and does not include the Vertical Distance
(D) traveled or Coupling (C) components of the NIOSH Lifting Equation.

WISHA Lifting Calculator Outputs:

Weight Limit: Answers the question… “Is this weight too heavy for the task?”

The primary output of the WISHA Lifting Calculator is the Weight Limit (or Lifting
Limit), which defines the maximum acceptable weight (load) that nearly all
healthy employees could lift or lower, given the task variables of the lifting task
being evaluated, without increasing the risk of lifting related musculoskeletal
disorders (MSD).

Lifting Index (LI): Answers the question… “How significant is the risk?”

A Lifting Index (LI) is calculated to provide a relative estimate of the level of

physical stress and MSD risk associated with the manual lifting tasks evaluated.
A Lifting Index value of 1.0 or less indicates a nominal risk to healthy employees.
A Lifting Index greater than 1.0 denotes that the task is high risk for some
fraction of the population. As the LI increases, the level of injury risk increases
correspondingly. Therefore, the goal is to design all lifting jobs to accomplish an
LI of 1.0 or less.

Uses of Weight Limit and Lifting Index:

The Weight Limit and Lifting index can be used to guide or engineer lifting task
design in the following ways:

1) The task variables used to calculate the Weight Limit can be analyzed to
identify specific weaknesses in the design. For example, lifting with a horizontal
reach over 12” or from the floor or above shoulder height significantly increases
injury risk.

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2) The Lifting Index can be used to estimate the relative injury risk from manual
material handling for a certain task or job. The higher the Lifting Index, the
smaller the percentage of workers capable of safely performing these job
demands. Using the Lifting Index, ergonomic risk of two or more job designs can
be compared.

3) The Lifting Index can also be used to prioritize ergonomic improvement and
redesign efforts. Job task risk can be ranked by the index value and a control
strategy can be implemented based on a priority order of individual lifting tasks
or jobs.

We have developed a cloud-based WISHA Lifting calculator as a part of our

ErgoPlus Industrial platform that can be used to efficiently conduct a WISHA
Lifting assessment, calculate the score and save your results. The task variables
are simply selected or entered into the calculator fields. When the “calculate”
button is pressed, the Weight Limit and Lifting Index (or Risk Index) outputs are
automatically calculated and can then be saved to your database. You can
check out the application here: ErgoPlus Industrial

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To prepare for the assessment using the WISHA Lifting Calculator, you will first
need to gather information about the job, interview supervisors and workers,
and observe workers performing lifting and lowering tasks.

Selection of the lifting tasks to be evaluated should be based on the most

difficult and demanding lifting or lowering tasks, such as the heaviest objects
lifted from the most awkward positions (for example; below knees, above
shoulder, and/or farthest reach).

If the job involves lifting of various objects with several different weights and/or
from a few different locations, we recommend: 1) Analyze the two worst case
lifts—the heaviest object lifted, and the lift performed in the most awkward
posture. 2) Analyze the most commonly performed lift, using the frequency and
duration for all the lifting done in a typical workday.

Task variables needed to calculate the Weight Limit and Lifting Index when
using the WISHA Lifting Calculator:

1) Weight

2) Vertical Hand Position

3) Horizontal Hand Position

4) Frequency

5) Duration

6) Twisting

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Here are some quick explanations and guidelines that you can use to gather the
needed measurements for the WISHA Lifting Calculator:

1) Weight – Determine the actual Weight of the object being lifted. Often, you
can obtain the weight of the load from labeling on the object or from company
production or shipping records. If necessary, use the nearest scale in the facility
to determine the exact weight of any load being lifted. You will usually be able
to find a scale in shipping and receiving departments. If the weight of the load
varies significantly, you should obtain the average and maximum weights lifted.

2) Vertical Hand Position – Determine the Vertical Hand Position of the

employee’s hands relative to the knees, waist, and shoulders of the worker as
they begin to lift, lower, or place the object. The Vertical Location has four
selection options; 1) Below Knee, 2) Knee to Waist, 3) Waist to Shoulder, or 4)
Above Shoulder

3) Horizontal Hand Position – Determine the Horizontal Hand Position by

measuring the distance between the point projected on the floor directly below
the mid-point of the hands grasping the object (load center), and the mid-point
of a line between the toes. Note: This method differs from the NIOSH Lifting
Equation, which measures the distance between the mid-point of the hands (or
load center) and the mid-point of the inside ankle bones. You will select one of
the following three options: 1) 0-7” = Near, 2) 7-12” = Middle, or 3) >12” =
Extended

4) Frequency – Determine the average number of lifts per minute of the lifting
task being evaluated, this is the lifting frequency. This information can often be
verified by asking for average production rates from a group leader, supervisor,
or production manager. You can also accomplish this by determining the
number of lifts per minute during a short 15-minute sampling or observation
period. You will select the closest of the five options given in the calculator.

