UNIT 3

Sustainable development

The concept has included notions of weak sustainability, strong sustainability and deep
ecology. Sustainable development does not focus solely on environmental issues.

In 1987, the United Nations released the Brundtland Report, which defines sustainable
development as 'development which meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.'

The United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the "interdependent
and mutually reinforcing pillars" of sustainable development as economic development,
social development, and environmental protection.

Indigenous people have argued, through various international forums such as the United
Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues and the Convention on Biological Diversity,
that there are four pillars of sustainable development, the fourth being cultural. The Universal
Declaration on Cultural Diversity (UNESCO, 2001) further elaborates the concept by stating
that "...cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature”; it
becomes “one of the roots of development understood not simply in terms of economic
growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral and
spiritual existence". In this vision, cultural diversity is the fourth policy area of sustainable
development.

Economic Sustainability: clearly identified information, integration, and participation as key

building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognises these interdependent
pillars. It emphasises that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of
information. It stresses the need to change from old sector-centred ways of doing business to
new approaches that involve cross-sectoral co-ordination and the integration of
environmental and social concerns into all development processes. Furthermore, Agenda 21
emphasises that broad public participation in decision making is a fundamental prerequisite
for achieving sustainable development.

According to Hasna, sustainability is a process which tells of a development of all aspects of

human life affecting sustenance. It means resolving the conflict between the various
competing goals, and involves the simultaneous pursuit of economic prosperity,
environmental quality and social equity famously known as three dimensions (triple bottom
line) with is the resultant vector being technology, hence it is a continually evolving process;
the ‘journey’ (the process of achieving sustainability) is of course vitally important, but only
as a means of getting to the destination (the desired future state). However,the ‘destination’ of
sustainability is not a fixed place in the normal sense that we understand destination. Instead,
it is a set of wishful characteristics of a future system.

Green development is generally differentiated from sustainable development in that Green

development prioritizes what its proponents consider to be environmental sustainability over
economic and cultural considerations. Proponents of Sustainable Development argue that it
provides a context in which to improve overall sustainability where cutting edge Green
development is unattainable. For example, a cutting edge treatment plant with extremely high
maintenance costs may not be sustainable in regions of the world with fewer financial
resources. An environmentally ideal plant that is shut down due to bankruptcy is obviously
less sustainable than one that is maintainable by the community, even if it is somewhat less
effective from an environmental standpoint.

Some research activities start from this definition to argue that the environment is a
combination of nature and culture. The Network of Excellence "Sustainable Development in
a Diverse World", sponsored by the European Union, integrates multidisciplinary capacities
and interprets cultural diversity as a key element of a new strategy for sustainable
development.

Still other researchers view environmental and social challenges as opportunities for
development action. This is particularly true in the concept of sustainable enterprise that
frames these global needs as opportunities for private enterprise to provide innovative and
entrepreneurial solutions. This view is now being taught at many business schools including
the Center for Sustainable Global Enterprise at Cornell University and the Erb Institute for
Global Sustainable Enterprise at the University of Michigan.

The United Nations Division for Sustainable Development lists the following areas as coming
within the scope of sustainable development:

Sustainable development is an eclectic concept, as a wide array of views fall under its
umbrella. The concept has included notions of weak sustainability, strong sustainability and
deep ecology. Different conceptions also reveal a strong tension between ecocentrism and
anthropocentrism. Many definitions and images (Visualizing Sustainability) of sustainable
development coexist. Broadly defined, the sustainable development mantra enjoins current
generations to take a systems approach to growth and development and to manage natural,
produced, and social capital for the welfare of their own and future generations.

During the last ten years, different organizations have tried to measure and monitor the
proximity to what they consider sustainability by implementing what has been called
sustainability metrics and indices.

Sustainable development is said to set limits on the developing world. While current first
world countries polluted significantly during their development, the same countries
encourage third world countries to reduce pollution, which sometimes impedes growth. Some
consider that the implementation of sustainable development would mean a reversion to pre-
modern lifestyles.

