Business English 2 PDF

Aneta Naumoska
Biljana Naumoska - Sarakinska

Business English 2
Aneta Naumoska
Biljana Naumoska- Sarakinska
Business
English 2
Skopje, 2019
Contents
Reading and Grammar Practice

vocabulary focus and revision
Foreword
pp. 7–8
Chapter 1 marketing; marketing verb tenses/forms; exercises;
mix; mobile adverbs and E-M translation
Marketing: marketing practices expressions of
the basics frequency;
pp. 9–20 exercises
Chapter 2 pricing; promotions modal verbs; exercises;

and discounts; exercises M-E translation
Pricing and market segmentation;
planning business plans
pp. 21–30
Chapter 3 advertising; prepositions, exercises;
types of advertising; prepositional E-M translation
Advertising branding phrases; phrasal
and branding verbs; colloca-
pp. 31–42 tions; exercises
Chapter 4 PR concepts; passive; causative exercises;

PR 2.0; PR crisis ‘have’; exercises M-E translation
Public management
relations
pp. 43–54
Chapter 5 presenting; nego- conditional sen- exercises;
tiating; networking tences, inversion; E-M translation
Business ‘wish’ sentence
skills constructions;
pp. 55–66 exercises
Chapter 6 security; equity and relative clauses; exercises;

debt; securities mar- exercises M-E translation
Securities kets, regulation
pp. 67–78
Reading and Grammar Practice
Chapter 7 accounting; auditing; reported speech exercises;
business risks (reporting verbs); E-M translation
Accounting exercises
and auditing
pp. 79–90
Chapter 8 money supply; sentence connec- exercises;
interest rates; tors; commonly M-E translation
Money digital currency confused words;
supply exercises
pp. 91–102
Reading and Writing Practice
Chapter 9 monetary policy; describing visuals; exercises;
fiscal policy; taxation; exercises M-E translation
Fundamentals tax treaty
of monetary
policy
pp. 103–112
Chapter 10 types of correspon- register; revision writing tasks

dence; language and of grammar
Business register
correspondence
pp. 113–126
References
pp. 127–131
Foreword
Business English 2 is a course book written and intended for students

at the Faculty of Economy in Skopje, who have chosen the subject Business
English 2. These are students who understand the importance of being fluent
in English in the 21st century, especially since it is a language spreading on a
global scale. The course book has been tailored to meet the needs of such stu-
dents, and has been designed based on the authors’ lengthy teaching experi-
ence, especially at the Faculty of Economy in Skopje.
In terms of the structure of the course book - it follows the organizati-
on of Business English 1 (the course book for the subject Business English 1),
consisting of 10 chapters dealing with various concepts from the field of busi-
ness. Each chapter is further sub-divided into three main sections: 1) reading
and vocabulary, which consists of various business texts for analysis, discussi-
on points, and a homework assignment; 2) grammar focus, which deals with
grammar, followed by an exercise section; and 3) practice and revision, which
consists of a variety of exercises, and a short text for translation. The chapters
are individual in that they all stand alone, yet there is a unity to them: the first
half of the course book focuses on aspects related to marketing, while the se-
cond half covers aspects related to finances.
The reference section comes at the end of the course book, and it pro-
vides a detailed list of online sources for further reading for each chapter,
while the general bibliography provides an overview of significant resource
books that had been consulted in the writing of this course book.
A noteworthy addition to both English and Macedonian, as well as an
invaluable tool for students is the first business dictionary mobile app
(www.macengdictionary.com): a bilingual dictionary that includes over 11.000
dictionary entries from many fields, such as banking, finance, HR, insurance,
investments, marketing, sales, etc.
The level of English this course book maintains is that of C1, in accor-
dance with the CEFR. Students will further develop their core skills in fluency,
reading, speaking and writing, through the application of linguistic principles.
It is important to have a good basis of general English in order to be able to
communicate effectively. However, this course book focuses on particular vo-
8|
cabulary, topics and language skills that are applicable to the workplace and
enable students to communicate accurately so as to form effective and pro-
ductive working relationships.
This course book was created with great care to meet the needs of its
users, and the authors sincerely hope that that is what it will ultimately achie-
ve. Of course, they are very grateful for all the help and encouragement they
received in the preparation of this work, and they take all responsibility for
any mistakes that might have made their way into the final version.
Aneta Naumoska, PhD

Biljana Naumoska-Sarakinska, PhD
Chapter 1
Marketing: the basics
1. Reading and vocabulary

RELATED TOPICS: marketing; marketing mix; mobile marketing practices.
Marketing
Today’s central problem facing business is not a shortage of goods,

but a shortage of customers. Most of the world’s industries can produce far
more goods than the world’s consumers can buy, leading to hypercompeti-
tion. Competitors, desperate to attract customers, lower their prices. This
strategy ultimately means lower margins, lower profits, and more mergers
and acquisitions. Marketing is the answer to how to compete on bases other
than price. Nowadays, marketing has become more important than ever.
However, marketing is still a rather misunderstood subject in people’s
minds. Companies think that marketing exists to help manufacturing get rid
of the company’s products. The truth is the opposite: that manufacturing exists
to support marketing. A company can always outsource its manufacturing.
What makes a company prosper is its marketing ideas. Manufacturing, pur-
chasing, research and development, finance, and other company functions
exist to support the company’s work in the marketplace. Marketing is too of-
ten confused with selling. Marketing and selling are almost opposites. Philip
Kotler has said that marketing is not the art of finding clever ways to dispose
of what you make, but rather it is the art of creating genuine customer value.
The marketer’s key words are quality, service, and value. Selling starts only
when you have a product. Marketing starts before a product exists. Marketing
determines how to launch, price, distribute, and promote your product/servi-
ce offerings to the marketplace. Marketing then monitors the results, and im-
proves the offering over time.
Therefore, marketing is not a short-term selling effort, but a long-term
investment effort. When marketing is done well, it occurs before the company
makes any product or enters any market; and, it continues long after the sale.
Peter Drucker has said that marketing is the ability to hit the mark. Yet, there
10 | C H A P T E R 1
are business leaders who say, “We can’t waste time on marketing. We haven’t
designed the product yet.” Or, “We are too successful to need marketing, and
if we were unsuccessful, we couldn’t afford it.”
One definition of marketing is that it is the art and science of choosing
target markets and getting, keeping, and increasing the number of customers
through creating, communicating, and delivering superior customer value.
Or, a more detailed definition would be that it is the business function that
identifies unfulfilled needs and wants, defines and measures their potential
profitability, determines which target markets the organization can best serve,
decides on appropriate products, services, and programs to serve these cho-
sen markets, and calls upon everyone in the organization to think and serve
the customer. The marketer’s goal is to build a mutually profitable long-term
relationship with the customers, not just to sell a product.
The function of marketing is typically organized as a department
within a business. This can have both positive and negative aspects. The for-
mer refers to bringing together a number of skilled people with specific abili-
ties for understanding, serving, and satisfying customers. The latter refers to
the fact that other departments believe that all marketing is done in one de-
partment only. Marketing begins with top management as it is not restricted
to a department that creates ads, selects media, and answers customer questi-
ons. In fact, it is a larger process of systematically figuring out what to make,
how to bring it to the customer’s attention and easy access, and how to keep
the customer wanting to buy more from you. No matter what the target group
is, you need to understand their needs and wants.
The good news is that marketing takes a day to learn. The bad news is
that it takes a lifetime to master. In the coming years, marketing will inevita-
bly be reengineered from top to bottom.
Marketing mix
The concept of marketing remains the same, but the marketing mix,
that is, the combination of factors that influence the delivery of value, has
evolved considerably. The traditional marketing mix, built around the 4Ps –
product, price, place and promotion – does not consider the complexity of cur-
rent-day marketing. Therefore, two more Ps have been added to the mix –
process and people –- which respond to crucial changes in customer service, e-
commerce, and social media.
MARKETING: THE BASICS | 11
Product
Product incorporates the variety, design, packaging, quality, features and posi-
tioning of a product or service. The emphasis on this P is constantly growing
as consumers are becoming more knowledgeable about their purchases. For
example, return policies and warranties are becoming extremely important at
a time when the competitors are just a Google-search away.
Price
Price refers to how much a customer is willing to pay for a product or service.
Pricing strategies are becoming more dynamic to keep up with highly educated
consumers. The advancement in technology has allowed manufacturers to
cut out retailers and sell directly to consumers. The integration of AR (aug-
mented reality) capabilities in phones is also opening more possibilities for
direct manufacturers to sell directly to consumers by allowing them to visuali-
ze merchandise in ways that replace the need to tangibly feel the product be-
fore buying it.
Place
Place refers to product accessibility to potential customers. Choosing retailers
like Amazon could enhance coverage when a company is trying to turn their
brand into a household name. The key factor is understanding a target audi-
ence, which will help position the product in the channel that is most accessi-
ble to potential buyers. This P recently evolved with the introduction of e-com-
merce. Deciding whether or not to sell a product on a website may significantly
affect a company’s relationship with distributors.
Promotion
Promotion is the most visible P, as it includes advertising, sales promotions
and PR efforts. Media has evolved, and it is important to incorporate the
views of those who are most familiar with the new media mix. Capturing the
customers’ attention with meaningful and motivating content has changed
the way promotions are approached. Young people understand this even bet-
ter because they are considered to be digital natives.
In addition to these traditional elements, new developments in the
marketplace have added two vital layers for marketers to integrate into the
marketing mix: process and people.
Process
Automation, systems and processes reduce cost while also achieving customer
satisfaction and measuring results. Focusing on processes means channeling
12 | CHAPTER 1
discipline to ensure that marketing concepts are playing an integral role in all
marketing practices. This is accomplished by utilizing insights to create win-
win relationships with suppliers and partners to increase efficiency and de-
crease cost.
People
Companies need to hire and train the right people to provide superior custo-
mer service and to ensure that the voice of the company stands united. Steve
Jobs perfectly captured the correct hiring mindset when he said that rather
than hiring people and telling them what to do, we should hire smart people,
instead, so they can tell us what to do. A diverse, goal-oriented and motivated
workforce is the most important advantage a company can have.
Marketers argue that the original mix is still as applicable as it ever
was. Marketing mix components can be viewed as elements that make up a
car. In the 1960s, when the marketing mix first appeared, all cars had wheels,
an engine, etc. In today's market, a fuel injector is considered a necessity. This
model can be adapted and tailored to meet specific products or services.
Mobile marketing practices
Mobile devices are today's leading media and this applies to all e-
commerce sites. If a company is not being smart about reaching their cus-
tomers via mobile, they are leaving a great amount of money on the table.
Presented below are five mobile marketing practices that companies need to
think about in the age of ‘the mobile moment’.
Location-based marketing
Businesses send customers notifications when they pass a store, and promo-
tions when they are near strategic locations where the brand's products or
services would be useful. In this context, Foursquare has integrated Uber into
its system, enabling users both to discover places to go and also get there, us-
ing the same app.
In-app marketing
Google Play and the Apple Store have millions of apps. With such intense com-
petition, apps must offer the most personalized service possible. In-app mar-
keting is any marketing campaign or message designed to be displayed within
an app for the purpose of reaching an active user of that app. Such marketing
is an opportunity for real-time engagement with users. In fact, this is its bene-
fit - the fact that customers are reached at a critical moment, i.e. while they
are active in their app, which means they are already likely to be more recep-
tive to what you have to say.
Text messaging marketing

There are many misconceptions about mobile text marketing, but with a high
percentage of young people messaging weekly, marketing via this medium is
essential. When a Domino's pizza franchise in North Carolina wanted to im-
prove advertising at college sports games, it turned to a short messaging mar-
keting service. Previous campaigns had displayed Domino's web address in
ads, but the franchise found that most fans did not bother writing a web ad-
dress during a basketball game. So, Domino's reconfigured its new ads to tell
viewers to text a certain number to get free or discounted pizza. Responses
skyrocketed.
QR codes
These digital bar codes act as shortcuts for getting valuable information into
the hands of customers and prospects. QR codes are highly versatile and can
function as a ‘like’ button, as well as offer coupons. One memorable QR cam-
paign was the “Guinness QR code on a beer glass” action. When customers
poured Guinness beer into a special glass, the beer's black color filled out a
code on the glass that was scannable with a smartphone. Once it was scan-
ned, customers could tweet about their pints, update their status, and down-
load coupons.
DISCUSSION
1. WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT competitive advantage refer to? Explain and
exemplify.
2. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE between a need and a want? How do marke-
ters create wants?
3. THE MARKETING MIX HAS BEEN extended from 4 Ps to 6 Ps. In order to
bring more depth to this mix, think of other Ps that may be added as buzz-
words in marketing.
4. DECIDE AND DISCUSS WHERE would you put the following words and
expressions in the marketing mix (some of them may be placed alongside mo-
re than one P): acceptability, accessibility, action, affordability, attention, awa-
reness, branding, communication, competitors, convenience, creativity, custo-
14 | CHAPTER 1
mer needs, distribution, interest, launch, location, objectives, operations, or-

ganization, packaging, revenue, sales force, staff, user cost.
5. ETSY IS AN ONLINE SHOP which sells millions of handcrafted, vintage,
custom, unique and DIY items, for everything that you might need and want.
What effective marketing strategies would you consider if you were an Etsy in-
dependent seller?
6. WHAT IS THE BEST marketing campaign you know of? Why? Is there
anything to it that you would change?
7. ONE OF YOUR FRIENDS IS thinking about opening a coffee shop near
your college campus. She asks for your advice about the size of the prospecti-
ve customer base, and how to market the business according to the Ps. What
advice would you give your friend to help her in launching the business?
8. HOW WILL MARKETING change in the future?
ASSIGNMENT
In 250–300 words, elaborate on one of the following:

1. “PEOPLE DO NOT buy products. They buy problem-solvers.” (J. N. Uhl)
Do you agree or disagree? Why? Explain and illustrate.
2. HOW CAN THE CURRENT customers be turned into a tool for finding
new customers? Discuss and exemplify.
3. “MARKETING TECHNIQUES are culture-based.” Discuss and illustrate.
2. Grammar focus: verb tenses/forms;

adverbs and expressions of frequency
Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and future. The past is gene-
rally used to describe things that have already happened. The present is gene-
rally used to describe things that are happening right now, or things that are
continuous. The future generally describes things that have yet to happen. All
the verb tenses are shown in the following timeline:
(For more on verb tenses, see Grammar Focus in Chapter 1, in Business English 1)
←―――――――――――→
Certain verbs, such as forget, (would) like, regret, remember, stop, try,
have different meanings depending on what follows that verb: whether it is
another verb in infinitive form or a verb+ -ing.
Adverbs that express how often or how frequently something happens
are called adverbs of frequency. If a sentence has only one verb (main verb),
the adverb of frequency is placed after the subject, but before the main verb,
except in the case of to be, when the adverb stands after that verb. When there
is an auxiliary verb, the adverb is placed between the auxiliary and the main
verb. The adverbs hardly ever and never are used in positive sentences, while
ever is used in negative sentences and questions.
EXERCISES
1. FILL IN THE BLANKS with the correct tense/form of the verbs in brackets:
John ____________ (TRAVEL, ALWAYS) a lot. In fact, he _____________ (BE)

only two years old when he first _____________ (FLY) to the USA. John
has both Italian and American roots, since his mother ____________
(BE) Italian and his father ____________ (BE) American. John was born
in France, but his parents _____________ (MEET) in Germany in 1964,
after they _____________ (LIVE) there for five years. They _____________
(MEET) one day while John's father _____________ (READ) a book in the
library and his mother _____________ (SIT) down beside him. At that
time, his parents _____________ (VISIT) that specific library several
times a week, but up to then his father ____________ (NOTICE, NEVER)
that beautiful lady.
Ever since John was a young boy, he ____________ (FLY) the skies. This
year he _____________ (FLY) over 50,000 miles for his job. He
_____________ (WORK) for Jackson & Co. for almost two years now. He's
pretty sure that he _____________ (WORK) for them next year as well.
His job _____________ (REQUIRE) a lot of travel. In fact, by the end of
16 | CHAPTER 1
this year, he _____________ (FLY) over 120,000 miles! His next journey
_____________ (BE) to Australia the following Thursday. The plane
_____________ (LEAVE) at 5:00 am, so he _____________ (HAVE, NOT)
much time to sleep that night! He really _____________ (LIKE, NOT) go-
ing to Australia because it _____________ (BE) so far away from where
he lives! This time he _____________ (FLY) from Paris after a meeting
with the company's French partner. He _____________ (SIT) for over 18
hours by the time he arrives!
John _____________ (TALK) with his parents earlier this evening when
his girlfriend from New York _____________ (PHONE) to let him know
that Jackson & Co. _____________ (DECIDE) to merge with a company in
Australia. The two companies _____________ (NEGOTIATE) the conditi-
ons for merger for the past month, so it really ____________ (BE, NOT)
much of a surprise. He ____________ (KNOW) for a long time that the
companies _____________ (MERGE). Of course, this _____________ (MEAN)
that John _____________ (HAVE) to catch the next plane back to New
York. He ____________ (MEET) with his boss at this time tomorrow.
2. ARE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES grammatically correct or not? If not,

correct them:
a) What exactly you do in Manpower Ltd?

b) Today they manufacture a range of more than 250 paints and their
sales is constantly growing.
c) Were you working on any projects before you joined Manpower
Ltd?
d) So far this year the results are being satisfactory.
e) Unfortunately, the company went bankrupt after it had piled up
such a huge debt.
f) I had been head marketing manager since 2010.
g) I’m going to leading an evaluation seminar in March.
h) They have done some market research before they set up Hammer
Press in 2006.
i) By the end of 2060, it will make $1,000,000 from marketing cam-
paigns.’
Translate the sentences from the previous exercise. What conclusions

can you come to about tenses in both languages?
3. DISCUSS THE CHANGE IN MEANING in each pair with a focus on the un-
derlined parts:
a) We’d like to have a new product on the market by next year. / We

like having new products on the market every year.
b) He remembered to send publicity materials with the goods. / He re-
members sending publicity materials with the goods.
c) They stopped to produce the A32 model. / They stopped producing
the A32 model last year.
d) Our company tried to start a quality circle with our German branch.
/ Our company tried starting a quality circle with our German branch.
4. PARAPHRASE EACH SENTENCE with a focus on the underlined parts:
a) Let’s look at the marketing costs in more detail. / The new product
range looks good to me.
b) Their contract terms sound too good to be true. / You sound just like
your father!
c) I still haven’t seen the recent report on our company’s profits. / Of
course I see what you’re explaining to me, but I don’t agree. / The last
50 years have seen many marketing advancements.
d) Costs have risen every year. / We are raising funds for startups. / A
problem arose over the travel arrangements to Spain.
e) They used word-of-mouth marketing to create some buzz about
their product. / I am not used to making large-scale decisions. / I am
getting used to giving marketing presentations.
5. WRITE YOUR OWN SENTENCES using the following adverbs of frequency.

Pay attention to their position in the sentence: again, already, always, ever, fre-
quently, hardly ever, nearly always, never, normally, often, rarely, seldom, some-
times, still, usually, yet.
18 | CHAPTER 1
3. Practice and revision

1. COMPLETE THE TEXT by filling in the gaps with an appropriate form of
the word in brackets:
It is not ________________ (USUAL) to make a hobby pay for itself, even

if initially you had no _________________ (INTEND) of turning it into a
business. Depending on the hobby, the necessary _________________
(EQUIP) can be expensive and the idea of ________________ (OCCASION)
offering items up for sale can, at the very least, help pay for the hobby.
Some hobbyists begin by donating a piece of work to a charity sale
just to see how quickly and ________________ (PROFIT) it sells. Local
shops can be the next outlet for items, often the step taken by those
making things like hand-made greetings cards. For the truly
________________ (AMBITION), websites like eBay offer the opportunity
to reach a ________________ (WORLD) audience. As with any business
idea, an honest ____________ (EVALUATE) should be done regarding the
demand for the work and the price the customer is prepared to pay in
________________ (REAL). However, do not forget the degree of personal
_________________ (SATISFY) as well.
2. CHOOSE the correct option:
One of the keys to a successful start-up is networking. New entrepre-

neurs are sometimes more concerned about how much money they
will be able to (1)____________ , when in fact who invests is often more

important. They should be asking themselves (2)____________ the in-
vesting company has the right connections with large companies. It is
always important to keep in mind that very (3)____________ people
have all the skills, experience, contacts, or reputation that are needed
to get a business going. The next skill is the ability to delegate. This
(4)____________ being able to estimate other people’s (5) ____________,
and creating opportunities for them to move up the career ladder and
(6)____________ organizations on their own. Another piece of
(7)____________ for them is that they should be selective with their ef-
forts and strategic in their (8)____________ to grasp and make connec-
tions that will help their business grow.
1. a) arise b) rise c) raise d) rouse

2. a) which b) whether c) where d) whom
3. a) more b) many c) few d) less
4. a) involves b) consists c) forces d) serves
5. a) hope b) judgment c) trust d) potential
6. a) compose b) run c) produce d) combine
7. a) advice b) advise c) advices d) advicement
8. a) extension b) promote c) support d) outreach
4. Translation
TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING TEXT from English into Macedonian:
Communicating is a broad term in marketing that means describing

the offering and its value to your potential/current customers, as well
as learning from customers what it is they want and like. Sometimes
communicating means educating potential customers about the value
of an offering, and sometimes it means simply making customers
aware of where they can find a product. Today, companies are finding
that to be successful, they need a more interactive dialogue with their
customers. Delivering an offering that has value is much more than
simply getting the product into the hands of the user; it is also making
sure that the user understands how to get the most out of the product
and is taken care of if they require service later.
20 | CHAPTER 1
Chapter 2
Pricing and planning