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5) Duration – Determine the lifting duration as classified into one of three
categories: 1) 1 hour or less, 2) 1 – 2 hours, or 3) 2 hours or more.

6) Twisting – Determine the degree to which the body is required to twist or turn
during the lifting task. The twisting angle is the amount (in degrees) of trunk and
shoulder rotation required by the lifting task. Note: Sometimes the twisting is
not caused by the physical aspects of the job design, but rather by the employee
using poor body mechanics. If this is the case, no twisting (0 degrees) is required
by the job. If twisting is required by the design of the job, determine if theirs is
less than 45 degrees or more than 45 degrees. And don’t forget to train the
workplace athlete to use proper body mechanics to avoid unnecessary twisting!

After task variables are determined, you will simply enter the data into the
calculator and push the “Calculate” button for the results of the assessment.

The workplace athlete lifts and transfers boxes of product in in the shipping
department of a distribution center. The variables for this example are as
follows:

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Weight of Load = 32 pounds

Vertical Hand Position = Below knee

Horizontal Hand Position = Extended (greater than 12”)

Frequency = 1 lift every minute

Duration = 2 hours or more

Twisting = Less than 45 degrees

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The workplace athlete lifts parts containers to stock an assembly line parts rack.
The variables for this example are as follows:

Weight of Load = 43 pounds

Vertical Hand Position = Above shoulder

Horizontal Hand Position = Extended (greater than 12”)

Frequency = 2-3 lifts every minute

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Duration = 2 hours or more

Twisting = Less than 45 degrees

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The Liberty Mutual MMH Tables, commonly known as “Snook Tables”, outline
maximum acceptable weights and forces for the design of various manual
material handling tasks. The Snook Tables are based on research by Dr. Stover
Snook and Dr. Vincent Ciriello at the Liberty Mutual Research Institute for
Safety. The tables provide design goals, in pounds of weight or force, that are
deemed to be acceptable to a defined percentage of the population. This is
done by comparing data for each of the specific manual handling tasks against
the appropriate table.

The tables have been adapted by Thomas E. Bernard (University of South

Florida) with some support from the OSHA Salt Lake Technical Center. This
adaptation yields a design goal output for various lifting, lowering, pushing,
pulling, and carrying tasks. The ErgoPlus Industrial Snook Tables Calculator is
based on Bernard’s adapted tables.

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Notes from Thomas E. Bernard on reported values: For design goals, 75%
acceptable for women was selected as the appropriate target. In some cases,
multipliers (adjustment factors) are provided to adjust to 75% acceptable for
males and to an upper limit representing 25% acceptable for men. The format
and some content of the tables have been changed from the original. There was
also a harmonization of frequencies in the carry, push, and pull tables that
required some judgment of what the value should be. In the carry, push and pull
tables, OR (out of range) is used for some combinations of frequency and
distance that were not in the reported range of results.

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We have developed a cloud-based REBA calculator as a part of our ErgoPlus
Industrial platform that is based on Thomas Bernard’s adapted tables that can
be used to efficiently determine the design goal for the task being evaluated.
After task variables are collected, you will simply select from each drop-down
menu for each variable. The ErgoPlus Industrial Snook Tables calculator is
shown above and you can also check out the application here: ErgoPlus
Industrial

Snook Tables Calculator Outputs

The Design Goal is the primary output of the Snook Tables Calculator. The
Design Goal answers the question… “Is this weight or force too heavy or forceful
for this task?” If the actual weight or force exceeds the design goal, risk
reduction controls should be implemented.

A Risk Index is also calculated to provide a relative estimate of the level of

physical stress and MSD risk associated with the tasks evaluated.

Risk Index = Actual Weight/Force Requirement ÷ Snook Tables Design Limit

Answers the question… “How significant is the risk?”

A Risk Index value of 1.0 or less indicates a nominal risk to healthy employees. A
Risk Index greater than 1.0 denotes that the task is high risk for some fraction of
the population. As the LI increases, the level of injury risk increases
correspondingly. Therefore, the goal is to design all lifting jobs to accomplish an
LI of 1.0 or less.

To prepare for the assessment using the Snook Tables, you will first need to
gather information about the job, interview supervisors and workers, and
observe workers performing required manual material handling tasks. Select
the tasks to be evaluated based on the most difficult and demanding lifting,

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lowering, carrying, pushing, or pulling tasks. For example, when evaluating
lifting tasks, select tasks with the heaviest objects lifted from the most awkward
positions (below knees, above shoulder, and/or farthest reach); and when
evaluating pushing and pulling tasks, select the most forceful task requirements
or from low or high push pull points.