Others have criticized the overuse of the term:

"[The] word sustainable has been used in too many situations today, and ecological
sustainability is one of those terms that confuse a lot of people. You hear about
sustainable development, sustainable growth, sustainable economies, sustainable
societies, sustainable agriculture. Everything is sustainable (Temple, 1992)."
Brown field development

Brownfields are abandoned or underused industrial and commercial facilities available for
re-use. Expansion or redevelopment of such a facility may be complicated by real or
perceived environmental contaminations.[1]

In the United States city planning jargon, brownfield land (or simply a brownfield) is land
previously used for industrial purposes or certain commercial uses. The land may be
contaminated by low concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, and has the potential to
be reused once it is cleaned up. Land that is more severely contaminated and has high
concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, such as a Superfund site, does not fall under
the brownfield classification. Mothballed brownfields are properties which the owners are not
willing to transfer or put to productive reuse.[2]

Locations

Generally, brownfield sites exist in a city's or town's industrial section, on locations with
abandoned factories or commercial buildings, or other previously polluting operations. Small
brownfields also may be found in many older residential neighborhoods. For example, many
dry cleaning establishments or gas stations produced high levels of subsurface contaminants
during prior operations, and the land they occupy might sit idle for decades as a brownfield.

Typical contaminants found on contaminated brownfield land include hydrocarbon spillages,

solvents, pesticides, heavy metals such as lead (e.g., paints), tributyltins, and asbestos. Old
maps may assist in identifying areas to be tested.

Innovative redevelopment strategies

A number of innovative financial and remediation techniques have been used in the U.S. in
recent years to expedite the cleanup of brownfield sites. For example, some environmental
firms have teamed up with insurance companies to underwrite the cleanup of distressed
brownfield properties and provide a guaranteed cleanup cost for a specific brownfield
property, to limit land developers' exposure to environmental remediation costs and pollution
lawsuits. The environmental firm first performs an extensive investigation of the brownfield
site to ensure that the guaranteed cleanup cost is reasonable and they will not wind up with
any surprises.

After the dot-com bubble of 2000, many venture capital firms looking for new businesses in
which to invest have done so in brownfields. Venture capital investments in brownfield-
related businesses have included companies developing new cleanup technology, companies
that do remediation, and development projects in brownfield lands.

Innovative remedial techniques used at distressed brownfields in recent years include

bioremediation, a remedial strategy that uses naturally occurring microbes in soils and
groundwater to expedite a cleanup, and in-situ oxidation, which is a remedial strategy that
uses oxygen or oxidant chemicals to enhance a cleanup. Often, these strategies are used in
conjunction with each other or with other remedial strategies such as soil vapor extraction. In
this process, vapor from the soil phase is extracted from soils and treated, which has the
effect of removing contaminants from the soils and groundwater beneath a site. Some
brownfields with heavy metal contamination have even been cleaned up through an
innovative approach called phytoremediation that uses deep-rooted plants to soak up metals
in soils into the plant structure as the plant grows. After they reach maturity, the plants –
which now contain the heavy metal contaminants in their tissues – are removed and disposed
of as hazardous waste.

Research is under way to see if some brownfields can be used to grow crops, specifically for
the production of biofuels.[4] Michigan State University, in collaboration with
DaimlerChrysler and NextEnergy, has small plots of soybean, corn, canola, and switchgrass
growing in a former industrial dump site in Oakland County, Michigan. The intent is to see if
the plants can serve two purposes simultaneously: assist with phytoremediation, and
contribute to the economical production of biodiesel and/or ethanol fuel.