RELATED TOPICS: pricing; promotions and discounts; market seg-
mentation, business plans.
Pricing
“Of all the words associated with marketing, the one we should focus
on the most is value. This is because when you boil down what marketers do,
it is about creating, generating, communicating and then harvesting value.”
These are the words of Professor Mark Ritson, leader of Marketing Week’s Mi-
ni MBA in Marketing. But getting pricing right is a complex art, and one that
many marketers struggle with. As Harley Mathieson, social media manager,
says: “It’s easy to get involved in the glamorous creative side of the marketing
process; I suspect fewer of us have a strong foundation in the fourth ‘P’.” The
pricing P is different to the other Ps in the marketing mix because it is not
about creating value for the customer, it is about reaping value for the organi-
sation.
Ritson quotes Professor Mark Bergen, who describes pricing as the po-
int “where all of your marketing strategy really meets that final decision point
with your customers”. In addition, pricing is the ultimate moment of truth, as
it is the final decision point for consumers. It is a make-or-break point. Get it
right, and everyone is happy; get it wrong, and all of the months or years of
work which have preceded it go out the window.
Regarding the issue of how to best communicate price to potential
customers, several questions arise:
– What is the optimal price range for my type of offer?
– How should I display my price? Round numbers? Fractional?
– When should I reveal the price? Early in the process, or later?
– Is it possible to know I have the right price? Can I test it?
Price is a delicate issue and it can fluctuate greatly based on perceived
value. A customer may be turned off by a low price, and discredit it automati-
22 | CHAPTER 2
cally. If a customer has no idea about professional custom logo design, and
sees two different websites that create logos for $300, then the customer will,
from then on, believe that it is a fair price for this kind of professional work,
until their belief is otherwise reframed by a different source.
Prices ending in the number 9 may be more appealing than others,
which can work better for both low- and high-end ticket items alike. In total,
eight studies published from 1987 to 2004 revealed that prices ending in the
number 9 ($39, $2.49, $89, etc.) boosted sales by an average of 24% as compa-
red to other prices. In an experiment, a mail order catalog was printed in three
different price points: $39, $34 and $44. The $39 price catalog won.
Marketers can either reveal price in the beginning or near the end – it
depends on the industry and the company. By revealing price early on, you
may disqualify a lead that would otherwise consume your time, only to con-
clude it does not fit the customer's budget, while your sales team could have
focused on other pursuits. By revealing price later on, you have the opportunity
to build value and uncover needs that the customer might not reveal directly
and you would only find out by precise questioning.
It may be possible to know if a company has the right price if you have
an understanding of how it operates. For example, if a company sells video
creation for $800, but outsources it for $300 to freelancers, once you have
that knowledge, you can skip directly to the freelancers, or approach a com-
pany which will produce quality work according to the original price point
you were willing to pay.
Charging too little is far more dangerous than charging too much. A
company not only foregoes significant revenues and profits, but also fixes the
product’s market value position at a low level. Once prices hit the market, it is
difficult, if not impossible, to raise them. It is believed that too often price is
left to the sales team, who are chasing volume rather than value. Marketing
really needs to be a consideration at every point of a product's life cycle. This
further shows the importance of value in marketing, and how ill-considered
pricing can negate an otherwise brilliant marketing strategy. “I have one sin-
gle piece of advice when it comes to discounting – don’t,” states Ritson.
Promotions and discounts
Price promotions are a major category of sales promotions where

companies reduce the selling price of a product or service to tempt customers
to buy. While each approach is unique, pricing incentives are generally inten-
ded to bring in customers, drive revenue and cash flow, and turn over inven-
tory.
PRICING AND PLANNING | 23
Online Promotions
In the not-so-distant past, online promotions were things like snipping cou-
pons from the weekly mailers. Today's coupon is presented to consumers
through print media, but it is also widely recognized as a popular internet and
email promotional feature. Likewise, coupon apps make it easy for consumers
to save money at the till, using their handheld devices to show coupon codes.
Loyalty membership cards remain popular, too, offering bargains to repeat
buyers, and reward points toward products. Free shipping on minimum order
amounts is another form of online promotion used by savvy e-retailers and
some brick-and-mortar companies. Offering free shipping may even reduce the
rate of shopping-cart-abandonment on e-commerce sites.
Point-of-Sale Discounts
An amount-off or percent-off point-of-sale discount is the simplest type of price
promotion method. With this approach, once a discount price is determined,
employees change the price on the product bar code. The point is to convey
better value because of the lowered price. Companies often promote an in-
store discount through weekly ad mailers or newspaper inserts. In some cases,
the deals are offered as a surprise in-store special..
Bulk Buys
Other price promotions are driven by volume purchases. A common retail
promotion is buy-one-get-one-free, or BOGO. Similarly, companies may offer
promotions such as buy two, get one free. Frequency shopper programs or lo-
yalty programs similarly offer price incentives to customers who make frequent
or large purchases.
Trade Promotions
Price promotions are also offered in the business-to-business market. Busines-
ses that buy for consumption receive similar incentives to consumers. Trade
buyers that purchase products from suppliers for resale receive several distinct
price promotions. Off-invoice discounts are simply offers of a certain percen-
tage off a given order. Bulk buys are a common trade market incentive.
While there are several ways to discount the list price for an item on a
website, the two most popular discount incentives tend to be a dollar discount
and a percentage discount. In fact, there is a difference between offering a $20
item with either a $2 discount or a 10% discount – these end up being the same
discount, though one is a dollar amount and the other a percentage one. Ac-
cording to some, a dollar discount is the worst incentive because the face val-
ue is limiting. Other sources have shown that given the choice between a dol-
24 | CHAPTER 2
lar discount and a percentage discount (for example, $50 off versus 15% off),
customers will choose the dollar discount ($50) because they perceive it to be
a better deal. It all comes down to the perceived value of the item for
the customer, a metric of performance that is becoming more and more promi-
nent in the e-commerce marketplace. Perceived value is defined as the worth
of a product in the mind of the customer – and it is a worth that may or may
not be grounded in reality.
Market segmentation
Market segmentation is a marketing term that refers to the grouping

of potential buyers into categories or segments with common needs, and who
respond similarly to a marketing activity. Market segmentation enables com-
panies to target different groups of consumers who perceive the full value of
certain products and services differently from one another.
Companies can generally use three criteria to identify different market
segments: homogeneity, or common needs within a segment; distinction, or
being unique from other groups; and reaction, or a similar response to the
market. For example, an athletic footwear company might have market seg-
ments for basketball players and long-distance runners.
Companies can segment markets in several ways: geographically - by
region or area; demographically - by age, gender, family size, income or life cy-
cle; psychographically - by social class, lifestyle or personality; or behaviorally -
by benefit, uses or response. The objective is to enable the company to diffe-
rentiate its products or message according to the common dimensions of the
market segment.
By dividing the market into segments, marketing managers can acqui-
re a better understanding of the needs and wants of the customers. This ena-
bles them to customise or to ‘tailor’ the company’s marketing activities more
accurately to the individual customers’ preferences. Market segmentation sup-
ports businesses in meeting and exceeding their customers’ requirements. It
may also allow them to evaluate the competitors’ strengths and weaknesses. In
this way, they may discover business opportunities in markets which were
not served well. Customer segmentation enables marketers to adopt a more
systematic approach when planning ahead for the future. This leads to better
use of marketing resources, resulting in the development of a more finely-tu-
ned marketing program.
Business plans
It pays to plan. Entrepreneurs who write business plans are more like-
ly to succeed, according to research. But, while this might persuade some en-
trepreneurs to make writing a business plan their very first task, studies show
that this is actually a bad idea. It is much better to wait, not to devote too
much time to writing the plan, and, crucially, to synchronize the plan with
other key start-up activities. However, the real key to succeeding in business
is being flexible and responsive to opportunities. Entrepreneurs often have to
improve their business once it becomes clear that their original customer is
not the right customer, or when it turns out that their product or service fits
better in a different market. Because of these realities, business plans written
at the start end up nothing more than fantasy. Writing a plan also takes time
– time that may be spent evaluating opportunities. Another thing is that there
is ‘danger’ in that a plan might just soothe the entrepreneur into a false sense
of security.
These key points should be taken into consideration when designing
a business plan:
– Executive summary (target market, goals);
– Company description;
– Products/Services;
– Marketing plan (SWOT analysis, competitor data collection, marke-
ting expenses strategy, advertising and promotion, pricing strategy,
distribution channels);
– Management and organization;
– Financial plan.
DISCUSSION
1. THINK OF COLLOCATIONS with the term price, and discuss their mea-
nings.
2. WHAT FACTORS NEED to be taken into consideration when pricing a
product/service?
3. HOW IS a value-based price reached?
4. MARKETERS OFTEN USE the offer of a free gift or a discount to make
customers buy their merchandise, which is known as incentive marketing or
sales promotion. In modern terminology, push and pull incentives are used. Ex-
plain in your own words what these concepts mean, and why they are used.
Provide examples.
26 | CHAPTER 2
5. WHO BENEFITS MORE from Black Friday and Cyber Monday: buyers or
sellers? Why?
6. WHAT DO THE FOLLOWING TERMS refer to: a doorbuster, a door crasher,
and bait and switch?
7. YOUR FRIEND HAS JUST LAUNCHED a new brand of organic chocolates.
What advice would you give her for attracting new customers through promo-
tional strategies and discounts?
8. WHAT PROBLEMS MIGHT a business encounter if it does not have pro-
per market segmentation?
9. RELATED TO THE KEY POINTS when preparing a business plan (see sec-
tion on Business plans), discuss where you would place the following points:
competitive advantage, customer service policy, discounts, industry analysis,
legal regulations, mission statement, planned future activities, quality control
procedures, staff training, startup expenses, technical resources, word-of-
mouth.
ASSIGNMENT
1. WHAT WOULD BE more worrying: a competitor that suddenly charges
more or less for the same product/service you are offering? Discuss and exem-
plify.
2. ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST Dan Ariely has stated that “zero
is a special price.” Discuss this quote.
3. DISCUSS THE RELATIONSHIP between market segmentation and cus-
tomer loyalty.
2. Grammar focus: modal verbs

Modal verbs in English are a small class of auxiliary (helping)
verbs used to express the following characteristics: ability, advice, certainty,
(positive/negative) deduction, intention, (lack of) necessity, obligation, offer,
permission, (polite) request, possibility, prediction, probability, prohibition,
promise, recommendation. They do not express tense, and are characterized
by the fact that they do not have participle (-ing) or full infinitive forms. In
addition, they do not take the ending -(e)s in 3rd person singular. They can
refer to the present, past or future.
For present/future time: modal verb + present infinitive.

For past time: modal verb + perfect infinitive (modal verb + have + -ed/
past participle).
The following verbs are considered to be modal verbs in English: can,
could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would, dare and need (in
some contexts, dare and need are also used as lexical verbs). 'Have to' possesses
some of the characteristics of modal verbs, and is classified as a 'semi-modal
verb'.
(For more on modal verbs, see Grammar Focus in Chapter 2, in Business English 1).
EXERCISES
1. PUT THESE MODAL VERBS and phrases in order of how strong the pos-
sibility is, starting from weakest to strongest:
Must — Almost certainly won’t — Certainly (definitely) won’t —

Almost certainly will — Probably will — Can’t — May (might) —
Certainly (definitely) will — Could possibly — Probably won’t —
Could
2. CIRCLE the most appropriate option:
a) If your latest project blows up in your face, you mustn’t / shouldn’t /

can / should / must quit your job as soon as possible.
b) If you get off on the wrong foot with your colleagues, you mustn’t /
shouldn’t / can / should / must tell your boss about the problem and
ask for advice.
c) If you're sure there's something wrong with the latest business
plan, but can’t quite put your finger on it, you mustn’t / shouldn’t / can
/ should / must mention your concerns.
28 | CHAPTER 2
d) You mustn’t / shouldn’t / can / should / must use the rules of thumb
in most business situations.
e) To give our customers the best shopping experience, we go the ex-
tra mile. We are aware that we couldn’t / don’t need to / might not /
should / won’t give discounts, but they appreciate it.
f) You’re wrong – what you read won’t / might not / couldn’t / can /
needn’t have been the project proposal because it was rejected in its
first phase.
3. MAKE SENTENCES WITH appropriate modals/semi-modals for the fol-

lowing situations:
a) Ending a conversation:
___________________________________________________________________
b) Insisting:
___________________________________________________________________
c) Interrupting:
___________________________________________________________________
d) Getting down to business:
___________________________________________________________________
e) Requesting a discount:
___________________________________________________________________
4. IDENTIFY THE MODAL/SEMI-MODAL VERB, explain what it expresses, and

the time it refers to in each sentence:
a) The council cannot afford to maintain them anymore.

b) We will see an economic recovery in the next few weeks.
c) I could have finished the task on time if I had had more time.
d) You should accept the job! Just think about all the traveling!
e) Does the store have to be open on Sunday?
f) He must submit the grant proposal by noon./He must’ve submitted
the grant proposal by noon.
g) There must be some confusion because the meeting is actually to-
morrow morning.
h) I’m wondering if you might arrange for a timetable change.
i) The supervisor might have been with a client, but I wasn’t wearing
my glasses.
j) The Agent shall keep an account of all orders.
k) You didn’t need to remind me to place the order – I’ve already
done it.
l) Need I remind you of your job responsibilities?
m) The trip should have taken 12 days, but we returned earlier.
Translate only the modal/semi-modal verbs in each sentence above.
Also, compare the time and meanings of the modal verbs in f), g), h) and i).
What conclusion can you come to about modal verbs and time?

1. COMPLETE THE TEXT by filling in the gaps with one word:
I am sending you this email ______ inform you that I have purchased
all of the interest of my former partner, Jonathan Drisel, and that he is
______ longer associated ______ the firm of DrisOil. This business
______ continue to provide the same high-quality products and servi-
ces ______ which we have built our reputation, and this internal
change will ______ no way affect the company policy or manner ______
conducting business.
I ______ like to take this opportunity to thank ______ for the courtesies
you have ______ us in the past, and hope that you will let me continue
to serve your business in a way ______ is mutually beneficial and pro-
fitable to ______ of us..
2. COMPLETE THE TEXT with one of the following words. There are two
words that are not used:
able / allowed / banned / can / enforce / forced / impose / permitted /
prohibited / unable
RE: Dispatch of our order number TR/09/4577
The import of certain products which we have in the past obtained

from you is no longer _______________ since the introduction of
tougher safety controls last month. In fact, we are _______________ to
make extensive changes. I will send you a full list of regulations as
30 | C H A P T E R 2
they affect your products. In the meantime, please note that we have
stocks of certain products that we are _______________ to sell. Please
tell us if you _______________ take back these items. You should be
_______________ to modify them.
Please note the following: attachments of the type used on TR396 are
now _______________; we are _______________ from selling existing
stock of TR431; we are not _______________ to sell TR397 on account of
the metal ring.
Awaiting your response to this new information.
4. Translation
TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING TEXT from Macedonian into English:
Постојат повеќе фактори што влијаат на цената на одреден про-

извод или услуга. Ниту една компанија, кога го одредува нивото
на цени, не треба да се ограничува, туку да направи анализа на
сите внатрешни и надворешни фактори. Меѓу нив најважни се:
висината на трошоците, пазарот, цените на конкуренцијата, по-
нудата и побарувачката, а и законските регулативи. Формирање-
то на цената на производот или услугата го одредува успехот на
компанијата на долгорочен план.
Chapter 3
Advertising and branding

RELATED TOPICS: advertising; types of advertising; branding.
Advertising
Advertising broadly refers to the techniques and practices used to

bring products, services, opinions, or causes to public notice for the purpose
of persuading the public to respond in a certain way toward what is adverti-
sed. Most advertising involves promoting a good that is for sale, but similar
methods are used to encourage people to drive safely, to support various cha-
rities, or to vote for political candidates, among many other examples. In ma-
ny countries advertising is the most important source of income for the media
(newspapers, magazines, or TV stations), through which it is conducted. In the
21st century, with a competitive consumer market, advertisers are increasingly
using digital technology to call greater attention to products.
For an advertisement to be effective, its production and placement
must be based on a knowledge of the public it is intended for (target group),
and a skilled use of the media. Advertising agencies serve to prepare complex
campaigns, whose strategies of media use are based on research into consumer
behaviour and demographic analysis of the market area. A strategy will combi-
ne creativity in the production of the advertising messages with clever place-
ment, so that the messages are seen by, and will have an effect on, the people
the advertiser most wants to address. Given a fixed budget, advertisers face a
simple choice: they can have their message seen or heard by many people
fewer times, or by fewer people many times.
In a free-market economy effective advertising is essential to a com-
pany’s survival because, unless consumers know about a company’s product,
they are unlikely to buy it. In criticism of advertising, it has been argued that
the consumer must pay for the cost of advertising in the form of higher prices
for goods; on the other hand, it is argued that advertising enables goods to be
mass marketed, in this way bringing prices down. It has been argued that the
32 | CHAPTER 3
cost of major advertising campaigns is such that few firms can afford them,
thus helping these firms to dominate the market. Conversely, whereas smaller
firms may not be able to compete with larger ones at a national level, adver-
tising at the local level or online enables them to hold their own ground.
Types of advertising
Advertisers pay for advertising to accomplish a wide range of goals.

Ad objectives generally come down to long-term branding communication, or
short-term direct response advertising. Branding is about building and main-
taining a reputation for a company that sets it apart from the others. Sales
promotions are short-term inducements to drive revenue or cash flow. Based
on the company's objectives, budget and target audience, one or more types
of media may be used as channels through which to advertise. Calculating the
return on investment is difficult, but measurable goals (percentage increase
in awareness) need to be established to see success.
Broadcast Media
TV and radio are two traditional broadcast media long used in advertising. TV
offers creative opportunities, a dynamic message, and wide audience reach.
They both have fleeting messages, meaning they disappear once the commer-
cial spot ends. Radio is relatively affordable for small businesses, and allows
for repetition and frequency. You do not have the visual element of TV, and
you have to deal with a distracted audience, since most radio listeners nowa-
days are driving.
Print Media
Magazines and newspapers are the two traditional print media. Magazines
offer a highly selective audience that is generally interested in ads closely rela-
ted to the topic of the magazine. Visual imagery is also stronger in magazines
than in newspapers. Little is wasted since magazines target a niche market.
However, they are costly and require long lead times, which limits timely pro-
motions. They also have a limited audience reach. Newspapers are very affor-
dable for local businesses and allow them to target a geographic segment if
they have a universal product or service. They are also viewed as a credible
medium, which enhances ad acceptance.
Support Media
Support media include several options for message delivery that normally add
to or expand campaigns delivered through more traditional media. Billboards,
ADVERTISING AND BRANDING | 33
transits, bus benches, aerial, directories, and trade publications are some
common examples. They offer ways to reach a wider audience in a local or re-
gional market, or to increase increased message exposure to targeted market
segments.
Direct Marketing
Direct marketing is an interactive approach to advertising, including direct
mail, email, and telemarketing. These are direct response efforts to create an
ongoing dialogue or interaction with customers. Weekly or monthly email
newsletters allow for the brand, products and other messages to be kept be-
fore potential prospects and customers. Direct marketing has become more
prominent because it makes it easy to keep track of customer response rates
and it helps advertisers to better measure their return on an investment.
Product Placement
This is another newer advertising technique, where compensation is offered
to a TV show, movie, video game, or theme park to use a certain product whi-
le entertaining audiences. This ad method is a way for companies to integrate
ads with entertainment, since customers have found ways to avoid messages
delivered through more conventional media.
Internet
The internet is used by online and offline companies to promote products or
services. Banner ads, pop up ads, text ads, and paid search placements are
common forms. They present an image or a message on a publisher's website
or on a number of websites through a third-party platform like Google Ad-
words. Paid search placements, also known as cost-per-click advertising, is
where you bid a certain amount to present your link and text message to
users of search engines. Businesses can also create different target groups, and
send (sponsored) ads on social media platforms to users that would be most
interested in their products and services.
Branding
To understand branding, it is important to know what brands are. A
brand is the idea or image of a specific product or service that consumers con-
nect with, by identifying the name, logo, slogan, or design of the company
that owns the idea or image. Branding is when that idea or image is marketed
so that it is recognizable by more and more people, and identified with a cer-
tain service or product when there are many other companies offering the sa-
34 | CHAPTER 3
me service or product. Advertising professionals work on branding not only to

build brand recognition, but also to build good reputations, and a set of stan-
dards to which the company should strive to maintain or surpass. A company
should not start by setting the brand’s identity, but by setting the brand’s pur-
pose. Brand purpose answers the question: what job is the brand promising to
accomplish for the buyer?
Branding is a way to build an important company asset, which is a
good reputation. Whether a company has no reputation, or a mediocre repu-
tation, branding can help change that; it can build an expectation about the
company's services or products, and it can encourage the company to maintain
those expectations, or exceed them, bringing better products and services to
the market place.
All cars will promise to get you from point A to point B. There is no dif-
ferentiation in that claim. However, if one car’s promise is to get you from A
to B with maximum safety, its car has established a category, and an identity
in that category. But, what if another car manufacturer also advertises its new
car as a safe car? Both competitors will need to move to the next step, that
of differentiation. If the other car sets a much lower price on its car, it has es-
tablished a differentiator. It is offering a less expensive safe car. But the manu-
facturer must think carefully about doing this. Will a buyer who wants a safe
car believe that the lower price one is as safe as the more expensive one? The
company needs to use positioning and differentiation to communicate the
brand’s purpose, and ultimately enrich the brand’s identity.
David Aaker, an expert in brand building, has suggested that a brand
should not only define its functional purpose, the job that it is going to do, but
to also express the brand’s higher purpose, suggesting emotional and social
benefits coming from choosing that brand. In fact, Philip Kotler has establi-
shed a very effective 6-step branding conceptual model:
We live in an era of abundant information and connected communi-

ties. Inauthentic brands will not survive when word-of-mouth becomes the
new advertising medium and consumers will rely more on acquaintances in
their network community than on what companies say and advertise.
DISCUSSION
1. INFORMATION VS. MANIPULATION – what are your views on the aim of

advertising in the context of the said terms?
2. WHAT ARE SOME ETHICAL and legal issues advertisers must have in
mind when creating ads?
3. WHAT ARE INFLUENCERS, and what type of advertising do they belong
to?
4. WHAT DO YOU THINK the future of advertising will be like?
5. WHAT ARE SOME SIGNS that a brand is dying?
6. IN THE CONTEXT OF BRANDING, what do the following words/phrases
refer to: brand identity, brand image, endorse, eponym, Hallmark, logo, ta-
gline, trademark, umbrella branding.
7. STRONG BRANDS REQUIRE a clear strategic approach, especially if they
want to be successful worldwide. What specific challenges do you think exist
in global branding?
8. HOW CAN INFLATION affect brand value?
9. DESCRIBE AND EXEMPLIFY Kotler’s 6-step branding conceptual model.
10. WHAT DO YOU THINK is the hidden message behind the ad below?
ASSIGNMENT
1. GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF a bad advertisement, and explain why you feel it
is bad, as well as how you would change/improve it.
2. “MASS ADVERTISING CAN HELP build brands, but authenticity is what
makes them last. If people believe they share values with a company, they will
stay loyal to the brand.” (Howard Schultz) How else do people stay loyal to
the brand?
3. DISCUSS AND ILLUSTRATE how colors affect advertising and branding.
36 | CHAPTER 3
2. Grammar focus: prepositions,

prepositional phrases; phrasal verbs;
collocations
A preposition is a word such as after, by, for, in, to, on, and with, among
others. Prepositions are usually used in front of nouns or pronouns, and they
show the meaningful relationship between the noun/pronoun and the other
words in a sentence.
Prepositional phrases are groups of words consisting of a preposition as the
first element of the phrase, followed by its object and other modifiers, such as
at the beginning, for the moment being, in my defence.
A phrasal verb is a two- or three-word verb that is made up of a main verb
together with an adverb or a preposition, or both. Typically, the meaning of
phrasal verbs is not obvious from the meanings of the individual words them-
selves, as in break out, put back, look up to.
Collocations are series of words that go together to form fixed relation-
ships. These language chunks sound ‘natural’ to English speakers, and there
might not always be a good reason as to why a specific word collocates with
another specific word/phrase, such as the fast train / the quick train. Collocati-
ons may be of several types:
– adverb + adjective: completely (downright) satisfied
– adjective + noun: excruciating pain (joy)
– noun + noun: a surge (crash) of anger
– noun + verb: lions (shout) roar
– verb + noun: give (focus) a presentation
– verb + expression with preposition: burst into (blow up in) tears
– verb + adverb: wave (excellently) feverishly
(For more on prepositions, see Grammar Focus in Chapter 3, in Business English 1)
EXERCISES
1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES by filling in the gaps with the appropriate

preposition. Some prepositions are not used, while some are used more than
once:
at / away / before / by / for / from / in /
into / of / off / on / out / to / up / with
a) When deciding on our new premises, we looked _______ location,

cost and transport.
b) Due to quality issues, I wanted to stay _______ from second-hand
equipment.
c) Very often, it is not just the sales staff that benefit _______ customer
awareness training.
d) Fortunately, business is growing, so we need to take _______ more
staff.
e) After weighing _______ the pros and cons, we finally rejected taking
on a big bank loan.
f) A lot of companies rely heavily _______ receiving market informa-
tion _______ their sales force.
g) Certain managers could do _______ improving their skills _______
instruction-giving.
h) It was our choice to rule _______ the option of using a consultant
for the first year.
i) We will retain overall responsibility _______ the operation _______
the new system.
j) The management had to lay _______ more than 150 people because
of the financial crisis.
Underline the phrasal verbs in the sentences above. Think of five more
phrasal verbs, and use them in a sentence.
2. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES by filling in the gaps with an appropriate

preposition, so as to create prepositional phrases. Then, put them into the
correct order as if you were writing an email. How many different emails can
you make?
a) Attached are the details _______ your recent purchase.