Task variables needed to conduct assessments using the Snook Tables:

• Weight of Object
• Force Requirement
• Lift/Lower Distance
• Hand Distance (Horizontal Hand Position)
• Hand Height
• Push/Pull/Carry Distance
• Frequency
• Lifting/Lowering Zone

Select the tasks to be evaluated based on the most difficult and demanding
lifting, lowering, carrying, pushing, or pulling tasks. For example, when
evaluating lifting tasks, select tasks with the heaviest objects lifted from the
most awkward positions (below knees, above shoulder, and/or farthest reach);
and when evaluating pushing and pulling tasks, select the most forceful task
requirements or from low or high push pull points.

For each job task analyzed, the evaluator will need to collect relevant data.
Measurements and data required for assessments using the Snook Tables
include the following:

Weight: The weight of the object being lifted, lowered, or carried.

Force: For each pushing and pulling task evaluated, you will need to measure
the amount of force required to get the item moving (initial force) and then
measure the amount of force it takes to keep the item moving (sustained force).
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Lift/Lower Distance: The distance of travel of the hands while lift or lower
taking place.

Hand Distance (Horizontal Hand Position): The distance from the front of the
body to the hands. This will normally be half the width of the object being
handled unless the object is purposely held away from the body. If the load is
lifted away from the body, use the NIOSH Equation technique for determining
the horizontal location of the lift.

Hand Height: The vertical height of the hands on the object being pushed or
pulled, or the height of the hands when carrying a load.

Push/Pull/Carry Distance: The distance the item being handled is pushed or

pulled, or carried.

Frequency: The number of lifts, lowers, pushes, pulls or carries expressed in

terms of number of activities done in ‘x’ seconds, minutes, or hours (as outlined
in tables and our calculator input fields).

Lift/lower zone: The area of the body in which the lift/lower starts and finishes
respectively. Take note of the position of the hands when the worker has
completed the lift/lower (floor to knuckle, knuckle to shoulders, or shoulder to
overhead reach)

When the task specific data does not match the values in the calculator, select
the next highest table value that is closest to the actual task requirements. By
selecting the next highest value for any of the specific criteria, a more
conservative or protective assessment will result.

Many jobs require a wide variety of manual handling tasks (lifting, lowering,
pushing, pulling, and/or carrying) which can be assessed as a whole using the
Snook Tables. This can be done by comparing data for each of the specific
manual handling tasks against the appropriate table, and then using the total

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frequency for all the tasks as the frequency value to determine the percentage
of the population that would find the task to be acceptable.

For example, if a job requires lifting at a rate of one lift every two minutes, a
push every five minutes and a carry every five minutes, the worker would do
four and a half ‘tasks’ over five minutes, or approximately one task per minute.
The evaluator can then compare the data for the lift, carry and push, against the
appropriate table but use the same frequency (one per minute) for each to
determine a result.

When a mixture of males and females are doing the task, the task should be
designed so that it is acceptable to at least 75% of the female population, which
would make it acceptable to more than 90% of the male population. Any task
that cannot be performed by at least 75% of the total population should be
considered for MSD prevention controls and redesign.

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Variables determined by the assessment:

Lift Lower Point – Above Shoulder (above 54”)

Frequency – 1 action every 5 minutes (12 actions per hour)

Horizontal Distance – 10” (front of body to mid-line of hands)

Distance of Lift – 30” (lifts from cart at 25” to rack height of 55”)

Actual Weight – 32 pounds

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Variables determined by the assessment:

Lift Lower Point – Floor to Knuckle (below 29”)

Frequency – 1 action every 2 minutes (30 actions per hour)

Horizontal Distance – 10” (front of body to mid-line of hands)

Distance of Lift – 30” (lifts from cart at 25” to rack height of 55”)

Actual Weight – 35 pounds

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Variables determined by the assessment:

Carry Point – Waist Height

Frequency – 1 carry/2 minutes (30 carries per hour)

Carry Distance – 27’ (front of body to mid-line of hands)

Actual Weight – 52 pounds

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Variables determined by the assessment:

Pull Point – Low (Hands about 24”)

Frequency – 1 Pull/2 minutes (30 per hour)

Pull Distance – 24’

Initial Force – 75 pounds*

Sustained Force – 34 pounds*

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*A calibrated mechanical or an electronic digital force measurement
dynamometer is needed to determine the forces required for pushing and
pulling tasks. See our Snook Training Guide for detailed guidance.

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Variables determined by the assessment:

Push Point – Middle (Hands about 36”)

Frequency – 1 Push/5 minutes (12 per hour)

Push Distance – 97’

Initial Force – 24 pounds*

Sustained Force – 15 pounds*

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*A calibrated mechanical or an electronic digital force measurement
dynamometer is needed to determine the forces required for pushing and
pulling tasks. See our Snook Training Guide for detailed guidance.

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