Regulation

In the United States, investigation and cleanup of brownfield sites is largely regulated by
state environmental agencies in cooperation with the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). Many of the most important provisions on liability relief are contained in state codes
that can differ significantly from state to state.[5] The EPA, together with local and national
government, can provide technical help and some funding for assessment and cleanup of
designated sites. They can also provide tax incentives for cleanup that is not paid for outright;
specifically, cleanup costs are fully tax-deductible in the year they are incurred.[6]

Barriers to redevelopment

Many contaminated brownfield sites sit unused for decades because the cost of cleaning them
to safe standards is more than the land would be worth after redevelopment. However,
redevelopment has become more common in the first decade of the 21st century, as
developable land grows less available in highly populated areas. Also, the methods of
studying contaminated land have become more sophisticated and established.

Many federal and state programs have been developed to help developers interested in
cleaning up brownfield sites and restoring them to practical uses. Some states and localities
have spent considerable money assessing the contamination on local brownfield sites, to
quantify the cleanup costs in an effort to move the redevelopment process forward.

In the process of cleaning contaminated brownfield sites, surprises are sometimes

encountered, such as previously unknown underground storage tanks, buried drums or buried
railroad tank cars containing wastes. When unexpected circumstances arise, the cost for
clean-up increases, and as a result, the cleanup work may be delayed or stopped entirely. To
avoid unexpected contamination and increased costs, many developers insist that a site be
thoroughly investigated (via a Phase II Site Investigation or Remedial Investigation) prior to
commencing remedial cleanup activities.

Valuation

Acquisition, adaptive re-use, and disposal of a brownfield sites requires advanced and specialized
appraisal analysis techniques. For example, the highest and best use of the brownfield site may be
affected by the contamination, both pre- and post-remediation. Additionally, the value should take
into account residual stigma and potential for third-party liability. Normal appraisal techniques
frequently fail, and appraisers must rely on more advanced techniques, such as contingent valuation,
case studies, or statistical analyses.

Vegetation

Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region; it refers to the ground cover
provided by plants. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life
forms, structure, spatial extent, or any other specific botanical or geographic characteristics. It
is broader than the term flora which refers exclusively to species composition. Perhaps the
closest synonym is plant community, but vegetation can, and often does, refer to a wider
range of spatial scales than that term does, including scales as large as the global. Primeval
redwood forests, coastal mangrove stands, sphagnum bogs, desert soil crusts, roadside weed
patches, wheat fields, cultivated gardens and lawns; all are encompassed by the term
vegetation.

Importance

Vegetation supports critical functions in the biosphere, at all possible spatial scales. First,
vegetation regulates the flow of numerous biogeochemical cycles (see biogeochemistry),
most critically those of water, carbon, and nitrogen; it is also of great importance in local and
global energy balances. Such cycles are important not only for global patterns of vegetation
but also for those of climate. Second, vegetation strongly affects soil characteristics,
including soil volume, chemistry and texture, which feed back to affect various vegetational
characteristics, including productivity and structure. Third, vegetation serves as wildlife
habitat and the energy source for the vast array of animal species on the planet (and,
ultimately, to those that feed on these).Perhaps most importantly, and often overlooked,
global vegetation (including algal communities) has been the primary source of oxygen in the
atmosphere, enabling the aerobic metabolism systems to evolve and persist.

Onsite sewage facility

On Site Sewage Facilities (OSSF) is wastewater systems designed to treat and dispose of
effluent on the same property that produces the wastewater.

A septic tank and drain field combination is the oldest and most common type of OSSF,
although newer aerobic and biofilter units exist which represent scaled down versions of
municipal sewage treatments. OSSFs account for approximately 25% of all domestic
wastewater treatment in the United States.

Improving treatment through performance requirements

Most onsite wastewater treatment systems are of the conventional type, consisting of a septic
tank and a subsurface wastewater infiltration system (SWIS). Site limitations and more
stringent performance requirements have led to significant improvements in the design of
wastewater treatment systems and how they are managed. Over the past 20 years the Onsite
wastewater treatment system (OWTS) industry has developed many new treatment
technologies that can achieve high performance levels on sites with size, soil, ground water,
and landscape limitations that might preclude installing conventional systems. New
technologies and improvements to existing technologies are based on defining the
performance requirements of the system, characterizing wastewater flow and pollutant loads,
evaluating site conditions, defining performance and design boundaries, and selecting a
system design that addresses these factors.