b) Thank you for bringing this matter _______ our attention.
c) Let me know if I can be _______ assistance.
d) Thank you for inquiring _______ our product line.
e) I'm writing to express my dissatisfaction _______ the customer ser-
vice I received.
f) I'm forwarding your request _______ our sales team.
g) A representative will be waiting for you _______ the airport.
h) Please contact me _______ your earliest convenience.
38 | CHAPTER 3
i) We apologize _______ any inconvenience this may have caused.

j) Your order should be ready _______ the end of the following week.
k) Thank you _______ advance for your help.
l) Please get back _______ me as soon as possible.
3. FIND THREE EXAMPLES of different collocations in the Reading and vo-

cabulary section of this chapter. Make at least three collocations with the fol-
lowing words:
do: ____________________________________________________________
meet: ____________________________________________________________
rate: ____________________________________________________________
pay: ____________________________________________________________
set: ____________________________________________________________
reach: ____________________________________________________________
rase: ____________________________________________________________
build: ____________________________________________________________
4. COMPLETE EACH SET of sentences with the same word:
a) The plant’s production capacity will _________ from 8 to 9 million

tons next year.
We need to _________ into new markets because we have reached
market saturation at home.
Liquid will contract and _________ with temperature changes.
b) In India and China, _________ for oil is rising incredibly fast.
The _________ for low-income housing is increasing as the economy is
getting worse.
The boss is considering her _________ that she be given more time to
finish the assignment.
c) The new regulations _________ to all companies employing 200 or
more workers.
Different laws _________ in different jurisdictions.
Who is eligible to _________ for membership in the association?
d) How can we _________ vital information about the competitor’s fu-

ture plans?
We have an economic _________, i.e. a 5% increase in earnings in the
past year.
I would like the sales staff to notice me, so how can I _________ their
attention?
e) The majority of their customers are in the 17-25 age _________.
Things are going according to schedule - we finally have a broad
_________ of clients worldwide.
The mountain _________ stretched away into infinity.
1. READ THIS TEXT and answer the questions below:
The idea that we can be influenced by ads we don’t consciously detect

is one of most intriguing in consumer psychology, and has attracted a
lot of attention over the years. Since the 1950s people have feared that
words or images briefly flashed on a screen or concealed in an ad have
the power to make us buy certain products, or even vote for a certain
political candidate. Are these fears founded, or is this more myth than
reality? While there are widely held false beliefs about such advertis-
ing, it can certainly influence us. Can we ever be influenced outside
awareness? The answer, actually, is yes. Research showed that when
words relating to thirst were presented to thirsty people, they later
did drink more, although the people did not report actually being
thirstier.
a) What type of advertising is this text about?

b) Make three questions from this text (the answers should be contai-
ned in the text).
c) What is a synonym for the word ‘founded’?
d) Which word means ‘arousing one’s curiousity or interest’?
e) Where in this text is the verb ‘to do’ used for emphasis?
40 | C H A P T E R 3
2. READ THIS TEXT on 'small talk', then choose the best sentence (a-e) to
fill in each gap. One sentence is not needed:
Did you know that 50% of business communication is actually small

talk? Small talk is a vital part of working with other people: finding
out what they’re doing, what they’re having problems with, and what
they think they should be doing differently. [1] _________________.
Business is largely based on trusting people, helping and being helped
by people, and persuading people to do things. [2] _________________.
When is this relationship-building supposed to happen? An effective
way to build good relationships between people is to allow small talk
during meetings. [3] _________________. The whole point of bringing
people together for meetings is to generate discussion, to resolve mis-
understandings, and to find solutions to problems. [4] ________________.
If you’re serious about making your meetings more effective, you
need to give participants room to take the conversation in new direc-
tions, and, above all, get to know each other.
a) Let’s get a few things straight about them.

b) If everything is carefully planned in advance, and the chair of the
meeting sticks to the agenda, none of those things can take place.
c) How can you achieve any of those things if you don’t spend time
getting to know each other?
d) Perhaps even more importantly, it’s about getting to know your
colleagues and business partners as people, not just as business ma-
chines.
e) It might lose its best employees and customers just as quickly.
4. Translation
The first step toward modern advertising came with the development
of printing in the 15th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century, weekly
newspapers in London began to carry advertisements, and by the 18th
century such advertising was successful. The great expansion of busi-
ness in the 19th century was accompanied by the growth of an adverti-
sing industry; it was that century that saw the establishment of adver-
tising agencies. By the early 20th century agencies became involved in
producing the advertising message itself, including artwork, and by
the 1920s agencies had come into being that could create complete
advertising campaigns, from initial research to placement in various
media.
Chapter 4
Public relations

RELATED TOPICS: PR concepts; PR 2.0; PR crisis management.
PR concepts
Defining the term public relations (PR) has proven to be as complex as

the term itself. Wikipedia provides a good overall explanation of the concept
(updated: January 10, 2019), defining it as: the practice of managing the spread
of information between an individual or an organization (such as a business,
government agency, or a non-profit organization) and the public. PR may in-
clude an organization or individual gaining exposure to their audiences using
topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment.
This makes it different from advertising as a form of marketing communicati-
ons. An advertising message is a paid endorsement with a specific and con-
trolled message. It is harder to establish credibility with an advertisement be-
cause the public knows the advertiser has paid for the space. PR is the idea of
creating coverage for clients for free, rather than marketing or advertising.
Advertising is now also a part of broader PR activities. An example of good PR
would be generating an article featuring a client, rather than paying for the
client to be advertised next to the article. The aim of PR is to inform the public,
prospective customers, investors, partners, employees, and other stakehold-
ers, and, ultimately, persuade them to maintain a positive or favorable view
about the organization, its leadership, products, or political decisions.
The concept of PR has been modernized, now incorporating ‘engage-
ment’ and ‘relationship building’, so it represents a strategic communication
process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations
and their publics.
Jobs central to PR include account coordinator, account executive,
account supervisor, and media relations manager. PR specialists establish and
maintain relationships with an organization’s target audience, the media, rele-
vant trade media, and other opinion leaders. Common responsibilities include
44 | C H A P T E R 4
designing communications campaigns, writing news releases and other news

content, working with the press, arranging interviews, writing speeches for
company leaders, acting as an organization's spokesperson, preparing clients
for press conferences, doing media interviews and speeches, writing website
and social media content, and managing the company's reputation (crisis ma-
nagement). A PR specialist is an image shaper. Their job is to generate posi-
tive publicity for their client and enhance their reputation. PR is not publicity,
and the two terms are not interchangeable. Publicity is only one phase of a
total PR effort. It is the distribution of information to gain public awareness,
and just one strategy in the PR arsenal. PR is also not a quick fix, but a valuable
tool for creating awareness, establishing credibility, and even, in many cases,
increasing sales. None of this happens overnight, but it takes a well-directed
effort and a plan of action in a variety of contexts.
In the government, PR people are called press secretaries, who keep
the public informed about the activities of government agencies, and manage
political campaigns. Though the job often involves the dissemination of infor-
mation, it is termed spin doctoring: a term to define PR activities for political
institutions, political actors or corporations that emphasize or exaggerate the
most positive aspects of something.
Negative (dark, black) PR is a process of destroying the target's reputa-
tion, brand and/or corporate identity. Its objective is to discredit someone else
who may pose a threat to the client's business, or be a political rival (negative
campaigning). It relies on IT security, industrial espionage, and competitive
intelligence for the purpose of producing misleading facts about a competitor,
publically running negative ads that attack the competitor’s identity, and
leaking secret information to the public.
PR 2.0
PR 2.0 uses a combination of social media tools that are readily availa-
ble to communications professionals to reach and better communicate with
influencers and consumer audiences directly. Social media is a direct-to-
consumer approach that allows audiences to drive the communication in
their communities. PR professionals incorporate PR 2.0 into their strategy as
an effective way to communicate directly to audiences and increase overall
brand exposure, leading to deeper engagement and loyalty.
This concept was actually created in the 90s of the previous century,
through the analysis of how the Web and multimedia were redefining PR and
marketing communications, while also building the toolkit to reinvent how
PUBLIC RELATIONS | 45
companies communicate with people. It was, and still is, a chance to not only
work with traditional journalists, but also engage directly with a new set of in-
fluencers. Working in the field of PR today allows people to take a new ap-
proach to communications from the inside out. Social media changes the way
communication is carried out, with a different mix of media, and ultimately
meaningful content is delivered in order to achieve valuable outcomes for a
business. The dissemination of information is two-way, transparent and colla-
borative, where brands listen and are active in the dialogue.
PR 2.0 is a game-changer in participating with people in a more infor-
med and intelligent way. It is about putting the ‘public’ back in Public Rela-
tions.
PR crisis management
Any business, at some point, will face some sort of a PR crisis, and the
way the PR team will respond can either give a much-needed image boost or
significantly damage the brand, ultimately distancing the customer base. Es-
pecially in this day and age, when news goes viral almost instantly, organiza-
tions need to be ready to respond to any PR crisis quickly and efficiently,
using all available platforms. Disaster management is probably one of the best-
known roles of any PR company. These are some golden rules of PR crisis ma-
nagement any company would be wise to stick to:
Take responsibility
Covering up the PR crisis will only worsen the damage. Instead, the situation
should be managed by taking responsibility, being proactive and transparent,
reacting immediately, and responding to feedback. It is in the company’s best
interests to acknowledge people’s concerns and questions, and respond appro-
priately. Writing a press release and posting on social media to take control of
the situation may be one possibility; however, they should also be ready for a
social media backlash. The worst thing a company can do is ignore the possi-
bility that a firestorm could explode on social media. Just because a company
is not marketing on social media does not mean their customers will not criti-
cize them on those platforms when something goes wrong.
Remember to be human
Saying “we’ll look into it” does not make anyone feel better. Saying you are
deeply upset by what happened and will work on making things better is im-
portant. Then, immediately share how policies will be put in place so it does
46 | CHAPTER 4
not happen again. Act fast before people lose faith in your brand. Extending a
heartfelt apology is key to moving forward; not doing so adds fuel to the fire
and delays changing the narrative. Following a public apology, the company
must offer a call to action. They must do something substantial to show that
they are changing their ways moving forward.
Monitor, plan and communicate

Have your social team on high alert. If they start noticing sparks of negativity
or increased activity, follow a crisis plan to respond in a proactive manner.
Never let executives do their own thing without communicating their ideas. It
is very easy to be reactive, especially when the company’s brand and reputa-
tion are at stake. However, be sure that the first external communication fol-
lowing the crisis is a well-thought-out response that the consumers can relate
to. Different customized messages should be devised for different stakeholders,
such as investors, employees, customers, the press, and the general public.
Be prepared
In handling a PR crisis, the first 48 hours are the most important. Ignoring the
situation with a head-in-the-sand approach is the worst possible reaction. No
one wants to be at the center of a scandal, but scrambling around because
you are not prepared to handle it makes things go from bad to worse. Poten-
tials crisis scenarios should be anticipated, and internal protocols for hand-
ling them established. Before a crisis hits, there should be an outline in terms
of who needs to be notified, the internal review process, and the individuals
who are authorized to speak publicly on the company’s behalf.
Case study: In February 2018, KFC had to close more than half of its 900 loca-
tions in the UK because of a shortage of chicken. The social media enjoyed
the irony of a chicken shop without any chicken. Loyal customers expressed
their anger on Twitter. Then KFC, even while struggling to get the restaurants
reopened, managed to switch the narrative entirely. It ran an apology adver-
tisement that was extremely funny (especially to the brand’s core younger
consumers), while taking control of the problem. The company was widely
applauded by customers and the media for knowing its target market, and
how to cleverly handle a crisis. The result was a decrease in criticism for the
closed locations, and gaining people’s trust back.
DISCUSSION
1. WHERE DO MARKETING, advertising, branding, and PR intersect?

2. IT IS TRUE THAT PR has been extensively reinvented in the 21st centu-
ry. Aside from financial constraints, what other issues is PR facing today?
3. WHAT SKILLS DO PR specialists need to have? What questions would
you ask if you had to recruit a PR specialist in your company?
4. WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP between PR and ethics?
5. “PUBLIC RELATIONS CONSISTS OF a whole bag of tools for grabbing at-
tention. I call these tools the PENCILS of PR.” (P. Kotler) What do you think
the letters P-E-N-C-I-L-S stand for?
6. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE between crisis management and risk mana-
gement?
7. DOVE’S CAMPAIGN IN 2004 showed women of all body types and co-
lors instead of professional models. Additionally, a nearly two-minute ad, re-
leased by Gillette in 2019, shows men harassing women, boys fighting on the
street, and eventually, shows other men stepping up to stop the incidents.
What messages are Dove and Gillette sending? What are their slogans? How
do these examples strengthen the public’s view of the brand?
8. DISCUSS THE RELATIONSHIPS of the terms and concepts in the word
clouds below:
ASSIGNMENT

1. DISCUSS WHY PR specialists must be great storytellers.
2. DESCRIBE YOUR IMAGE of how the PR model will evolve in the future.
3. “A GOOD PR STORY IS infinitely more effective than a front-page ad.”
(Richard Branson) Discuss the statement, and provide examples to illustrate.
48 | C H A P T E R 4
2. Grammar focus:
passive; causative ‘have’
The passive voice is used to express what is done to someone/some-

thing, as in the sentence The company was sold for $5 million. The subject of
the sentences does nothing; rather, something is done to the subject, i.e. the
focus is on the object of the action. Who does something is less important
than what was done. This is especially useful in business settings when the
focus is placed, for example, on a product. By using the passive voice, the
product becomes the focus of the sentence, and this makes a stronger state-
ment than using the active voice. Only transitive verbs (verbs followed by an
object) in the active sentence can be turned into passive verbs. This is not the
case with intransitive verbs. Also, some tenses tend not to be used in the pas-
sive voice. Generally speaking, this refers to the perfect continuous tenses.
Impersonal passive sentence structures help to create formality and an
impersonal stance. It is a common way of stating what is said by people, or by
an unspecified group of people, as in It has been reported that the Minister will
resign, or The Minister has been reported to resign. Common verbs used in such
passive constructions are: agree, allege, announce, assume, believe, calculate,
claim, consider, declare, discover, estimate, expect, find, know, mention, propose,
recommend, rumour, show, state, suppose, suggest, understand.
Causative ‘have’ sentence structures are similar to the passive constructi-
on. They are used when we want to talk about something that someone else
did for us, or for another person. It means that the subject has caused the acti-
on to happen, but did not do it themselves, as in the sentence We will have the
offices repainted next week. The verb get can also be used, but it is a less formal
equivalent of have.
Passive voice: Subject (active object) + to be + -ed/past participle

Impersonal passive: It + passive verb (to be + -ed/past participle) + that-clause
Subject (active object) + passive verb (to be + -ed/pp) + to-inf.
Causative ‘have’: Have/get + object + -ed/past participle
The verb to be in both passive and impersonal passive constructions is in the

same tense as the verb in the active sentence.
(For more on passive voice, see Grammar Focus in Chapter 4, in Business English 1)
EXERCISES
1. TURN THESE ACTIVE sentences into passive sentences, and make any
necessary changes:
a) This powerpoint slide shows the manufacturing process of leather

handbags.
___________________________________________________________________
b) We have always bought the rods from local suppliers.
_________________________________________________________________
c) Who checked the quality of the raw materials?
___________________________________________________________________
d) Can we avoid conflict with the unions by making small conces-
sions?
___________________________________________________________________
e) My boss and several other managers had to warn the company
about the risks.
___________________________________________________________________
f) As soon as the press secretary released the statement, a scandal
erupted.
___________________________________________________________________
2. COMPLETE THE RESPONSES to the following statements explaining

what must have been / should have been / might have been / needn’t have
been / would have been / could have been done in the following situations,
using the verb in brackets:
a) We haven’t received an acknowledgement for our order yet.

– I apologize. The order _____________________________ (acknowledge)
by June 30.
b) We haven’t received an invoice yet.
– I’m sorry. You ______________________________ (invoice) at the end of
the month.
50 | C H A P T E R 4
c) We couldn’t lease the company cars last year.

– But the laws have changed and ____________________________ (lease)
at the beginning of the year.
d) I have checked this bill and we have definitely paid too much.
– Yes, there’s been a mistake and you ______________________________
(overcharge).
e) We thought we had to pay in advance.
– Not at all, the bill ______________________________ (pay) in advance.
f) We paid the invoice by credit card.
– You should have seen in our payment terms that it ________________
_________________ (pay) by wire transfer.
g) I can’t find any record of your order.
– So do you think the order ______________________________ (cancel)?
h) We didn’t receive the discount you offered.
– To receive the discount, the goods ______________________________
(re-order) within 15 days.
3. MATCH THE SENTENCE beginnings (1-6) with their endings (a-f), in or-
der to make impersonal passive sentences:
1) It was rumored among UK branches...

2) The PR team is known...
3) Prospects won’t be assumed...
4) It had been rightly estimated...
5) Spin doctors are considered...
6) It is going to be soon announced...
a) ...that property values would show a slight fall.

b) ...that strict sanctions will be implemented.
c) ...to manage company reputation.
d) ...that our HQs were being relocated to Asia.
e) ...to improve until interest rates fall.
f) ...to exaggerate the positive sides of something.
4. REWRITE THESE SENTENCES using ‘have’/‘get’ where needed, and putting

the verbs in the correct form and position in order to form causative ‘have’ sen-
tences:
a) The Prime Minister want / pass the new legislation / by next month.
__________________________________________________________________
b) The TV company still try / approve the joint venture / by the govern-
ment.
__________________________________________________________________
c) Many still believe the only way to / bring business in line / is thro-
ugh global rules.
__________________________________________________________________
d) The City Council hope / elect the citizens / for a four-year term.
__________________________________________________________________
e) Some businesses are punished for illegal deals by / revoke their licen-
ces.
__________________________________________________________________
5. TURN THESE ACTIVE SENTENCES into passive and causative ‘have’ sen-
tences, and discuss the differences in emphasis:
a) The press secretary wrote a statement, and then released it.

– passive: _________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
– causative ‘have’: _________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b) Manufacturing companies have been facing major problems becau-

se of Brexit.
– passive: _________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
– causative ‘have’: _________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
52 | CHAPTER 4

1. COMPLETE THE TEXT by filling in the gaps with an appropriate form of
the word in brackets:
Famous for its elegantly-shaped green bottle, Perrier is the ultimate

_______________ (REFRESH) to satisfy people’s thirst. In the 2000s, this
water became available in 100% _______________ (RECYCLE) bottles. At
the end of the 20th century, Perrier was the market leader in
_______________ (BOTTLE) mineral water as it was claimed that the wa-
ter was _______________ (NATURAL) sparkling. The brand’s image was
built around the concepts of _______________ (PURE) and quality. How-
ever, a US health authority detected traces of a chemical called ben-
zene in a _______________ (SHIP) of Perrier water from France. Different
Perrier spokespersons in the US and France made _______________
(STATE) to the media before the company had established the ‘facts’,
which were later shown to be false. This immediately tarnished the
company’s reputation and _______________ (CREDIBLE). Its image was
further destroyed by the fact that at no time did the company board
_______________ (APOLOGY) to its _______________ (FAITH) customers.
What followed was immediate _______________ (HOSTILE) through
negative media _______________ (COVER).
2. CHOOSE THE BEST OPTION (a, b or c) as a paraphrase to the sentence

given, and discuss:
i) No customer complaint is ever left unanswered.

a. We reply to most customer complaints.
b. We reply to all customer complaints.
c. We reply to certain customer complaints.
ii) He had never taken responsibility for any crisis.

a. Never before he had taken responsibility for any crisis.
b. Never before had he taken responsibility for any crisis.
c. Never he had taken responsibility before for any crisis.
iii) The media relations manager was rude and unapologetic on the
phone.
a. The media relations manager was not only rude but also una-
pologetic on the phone.
b. The media relations manager was not rude only but apologetic
also on the phone.
c. The media relations manager not only was rude and apologetic
on the phone.
iv) Under no circumstances should a PR crisis be ignored.

a. A PR crisis can be ignored.
b. A PR crisis should be ignored.
c. A PR crisis should never be ignored.
4. Translation
Голем број луѓе ги сведуваат односите со јавноста на односи со

медиумите. Оттука, не зачудува фактот што некои менаџери сме-
таат дека нивните односи со јавноста ќе бидат успешни и ефикас-
ни доколку ангажираат новинар како свој гласноговорник. Но
ваквото размислување е само заблуда. Новинарите сами по себе
не се гаранција за успешноста на една организација во контекст
на односите со јавноста. Тука станува збор за умешност, умет-
ност, наука за познавање и анализа на општествените трендови.
Затоа луѓето кои се вклучени во односи со јавноста треба да се
добро образовани, да имаат одлично познавање на општествени-
от контекст, да поседуваат аналитички способности и вештини за
лесна и убедлива комуникација со луѓето, да знаат да се уверливи
и објективни, како и да почитуваат кратки рокови.
54 | CHAPTER 4
Chapter 5
Business skills

RELATED TOPICS: presenting; negotiating; networking.
Presenting
Presentation skills and public speaking skills are very useful in many as-
pects of work, and life in general. Effective presentations and public speaking
skills are essential in business, sales and selling, training, and generally feeling
comfortable speaking to groups of people. Developing the confidence and
ability to give good presentations are extremely helpful skills for self-develop-
ment and social situations. Like most areas of expertise, this requires prepara-
tion and practice. The formats and purposes of presentations may differ, e.g.
using multimedia (visuals, audio, etc.) or Powerpoint, short impromptu or long
planned presentations, as well as training sessions/seminars/workshops/lec-
tures, talks, press conferences or briefings, and product launches.
Presentation skills are key to both individual success and business
success. Presenting information clearly and effectively is a valuable skill to get
a message across. Even if you do not need to make regular presentations in
front of groups, there are plenty of situations where good presentation and
public speaking skills can help to advance your career and create a variety of
opportunities. Initial fears may be reduced by good preparation, which will
lay the groundwork for making an effective presentation. So, how can presen-
tations be made effective and memorable? Below are some tips to achieve
precisely that:
Subject preparation
Research and have facts to support your speech. Create an outline, and once
you have prepared your presentation, do not be afraid to revise it. To develop
your presenting skills and increase your confidence, it is important that you
prepare, practice, and learn from each presentation. Rehearse what you are
going to say out loud, since this will help you to eliminate any filler words.
56 | CHAPTER 5
Focus and enthusiasm

No one is impressed by a presentation that moves without a definite purpose
because this happens when the speaker is both unrestrained and disorgani-
zed. The purpose of the presentation must be specifically directed to the inte-
rests of your listeners or they will mentally shut you down. Also, if you are not
interested in the subject, then you have no chance with the listeners. Try and
feel the adrenalin from your nerves as an advantage, and use it as a boost.
Media only to enhance

Powerpoint, visuals and videos are powerful presentation tools only when
used correctly, but they can be terrible distractions when misused. They should
never replace the speaker as the provider of expertise. A good speaker will al-
ways use their own notes to prompt the listeners, and keep them on track,
while a bad speaker will use the slides as their notes. The slides are not suppo-
sed to be used as a crutch, since they are for the audience only.
Stay true to yourself

It is very important to remember: the more you try to act like someone you
are not on stage, the more people will see right through you. Gestures should
be a reflection of what you are feeling, helping convey that to your audience.
They should come naturally, and should be one of the only unplanned parts of
your speech. The more you act like yourself, the more confident you will seem,
and the more the audience will be able to relate to you, and take something
away from the presentation.
Negotiating
Business negotiators have recognized that the most effective negotia-

tors are skilled at both creating and claiming value, that is, they both collabo-
rate and compete. So, how can negotiations be successful? Here are some tips
that may help achieve exactly that:
Negotiate the process

Do not assume you are both on the same page when it comes to determining
when to meet, who should be present, and what your agenda will be. Instead,
carefully discuss how you will negotiate in advance. Discussing such proce-
dural issues will clear the way for much more focused talks.
BUSINESS SKILLS | 57
Listen actively
Once you start discussing substance, resist the urge to think about what you
are going to say next while your counterpart is talking. Instead, listen carefully
to their arguments, then paraphrase what you believe they have said to check
that you have understood. Acknowledge any difficult feelings, like frustration,
behind the message. Not only are you likely to get valuable information, but
the other party may imitate your listening skills.
Ask good questions

You can gain more in negotiation by asking many questions, especially ones
that are likely to get helpful answers. Avoid asking 'yes/no' questions, and
leading questions, such as “Don’t you think that’s a great idea?” Instead, crea-
te neutral statements or questions that encourage detailed responses, such as
“I'd like to hear more about the issues you're facing this quarter”, or “Can you
tell me about the challenges you’re facing this quarter?”
Search for smart tradeoffs

Parties can often be stuck making compromises and demands on a single issue,
such as price. In negotiation, you can take advantage of the presence of multi-
ple issues to get both sides more of what they want. Specifically, try to identify
issues that your counterpart cares deeply about, but that you value less. Then
suggest making a compromise on that issue in exchange for a concession
from them on an issue that is important to you.
Plan for the implementation stage

Another way to improve the long-term duration of a contract is to place points
and deadlines in the contract to ensure that commitments are going to be
met. You might also agree, in writing, to meet at regular intervals throughout
the course of the contract to check in and, if necessary, re-negotiate. In addi-
tion, adding a dispute-resolution clause that calls for the use of mediation or
arbitration if a conflict arises can be a wise move.
Networking
Business networking is the process of establishing a mutually-beneficial

relationship with other business people and potential clients and/or custo-
mers. The primary purpose of business networking is to tell others about your
business, and hopefully turn them into customers.
58 | CHAPTER 5
The most obvious benefit of networking is to meet potential clients

and/or generate referrals, which you can then follow up on to potentially add to
your client base. Networking can also help you identify opportunities for
partnerships, joint ventures, or new areas of expansion for your business.
Additionally, you need to meet and communicate with potential clients
and business partners on a regular basis to maintain your business relation-
ships. Meeting people in person seems old-fashioned in the digital age, but
wherever possible you should network face-to-face. Social media platforms
are excellent ways to communicate, but they do not substitute for meeting
people in person. A lot of local business is still done on a handshake basis.
The most important skill for effective business networking is active lis-
tening (and asking questions). Focusing on how you can help the person you
are listening to rather than on how they can help you is the first step to estab-
lishing a mutually beneficial relationship.
It is vital that you do not spread yourself too thin. Business networ-
king is about cultivating relationships, so you need to be an active participant
in whatever networking group you join. It is contributing that will result in
the benefits of networking, such as more business, hence, increased revenue.
You need to not only attend the meetings of your networking group regularly,
but to go prepared to offer something of value to the group.
In an ever-changing business climate it is important to keep up with
the target market conditions, as well as the overall trends in the industry;
knowing the market is essential to developing a successful marketing plan.
There are two kinds of networks in place in organizations – the formal
(organized) networks, which the management explicitly encourages, and the
informal ('organizational grapevine') networks, in which news information is
exchanged in a more relaxed atmosphere. More often than not, the first people
who are informed of impending announcements related to promotions and
launches of new products are those who have their ears to the ground. More-
over, informal networks can be a good source of bonding and stress relief. Ho-
wever, the grapevine is not trustworthy as it does not follow an official path of
communication, and is spread more by unconfirmed reports.
The conclusion is that the best networking comes from genuine rela-
tionships, not just a simple emotionless greeting and a business card exchan-
ge. No matter who you are trying to build a relationship with, treating that
person as a friend rather than a business contact will take you much further.
DISCUSSION
1. WHAT OTHER DO’S AND DON’TS for presenting, negotiating, and networ-
king would you add to those given in the Reading and vocabulary section
above?
2. EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING words/phrases: 10/20/30 Rule, bargaining
ploy, call someone’s bluff, common ground, concede, death by Powerpoint,
eleventh-hour negotiations, follow-up, impasse, non-negotiable, Pecha Kucha,
rapport, sidetracking.
3. WHAT DOES non-verbal communication refer to, and how important
is it when presenting?; Along those lines, how important is voice in the con-
text of presenting?
4. IT IS TEMPTING to focus on analytical skills when discussing business
qualities, but soft skills are as important. What are soft skills? (give examples
to illustrate).
5. WHAT ARE SOME PHRASES used in these negotiating stages: starting,
finding out the other side’s position, making an offer, refusing an offer, com-
promising, and concluding?
6. WHAT TIPS should people keep in mind during salary negotiations?
7. WHAT ARE SOME networking questions that might be asked to find
out more about a person’s field of work, and their future plans?
8. WHAT DOES THE TERM misconduct encompass? (give examples in the
context of networking)
ASSIGNMENT

1. WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE of presentation and public speaking skills
in life? Discuss and illustrate.
2. DISCUSS HOW cross-cultural differences can affect business negotia-
tions, and ways with which to deal with potential issues that may arise to re-
sult in a negative outcome.
3. THERE IS A SAYING that “you don’t get a second chance to make a first
impression”. Do you agree or disagree? Discuss and exemplify.
60 | C H A P T E R 5
2. Grammar focus: conditional

sentences (I, II, III, mixed), inversion;
‘wish’ sentence constructions
Conditional sentences are used to express the fact that the action in
the main clause (clause without if) can only take place if a certain condition
(in the if-clause) is fulfilled. There are different types of conditional sentences,
and each one can usually be transformed into an inverted construction (for
more emphasis).
I conditional indicates what will happen provided that a certain situ-
ation is given.
structure: if + present simple — will + infinitive
e.g. If the product is a success in China, we will introduce it in other
Asian markets.
(inv.) Should the product be a success in China, we will introduce it in
other Asian markets.
II conditional indicates what would happen if a present situation were
different.
structure: if + past simple — would + infinitive
e.g. If markets weren’t so tough, we’d definitely invest more.
(inv.) Were markets not so tough, we’d definitely invest more.
III conditional indicates what could have happened in the past if a si-
tuation had been different.
structure: if + past perfect — would + have + -ed/past participle
e.g. If you had informed them of the delay in production, they wouldn’t
have cancelled the order.
(inv.) Had you informed them of the delay in production, they wouldn’t
have cancelled the order.
Mixed conditionals indicate hypothetical or alternative past situations
and their probable effects in the present (past condition + present result).
structure: if + past perfect — would + infinitive (mixture of II and III
conditional)
e.g. If Karen hadn’t taken time off to raise her children, she might be a
CEO now.
(inv.) Had Karen not taken time off to raise her children, she might be a
CEO now.
In all cases, a comma is used after the if-clause when the if-clause co-
mes before the main clause. In addition, other modal verbs can be used in the
main clause besides will and would.
(For more on conditionals, see Grammar Focus in Chapter 7, in Business English 1)
‘Wish’ sentence structures: past tense forms to talk about wishes, hy-
pothetical states:
– Modal verbs would and could are used to talk about wishes for
the present/future when the speaker does not expect that things will change:
e.g. I don’t like my work. I wish I could get a better job.
– Past simple is used to talk about wishes for the present:
e.g. I wish I had more free time between projects.
– Past perfect is used to talk about wishes/regrets about the past:
e.g. She wishes she had reported the misconduct to Human Resources.
EXERCISES
1. CHANGE THE FOLLOWING conditional sentences into inverted con-
structions and state/discuss the type of conditional used:
a) If a customer wishes to renew a contract, they must notify the com-

pany before the expiry date.
___________________________________________________________________
b) The company shall be entitled to terminate the agreement if the
customer does not contact the company before the expiry date.
___________________________________________________________________
c) If the customer subsequently decided to renew the policy, the com-
pany would charge an introductory fee.
___________________________________________________________________
d) If the partners had refused to follow the prescribed rules, the com-
pany could end any further collaboration.
___________________________________________________________________
e) If the partners had refused to follow the prescribed rules, the com-
pany could have ended any further collaboration.
___________________________________________________________________
62 | CHAPTER 5
2. MATCH THE SENTENCE BEGINNINGS (i-ix) with their endings (a-i) to

make conditional sentences which might be said during a negotiating session
between staff and management. Discuss the types of conditional sentences:
i) As long as we keep talking, ...

ii) Had you offered us that percentage last year, ...
iii) Were it not for the economic downturn, ...
iv) If you agree to raise productivity by 5%, ...
v) Should you give all our members permanent contracts, ...
vi) If you had given more reasonable demands, ...
vii) In the event of a deadlock in these negotiations, ...
viii) Provided our members vote in favor, ...
ix) Unless you accept a 5% cut in the workforce, ...
a) ... we won’t be able to meet your demands.

b) ... industrial action will, unfortunately, be inevitable.
c) ... we might have accepted it, but inflation is higher this year.
d) ... I’m sure we’ll be able to find a solution which is acceptable to
both parties.
e) ... we’d be making more profits and we’d be in a position to make
you a more generous offer.
f) ... we might now be collaborating, but you were quite rigid.
g) ... we’ll accept some of your flexibility proposals.
h) ... everyone’s salary shall be raised by 3%.
i) ... we’ll certainly sign the contract.
3. COMPLETE EACH SENTENCE so that the meaning of the ‘wish’ structure

is clear:
a) I wish I could prepare the product launch speech _________________

___________________________________________________________________.
b) I wish I prepared the product launch speech ______________________
___________________________________________________________________.
c) I wish I had prepared the product launch speech __________________
___________________________________________________________________.
4. FOR EACH OF THESE three situations, there are two reasonable options
(a/b). Work in pairs and decide on which option is better. Make appropriate
conditional sentences:
A) You run a small business. One of your business customers has told
you that she’ll order twice as many of your products if you allow her
to pay in 90 days. This may cause you cashflow problems. Do you...
a. sell the goods and give her 90 days?
b. insist she pay in cash and sell her fewer products?
B) In the event of a recession, it could be quite risky for your company
to be employing so many customer service staff. Recently one mem-
ber of the management team suggested axing the customer service
department and outsourcing their function. Do you...
a. keep the function in-house?
b. outsource?
C) One of your best customers has run into cashflow problems and is
unable to settle their account with your company. This could give you
similar problems with your suppliers. Do you...
a. go to the bank for a loan?
b. become a late-payer yourself?
Read on to find out the consequences of each decision. Make appro-

priate conditional sentences and sentences with ‘wish’:
One year later...
A - a) You sold her the goods and she went bankrupt. You lost a lot
of money.
A - b) She went to one of your rivals and bought the goods. Then
she went bankrupt and your rival lost a lot of money.
B - a) When the downturn came, your company survived.
B - b) When the downturn came, you had to make a lot of emplo-
yees redundant, which was expensive, causing severe financial dif-
ficulties for the company.
C - a) The bank felt you were being too easy on your customer and
refused to give you a loan. You lost the customer, and are still wai-
ting for their payment.
C - b) Unfortunately, your suppliers put you on a blacklist and it’s
been very difficult to get machine parts as a result.
64 | CHAPTER 5

1. COMPLETE THE TEXT by filling in the gaps with the most appropriate
phrase. Two phrases are not used:
along with / by all accounts / combining / in terms of / for instance /
much less / take into account / to be exact / unlike / you can see
Right, well, I’ve got two main points to make in this presentation:
firstly, the Chinese market, ____________________ markets here in Eu-
rope and the USA, is growing steadily and rapidly, so it represents a
major business opportunity. Last year, ____________________, the total
market ____________________ ice cream sales was 23 billion yuan,
which is about 2.3 billion euros, so pretty considerable. China is likely
to overtake the USA as the leading market for consumer goods within
the next 25 years, and when you ____________________ that the market
growth is a steady 10% a year, ____________________ that there’s an
opportunity there, if we can get in. Now, my second point: at the mo-
ment there are five major players selling in the Chinese market,
____________________ a lot of smaller local companies. These big ones
have a market share between them of more than half, or 57%,
____________________, and that’s split up among our three usual com-
petitors. ____________________, they seem to hold the greatest power.
2. THERE ARE 12 WORDS in this text that are not necessary. Cross out the
words that should be omitted:
By studying of the strength of your customers’ emotional connection

to your brand, you can be determine where to invest resources to get
the best ROI. Research by Harvard Business Review showed that moving
a customer from the satisfied to fully connected resulted in a 52% in-
crease in customer value. Strengthening for the customer experience
for emotional motivators that result in a fully connected customer
was more shown in the Harvard research to result in the highest ROI.
Those specific motivators should be a driver for much customer expe-
rience investments. Should locations of fully connected customers
have be mapped, brands can make such better determinations about
store locations, leading to a higher ROI. Since analyzing point-of-sale
data for fully connected customers can help brands identify opportu-
nities for merchandising improvements. Pursuing emotional motiva-
tors like as a strategy enables a brand to better manage the elements

that trigger consumer behavior. If you will align your brand with cus-
tomers’ emotional motivators, once you can better focus investments
that strengthen the customer experience.
4. Translation
Like it or not, appearance does matter. If you don’t dress and carry
yourself in a positive manner, you won’t be able to fully convey the
business message you're trying to convey. This is especially important
in giving presentations, whether the audience is two or a thousand
executives. Presenters who appear put together will be perceived as
more knowledgeable and responsible than those who seem messy.
Looking your best isn’t about vanity. Instead, it’s about investing in
self-improvement. Many professionals feel they can’t afford to be
fashionable, but you can show your personal style without overspen-
ding. Rather than investing in a large wardrobe, choose quality over
quantity.
66 | CHAPTER 5
Chapter 6
Securities

RELATED TOPICS: security; equity and debt; securities markets; regulation.
Security
A security is a negotiable financial instrument that holds some type of
monetary value. It represents an ownership position in a publicly-traded corpo-
ration (via stock), a creditor relationship with a governmental body or a cor-
poration (represented by owning that entity's bonds), or rights to ownership
as represented by an option. Simply defined, it is any proof of ownership or
debt that has been assigned a value and may be sold. Today, evidence of ow-
nership is likely to be a computer file, while in the past, it was a written piece
of paper. For the holder, a security represents an investment as an owner, credi-
tor or rights to ownership on which the person hopes to gain profit. Examples
are stocks, bonds and options.
The entity that creates the securities for sale is known as the issuer, and
those who buy them are investors. Generally, securities represent an invest-
ment and a means by which municipalities, companies, and other commer-
cial enterprises can raise new capital. Companies can generate a lot of money
when they go public, selling stock in an initial public offering (IPO), for exam-
ple. City or state governments can raise funds for a particular project by floating
a municipal bond issue. Depending on an institution's market demand or pri-
cing structure, raising capital through securities can be a preferred alternative
to financing through a bank loan. On the other hand, purchasing securities with
borrowed money, an act known as buying on a margin, is a popular investment
technique. In essence, a company may deliver property rights, in the form of
cash or other securities, to pay its debt or other obligations to another entity.
Equity and debt
Securities can be broadly categorized into two distinct types: equities

and debts.
68 | CHAPTER 6
An equity security represents ownership interest held by shareholders

in an entity (a company, partnership, or trust), realized in the form of shares
of capital stock, which includes shares of both common and preferred stock.
Holders of equity securities are typically not entitled to regular payments
(though equity securities often do pay out dividends), but they are able to pro-
fit from capital gains when they sell the securities (assuming they have incre-
ased in value). Equity securities do entitle the holder to some control of the
company on a pro-rata basis, via voting rights, meaning that a holder of a ma-
jority of the equity is usually entitled to control the issuer. In the case of bank-
ruptcy, they share only in residual interest after all the obligations have been
paid out to creditors.
A debt security represents money that is borrowed and must be repaid,
with terms that stipulate the size of the loan, interest rate and maturity or re-
newal date. Debt securities, which include government and corporate bonds,
certificates of deposit (CDs), and collateralized securities (such as CDOs and
CMOs), generally entitle their holder to the regular payment of interest and
repayment of principal (regardless of the issuer's performance), along with
any other stipulated contractual rights (which do not include voting rights).
They are typically issued for a fixed term, at the end of which they can be re-
deemed by the issuer. Debt securities can be secured, i.e. backed by collateral,
or unsecured, and, if unsecured, may be contractually prioritized over other
unsecured, subordinated debt in the case of bankruptcy.
Then, there are also hybrid securities, which, as the name suggests, com-
bine some of the characteristics of both debt and equity securities. Examples
of hybrid securities include equity warrants (options issued by the company
itself that give shareholders the right to purchase stock within a certain time-
frame and at a specific price), convertible bonds (bonds that can be converted
into shares of common stock in the issuing company), and preference shares
(company stocks whose payments of interest, dividends or other returns of
capital can be prioritized over those of other stockholders).
Although preferred stock is technically an equity security, it is often
treated as a debt security, because it 'behaves like a bond' in that it offers a
fixed dividend rate and is a popular instrument for income-seeking investors.
It is, essentially, a fixed-income security..
Securities markets
Securities markets are markets in which securities, or financial assets,
are traded. There are two different types of securities markets. A primary mar-
ket is used for trading newly issued securities, while a secondary market is
SECURITIES | 69
used for trading securities that have already been issued. Primary and secon-
dary markets are generally used for trading equity securities.
Primary markets, or primary financial markets, are where new finan-
cial assets are issued. There are two main types of primary-market issues. The
first type of issue is known as an initial public offering (IPO), and these issues
are the very first shares a company offers to the public. Investment bankers
serve as underwriters for these issues: they facilitate the process of selling them.
Following an IPO, any newly-issued stock, while still sold in the primary mar-
ket, is referred to as a secondary offering. The second type of issue is known as
a seasoned new issue. These issues are new shares that are issued by a compa-
ny that already has publicly traded shares on existing stock exchanges. A sea-
soned new issue is the way a company sells more shares to the investing
public.
Secondary markets, or secondary financial markets, trade existing se-
curities, i.e. previously owned shares of stocks, bonds, and other financial as-
sets. In the secondary market, also known as the aftermarket, securities are
simply transferred as from one investor to another: shareholders can sell their
securities to other investors for cash and/or capital gain. The secondary mar-
ket, thus, supplements the primary one. The secondary market is less liquid
for privately-placed securities since they are not publicly tradable and can only
be transferred among qualified investors.
Secondary markets consist of both organized exchanges, such as the
New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), and over-the-counter or electronic markets,
such as the National Association of Securities Dealer Automated Quotation Sys-
tem (NASDAQ). Organized stock exchanges are markets that are used to faci-
litate the trading of financial instruments. The main organized stock exchan-
ges are the New York Stock Exchange and the American Stock Exchange. The-
re are also regional stock exchanges, such as the Pacific, Chicago, Philadel-
phia, Cincinnati, Intermountain, Spokane, and Boston Stock Exchanges, but
these are very small.
The largest stock exchange in the United States is the NYSE. This
stock exchange is more than 200 years old, and it is still limited to 1,366 seats
(the number of individuals/institutions that can trade), which is the same
number of seats it has had since 1953. The NYSE includes over 3,000 listed
companies. Generally, 80% of the daily trading volume in the US is done on
this stock exchange.
The over-the-counter (OTC) market is an electronic network of dealers
that allows investors to carry out trades without going through specialists or
intermediaries. That is, there is no single physical location where stocks are
traded; rather, these trades are executed through the NASDAQ, which links
70 | C H A P T E R 6
various dealers and brokers through a computer- or telephone-based system.