Performance requirements can be expressed as numeric criteria (e.g., pollutant concentration

or mass loading limits) or narrative criteria (e.g., no odors or visible sheen) and are based on
the assimilative capacity of regional ground water or surface waters, water quality objectives,
and public health goals. Wastewater flow and pollutant content help define system design and
size and can be estimated by comparing the size and type of facility with measured effluent
outputs from similar, existing facilities. Site evaluations integrate detailed analyses of
regional hydrology, geology, and water resources with sitespecific characterization of soils,
slopes, structures, property lines, and other site features to further define system design
requirements and determine the physical placement of system components.

Most of the alternative treatment technologies applied today treat wastes after they exit the
septic tank; the tank retains settleable solids, grease, and oils and provides an environment for
partial digestion of settled organic wastes. Post-tank treatment can include aerobic (with
oxygen) or anaerobic (with no or low oxygen) biological treatment in suspended or fixed-film
reactors, physical/chemical treatment, soil infiltration, fixed-media filtration, and/or
disinfection. The application and sizing of treatment units based on these technologies are
defined by performance requirements, wastewater characteristics, and site conditions.

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the gathering, or accumulating and storing, of rainwater. Rainwater

harvesting has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for irrigation or
to refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge. Rainwater collected from the roofs
of houses, tents and local institutions, or from specially prepared areas of ground, can make
an important contribution to drinking water. In some cases, rainwater may be the only
available, or economical, water source. Rainwater systems are simple to construct from
inexpensive local materials, and are potentially successful in most habitable locations. Roof
rainwater is usually of good quality and does not require treatment before consumption.
Household rainfall catchment systems are appropriate in areas with an average rainfall greater
than 200mm per year, and no other accessible water sources (Skinner and Cotton, 1992).

There are a number of types of systems to harvest rainwater ranging from very simple to the
complex industrial systems. Generally, rainwater is either harvested from the ground or from
a roof. The rate at which water can be collected from either system is dependent on the plan
area of the system, its efficiency, and the intensity of rainfall.

Ground catchment systems

Ground catchments systems channel water from a prepared catchment area into storage.
Generally they are only considered in areas where rainwater is very scarce and other sources
of water are not available. They are more suited to small communities than individual
families. If properly designed, ground catchments can collect large quantities of rainwater.
Roof catchment systems

Roof catchment systems channel rainwater that falls onto a roof into storage via a system of
gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be allowed to run to
waste as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof gutters should have
sufficient incline to avoid standing water. They must be strong enough, and large enough to
carry peak flows. Storage tanks should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and to
reduce evaporation losses, contamination and algal growth. Rainwater harvesting systems
require regular maintenance and cleaning to keep the system hygienic and in good working
order.

Subsurface dyke

A subsurface dyke is built in an aquifer to obstruct the natural flow of groundwater, thereby
raising the groundwater level and increasing the amount of water stored in the aquifer.

The subsurface dyke at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University
with the support of ICAR, has become an effective method for ground water conservation by
means of rain water harvesting technologies. The sub-surface dyke has demonstrated that it is
a feasible method for conserving and exploiting the groundwater resources of the Kerala state
of India. The dyke is now the largest rainwater harvesting system in that region.

Groundwater recharge

Rainwater may also be used for groundwater recharge, where the runoff on the ground is
collected and allowed to be absorbed, adding to the groundwater. In the US, rooftop
rainwater is collected and stored in sump. In India this includes Bawdis and johads, or ponds
which collect the run-off from small streams in wide area.

In India, reservoirs called tankas were used to store water; typically they were shallow with
mud walls. Ancient tankas still exist in some places.