Usually the bigger companies are traded on an exchange rather than on the
OTC market. These trades are also executed through the National Market Sys-
tem, a system under the sponsorship of the National Association of Securities
Dealers (NASD), which trades stocks of specific sizes, profitability, and trading
requirements. The NASD also trades ‘pink sheets’, or lists of small companies
not listed on any exchange; these stocks are traded by brokers through a net-
work of phone and computer systems, and may be significantly more risky.
Regulation
In the United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC),

which is an independent agency of the US federal government, regulates the
public offer and sale of securities. It holds primary responsibility for enforcing
the federal securities laws, proposing securities rules, and regulating the secu-
rities industry, the nation's stock and options exchanges, and other activities
and organizations, including the electronic securities markets in the country.
The SEC provides investors with access to registration statements, periodic
financial reports, and other securities forms through its comprehensive elec-
tronic, data gathering, analysis and retrieval (EDGAR) database. It was creat-
ed by Congress (1934) as the first federal regulator of securities markets.
Public offerings, sales and trades of US securities must be registered
and filed with the SEC's state securities departments. Issues of securities offe-
red in interstate commerce, through the mail or on the internet must be regis-
tered with the SEC before they can be sold to investors. Financial services firms,
such as broker-dealers, advisory firms and asset managers, as well as their
professional representatives, must also register with the SEC in order to con-
duct business. Self Regulatory Organizations (SROs) within the brokerage in-
dustry often take on regulatory positions as well. Examples of SROs include
the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD) and the Financial In-
dustry Regulatory Authority (FINRA).
In the United Kingdom, the national competent authority for financi-
al markets regulation is the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA), which opera-
tes independently of the UK Government, and is financed by charging fees to
members of the financial services industry. The FCA regulates financial firms
providing services to consumers and maintains the integrity of the financial
markets in the United Kingdom. It focuses on the regulation of conduct by
both retail and wholesale financial services firms.
SECURITIES | 71
DISCUSSION
1. HOW DO YOU THINK securities affect the economy?
2. HOW ARE STOCKBROKERS and investment advisors connected to secu-
rities?
3. HOW CAN SECURITIES be bought and sold?
4. WHEN DOES short selling occur?
5. EXPLAIN WHAT an inflation-protected security (IPS) refers to.
6. WHAT IS AN IPO, and what are some advantages and disadvantages
of it?
7. WHAT IS THE CONNECTION between Wall Street and the NYSE?
8. IN THE Reading and vocabulary section, it was said that the NASD al-
so trades ‘pink sheets’. Color idioms are often used in business English. What
do the following idioms mean: black market, blue-chip stock, get the green
light, golden parachute, in the black, in the red (out of the red), pink slip, red
tape, white-collar/blue-collar worker.
8. THE FCA Handbook lists the following as investments: share, de-
benture, warrant, personal pension scheme, pension scheme which provides
safeguard benefits, and emission allowance. What do these concepts refer to,
and what would be their Macedonian equivalents?
ASSIGNMENT
1. “In your own words, explain, describe, and illustrate how the NYSE
and NASDAQ work.
2. Describe the government securities market in the Republic of Mac-
edonia in terms of regulations, regulatory authority, responsibility, etc.
3. “The stock market is filled with individuals who know the price of
everything, but the value of nothing.” (Phillip Fisher) Discuss this quote, and
express your personal opinion, whether you agree or disagree.
2. Grammar focus: relative clauses

Relative clauses are a very common way of supplying more specific
information about a noun referring to a person, thing or group. They are most
commonly positioned immediately after the noun they refer to. Relative clau-
ses can be sub-divided into defining and non-defining.
72 | CHAPTER 6
Defining relative clauses supply essential information needed to identi-

fy a particular person or thing, and they do not require commas.
Non-defining relative clauses are usually separated by commas, and
give additional information about a person or thing. This information is not
absolutely necessary in order to identify who or what is being talked about; it
does not define, but adds information.
Relative clauses often begin with a relative pronoun, such as who (peo-
ple), that (people or things), or which (things). These pronouns do not have
masculine, feminine, or plural forms.
The relative pronoun whom is rather formal and is only used in writ-
ten English or formal spoken English (the relative pronoun who is often used
instead). However, if the relative pronoun occurs immediately after a preposi-
tion, whom must be used, as in the man with whom (who) business was conduc-
ted. This tends to be avoided, however, by using who, and placing the preposi-
tion at the end of the clause, or by omitting the pronoun altogether, as in the
man who business was conducted with.
The relative pronoun whose can be used to talk about something
which belongs to a person or an animal, or something or someone that is as-
sociated with a person. Whose should not be confused with who's, which is a
contracted form of who is or who has, as in a colleague whose sales pitch was
great vs. a colleague who’s been pitching a new book.
Present participle forms (-ing) and past participle forms (-ed) can be
used without a pronoun or auxiliary verb to form a participle relative clause,
which has the same meaning as the relative clause it replaces, as in Do you
know the company deciding to buy us out? (Do you know the company which is
deciding to buy us out?)
(For more on relative clauses, see Grammar Focus in Chapter 5, in Business English 1)
EXERCISES
1. DISCUSS THE RELATIVE CLAUSES in the following sentences in terms of

the type of relative clause it is, the information it conveys, the (lack of) relative
pronoun, and punctuation:
a) The person who can give you the required information is out of the
office at the moment.
b) Pat Smith, who heads the HR Department, will meet you on your
next visit.
SECURITIES | 73
c) I’ve already spent this morning with Mr. Greene, whom we’re going
to lay off soon.
d) The employees with whom I have discussed the compensation pac-
kage have all accepted it.
e) I’d also like to acknowledge a woman whose efforts have helped
this company move forward.
f) We’re not interested in machines we can’t regularly maintain our-
selves.
g) I’m afraid I won’t be around when the annual company party takes
place.
h) I hate attending networking events, which always make me more
anxious than I am.
i) The CEO, who’s negotiating the merger at the moment, is the per-
son you need to talk to.
j) The press release, written by our PR team, came out at the perfect
time.
2. DECIDE WHICH interpretation is correct (a/b) in the sentences below,

and discuss why:
i) The branch we established in Singapore has 250 employees.

a. There is only one branch in Singapore.
b. There is more than one branch in Singapore.
ii) The agent making the highest sales average will receive a special
bonus.
a. Only one agent will receive a special bonus.
b. Only some agents will receive a special bonus.
iii) The employees, who have been employed for more than 10 years,
are entitled to an additional six days of annual holiday leave.
a. All the employees have been employed for more than 10 years,
and they are all entitled to an extra 6 days of annual holiday leave.
b. Only the employees that have been employed for more than 10
years are entitled to an extra six days of annual holiday leave.
iv) I’m going to complain to the Jay Stok that we both know.
a. There is only one person named Jay Stok, and we both know
him.
b. There is more than one person named Jay Stok, and we both
know the same Jay Stok.
74 | CHAPTER 6
v) We cannot do business with companies whose offices are not in the

UK.
a. We can do business only with those companies which have of-
fices in the UK.
b. We can do business with any company which has offices both
in the UK and abroad.
3. MAKE ONE SENTENCE (including an appropriate relative clause) from

each pair:
a) The Finance Department is overambitious with its timeframes. This

sometimes presents an issue for the other Departments.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b) We might consider informing the shareholders. They have the right

to be informed.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c) I have to accept the validity of her points. She made these specific
points during her pitch.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
d) The share price reached a peak before slightly falling, then levelling
off. A peak means “the highest point”.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
e) Neither of the applicants impressed me much. They were even late

for the interview.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
SECURITIES | 75
f) I just finished talking to Mr. Pierce. He sends you his regards.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
g) To remain competitive, we have to forget all about the old bureau-

cratic empires. Their functioning in the past was strictly divided into
separate departments.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. UNDERLINE THE participle relative clause in each sentence, and trans-

form it into a relative clause with a suitable relative pronoun:
a) This estimation was drawn up on the basis of the documents sent to

us by email.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b) I finally worked out the payment terms with David Sith, known as
the best negotiator around.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c) With reference to recent legislation affecting securities, I’ll inform

you of changes in due time.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
d) We are unable to offer you the needed facilities, made available to

you in the past.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
76 | CHAPTER 6
e) Other rival banks have expressed an interest, opening new windows

for opportunities.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
f) Why did you reject all the offers for access proposed?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
g) An IPO is underwritten by one or more investment banks, also arran-

ging for the shares to be listed on one or more stock exchanges.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
h) This refers to an amendment to the draft, considered by the Minis-

try and not disclosed to the public yet.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
1. COMPLETE THE TEXT by filling in the gaps with one word:
Securities lending still continues to be full (1) _______________ com-

plexity. Have we ever (2) _______________ to ask ourselves what cli-
ents really want and need? (3) ________________ lenders really need
ten collateral schedules? Do borrowers really care about getting (4)
________________ cheapest borrow, or would they (5) ________________
to optimise its stability and visibility? Instead of simplifying and
standardizing our offering, we have created a selection of different of-
ferings (6) ________________ try and attract new participants, (7)
________________ substantially increasing the operational risk and
cost-per-trade. Can this be (8) ________________ viable strategy in whe-
re the standardization and the supply (9) _______________ offerings is
SECURITIES | 77
inherent in most aspects of our lives? Frank D’Agnese, State Street’s

head of product and technology (10) ________________ securities finan-
ce, points out in a piece in the Securities Lending Times (11)
_____________ every securities lending program has (12) _____________
own set of client-driven parameters relating to commercial terms and
conditions.
2. PUT THE WORDS, which have been scrambled up, in order to form
grammatically correct sentences:
a) opening / the beginning / day / the / mark / and / bells / the NYSE’s
/ trading / and / end / each / closing / of
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b) financial context / a / other / can be / has / or / certificate / is /

traded / a / security / value / in / financial instrument / a / monetary /
that / and
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c) investors / the primary / that / the sale / ways / operations / com-

panies / for / new capital / securities / one of / to / is / drive / of / pub-
licly-traded
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
d) activities of / deception / to prevent / oversees / mutual / the SEC /

transactions / intentional / and / fund / securities / professionals /
fraud / financial / trading / and
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
78 | CHAPTER 6
4. Translation
Мисијата на Централниот депозитар за хартии од вредност, како

една од инфраструктурните институции на пазарот на капитал, е
обезбедување на навремени и квалитетни услуги за сите учесни-
ци на пазарот на капитал. Притоа се става посебен акцент на пот-
тикнување на иновативни и одржливи технолошки решенија, со
цел да се обезбеди брз, едноставен и непрекинат пристап до услу-
гите што ги нуди Депозитарот. Преку постојаното унапредување
на услугите што им ги нуди на своите корисници, Депозитарот
обезбедува стабилност, односно сигурни услуги што ќе го поттик-
нат пристапот на домашните и странските инвеститори на маке-
донскиот пазар на хартии од вредност, недискриминација, и инс-
титуционално етаблирање..
Chapter 7
Accounting and auditing

RELATED TOPICS: accounting; auditing; business risks.
Accounting
Accounting is the systematic and comprehensive recording of finan-

cial transactions relating to a business. Accounting also refers to the process
of summarizing, analyzing and reporting these transactions to oversight agen-
cies, regulators, and tax collection entities. The financial statements summarize
a company's operations, financial position and cash flows over a particular pe-
riod, and are a concise summary of hundreds of thousands of financial trans-
actions.
Accounting is one of the key functions for almost any business. It may
be handled by a bookkeeper or an accountant at a small firm, or by sizable fi-
nance departments with dozens of employees at larger companies. The re-
ports generated by various streams of accounting, such as cost accounting and
management accounting, are crucial in helping management make informed
business decisions. While basic accounting functions can be handled by a
bookkeeper, advanced accounting is typically handled by qualified accountants
who possess titles such as Certified Public Accountant (CPA) in the United
States, or Chartered Accountant (CA), Certified General Accountant (CGA) or
Certified Management Accountant (CMA) in Canada. All accounting designa-
tions are the culmination of years of study and exams, combined with a mini-
mum number of years of practical accounting experience.
In most cases, accountants use Generally Accepted Accounting Princi-
ples (GAAP) when preparing financial statements. The GAAP is a set of stan-
dards related to balance sheet identification, outstanding share measure-
ments, and other accounting issues, and its standards are based on double-
entry accounting, a method in which each expense or incoming revenue is en-
tered in two places on a company's balance sheet. An example of double-entry
accounting would be the following: a business issues an invoice to one of its
80 | C H A P T E R 7
clients; an accountant using the double-entry method enters a debit under the
accounts receivables column on the balance sheet and a credit under the inco-
me statement's revenue column. When the client pays the invoice, the ac-
countant credits accounts receivables and debits cash. Double-entry accoun-
ting is also called balancing the books, as all of the accounting entries are
balanced against each other. If the entries are not balanced, the accountant
knows there must be a mistake somewhere in the ledger.
Financial accounting refers to the processes accountants use to gene-
rate the annual accounting statements of a firm. Management accounting us-
es much of the same processes but makes use of the information in different
ways. Namely, in management accounting, an accountant generates monthly
or quarterly reports that a business's management team can use to make deci-
sions about how the business operates. Just as management accounting helps
businesses make decisions about management, cost accounting helps busines-
ses make decisions about costing. Essentially, cost accounting considers all of
the costs related to producing a product. Analysts, managers, business owners,
and accountants use this information to determine what their products
should cost. In cost accounting, money is set as an economic factor in produc-
tion, whereas in financial accounting, money is considered to be a measure of
a company’s economic performance.
Auditing
An audit is an objective examination and evaluation of the financial

statements of an organization to make sure that the records are a fair and ac-
curate representation of the transactions they claim to represent. The audit
can be carried out internally by employees of the organization, or externally
by an outside firm. The International Revenue Service (IRS) can perform audits
to verify the accuracy of a taxpayer’s returns or other transactions. When the
IRS audits, it usually carries a negative connotation and is seen as evidence of
some type of wrongdoing by the taxpayer.
Audits performed by outside parties on private companies can be ex-
tremely helpful in removing any bias when it comes to the state of a company’s
finances. Audits look for what can be called a ‘material error’ in statements on
any specific object. They help provide stakeholders with a sense of accuracy
when regarding the state of the subject being audited, and can help enable
them to make better, more informed decisions regarding the subject being
audited. When audits are performed by third parties, the opinion on whatever
is being audited (a business’s books, an organization as a whole, or a system)
can be open and honest without it affecting daily work relationships. Almost
ACCOUNTING AND AUDITING | 81
all companies receive an audit once a year, while larger companies can even
receive audits monthly.
When it comes to external auditing, there are two different categories
of auditors. First, there are external or statutory auditors, who work indepen-
dently to evaluate financial reporting, and then there are external cost audi-
tors, who evaluate cost statements and sheets to see if they are free of missta-
tements or fraud. Both of these types of auditors follow a set of standards dif-
ferent from that of the company or organization hiring them to do the work.
Internal auditors are employed by the company or organization for whom
they are performing the audit. They provide information to the board, mana-
gers, and other stakeholders on the accuracy of their books, and the effective-
ness of their internal systems.
In the US, as in other countries, an audit has to meet a general set of
accepted standards, established by their respective governing bodies. Standards
for external audits, called the Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS),
are set out by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. A sepa-
rate set of international standards, called the International Standards on Au-
diting, have been set up by the International Auditing and Assurance Board.
Audit planning includes deciding on the overall audit strategy, and
developing an audit plan, which is expected to describe the planned nature,
extent, and timing of the procedures for risk assessment, and the tests to be
done on the controls and substantive procedures. Internal auditors need to
understand the business, operations, and unique characteristics of the depart-
ment/unit being audited, and to develop an audit plan that defines the proce-
dures needed to do an efficient and effective audit.
Constraints in resources (e.g. hiring internal or external auditors can
be expensive) demand that an audit provide only reasonable assurance that
statements are free from significant errors. Due to the high cost of audits, and
the fact that auditors cannot possibly verify every single transaction that has
taken place, auditors use statistical sampling and make a determination (with
management) as to key focus areas. An audit is not a guarantee that financial
statements provide a perfect representation of the organization, but only a
reasonable assurance that the statements are free of material misstatements.
There are a few personal characteristics that are important for an au-
ditor to have, such as: a) a strong ethical framework so as to report on issues
immediately as they come across them; b) good communication skills, which
allow auditors to have rapport with a variety of employees, managers, direc-
tors, and external parties; c) strong interpersonal skills, which are important
due to the variety of informational requests; d) being a team player; and e)
82 | CHAPTER 7
possessing ‘professional skepticism’, an important trait, especially when re-

viewing a company's internal controls.
Business risks
Business risks exist quite independently of the financial statements

and they do not depend on audit procedures. A business risk is where the direc-
tors make wrong decisions, or where events have occurred which threaten
the business’s future. They are often classified as: strategic risks (e.g. investing
in out-of date technology); operational risks (e.g. manufacturing products which
have faults); regulatory risks (e.g. the fines and damages that might be payable
as a consequence of breaching health and safety regulations); and financial
risks (e.g. an inability to pay interest or rent because of poor cash flow).
Although drafting financial statements does not affect them, under-
standing the business risks can give insights into where the financial state-
ments might contain material misstatements. For example, investing in out-
of date technology could cause going concern problems and queries about the
impairment of the out-of date, though possibly relatively new, machinery. Re-
gulatory risks can give rise to problems over assessing and presenting liabili-
ties or contingent liabilities.
The risk of material misstatement refers to the risk that a material
misstatement is present in the financial statements that are being audited. It
is the purpose of the audit to ensure that these misstatements do not appear in
the published financial statements, or, if they do, that there is an appropriately
modified audit opinion. Misstatements can refer to the treatment of the tran-
saction, event or balance, including its presentation and disclosure being in-
correct, or the amount of the transaction, event or balance being incorrect.
The auditor must create suitable procedures to collect sufficient ap-
propriate audit evidence about the assertions lying behind both of these as-
pects of items in the financial statements.
DISCUSSION
1. WHERE DO THE FIELDS of accounting and auditing intersect?

2. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE between the following: an accountant, an
auditor, a bookkeeper, a financial analyst, a financial planner?
3. DISCUSS THE FIVE basic principles that form the foundation of modern
accounting practices: the revenue principle, the expense principle, the match-
ing principle, the cost principle, and the objectivity principle.
4. DISCUSS THE BENEFITS and limitations of technology and its use in ac-
counting.
5. WHAT IS MEANT by the phrase accounts receivable?
a) Money owed to a company by its debtors;
b) Money owed by a company to its creditors;
c) Money owed to a company by its employees;
d) Money owed by a company to its vendors.
6. ACCOUNTS PAYABLE is classified as a/an __________ in the ____________.
a) current asset; balance sheet;
b) current liability; balance sheet;
c) expense; income statement;
d) revenue; income statement.
7. WHAT PROVISIONS DOES the Audit Law of the Republic of Macedonia
cover?
8. WHAT IS A PR audit, what does it consist of, and what is its impor-
tance?
9. CASE STUDY: Oaks Co. received a grant of $35m in relation to the re-
development of its main manufacturing site. The government is providing
grants to companies for capital expenditure on environmentally-friendly as-
sets. Oaks Co. has spent $25m of the amount received on solar panels, which
generate electricity, and intends to spend the remaining $10m on upgrading
its production and packaging lines. Evaluate the business risks faced by Oaks
Co., and identify and explain the risks of a potential material misstatement to
be considered in planning the audit of Oaks Co.
ASSIGNMENT