Advantages in urban areas

Rainwater harvesting in urban areas can have manifold reasons. Some of the reasons
rainwater harvesting can be adopted in cities are to provide supplemental water for the city's
requirements, to increase soil moisture levels for urban greenery, to increase the ground water
table through artificial recharge, to mitigate urban flooding and to improve the quality of
groundwater. In urban areas of the developed world, at a household level, harvested rainwater
can be used for flushing toilets and washing laundry. Indeed in hard water areas it is superior
to mains water for this. It can also be used for showering or bathing. It may require treatment
prior to use for drinking

In New Zealand, many houses away from the larger towns and cities routinely rely on
rainwater collected from roofs as the only source of water for all household activities. This is
almost inevitably the case for many holiday homes.

Recycling and reuse

Recycling involves the collection of used and discarded materials processing these materials
and making them into new products. It reduces the amount of waste that is thrown into the
community dustbins thereby making the environment cleaner and the air more fresh to
breathe.

Surveys carried out by Government and non-government agencies in the country have all
recognized the importance of recycling wastes. However, the methodology for safe recycling
of waste has not been standardized. Studies have revealed that 7 %-15% of the waste is
recycled. If recycling is done in a proper manner, it will solve the problems of waste or
garbage. At the community level, a large number of NGOs (Non Governmental
Organizations) and private sector enterprises
have taken an initiative in segregation and Some items that can be recycled or reused
recycling of waste (EXNORA International in
Chennai recycles a large part of the waste that is Paper Old copies
collected). It is being used for composting, Old books
making pellets to be used in gasifiers, etc. Paper bags
Plastics are sold to the factories that reuse them. Newspapers
Old greeting cards
The steps involved in the process prior to Cardboard box
recycling include
a) Collection of waste from doorsteps, Plastic Containers
commercial places, etc. Bottles
Bags
b) Collection of waste from community dumps.
Sheets
c) Collection/picking up of waste from final
disposal sites.
Glass and Bottles
ceramics Plates
Most of the garbage generated in the household
Cup
can be recycled and reused. Organic kitchen Bowls
waste such as leftover foodstuff, vegetable
peels, and spoilt or dried fruits and vegetables Miscellaneous Old cans
can be recycled by putting them in the compost Utensils
pits that have been dug in the garden. Old Clothes
newspapers, magazines and bottles can be sold Furniture
to the kabadiwala the man who buys these
items from homes.

In your own homes you can contribute to waste reduction and the recycling and reuse of
certain items. To cover you books you can use old calendars; old greeting cards can also be
reused. Paper can also be made at home through a very simple process and you can paint on
them.

The schematic diagram below depicts recycling of wastes

  

Source: CPCB Report on Management of Muncipal Solid Waste 

Waste recycling has some significant advantages. It

leads to less utilization of raw materials.
reduces environmental impacts arising from waste treatment and disposal.
makes the surroundings cleaner and healthier.
saves on landfill space.
saves money.
reduces the amount of energy required to manufacture new products.

In fact recycling can prevent the creation of waste at the source.

Alternative technology

Alternative technology is a term used by environmental advocates to refer to technologies

which are more environmentally friendly than the functionally equivalent technologies
dominant in current practice.

It is technology that, as an alternative to resource-intensive and wasteful industry, aims to

utilize resources sparingly, with minimum damage to the environment, at affordable cost and
with a possible degree of control over the processes. The term is sometimes confused with
appropriate technology, but while there is significant overlap, the terms have different
meanings, particularly related to the importance of low cost and ease of maintenance for
developing country applications.

Alternative technologies themselves are part of environmentalist politics. Common political

issues related to alternative technologies include whether they are practical for widespread
use; whether they are cost-effective; whether widespread adoption would produce negative
impacts on the economy, lifestyle or environment (production energy costs/pollutants); how
to encourage rapid adoption; whether public subsidies for adoption are appropriate; which
technologies government regulations should favor, if any, and how environmentally unsound
technologies and practices should be regulated; what technological research should be done
and how it should be funded; and which of a field of competing alternative technologies
should be pursued.
Some "alternative technologies" have in the past or may in the future become widely adopted,
after which they might no longer be considered "alternative." For example the use of wind
turbines to produce electricity.

Alternative technologies
Alternative technologies include the following:

 Anaerobic digestion
 Composting
 Fuel cells
 Fuels for automobiles (besides gasoline and diesel)
o Alcohol (either ethanol or methanol)
o Biodiesel
o Vegetable oil

 Greywater
 Solar panels
o Silicon-based
o Photosynthetic "Gratzel cells" (Titanium dioxide)

 Landfill gas extraction from landfills

 Mechanical biological treatment
 Recycling
 Wind generators

Alternative natural materials

Alternative natural materials is a general term that describes natural materials like rock or
adobe that are not as commonly in use as materials such as wood or iron. Alternative natural
materials have many practical uses in areas such as sustainable architecture and engineering.
The main purpose of using such materials is to minimize the negative effects that our built
environment can have on the planet while increasing the efficiency and adaptability of the
structures.

Materials

Rock

Rock is a great way to get away from traditional materials that are harmful to the
environment. Rocks have two great characteristics: good thermal mass and thermal
insulation. These characteristics make stone a great idea because the temperature in the house
stays rather constant thus requiring less air conditioning and other cooling systems. Types of
rocks that can be employed are reject stone (pieces of stone that are not able to be used for
another task), limestone, and flagstone.
Straw

Straw bales can be used as a basis for walls instead of drywall. Straw provides excellent
insulation and fire resistance in a traditional post-and-beam structure, where a wood frame
supports the house.[3] These straw walls are about 75% more energy efficient than standard
drywalls and because no oxygen can get through the walls, fire cannot spread and there is no
chance of combustion.

Bamboo

In Asian countries, bamboo is being used for structures like bridges and homes. Bamboo is
surprisingly strong and rather flexible and grows incredibly fast, making it a rather abundant
material. Although it can be difficult to join corners together, bamboo is immensely strong
and makes up for the hardships that can be encountered while building it.

Cordwood

Cordwood is a combination of small remnants of firewood and other lumber that usually go
to waste. These small blocks of wood can easily be put together to make a structure that, like
stone, has great insulation as well as thermal mass. Cordwood provides the rustic look of log
cabins without the use of tons of lumber. You can build an entire building with just cordwood
or use stones to fill in the walls.

Rammed Earth

Rammed Earth is a very abundant material that can be used in place of concrete and brick.
Soil is packed tightly into wall molds where it is rammed together and hardened to form a
durable wall packing made of nothing more than dirt, stones, and sticks.[3] Rammed Earth
also provides great thermal mass, which means great energy savings. In addition, it is very
weatherproof and durable enough that it was used in the Great Wall of China.

Earth-Sheltered

Earth-Sheltering is a very unique building technique in which buildings are completely

constructed on at least one side by some form of Earth whether it be a grass roof, clay walls,
or both. This unique system usually includes plenty of windows because of the difficulty
involved with using too much electricity in such a house. This adds to the energy efficiency
of the house by reducing lighting costs.

Papercrete

Papercrete is an interesting and very new material that is a good substitute for concrete.
Papercrete is shredded paper, sand, and cement mixed together that forms a very durable
brick-like material. Buildings utilizing papercrete are very well-insulated as well as being
termite- and fire-resistant. Papercrete is very cheap as it usually only costs about $0.35 per
square foot.
Adobe

Adobe is an age-old technique that is cheap, easy to obtain, and ideal for hot environments. A
mixture of sand, clay, and water is poured into a mold and left in the sun to dry. When dried,
it is exceptionally strong and heat-resistant. Adobe doesn’t let much heat through to the
inside of the structure, thus providing excellent insulation during the summer to reduce
energy costs. Although this clay mixture provides excellent insulation from heat, it is not very
waterproof and can be dangerous in earth-quake prone areas due to its tendency to crack
easily.

Sawdust

Sawdust is a good material to combine with clay or cement mixtures and use for walls. These
walls turn out surprisingly sturdy and effectively recycle any trees that may need to be
excavated from the building area. Depending what type of sawdust used (hardwood is best)
the wood chips in the walls absorb moisture and help prevent cracking during freeze/thaw
cycles.[1] Sawdust may be combined with water and frozen to produce a material commonly
known as pykrete, which is strong, and less prone to melting than regular ice.