1. DISCUSS POTENTIAL ethical issues that might arise in the field of ac-
counting or auditing. (choose one to discuss in more detail).
2. IT HAS BEEN SAID that accountancy is a necessity, while auditing is a
luxury. Discuss this stance and provide arguments to support your opinion.
3. DISCUSS THE IMPACT of blockchain on the profession of auditing.
84 | C H A P T E R 7
2. Grammar focus:
reported speech (reporting verbs)
Reported speech is a sentence structure used to report someone else’s
words. The verb tenses, word order, and pronouns are different from those in
the original sentence. Direct speech expresses the exact words used, which in
written language is shown through the use of quotation marks, s in “I’m sorry
for attaching the wrong document in the email,” said Mark.
Reported speech focuses more on the content of what has been said
rather than on the exact words used, thus omitting the quotation marks, and
generally putting the reporting verb in the past simple tense, as in the sentence
Mark said he was sorry for attaching the wrong document in the email. / Mark
apologized for attaching the wrong document in the email.
The reporting verbs say and tell are most frequently used to report
statements in direct speech, while ask is used to report wh- and yes/no questi-
ons. However, there are other reporting verbs that can be used, which add an
expressive value to the statement they are reporting, such as: accept, add, ad-
mit, advise, agree, announce, answer, beg, claim, command, comment, complain,
confess, confirm, congratulate, continue, decline, demand, deny, discuss, empha-
size, enquire, explain, hint, inform, insist, interrupt, invite, maintain, note, obser-
ve, offer, order, point out, promise, propose, protest, reassure, recommend, refu-
se, remind, repeat, reply, report, reveal, shout, state, stress, suggest, threaten,
warn, wonder, etc.
E.g. Has the government policy changed?” the reporter asked.
The reporter asked if the government policy had changed.
E.g. “When are you going to post the call for bids?” the official asked.
The official asked when we were going to post the call for bids.
(For more on reported speech, see Grammar Focus in Chapter 6, Business English 1)
Reporting verbs followed Reporting verbs followed Reporting verbs followed

by an INFINITIVE: by a GERUND: by a THAT-CLAUSE:
EXERCISES
1. TURN THESE DIRECT SPEECH sentences (from a public meeting about a

pollution problem) into reported speech, by using the reporting verb in brac-
kets:
a) “Nitrate levels in the local water supply are slightly higher than nor-
mal.” (announce)
___________________________________________________________________
b) “It is possible that the factory nearby is responsible.” (admit)
___________________________________________________________________
c) “There was a small chemical leak last Friday.” (explain)
___________________________________________________________________
d) “We have taken measures to ensure that this situation cannot reoc-
cur.” (reassure)
___________________________________________________________________
e) “Believe me – we are in the midst of negotiating a settlement with
the town council.” (insist)
___________________________________________________________________
f) “We will announce full details in a press statement in a few days’ ti-
me.” (promise)
___________________________________________________________________
g) “Has there ever been a problem like this before?” (ask)
___________________________________________________________________
h) “No, there haven’t been any other leaks in 30 years at the factory.”
(deny)
___________________________________________________________________
i) “When do you plan to re-open the factory?” (enquire)
___________________________________________________________________
j) “As soon as possible, but some staff may be laid off for a few mon-
ths.” (warn)
___________________________________________________________________
86 | CHAPTER 7
2. REPORT THE PHRASES in italics with a verb from these below. Two
verbs are not needed:
accept / agree / complain / emphasize
explain / propose / report / suggest
a) “Well, I don’t see eye to eye with you on several points, but yes, I
have to say that you are quite right that productivity should be a concern.”
___________________________________________________________________
b) “I’ve heard there’s a similar project in Asia where it’s been said that
they’ve actually improved productivity.”
___________________________________________________________________
c) “I’m not a believer of team-work, but I’m pretty sure corporate cultu-
re will be much better when open plan offices are incorporated.”
___________________________________________________________________
d) “I've said it before, and I'll say it again: my company does everything
it can to limit the impact of our activities on the environment.”
___________________________________________________________________
e) “I think there’s a slight misunderstanding here. Yes, we do make fair
profits, but we’ve never exploited our employees.”
___________________________________________________________________
f) “Yes, that’s a fair point: we can, and we will do more to develop sour-
ces of alternative energy, such as wind and solar power.”
___________________________________________________________________
3. PUT THE FOLLOWING TEXT into direct speech:
Minutes of the Management Committee meeting (Jan Navratile, Ines

Caba, Christopher Tabbs):
JN reported that the plan had been well received at Head Office. She
also stressed that group management were aware of the need for good
relations with local communities, and would support Mirratec’s deci-
sion. IC agreed that it was important to improve public relations, but
emphasized the risks involved for production, e.g., absenteeism and
quality issues. She claimed that the project could become an excuse
to take time off work, especially during the construction phase in the
summer. CT reminded the meeting that only a small number of em-

ployees would be concerned. Finally, it was agreed that the project
should be approved.
4. READ THESE EXTRACTS from reports, then decide who made the state-
ments below:
B: Speaking to our reporter on the spot,

A: CEO Klaas Roos announced an end
Ms Gronko explained that all villagers
to manufacturing in Europe, informing
forced to leave their homes by the new
shareholders that labor costs could not
road would be compensated. Asked to
be justified, and explaining that Asian
what level, she replied that she was
textile imports could no longer be
unable to give a figure, but added that
matched for price.
discussions were being held with local
representatives.
C: Journalists are reported to have

been refused entry to Plazachem’s
Tashkent plant after leakages of toxic
D: Asked how the company intended
chemicals were described by workers.
to compensate the victims of the acci-
Employees claimed that health and
dent, Mr Sanchez answered that no
safety regulations had not been ap-
decision had yet been reached. Em-
plied for the last five years, and that
phasizing the complexity of the legal
several fatal accidents had occurred.
situation, he suggested negotiations
Plazachem management declined to
may be prolonged.
comment.
88 | C H A P T E R 7
“It’s just too expensive.” “It’s dangerous: people have died.” “We’re still talking.”
“It’s too early to say.” “We’re closing down.” “It could take years.”
“They will be paid.” “Your request has been denied.” “I don’t know.”
“We can’t compete.” “I’m afraid he’s unavailable.” “It’s really not simple.”

The seventh principle of corporate governance, outlined in what is (1)

____________ as the ‘Brussels Code’, (2) ____________ the process by
which a company’s auditor is appointed in Belgium. The auditor is ap-
pointed by the supervisory board, and a minimum of two indepen-
dent board members should support the appointment decision. The
board may appoint an audit committee, (3) ____________ mainly of in-
dependent board members, to monitor the company’s financial situa-
tion and its accounting system. In (4) ____________ code there are so-
me interesting provisions, which (5) ____________ to help ensure audi-
tor neutrality. These (6) ____________ appointing a new auditor every
five years, and publishing the financial (7) ____________ of services
provided by the auditor, or its subsidiaries and affiliates, in the ac-
counting year. It should be noted that (8) ____________ appointing a
new audit firm, the company may continue to use the same firm with
a change of personnel to (9) ____________ a completely different audit
team.
1. a) familiar b) known c) named d) referred

2. a) respects b) applies c) relates d) concerns
3. a) composed b) contained c) combined d) made
4. a) these b) a c) the d) one
5. a) will design b) have designed c) are designed d) designs
6. a) contains b) include c) consist d) show
7. a) worthy b) profits c) value d) rate
8. a) rather than b) except by c) even so d) just as
9. a) achieved b) create c) cause d) provide
2. MAKE GRAMMATICALLY COMPLETE sentences from each headline below,

then discuss the differences (headline vs. sentence):
a) China’s Annual Growth Slowest in Decades

___________________________________________________________________
b) $500 Competition Breach Fine
___________________________________________________________________
c) U.S. Government Shutdown Shaking Stability of Jobs
___________________________________________________________________
d) Why Switzerland Worries about Brexit
___________________________________________________________________
e) Country Built on Trade Barriers?
___________________________________________________________________
4. Translation
The future of accountancy is certain to be more structured, governed

by global standards and under more examination from a variety of na-
tional and international bodies. Therefore, accountants, particularly
those working in small and medium practices, must change their
mindset. They must start by leading change, continuously improving
their skills, and demonstrating a fundamental commitment to profes-
sional ethics. Future accountants will increasingly need education in
digital technology, while universities will need to develop new units for
accounting students. Professional accounting organizations should
consult with universities to bring together experts/lecturers in the
new areas, and run new courses.
90 | C H A P T E R 7
Chapter 8
Money supply

RELATED TOPICS: money supply; interest rates; digital currency.
Money supply
Money supply (or money stock) refers to the entire stock of currency
and other liquid instruments circulating in a country's economy at a particu-
lar time. The money supply can include cash, coins, and balances held in chec-
king and savings accounts. It does not include other forms of wealth, such as
investments, home equity, or physical assets that must be sold to convert to
cash. It also does not include various forms of credit, such as loans, mortga-
ges, and credit cards. Although people use these as money to improve their
standard of living, they are not considered part of the money supply. Econo-
mists analyze the money supply and develop policies revolving around it
through controlling interest rates and increasing or decreasing the amount of
money flowing in the economy. The money supply reflects the different types
of liquidity each type of money has in the economy.
Money supply data is collected, recorded and published periodically,
typically by the country's government or central bank. Public and private sec-
tor analysis is performed because of the money supply's possible impacts on
price level, inflation and the business cycle. In the USA, the Federal Reserve
policy is the most important deciding factor in the money supply, while for
the UK, it is the Bank of England. These institutions regulate the money sup-
ply to stabilize their respective economies. The Federal Reserve Board, for ex-
ample, can buy or sell government securities, in this way expanding or con-
tracting the money supply.
An increase in the supply of money typically lowers interest rates,
which, in turn, generates more investment and puts more money in the hands
of consumers, thus stimulating spending. Businesses respond by ordering more
raw materials and increasing production. The increased business activity raises
92 | CHAPTER 8
the demand for labor. The opposite can occur if the money supply falls, or
when its growth rate declines.
Historically, the measure of money supply has shown that relation-
ships exist between certain economic factors and inflation, which was used as
a determinant of the future direction of price levels and inflation. Although
money supply measures are still widely used, they are no more important
than the wide range of economic data that economists and the Federal Reser-
ve collect and review.
Interest rates
The term interest rate refers to the amount charged, expressed as a

percentage of principal, by a lender to a borrower for the use of assets. Interest
rates are typically noted on an annual basis, which is known as the annual
percentage rate (APR). The assets borrowed may include cash, consumer goods,
and large assets such as a vehicle or a building.
Interest is essentially a rental, or leasing charge to the borrower, for
the use of an asset. In the case of a large asset (a vehicle or a building), the in-
terest rate is sometimes known as the lease rate. When the borrower is low
risk, they will usually be charged a low interest rate; if the borrower is high
risk, the interest rate that they are charged will be higher. In terms of borro-
wed money, the interest rate is typically applied to the principal, which is the
amount of money lent. The interest rate is the cost of debt for the borrower
and the rate of return for the lender.
Interest rates are applied in a number of situations where lending and
borrowing is concerned. People borrow money to buy homes, fund projects,
start businesses, pay college tuition, etc. Businesses take out loans to fund ca-
pital projects and expand their operations by purchasing fixed and long-term
assets such as land, buildings, machinery, trucks, etc. The money that is lent
has to be repaid either in a lump sum at some pre-determined date or in mon-
thly installments, which is usually the case. The money to be repaid is usually
more than the borrowed amount since lenders want to be compensated for
their loss of use of the money during the period that the funds are loaned out;
for example, the lender could have invested the funds instead of lending them
out. The difference between the total repayment sum and the original loan is
the interest charged, which is, essentially, an interest rate that is applied on
the principal amount.
Interest rate levels are, in essence, determined by the laws of supply
and demand. In an economic environment in which demand for loans is high,
MONEY SUPPLY | 93
lending institutions are able to command more profitable lending arrange-

ments. On the contrary, when banks and other institutions find that the mar-
ket for loans is weak (or worse), interest rates are typically lowered according-
ly to encourage businesses and individuals to take out loans.
Another key factor in determining interest rates is the lending agen-
cy's confidence that the money – and the interest on that money – will be paid
in full and in a reasonable timeframe. Default risk encompasses a wide range
of circumstances, from borrowers who completely fail to fulfill their obligati-
ons to those who are simply late with a scheduled payment. If lenders are un-
certain about the borrower's ability to stick to the specifications of the loan
arrangement, they will often demand a higher rate of return or risk premium.
Borrowers with an established credit history, on the other hand, qualify for
what is known as prime interest rate, which is a low interest rate.
All other factors being equal, higher interest rates in a country increa-
se the value of that country's currency relative to countries offering lower in-
terest rates. However, such simple straight-line calculations rarely exist in fo-
reign exchange. Although interest rates can be a major factor influencing cur-
rency value and exchange rates, the final determination of a currency's ex-
change rate with other currencies is the result of a number of interrelated ele-
ments that reflect the overall financial conditions of a country in respect to
other countries.
Higher interest rates tend to attract foreign investment, increasing the
demand for and value of the home country's currency. Conversely, lower inte-
rest rates tend to be unattractive for foreign investment and decrease the cur-
rency's relative value.
Interest rates alone do not determine the value of a currency. Two oth-
er factors - political and economic stability, and the demand for a country's
goods and services - are often even more important. Factors such as a country's
balance of trade between imports and exports can be a crucial factor in de-
termining currency value.
Digital currency
The term digital currency refers to a payment method which exists

only in electronic form and is not tangible. Digital currency can be transferred
between entities or users with the help of technology like computers, smart-
phones and the internet. Although it is similar to physical currencies, digital
money allows a borderless transfer of ownership, as well as immediate trans-
actions. Digital currencies can be used to purchase goods and services, but
94 | C H A P T E R 8
can also be restricted to certain online communities, such as gaming or social

networks.
At the moment, digital currency has only a limited user base, and the
regulatory framework, as well as tax treatments of digital currencies are still
evolving. The infrastructure needed to support digital currency is still being
determined and developed. Cryptocurrencies and virtual currencies are cate-
gories of digital currencies. As payments are made directly between payors
and payees, digital currencies can eliminate intermediaries, process steps and
costs related to infrastructure, unlike traditional payment methods which
cannot bypass banks. They can also help make the funds flow more simply
and transparently.
There are many benefits associated with digital currencies, such as
the ability to easily make payments on time, as well as lower transaction
costs. Another way in which digital currencies can help an organization is by
reducing or eliminating the exposure risks by using them as a transport cur-
rency. At present, digital currencies are not accepted by banks, and as a result,
interest cannot be earned on them by individuals or organizations. There are
also risks associated with digital currencies, such as security, currency volatili-
ty, and payment beneficiary identification. Some areas of uncertainty, like fol-
lowing regulations and customer identification, along with the risk, also limit
digital currencies being accepted in the payment industry.
Cryptocurrencies are a special case of digital currencies. The term it-
self came about with Bitcoin, as it was the first to use cryptographic digital
signatures to make transactions valid. Cryptocurrencies are the class of digital
currencies that has grown immensely in recent years, and that growth is pro-
bably the main reason for the recent increase in research and public debate on
the nature of digital currencies. So, it is a digital currency where transactions
are recorded on a public digital ledger called a blockchain, and every process
along the way is secured by cryptography. The main difference between cryp-
tocurrency and bank credit is that instead of banks and governments issuing
the currency and keeping ledgers, an algorithm does. Meanwhile, cryptocur-
rencies are traded on online cryptocurrency exchanges, like stock exchanges.
Cryptocurrency works in the following way: transactions are sent using
software called cryptocurrency wallets. The person creating the transaction
uses the wallet software to transfer balances from one account (or a public
address) to another. To transfer funds, knowledge of a password (or a private
key) associated with the account is needed. Transactions are encrypted and
then broadcast to the cryptocurrency’s network and lined up to be added to
the public ledger. Transactions are then recorded on the public ledger via a
process called mining. The transaction amounts are public, but who sent the
MONEY SUPPLY | 95
transaction is encrypted (it is pseudo-anonymous). Each transaction leads

back to a unique set of keys. Whoever owns that set of keys owns the amount
of cryptocurrency associated with those keys (just like whoever owns a bank
account owns the money in it). Many transactions are added to a ledger at
once. These ‘blocks’ of transactions are added sequentially by miners. That is
why the ledger and the technology behind it are called ‘block’ and ‘chain’ - it
is a ‘chain’ of ‘blocks’ of transactions.
DISCUSSION
1. WHAT IS THE CORRELATION between money supply and: a) inflation;

b) GDP?
2. a) IF AN INDIVIDUAL takes out a $300,000 loan from the bank and the
loan agreement stipulates that the interest rate is 15%, how much will the bor-
rower have to pay back to the bank?
b) IF A COMPANY secures a $1.5 million loan from a lending institution
that charges it 12% interest, how much must the company repay?
3. HOW DOES WAR affect interest rates?
4. WHAT MAKES A CURRENCY strong? What are the strongest currencies
in the world? Why?
5. WHAT DO THESE WORDS/PHRASES refer to: accrued interest, broad mo-
ney, circulation, compound interest, economic bubble, Ethereum, exchange
rate, Federal Reserve discount window, Fiat money, ICO, lump sum, narrow
money, nominal interest, quantitative easing.
6. IF THE GOVERNMENT HAS a national debt, why would it not just print
more money and pay off the debt?
7. PROVIDE EXAMPLES of financial crimes. What punishments would be
suitable for them?
8. DISCUSS THE RISKS associated with digital currencies in more detail?
ASSIGNMENT

1. COMPARE the Federal Reserve to the Bank of England.
2. AT THE END OF 2018 and the beginning of 2019, there was a govern-
ment shutdown in the USA. What effect would a shutdown have on the US
economy and institutions?
96 | CHAPTER 8
– OR – DISCUSS WAYS in which Brexit could affect the global economy.

3. WHAT KIND OF POTENTIAL for the future does digital currency have as
a monetary instrument? Will society become cashless one day? What would be
the advantages/disadvantages of a cashless society?
– OR – OPINIONS ARE DIVIDED on the Bitcoin, its use, security, etc. What
is your opinion concerning the Bitcoin? Would you invest in it? Explain and
support your answer.
2. Grammar focus: sentence connectors;

commonly confused words
Sentence connectors or linking words (phrases) are used to show rela-

tionships between ideas. They can be used to join two or more sentences or
clauses, which means that they serve as a transition between the sentences/
clauses. The functions of connectors in English vary, but what they all have in
common is that they express a certain relationship between the elements
they are connecting. Using them in speaking and writing adds maturity and
sophistication, as well as clarity, so that the listener or reader can easily follow
the speaker’s/writer’s stream of thoughts.
Coherence refers to the connection of ideas at an idea level, while cohe-
sion means the connection of ideas at a sentence level. Basically, coherence
refers to the 'rhetorical' aspects of speaking/writing, which include develop-
ing and supporting, as well as organizing and clarifying ideas. Cohesion, on
the other hand, focuses on the 'grammatical' aspects of speech/writing.
(For more on connectors, see Grammar Focus in Chapter 9, in Business English 1)
The following paragraph is an example that illustrates ideas which are
not well connected:
This hotel is top-class. It is one of the most well-known hotels in the coun-
try. The latest regional PitchFest was held at the hotel. The hotel spent loads of
money to advertise the event. Because the hotel wanted to gain international re-
putation. But not many people attended the event.
However, they are much better linked in the paragraph below:
The latest regional PitchFest was held at this top-class hotel, which is one of the
most well-known hotels in the country. The hotel spent loads of money on adver-
tising the event since it wanted to gain international reputation; however, not
many people attended the event.
MONEY SUPPLY | 97
EXERCISES
1. PLACE THE SENTENCE CONNECTORS in the categories below, in terms of

their function, and then translate them into Macedonian and discuss the diffe-
rences in both languages:
accordingly – all in all – also – alternatively – as a consequence – as a result –

as far as – besides – consequently – conversely – correspondingly – despite –
essentially – firstly – for example (e.g.) – for instance – furthermore – given –
hence – however – in addition – in brief – in conclusion – in contrast – in fact
– in other words – in particular – in regards to – in spite of – indeed – inevita-
bly – likewise – moreover – namely – nevertheless – on the contrary – on the
other hand – otherwise – overall – particularly – provided – regarding – re-
gardless – similarly – so – specifically – to illustrate – that is to say (i.e.) – then
– therefore – thus – until – whereas – while – with respect to.
a) Cause/effect (result): ____________________________________________

b) Comparison: ____________________________________________________
c) Contrast: _______________________________________________________
d) Similarity: ______________________________________________________
e) Emphasis: ______________________________________________________
f) Clarification: ____________________________________________________
g) Exemplification: ________________________________________________
h) Addition: _______________________________________________________
i) Condition: ______________________________________________________
j) Ordering and listing: _____________________________________________
k) Transition: ______________________________________________________
l) Summary: _______________________________________________________
2. Connect each pair of sentences with the most appropriate sentence

connector(s) (the function of the connector is given in brackets):
a) Fluctuation in exchange rates causes instability. It makes forecas-

ting more difficult. (addition)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
98 | C H A P T E R 8
b) The product was launched ten years ago, when competition was
fierce. It was tough for us to get the commitment of the senior manage-
ment. (cause and effect)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c) The system lacked originality, efficiency and ingenuity. It was a com-
plete failure. (summary)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
d) The recession in the building industry hit us hard. Our competitors
saw an increasing load of orders. (contrast)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
e) Good business people should be able to read between the lines. They
should be able to make inferences about information that is conveyed
indirectly or given only partially. (clarification)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
f) I am making a large order, which we will pay up front. We should be
given a considerable discount. (condition)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
g) Our Head is going to present the figures in detail. He is going to
take on any questions you might have. (ordering and listing)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. CHOOSE THE CORRECT OPTION:
Budgets are most commonly used by organizations to exercise con-

trol. They are, (1) __________, barriers to changes, and fail to do well
what most managers think they do well, (2) __________, provide order
and control. They are barriers for many reasons. (3) __________, they
MONEY SUPPLY | 99
reinforce the command-and-control management model and (4)

__________ undermine attempts at organizational change, such as dele-
gation and empowerment. (5) __________, they tend to set a ceiling on
growth potential and a floor for cost reductions, thus stifling real im-
provement breakthroughs. Strong brands, skilled people, excellent
management processes, strong leadership, and loyal customers are as-
sets that are outside the measurement orbit of the accounting system.
(6) __________, budgets are typically extrapolations of existing trends,
with little attention being paid to anticipatory models.
1) a) besides b) until c) in fact d) while

2) a) i.e. b) likewise c) similarly d) e.g.
3) a) As far as b) Besides c) Firstly d) Given
4) a) until b) however c) despite d) thus
5) a) Namely b) In addition c) Provided d) Although
6) a) Conversely b) Regardless c) In contrast d) Indeed
4. BELOW ARE PAIRS / GROUPS of words that are commonly confused in

regards to their meaning. All of them have appeared in this textbook. First,
explain and translate the words, then use each word in an example, i.e. in a
sentence in a business context:
account / bill hard / hardly

accounting / accountability hope / wish
advise / advice i.e. / e.g.
anticipate / predict / foresee late / lately
appraise / apprise lend / borrow
asset / income loan / credit / mortgage
broke / bankrupt motto / tagline / phrase
capitol / capital overpriced / exorbitant
client / customer policy / politics / political / politic
cost / value / price principal / principle
council / counsel safety / security
date / appointment save money / invest money
discount / refund / exchange than / then
economic / economical travel / trip
effect / affect wage / salary / fee / commission
ensure / insure / assure whose / who’s
estimate / evaluate work / job / profession
former / latter worthless/priceless/valueless/invaluable
100 | C H A P T E R 8

1. PARAPHRASE THE SENTENCES below, using the given beginning or the
word/structure in brackets, keeping their meaning as similar as possible:
a) It is rare for me to complain about the product’s quality, but this

time I have to. (SELDOM)
___________________________________________________________________
b) The fire resulted in damage to their retail premises. (RESULT)
___________________________________________________________________
c) Lower tax revenue has arisen from increased numbers of business
failures. (RISE TO)
___________________________________________________________________
d) We regret that this machine is unable to provide all the goods you
require. (INCAPABLE)
___________________________________________________________________
e) In the event of loss of raw materials, you must immediately inform
your contractual partner.
If _________________________________________________________________
f) I was most annoyed by the fact that I had never been promoted in
my previous workplace.
What _____________________________________________________________
g) Conducting business negotiations in Norway is easier than in Swe-
den. (AS... AS)
___________________________________________________________________
h) The service we receive is not good enough for us to continue with
that supplier. (SO... THAT)
___________________________________________________________________
i) There won’t be a confidentiality clause, nor a dispute resolution clau-
se. (NEITHER)
___________________________________________________________________
MONEY SUPPLY | 101
2. SUMMARIZE THIS TEXT in a paragraph of 50-60 words::
Regardless of whether your organization is legally obligated to have a

code of conduct (as public companies are), every organization should
have one. A code has value as both an internal guideline and an exter-
nal statement of corporate values and commitments. A well-written
code of conduct clarifies an organization’s mission, values and princi-
ples, linking them with standards of professional conduct. The code
articulates the values the organization wishes to foster in leaders and
employees, such as accountability, and, in doing so, defines desired
behavior. As a result, written codes of conduct or ethics can become
benchmarks against which individual and organizational performan-
ce can be measured. Additionally, a code is a central guide and refe-
rence for employees to support day-to-day decision making. A code
encourages discussions of ethics and compliance, empowering em-
ployees to handle ethical dilemmas they encounter in everyday work.
It can also serve as a valuable reference, helping employees locate re-
levant documents, services and other resources related to ethics within
the organization.
4. Translation
Каматната политика на банките во РМ долго време беше оценува-

на како политика на високи и нефлексибилни каматни стапки.
Ниското ниво на штедење и, следствено, ниската понуда на креди-
ти, недоволната конкуренција во банкарскиот систем, незадоволи-
телната ефикасност и профитабилност на банките, неизвесноста
во економското опкружување, наследениот послаб квалитет на
10 2 | C H A P T E R 8
кредитните портфолија, и институционалните ограничувања се

најчестите фактори што беа наведувани како причини за високи-
те каматни стапки. Трендот на намалување на цената на кредитите
и стеснување на каматните распони во последниве неколку годи-
ни укажа на постепено исцрпување на ограничувачкото влијание
на овие фактори.
Chapter 9
Fundamentals of monetary policy

RELATED TOPICS: monetary policy; fiscal policy; taxation; tax treaty.
Monetary policy
Monetary policy is a set of economic policies that manages the size

and growth rate of the money supply in an economy. It consists of the process
of drafting, announcing and implementing the plan of actions taken by the cen-
tral bank or other competent regulatory authorities of a country that de-
termines the scope and impact of the key drivers of the economic activity in
that country. Activities which are integral to such policy consist of manage-
ment of money supply and interest rates, which are aimed at achieving macro-
economic objectives, like controlling inflation, consumption, growth and li-
quidity. These are achieved by measures/instruments, such as modifying the
interest rates, buying or selling government bonds, regulating foreign exchan-
ge rates, and changing the amount of money that banks are required to main-
tain as reserves.
The monetary policy impacts the important aspects of the economy,
which include attempts to achieve stability in GDP growth rate, maintain low
rates of unemployment, support overall economic growth, and maintain fo-
reign exchange rates in a predictable range. Monetary policy is different from
fiscal policy as the former relates to borrowing, consumption and spending by
individuals and private businesses, while the latter refers to taxes, govern-
ment borrowing and spending.
Central banks use a number of tools to shape and implement mone-
tary policy. The most popular option is to modify the interest rates. Another
option is to change the reserve requirements, which refer to the funds that
banks must keep as a proportion of the deposits made by their clients. A third
option (open market operations) is used to expand or contract the money sup-
ply in the country’s banking system. It involves buying and selling of govern-
ment securities like bonds or foreign currencies in the open market.
10 4 | C H A P T E R 9
Fiscal policy
Generally speaking, the aim of most government fiscal policies is to

target the total level of spending, the total composition of spending, or both
in an economy. The two most widely used means of affecting fiscal policy are
changes in government spending policies or in government tax policies. If a go-
vernment believes there is not enough business activity in an economy, it can
increase the amount of money it spends, often referred to as stimulus spending.
If there are not enough tax receipts to pay for the spending increases, govern-
ments borrow money by issuing debt securities such as government bonds
and, in the process, accumulate debt; this is referred to as deficit spending.
By increasing taxes, governments pull money out of the economy and
slow business activity. But typically, fiscal policy is used when the govern-
ment seeks to stimulate the economy. It might lower taxes or offer tax rebates
in an effort to encourage economic growth. Influencing economic outcomes
via fiscal policy is one of the core principles of Keynesian economics. The idea
is to find a balance between tax rates and public spending. For example, sti-
mulating a slow economy by increasing spending or lowering taxes runs the
risk of causing inflation to rise. This is because an increase in the amount of
money in the economy, followed by an increase in consumer demand, can re-
sult in a decrease in the value of money -- meaning that it would take more
money to buy something that has not changed in value.
When a government spends money or changes tax policy, it must choo-
se where to spend or what to tax. In doing so, government fiscal policy can
target specific communities, industries, investments, or commodities to either
favor or discourage production – and sometimes its actions are based on con-
siderations that are not entirely economic. For this reason, the numerous fis-
cal policy tools are often hotly debated among economists and political ob-
servers.
Taxation
Taxation is a term for when a taxing authority, usually a government,
imposes a tax. Though taxation can be a noun or verb, it is usually referred to as
an act, and the resulting revenue is usually called taxes. Taxation is different
from other forms of payment, such as market exchanges, in that taxation does
not require consent, and it is not directly tied to any given services. The govern-
ment obliges taxation through an implicit or explicit threat of force. Taxation
is legally different from extortion or a protection racket because the imposing
institution is actually a government.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MONETARY POLICY | 10 5
Tax systems have varied considerably across jurisdictions and time. In

most modern systems, taxation occurs on both physical assets, such as proper-
ty, and specific events, such as a sales transaction. The formulation of tax pol-
icies is one of the most critical and debatable issues in modern politics. The
most basic function of taxation is to fund government expenses. Supporters of
progressive levels of taxation on high-income earners argue that taxes encou-
rage a society which is more fair. Higher taxes on specific products and services,
such as tobacco or gasoline, have been justified as one way to restrict their con-
sumption.
Taxation applies to all different types of levies. These include (but are
not limited to): income tax (governments impose such taxes on financial inco-
me generated by all entities within their jurisdiction, including individuals
and businesses); corporate tax (imposed on the profit of a business); capital
gains (imposed on any capital gains or profits made by people or businesses
from the sale of certain assets, including stocks, bonds, or real estate); proper-
ty tax (calculated based on the property and land values); inheritance tax (im-
posed on individuals who inherit the estate of a deceased person); and sales
tax (consumption tax imposed by a government on the sale of goods and ser-
vices, which can take the form of a VAT).
Economists specializing in public finance have stated four objectives
of tax policy: simplicity, efficiency, fairness, and revenue sufficiency. While these
objectives are widely accepted, they are often in conflict, and different econo-
mists have different views of the balance among them.
Simplicity means that the obedience by the taxpayer and the enforce-
ment by the revenue authorities should be as easy as possible. Further, tax
responsibility should be certain. A tax whose amount is easily manipulated
through decisions in the private marketplace can cause a number of difficulti-
es for taxpayers, who attempt to reduce what they owe, and for revenue autho-
rities, who attempt to maintain government receipts.
Efficiency means that taxation should get in the way as little as possi-
ble in the choices people make in the private marketplace. Super-efficient tax
is a head tax, by which all individuals are taxed the same amount, regardless
of income or any other individual characteristics. A head tax would not redu-
ce the incentive to work, save, or invest. The problem with such a tax, howe-
ver, is that it would take the same amount from a high-income person as from
a low-income person. It could even take the entire income of low-income
people. And even a head tax would shape people’s choices somewhat, by giv-
ing them an incentive to have fewer children, for example.
Fairness, to most people, requires that equally-situated taxpayers pay
equal taxes (horizontal equity), and that better-off taxpayers pay more tax
10 6 | C H A P T E R 9
(vertical equity). Although these objectives seem clear enough, there is little
agreement over how to judge whether two taxpayers are equally situated. For
example, one taxpayer might receive income from working while another re-
ceives the same income from inherited wealth. Most people believe that fair-
ness dictates that taxes be progressive, meaning that higher-income taxpayers
pay not only more, but also proportionately more.
Revenue sufficiency may conflict with efficiency and fairness. Econo-
mists who believe that income taxes strongly reduce incentives to work or
save, and economists who believe that typical families already are unfairly
burdened by heavy taxes, might resist tax increases that would move the fede-
ral budget toward balance.
Tax treaty
A tax treaty (also called Double Tax Agreement or DTA) is a bilateral
agreement made by two countries to resolve issues involving double taxation
of passive and active income. Tax treaties determine the amount of tax that a
country can apply to a taxpayer's income, capital, estate, and wealth. Coun-
tries with tax havens are the only countries that typically do not enter into tax
treaties. A tax haven, or offshore financial center, is any country or jurisdicti-
on that offers minimal tax liability to foreign individuals and businesses.
When an individual or business invests in a foreign country, the issue
of which country should tax the investor’s earnings arises. Both countries –
the source country and the residence country – may enter into a tax treaty to
agree on which country should tax the investment income in order to prevent
the same income from getting taxed twice. The source country, or the capital-
importing country, is the country that hosts the inward investment. The resi-
dence country, or capital-exporting country, is the investor’s country of resi-
dence. One of the most important aspects of a tax treaty is the policy on with-
holding taxes, which determines how much tax is levied on income (interest
and dividends) from securities owned by a non-resident.
DISCUSSION
1. WHAT DO THE PHRASES loose (expansionary) monetary policy and tight

(contractionary) monetary policy mean? What are their effects on interest rates?
2. HOW ARE monetary policy tools used to fight inflation and unemploy-
ment?
3. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES between monetary policy and fiscal policy?
4. IN THE CONTEXT OF taxes, explain the differences between the follow-

ing words: credit, deduction, duty-free, exemption, IRS, non-taxable income,
tax avoidance, tax break, tax evasion, tax-free, tax rebates, the Boston Tea Party,
VAT.
5. THE AMERICANS BELIEVE that there are two things that cannot be
avoided – death and taxes. What do you think about this in the context of Ma-
cedonia?
6. A FORMER DIRECTOR of the Macedonian IRS once suggested that those
who have committed tax evasion should be pardoned, in a show of good will,
so that they start paying taxes. What is your opinion concerning this? How
should tax evasion be sanctioned?
7. HOW DO GOVERNMENTS earn money from tax havens?
ASSIGNMENT

1. UK historian Thomas Fuller has said that “debt is the worst pover-
ty.” Discuss this quote.
2. What events lead to banking crises? Discuss and exemplify.
3. Which goods/services in the Republic of Macedonia should be taxed
more heavily, and which should not be taxed at all? Discuss and exemplify.
2. Writing focus: describing visuals

When describing a chart, graph or diagram, a variety of parts of spe-
ech can be used (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) that not only describe the
movement, but also accurately emphasize the changes, similarities and diffe-
rences in the data shown. Such visuals are: bar graphs, single line graphs, mul-
tiple line graphs, paired bar charts, single bar charts, stacked bar charts, per-
centage bar charts, pie charts, bubble diagrams, diagrams, and flow charts.
EXERCISES
1. PUT THE WORDS/PHRASES in the right box and state whether they are a
noun or a verb:
10 8 | C H A P T E R 9
be constant – bottom out – bounce back – climb – collapse – crash –

cut – decline – decrease – dip – drop – escalate – expand – expansion –
extension – fall – flatten out – fluctuate – go down – grow – growth –
hold steady – improve – improvement – increase – keep – leap – level
off – maintain – maximum – minimum – peak – pick up – plummet –
plunge – push down – recover – raise – reach a peak – reduction – re-
main stable – rise – shoot up – sink – skyrocket – slide – slump – spike
– soar – stability – stabilize – stagnation – stay at – step up – surge –
take off.
↗
↘
→
2. COMPLETE THE TEXT by filling in the gaps with a word/phrase from

Exercise 1 above. Make any other necessary changes:
From week 1 to week 5, profits (1) ________________ slightly. Then from

week 6 to week 8, profits (2) ________________ dramatically and (3)
________________ at 3 million at week 8. From week 8 to week 15, prof-
its (4) ________________ with a slight (5) ________________ at week 11.
Then, from week 15 to week 21, profits (6) ________________ wildly with
a (7) ________________ of 3.5 million at week 16, and a (8)
________________ of 2.2 million at week 17. From week 21 to week 23,
profits (9) ________________ at 2.8 million. From week 24 to 28, profits
(10) ________________ marginally and, then, from weeks 29 to 36, pro-

fits (11) ________________ gradually with a (12) ________________ at week
33 of 4.2 million. From week 37 to week 40, profits (13)
________________ substantially, (14) ________________ at 1 million at
week 40. Finally, from week 40 to week 46, profits (15)
________________.
Circle all the adverbs in the previous text, and think of other adverbs:
___________________________________________________________________
3. WRITE A SHORT REPORT (130-150 words) describing the following

graph:
1 10 | C H A P T E R 9
1. IDENTIFY AND CORRECT the mistake in each sentence:
a) She recommended me that I take a few days off from work.

b) I tried to explain him the problem, but he had difficulty understan-
ding me.
c) Kate might to have been considered for the position.
d) Kevin says he stopped to go on business trips because of his chil-
dren.
e) We regret to inform you that your application has been being de-
nied.
f) I’m so glad that my colleague spoke in my behalf at the session.
g) It was a frustrating situation because we were uncapable of helping
the team.
h) The Head insisted at paying the dinner.
i) They had managed a few crisis in the past, so they were able to han-
dle this situation.
j) We actually have less people now than we did two years ago.
k) Unfortunately, the company was bankrupt in 2008 due to unreaso-
nable spending.
l) She is use to presenting in front of such a large audience.
m) Let’s make compromise and never do harm again.
n) We may have to work longer hours to set the deadline.
Governments or central banks can use (1) ________________ (or chan-

ging interest rates and the level of the money supply) to influence the
level of economic activity. They can (2) ________________, or increase,
economic activity if the economy is in a downturn by reducing inte-
rest rates and allowing the rate of growth of the money supply to in-
crease. Alternatively, if the economy is growing too fast and causing
inflation, they can slow it down by increasing (3) ________________ and
reducing the rate of growth of the money supply. If the economy is ex-
panding too quickly, it means that the industry is working at (4)
________________ capacity and producing as much as it possibly can.

Since demand is greater than supply, leading to rising prices and (5)
________________, the government might have a deflationary fiscal poli-
cy. This means reducing the amount of economic activity by raising
tax rates or cutting government expenditure.
1. a) revenue b) expenditure c) consumption d) monet. policy

2. a) peak b) boost c) slump d) consume
3. a) recession b) fiscal policy c) interest rates d) tax cuts
4. a) full b) least c) slight d) small
5. a) projects b) spending c) inflation d) outflow
4. Translation
Заради остварување на ценовната стабилност, како примарна цел

на монетарната политика, НБРМ располага со различни инстру-
менти за монетарно регулирање. Имајќи предвид дека меѓу ин-
струментите и крајната цел на монетарната политика постои сло-
жена и индиректна поврзаност со временско задоцнување, НБРМ
го следи движењето на одредени економски варијабли - опера-
тивни и посредни цели. Преку управувањето со нивото на камат-
ните стапки, а со тоа и нивото на ликвидните средства во банкар-
скиот систем, како оперативна цел, НБРМ настојува да влијае врз
нивото на девизниот курс. Од инструментите на НБРМ, најфлек-
сибилни се операциите на отворениот пазар, коишто можат да се
спроведуваат преку емисија на хартии од вредност на НБРМ –
аукции на благајнички записи, или преку купување или продаж-
ба на хартии од вредност.
112 | CHAPTER 9
Chapter 10
Business correspondence

RELATED TOPICS: types of correspondence; language and register.
Types of correspondence
Business correspondence is a form of written communication used for

business purposes, an essential tool for the day-to-day operations of a compa-
ny. It is usually carried out between organizations, within the organization, or
between clients and the organization. Emails can be considered a form of bu-
siness correspondence when used to represent a company, or for the purpose
of the business.
Written communication is important for a company, and in business,
in general, for a number of reasons, such as:
− To maintain a good reputation and be seen as friendly. Acting as an
ambassador of your country on behalf of your company, it aims at building
goodwill between different organizations, whether local, national, or interna-
tional.
− Correspondence is useful as it is a record or reference for any previ-
ous transactions that have ever been made before. Being in the business in-
dustry, it is impossible to remember all the transactions and communications
that have occurred with many clients. Here, business correspondence acts as
a useful tool for any future reference.
− It is, indeed, very beneficial in building and maintaining a business
relationship with different parties, like manufacturers, distributors, support
services, and also consumers.
− Since it is very difficult to send representatives everywhere, a busi-
ness letter/email can be very easily sent to all the desired places. Although so-
metimes executives, professionals, politicians, etc. are difficult to be approa-
ched in person, a business letter/email easily accesses everybody.
1 1 4 | C H A P T E R 10
− It can also serve as a purpose of evidence, meaning that it becomes

a written commitment between both parties concerned. This is the best way
clients can be obliged to follow the rules and regulations as mentioned else-
where in the correspondence.
There are different kinds of business correspondence that are typical-
ly used in organizations. The five most common types include: internal corre-
spondence, external correspondence, sales correspondence, personalized corres-
pondence, and circulars.
Internal correspondence
Internal correspondence is a written communication between the employees,
units, departments, and branches of one and the same organization. Internal
correspondence can either be formal or informal. Routine internal correspon-
dence is usually less formal, such as quick instructions between a supervisor
and a staff member, and, in this case, it usually appears in the form of an email.
There are other more formal types of internal correspondence, such as pro-
motion letters, written reprimands, memoranda, formal requests for approv-
al, and letters of approval/dismissal. These types of communication are ideal-
ly printed on paper, signed by the sender, and physically received by the reci-
pient.
External Correspondence
External correspondence takes place between different organizations, or be-
tween an organization and their individual clients. This is a form of written
communication made by a company to those who do not belong to their or-
ganization. External correspondence is commonly made to vendors, creditors,
suppliers, existing customers, prospective clients, financial institutions, go-
vernment offices, law and accountancy firms, business affiliates, sponsors or
donors, and other offices that have either a direct or indirect business relati-
onship with the company.
Sales Correspondence
Sales correspondence refers to sales-related communications. It is not limited
to just selling a product or service, but it also includes other activities relating
to sales. Sales correspondence includes marketing letters, offer and discount
letters, sales proposals, invoices, sales reports, order confirmations, purchase
orders, letters of authorization, and collection letters, among others. For the
purpose of selling, it is important to know how to write quality sales letters to
be able to communicate effectively. Also, marketing and offer letters should
reflect truthful and non-misleading information. Other kinds of sales corre-
BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE | 11 5
spondence – such as invoices, purchase orders, and collection letters – must

contain accurate information.
Personalized Correspondence
Personalized correspondence involves personal and emotional factors. Despite
being classified as 'personalized', this type of correspondence can also be used
for business purposes. Examples of personalized correspondence include let-
ters of gratitude, letters of favours or requests, appreciation notes, letters of
congratulations, of commendation, and such. This particular type of correspon-
dence does not need to have a very formal tone. Although this can be done
via email, writing an actual, physical letter is preferable because it has the
sense of a personal touch.
Circulars
Circulars are notices that are communicated to a large number of people wi-
thin the organization. They are also referred to as office instructions or announ-
cements. Often, general announcements, such as changes in contact infor-
mation, details about meetings with shareholders, instructions about certain
protocols, etc., are communicated via circulars.
Language and register
Running a business requires being aware of how you communicate

with customers, staff, investors, and suppliers. Your written materials, from
your business plan to your marketing, are often the first encounter a person
outside the company has with your company. It is, therefore, important to
make sure that the writing is effective, clear, and relatable. Maintaining profes-
sionalism, choosing the right words, and staying courteous and sincere when
communicating will make a big impact on one’s business image. You need to
get your message across quickly, and in a way that is easy to understand. This
is where the principles of plain language come into play. Plain language
means keeping your writing clear and concise, removing anything that de-
tracts the recipient's attention from the message conveyed. For example, “His
report outlined three issues: a lack of high paying clients, conversions, and re-
turn customers” is much more effective than “His report to upper management
delineated that the issues of the day were threefold. These included observations
about the influx of low level prospects, a lack of effective conversions, and an in-
ability to attract return patronage.”
It is important to keep the following points in mind:
1 16 | C H A P T E R 10
− Remember your audience. Does your audience know as much as you

do about your area of expertise? Probably not, so remember to keep things
simple. With this in mind, you should:
− Drop the jargon. Remove phrases like 'burn rate', 'touch base',
and 'paradigm shifters'.
− Replace inflated language with simple words. For example, 'tran-
spired' means 'happened'; 'paradigm' means 'ideal'; and 'conundrum'
is just a fancy word for 'problem'.
− Organization. Your message should always be presented in a se-
quential, logical, step-by-step manner to make it easy to follow.
− Use active voice. Make it clear who is doing what. Sentences should
be formulated in a 'we will do this to achieve X' construction rather than 'the
company will achieve X by doing Y'.
− Use a clean design. The presentation of your message is just as im-
portant as the words you use. Effective use of white space, headlines, subhea-
dings, colour, font, and images are all elements that can either support your
message, or distract from it.
− Minimize long blocks of text. Help the recipient of your message un-
derstand the information you are presenting in small chunks whenever possi-
ble. Break long paragraphs into shorter ones with subheadings, and make sen-
tences no longer than 20 words.
Register refers to the level of formality used in writing and speaking.
There are five basic levels that describe different types of register or formality:
high formal, formal, neutral, informal, and vulgar.
− High formal refers to the register used to address the Queen, an
Archbishop, a President, or a Prime Minister.
− Formal is used when writing to your boss, a client, or in a transac-
tional letter.
− Neutral is the register used when preparing reports, business plans,
and marketing presentations.
− Informal is used in emails to friends, family or work colleagues.
– Vulgar is the register used when talking to immediate family or very
close friends.
2. Writing focus: register; revision of grammar
The following are two examples of a letter concerning the same sub-
ject, but written in different registers. Discuss the differences in register and
language:
Example: Formal letter

Thank you for your letter we received on 14 September. A copy has
been sent to company headquarters in addition to a memorandum concer-
ning your financial situation. A meeting has been scheduled for 3 October at
11 am to discuss your request for a further bank loan. Therefore, please inform
us of your availability for this meeting at the earliest opportunity. A number
of issues concerning your income and expenditure may be queried prior to a
loan being granted.
Furthermore, the General Manager needs to be contacted in order to
authorise bank loans of this nature. Moreover, your previous failure to meet
payment arrangements will first have to be considered.
Nevertheless, in the interim, you are required to complete the enclo-
sed business plan, which should be brought to the meeting.
Example: Informal letter