Recycling

Recycling involves processing used materials into new products to prevent waste of
potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy
usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by
reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as
compared to virgin production.[1][2] Recycling is a key component of modern waste
management and is the third component of the "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle" waste hierarchy.

Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles, and
electronics. Although similar in effect, the composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste
– such as food or garden waste – is not typically considered recycling.[2] Materials to be
recycled are either brought to a collection center or picked up from the curbside, then sorted,
cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials bound for manufacturing.

In a strict sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same material,
for example used office paper to more office paper, or used foamed polystyrene to more
polystyrene. However, this is often difficult or too expensive (compared with producing the
same product from raw materials or other sources), so "recycling" of many products or
materials involves their reuse in producing different materials (e.g., cardboard) instead.
Another form of recycling is the salvage of certain materials from complex products, either
due to their intrinsic value (e.g., lead from car batteries, or gold from computer components),
or due to their hazardous nature (e.g., removal and reuse of mercury from various items).

Critics dispute the net economic and environmental benefits of recycling over its costs, and
suggest that proponents of recycling often make matters worse and suffer from confirmation
bias. Specifically, critics argue that the costs and energy used in collection and transportation
detract from (and outweigh) the costs and energy saved in the production process; also that
the jobs produced by the recycling industry can be a poor trade for the jobs lost in logging,
mining, and other industries associated with virgin production; and that materials such as
paper pulp can only be recycled a few times before material degradation prevents further
recycling. Proponents of recycling dispute each of these claims, and the validity of arguments
from both sides has led to enduring controversy.

Aggregates and concrete

Concrete blocks

Main article: Concrete recycling

Concrete aggregate collected from demolition sites is put through a crushing machine, often
along with asphalt, bricks, dirt, and rocks. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for
new construction projects. Crushed recycled concrete can also be used as the dry aggregate
for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants. This reduces the need for other rocks to
be dug up, which in turn saves trees and habitats

Ferrous metals
Steel crushed and baled for recycling

Main article: Steel recycling

Iron and steel are the world's most recycled materials, and among the easiest materials to
reprocess, as they can be separated magnetically from the waste stream. Recycling is via a
steelworks: scrap is either remelted in an electric arc furnace (90-100% scrap), or used as part
of the charge in a Basic Oxygen Furnace (around 25% scrap).[51] Any grade of steel can be
recycled to top quality new metal, with no 'downgrading' from prime to lower quality
materials as steel is recycled repeatedly. 42% of crude steel produced is recycled material.[52]

Non-ferrous metals
Main article: Aluminium recycling

Aluminium is one of the most efficient and widely-recycled materials.[53][54] Aluminium is

shredded and ground into small pieces or crushed into bales. These pieces or bales are melted
in an aluminium smelter to produce molten aluminium. By this stage the recycled aluminium
is indistinguishable from virgin aluminium and further processing is identical for both. This
process does not produce any change in the metal, so aluminium can be recycled indefinitely.

Recycling aluminium saves 95% of the energy cost of processing new aluminium.[6] This is
because the temperature necessary for melting recycled, nearly pure, aluminium is 600 °C,
while to extract mined aluminium from its ore requires 900 °C. To reach this higher
temperature, much more energy is needed, leading to the high environmental benefits of
aluminium recycling. Americans throw away enough aluminium every year to rebuild their
entire commercial air fleet. Also, the energy saved by recycling one aluminium can is enough
to run a television for three hours.[
Timber
A stack of wooden pallets awaits reuse or recycling.

Main article: Timber recycling

Recycling timber has become popular due to its image as an environmentally friendly
product, with consumers commonly believing that by purchasing recycled wood the demand
for green timber will fall and ultimately benefit the environment. Greenpeace also view
recycled timber as an environmentally friendly product, citing it as the most preferable timber
source on their website. The arrival of recycled timber as a construction product has been
important in both raising industry and consumer awareness towards deforestation and
promoting timber mills to adopt more environmentally friendly practices.

Wood recycling is a subject which has in recent years taken an ever greater role in our lives.
The problem, however, is that although many local authorities like the idea of recycling, they
do not fully support it. One of the countless examples, which has been in the news is the
concept of actually recycling wood which is growing in the cities. Namely, recycling timber,
trees and other source.

Environmental sustainability

Environmental sustainability is the process of making sure current processes of interaction

with the environment are pursued with the idea of keeping the environment as pristine as
naturally possible based on ideal-seeking behavior.

An "unsustainable situation" occurs when natural capital (the sum total of nature's resources)
is used up faster than it can be replenished. Sustainability requires that human activity only
uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. Inherently the
concept of sustainable development is intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity.
Theoretically, the long-term result of environmental degradation is the inability to sustain
human life. Such degradation on a global scale could imply extinction for humanity.

Consumption of renewable
State of environment Sustainability
resources
Environmental
More than nature's ability to replenish Not sustainable
degradation
Environmental
Equal to nature's ability to replenish Steady state economy
equilibrium
Environmentally
Less than nature's ability to replenish Environmental renewal
sustainable

Purpose

Various writers have commented on the population control agenda that seems to underlie the
concept of sustainable development. Maria Sophia Aguirre writes:
"Sustainable development is a policy approach that has gained quite a lot of popularity in
recent years, especially in international circles. By attaching a specific interpretation to
sustainability, population control policies have become the overriding approach to
development, thus becoming the primary tool used to “promote” economic development in
developing countries and to protect the environment."

Mary Jo Anderson suggests that the real purpose of sustainable development is to contain and
limit economic development in developing countries, and in so doing control population
growth. It is suggested that this is the reason the main focus of most programs is still on low-
income agriculture. Joan Veon, a businesswoman and international reporter, who covered 64
global meetings on sustainable development posits that:

"Sustainable development has continued to evolve as that of protecting the world's resources
while its true agenda is to control the world's resources. It should be noted that Agenda 21
sets up the global infrastructure needed to manage, count, and control all of the world's
assets."

Ecological balance:

The environment in which the man and other organisms live is called the biosphere. The
biosphere is made up of different regions that have different types of flora (plants) and fauna
(animals). The types of organisms in an area are determined by various factors such as the
climate, temperature, rainfall, etc.

The regions based on their physical and biological nature are classified into ecosystems. For
example, pond ecosystem, evergreen forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc. The organisms,
in addition to being dependent on the environment for their needs, are also dependent on each
other. This dependency is especially for food. This results in the presence of food chains and
food webs.

Food Chain in Nature (P = producer, H = herbivore, C1 = carnivore order-1, C2 = carnivore

order-2)
The food chains and other such interrelationships in the ecosystems create a balance in the
environment that is called the ecological balance.

Man is also a part of these food chains and webs. However, man tries to modify the
environment to suit his needs unlike the other components of the ecosystem. This has upset
the delicate balance being maintained in the environment.

Forest Food Webs

For example: consider the food chain: plants, deer, tiger in a forest. There is a balance
maintained in the environment because of this food chain. This balance becomes evident
when it is upset. If for some reason, all the tigers disappear, then the deer population will
increase to such an extent that plants will reduce in number drastically and the habitat will
become unsuitable for other herbivores also with more competition. If the deer disappear,
then the tigers will starve and dwindle in number. And if the plants disappear, then deer
cannot survive and as a result the tigers also cannot survive.

Such an event in the earlier days has resulted in the creation of deserts such as Sahara in
Africa and the Thar desert in Rajasthan. Due to hunting habits of man, the numbers of lions
in Africa were drastically reduced during the times of the Romans. This resulted in increased
population of herbivores that in turn adversely affected the plant population. Less cover of
vegetation on land led to desertification. Thus maintenance of this ecological balance is very
important.