Thanks for your letter. We got it on 14 Sept. We’ve sent a copy to
comp. H.Q. along with a memo re. your financial situation. I’ve set a meeting
for 3 Oct at 11 am to talk about another bank loan. So, please let us know if you
can make it a.s.a.p. But, we might ask you a few things to do with your inc.
and exp. before giving you a loan. Also, I need to get in touch with the G.M. to
okay it. Plus, we’ll first have to think about the last time you didn’t keep up
with your payments. Anyway, in the meantime, you need to fill in this busi-
ness plan. Bring it to the meeting with you..
EXERCISES
Below are ten examples of emails that have been written by former
students in connection to the following exercise:
Profile: Your company has employed an external consultant to organi-
ze an exhibition of your products, which is planned to be held next month.
However, the consultant’s work has been unsatisfactory, and your boss has
now decided that you should take full responsibility instead. Your boss has as-
ked you to write to the consultant to explain why she has been suddenly re-
placed.
Instructions: Write an email (200-250 words) to the consultant. Your
email should be structured in paragraphs, it should have an appropriate be-
ginning (introduction) and ending, and you must include the following infor-
mation:
1 1 8 | C H A P T E R 10
− give two reasons why she has been replaced;

− tell her that she will be paid for her work up to that point;
− ask her to brief you on the current situation.
From the ten emails below, choose the best and the worst, while con-
sidering the response itself (whether the points have been addressed or not),
the register of the email, and the grammar/vocabulary used. Discuss your
choices, and discuss the other emails as well. In addition, the emails contain
various mistakes that you need to identify and correct:
(1) Dear Mr. Walker,

I would like to inform you that you have been replaced from your job as a
consultant in our company. This decision was made suddenly, because we no-
tify come irregularities in the way you have done your job.
We have concluded that this is the best decision for us, because we notify some
weaknesses in the way you had organized the exhibition of our products.
The first reason for our dissatisfaction was the way your were working. We gave
you a longer period of time to do the job best you can, but the deadline wasn’t
respected by your side.
The second reasons is that we weren’t satisfied with the way you organize the
exhibition. You didn’t accept our advice during the engagement.
Despite all this things, we will fulfill our promise and you will be paid for the
job you have done before. You will receive the full amount of money that was
concerted at the beginning of the assignment.
It will be of a big use for us if you can deliver us the information you have ga-
thered during the assignment you have been on. If it is possible please inform
us about the previous accomplishments and the steps that you will take fur-
ther. It will be helpful for us if you can provide us the information, because
that will help us to finish the job you have started.
Sincerely yours,
(2) Dear Ms Fox,

I am writing to inform you about the exhibition which you take the responsi-
bility to organize for the next month. While checking your preeliminatory
checklist we decided that your plan does not satisfy the needs of our company
for this exhibition. Having in regard that a trade fair is just one of the promo-
tion means, and its achievements depend at the start on its correct position-
ing and focus we would like to discard the agreement from the beginning. We
have found that the problem is the lack of a careful and pragmatic analysis
which will affect the budget. Firstly, the fairground you have chosen requires
a lot of money and we will not be able to support that expenses. On the other
hand, we think that you have not given a meticulous attention to detail and
effective time management. Since n unsuccessful event may have a boome-
rang negative effect in the perception of the market, we are sorry to inform
you that the contract will be dismissed. You will be paid for your work within
the next month. I would also ask you ou to brief me on the current situation
so I will take over the full responsibility for the exhibition.
Sincerely,
(3) Dear Ms. Christine,

I am writing this email about your work in our company as an outside consul-
tant. We hired you to organize an exhibition of our products that it is planned
to be held next month.
I am sorry to inform you that your efforts are under our expectation. We were
looking to someone truly dedicated and committed to our company, who will
take care of the company’s objectives and organize an attractive exhibition of
our products. With all respect i am announcing you that not only your efforts,
but also your ideas on the previous meetings, does not match with our com-
pany ideas and goals. Thank you for your work with our company, but we are
sorry to tell you that our cooperation will stop here. We assume you that the
payment will be on your account as the agreements required. I would like if it
is possible to get a report on your work so far.
Thank you for your cooperation with our company, we will keep in touch if in
the future we need your services.
I look forward to hearing from you soon about your brief report.
Once again, i apologize for any inconvenience.
Regards,
(4) Dear Mrs. Johnson,

With this letter I would like to inform you that I am deeply sorry with the re-
cent replacement that you have faced with. I am fully aware of your disappoint-
1 20 | C H A P T E R 10
ment and I would use this letter to explain you the reasons for the replace-
ment.
The Chairman of the company, Mr. Rogers, was concerned with the little
amount of time that you have been dedicating to the preparations for the ex-
hibition and he decided to make specific personnel changes regarding the
exhibition of the products. I was the only one eligible to succeed you on that
position. The second main reason is the fact that Mr. Rogers was deeply un-
satisfied with the exhibition reports that you had presented to him. He expec-
ted to see more detailed and well-structured research reports.
As you may already know, your engagement with the company, and your con-
tribution to the company would be regularly paid according to the deal that
we signed two weeks ago. The amount of money that you are supposed to get
would remain unchanged, despite the problems that have recently occured. I
would also like to ask you to give me some important information regarding
the current situation of the exhibition preparations.
I am really looking forward to hearing from you, and I sincerely hope that we
would cooperate again at some point in the future in a more successful project.
Yours sincerely,
(5) Dear Mr. Johana Iskonsin

I am writing this e-mail in order to inform you about our boss latest decision
connected with your replacement.Unfortunatelt I was given two things, one
of them is to announce you this bad news and the other thing is that I will re-
place you for the following exhibition.Ofcourse there are reasons that
prompted this decision.I was told that one of them is the fact that you habe
always been late at work and the other and main, for this decision was that
you have damaged one of the paintings.I would also like to inform you that
every hour you have spent for our company will be fully paid.Because we are
running out of time, and I am the one who should take whole responsibility
for organizing this exhibition I will be very grateful if you give me a short brief
on the current situation.I am looking forward to hearing from you any kind of
information about the exhibition.
Thanks in Advance.
Very truly yours,
Matthew Maxim
BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE | 121
(6) Dear Ms. Doe,

I am sorry to inform you that we have decided not to continue with your ser-
vices as our exhibition coordinator.
We have carefully considered the process you maintained so far and felt that
you haven’t shown to us you are ready to handle further completion of the
product exhibition. Moreover, we are unsatisfied with the overall progress of
the provided assignments. You are dismissed because, despite repeated feed-
back and performance coaching from the manager, your work performance
has not improved. You also failed to meet the target dates in any of the areas
specified within the plan that you wrote and agreed to together with our
company.
This final decision was reached after a meeting between board members.
Payment for your operating days will be included in your final paycheck
which you will receive on our regular pay day, Friday. We can mail your final
paycheck to your home or you can make arrangements with our accounting
department to pick it up.
However, you will need to keep the company informed about the latest activi-
ties regarding completed and uncompleted tasks for the upcoming event. Plea-
se keep me informed as soon as possible about the above issues.
We wish you the best in your future work endeavours.
Best regards,
(7) Dear Mrs.Brown

I am writing to inform you that our company decided to replace you. We con-
sider that this section of work can be done better by someone who currently
works at the company, by our employee. In our opinion we need person who
knows our products better with their strengths and weaknesses. Also I should
mention that the work you have done, was not what we expected from you
considering your experiences in this specific field. The things that you offered
was not inventive and creative enough.
However, for the work you have done, you will recieve your fee. I should inform
you that the fee will be paid only for the period you worked for us and it will be
lower compared to the fee that we agreed to pay you for finishing this job.
I would be grateful if you give me a short information and details of the work
you have done. That will be really helpful for me because I will know what to
change and from where I should start my work.
1 2 2 | C H A P T E R 10
Thank you in advance.

I hope that we will collaborate in the future and this experience will not hap-
pen again.
Your sincerely,
(8) Dear Mrs. Avramovska,

I am sorry I have to inform you that our company decide to stop the coopera-
tion with you.
Unfortunately, our team was not satisfied with your efforts so far. It was ob-
served breach of agreement that we signied up.
Furthermore, the department of finance in our company noted that there
have been incurred more costs than the projected for this exhibition, hence
the boss decided to engage me for organizing the following exhabition.
I should inform you that you will be fully paid for everything you finished by
now.
Additionally, I would like to ask if you could give me some more detailes for
the preparation for the next exhibition that are completed by now.
I am looking forward to hearing from you,
Yours sinceraly,
(9) Dear Mrs. Johnson,

I am writing in reference to your job as an outside consultant for Arlene
Company. I am sorry to inform you that you have been replaced. The Manag-
er of Arlene Company has found your work unsatisfactory. The reason why he
is not satisfied with your work is that you have passed the planned budget for
over two thousand dollars even thought the allowable budget was specified as
a significant point in your contract. Moreover, you did not succeed to organ-
ize the exhibition of our new products on the desired location. Another prob-
lem is that the exhibition should be held next month and there is still much
unfinished business that should have been done by now. Of course you will
be paid for your completed work regardless the termination of the agreement.
Considering the fact that I am going to take responsibility for organizing the
exhibition of our new products I would be very grateful if you could inform
me on the current situation. I would appreciate it if you send me the needed
information as soon as possible. Could you please also fax me the results of
the market survey you have made about the exhibition?
I look forward to hearing from you in very near future.
Yours faithfully,
(10) I hope this email finds you well. I am writing to inform you that since our
last meeting in our office there have been new developments and that I have
been asked by our CEO to inform you that we won’t be needing your services
any longer.
Namely, the terms of our contract clearly stated that you were to arrange a
suitable venue for the exhibition of our products and provided us with a list of
100 notable invitees by March 20-th. Since you have failed to do both in the
stipulated time we are left with no choice but to end our collaboration.
I will be taking over the responsibilities that were initially assigned to you so I
would kindly ask you to brief me on the current situation so I can continue
taking the necessary steps. It goes without saying that you will be compen-
sated for the work you have done so far for our company and still more we are
willing to give you permission to ad the name of our company to your refer-
ence list. I take this opportunity to wish you all the best in your future endea-
vours.
1 2 4 | C H A P T E R 10
WRITING TASK 1:
Profile: You work for an accountancy firm and one of your clients is a
small airline. This airline is considering purchasing a new aircraft within the
next six months to expand its operations. The airline has asked your firm for
advice concerning this purchase.
Instructions: Write a report for the airline (200-250 words), structured
in paragraphs, with an appropriate beginning (introduction) and ending, and
in the report you should:
− summarize the airline’s current financial position;
− outline two potential risks of expansion;
− advise the airline on what steps to take next.
WRITING TASK 2:
Profile: Your manager is insisting on introducing new practices in the
company. She has asked you to write a report including details of three prac-
tices from the competition, which you would suggest adopting in the compa-
ny you are currently employed in.
Instructions: Write a report for your manager (200-250 words), struc-
tured in paragraphs, with an appropriate beginning (introduction) and end-
ing, and in the report you should include:
− what you admire about the other companies;
− specifically which three of their practices you would adopt;
− why your company would benefit from them.
1 2 6 | C H A P T E R 10
WRITING TASK 3:
Profile: You have been asked to write a press release for a product
launch that will take place next week. As the PR manager, you have been
gaining momentum for the product for quite a while, and the press release is
to be sent to journalists, who should post it on online media on the day of the
launch.
Instructions: Write a press release for journalists (200-250 words),
structured in paragraphs, with an appropriate beginning (introduction) and
ending, and in the release you should include:
− an attention-grabbing headline;
− the five Ws and one H regarding the product’s background and launch
(who? what? when? where? why? how?);
− what makes this product unique in the marketplace.
References
Bibliography
ATKINSON, S. (2014): The Business Book, New York: DK Publishing.

BOYES, W. & MELVIN, M. (2009): Fundamentals of Economics, Boston: Houghton Mifflon
Company.
BRIEGER, N. & SWEENEY, S. (2002): The Language of Business English: Grammar & Functions,
Workbook, Pearson Education Limited.
BROOK-HART, G. (2007): Business Benchmark, Cambridge: CUP.
CARSTAIRS-MCCARTHY, A. (2002): An Introduction to English Morphology – Words and Their
Structure, Edinburgh University Press.
CORDELL, J. (2000): Cambridge Business English Activities, Cambridge: CUP.
CRYSTAL, D. (1997): The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, 2nd ed, Cambridge: CUP.
DONNA, S. (2000): Teach Business English, Cambridge: CUP.
DOWNING, A. & LOCKE, P. (2005): English Grammar: A University Course, 2nd ed, Routledge.
EASTWOOD, J. (2002): Oxford Guide to English Grammar, Oxford: OUP.
FARRALL, C. & LINDSLEY, M. (2008): Professional English in Use: Marketing, Cambridge: CUP.
GREENBAUM, S. & QUIRK, R. (1990): A Student’s Grammar of the English Language, London:
Longman.
GREENBAUM, S. (2006): The Oxford English Grammar, Oxford: OUP.
HUGHES, J. & MCLARTY, R. (2016): ETpedia Business English: 500 Ideas for Business English
Teachers, UK: Pavilion Publishing.
JONES, L. & ALEXANDER, R. (2000): New International Business English, Cambridge: CUP.
KOTLER, P. (2003): Marketing Insights from A to Z, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
LEECH, G., DEUCAR, M. & HOGENRAAD, R. (1982): English Grammar for Today, London: Mac-
Millan.
LEECH, G. & SVARTVIK, J. (2003): A Communicative Grammar of English, 3rd ed, Pearson Edu-
cation ESL.
LIPEC, M. (2005): Poslovni i protokolarni engleski, Zagreb: Mozaik knjiga.
MACKENZIE, I. (2007): Professional English in Use: Finance, Cambridge: CUP.
MASCULL, B. (2003): Business Vocabulary in Use, Cambridge: CUP.
MISH, F. C. (ed.) (2003): Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed, Springfield, Massa-
chusetts: Merriam-Webster, Inc.
NAUMOSKA-SARAKINSKA, B. & NAUMOSKA, A. (2018): Business English 1, Skopje.
POWELL, M. (2010): Dynamic Presentations, Cambridge: CUP.
QUIRK, R., GREENBAUM, S., LEECH, G. & SVARTVIK, J. (1972): A Grammar of Contemporary Eng-
lish, London: Longman.
ROGERS, J. (2006): Market Leader, England: Pearson Education Limited.
THOMPSON, D. (ed.) (1998): Oxford Dictionary of Current English - new revised edition, Oxford:
OUP.
TREFFRY, D. (ed.) (1998) Collins English Dictionary - Millennium Edition, Glasgow: Harper-
Collins.
128 |
WANKEL, C. (ed.) (2009): Encyclopedia of Business in Today’s World, USA: SAGE Publica-
tions.
WILLIAMS, J. D. (2005): The Teacher's Grammar Book, Routledge.
Online sources
www.macengdictionary.com
Unit 1.
https://www.entrepreneur.com/topic/marketing
http://marketingmix.co.uk/
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/marketing-mix
https://www.smartinsights.com/marketing-planning/marketing-models/how-to-use-the-
7ps-marketing-mix/
https://www.cleverism.com/understanding-marketing-mix-concept-4ps/
https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesagencycouncil/2018/01/03/evolution-of-the-four-ps-
revisiting-the-marketing-mix/#201384441120
https://www.professionalacademy.com/blogs-and-advice/marketing-theories---the-
marketing-mix---from-4-p-s-to-7-p-s
https://www.marsdd.com/mars-library/the-marketing-mix-in-marketing-strategy-product-
price-place-and-promotion/
https://www.entrepreneur.com/watch/elevatorpitch
https://toughnickel.com/industries/PrinciplesofMarketingPart1BasicConceptsandFundam
entals
Unit 2.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319085560_Market_Segmentation_Targeting_an
d_Positioning
https://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Man-Mix/Market-
Segmentation.html
https://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/examples-price-promotion-methods-21128.html
https://www.marketingweek.com/2017/09/07/pricing-a-product/
https://mba.marketingweek.com/
https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/247575
https://marketingexperiments.com/conversion-marketing/4-tips-product-pricing
https://www.theedesign.com/blog/2017/discounted-price-or-free-shipping
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marketsegmentation.asp
https://www.forbes.com/sites/alejandrocremades/2018/07/24/how-to-create-a-business-
plan/#1daf6f0b7391
https://hbr.org/2018/05/when-should-entrepreneurs-write-their-business-plans
Unit 3.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/advertising
https://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/different-types-advertising-2946.html
https://www.thebrandingjournal.com/2015/10/what-is-branding-definition/
REFERENCES | 129
https://www.brickmarketing.com/define-branding.htm
http://www.marketingjournal.org/brand-purpose-to-beneficence-philip-kotler/
https://www.lifehack.org/articles/productivity/7-ways-creative-absolutely-all-the-
time.html
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/meetings-1-getting-down-business
Unit 4.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations
https://www.forbes.com/sites/robertwynne/2013/09/04/public-relations-
explained/#3bdf34f31ded
https://internetmarketingpress.com/marketing/understanding-the-basics-of-public-
relations/
https://www.thoughtco.com/spin-communication-1691988
https://marketing-insider.eu/major-pr-tools/
https://www.briansolis.com/2008/04/pr-20-putting-public-back-in-public/
https://www.deirdrebreakenridge.com/pr-20-defined/
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/crisis-management.asp
https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesagencycouncil/2017/06/20/13-golden-rules-of-pr-
crisis-management/#474f46271bcf
https://www.bernsteincrisismanagement.com/5-crisis-pr-right-way-examples/
Unit 5.
https://www.businessballs.com/communication-skills/presentation-skills-and-techniques/
https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2016/06/13/10-ways-to-improve-your-
presentation-skills/
https://careerwise.ie/the-importance-of-presentation-skills-in-business/
https://www.pon.harvard.edu/daily/negotiation-skills-daily/top-10-negotiation-skills/
https://www.forbes.com/sites/alisoncoleman/2018/07/21/seven-tips-for-stronger-
negotiating-skills-in-business/#26b3504b7723
https://www.briantracy.com/blog/sales-success/the-top-3-negotiation-skills-of-persuasive-
people-self-confidence/
https://www.thebalancesmb.com/what-is-business-networking-and-what-are-the-
benefits-2947183
https://www.managementstudyguide.com/informal-networks-in-organizations.htm
https://medium.com/@tedbauer2003/the-biggest-issues-of-professional-networking-
nowadays-126c10b913b8
Unit 6.
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/security.asp
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission
https://www.thestreet.com/topic/47042/securities.html
https://www.investopedia.com/articles/stocks/11/securities-market-introduction.asp
https://www.thebalance.com/securities-definition-and-effect-on-the-u-s-economy-3305961
https://study.com/academy/lesson/securities-markets-and-investment-bankers.html
1 30 |
https://personalfinance.byu.edu/sites/default/files/files/Chapter-Files/19-Investments-
3.pdf
https://www.businessnewsdaily.com/3403-nasdaq.html
https://www.fca.org.uk/
https://www.sec.gov/
Unit 7.
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/accounting.asp
https://www.nysscpa.org/professional-resources/accounting-terminology-
guide#sthash.nnFyBsTn.dpbs
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/accounting-principles.asp
https://www.accounting.com/resources/gaap/
https://www.accountingedu.org/what-is-auditing.html
https://www.investopedia.com/articles/financial-careers/08/career-auditor-auditing.asp
https://businessdegrees.uab.edu/blog/5-important-principles-of-modern-accounting/
https://economia.icaew.com/opinion/january-2017/the-biggest-challenges-facing-the-
future-auditor-blockchain-brexit-eu-robotics-automation
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/auditing/top-35-interview-questions-on-
auditing/78667
https://www.accaglobal.com/sg/en/student/exam-support-resources/professional-exams-
study-resources/p7/technical-articles/accounting-issues.html
Unit 8.
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/moneysupply.asp
https://www.economicshelp.org/macroeconomics/inflation/money-supply/
https://www.thebalance.com/federal-reserve-discount-rate-3305922
https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/MoneySupply.html
https://www.forbes.com/sites/elyrazin/2018/08/08/how-brexit-could-affect-finance-real-
estate-and-the-global-economy/#877fee940dfd
https://www.cesifo-group.de/ifoHome/facts/DICE/Banking-and-Financial-
Markets/Banking/Monetary-Policy/Comparison-ECB-FED-
Bank_of_England/fileBinary/Comparison-ECB-FED-Bank_of_England.pdf
https://www.referenceforbusiness.com/small/Inc-Mail/Interest-Rates.html
https://helda.helsinki.fi/bof/bitstream/handle/123456789/15564/BoFER_1_2018.pdf
https://cryptocurrencyfacts.com/how-does-cryptocurrency-work-for-beginners/
https://www.fastcompany.com/3056736/what-happens-when-we-become-a-cashless-
society
Unit 9.
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/taxation.asp
https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Taxation.html
http://www.economicsdiscussion.net/taxes/principles-of-taxation-economics/26212
http://www.ase.ro/upcpr/profesori/758/Scan_OECD_Principles%20of%20Taxation.pdf
https://www.macmillandictionary.com/thesaurus-category/british/relating-to-tax-and-
taxation
https://www.thebalance.com/what-are-interest-rates-and-how-do-they-work-3305855
https://investinganswers.com/financial-dictionary/economics/interest-rate-978
R E F E R E N C E S | 13 1
https://mozo.com.au/interest-rates/guides/calculate-interest-on-loan
https://www.economicsonline.co.uk/Global_economics/Monetary_policy.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/economics-finance-domain/ap-macroeconomics/ap-
financial-sector/monetary-policy-apmacro/v/monetary-policy-tools-ap-
macroeconomics-khan-academy
Unit 10.
http://foundersguide.com/5-common-types-of-business-correspondence/
https://www.marstranslation.com/blog/how-is-writing-an-effective-business-letter-
important-for-business-correspondence
https://work.chron.com/10-types-business-letters-9438.html
https://smallbusiness.chron.com/purposes-business-letters-3067.html
https://www.businessworld.ie/news/10-Reasons-Why-Business-Writing-Skills-Are-So-
Important-569924.html
https://justpublishingadvice.com/control-register-in-your-writing/
https://smallbusinessbc.ca/article/effective-business-writing-importance-plain-language/
https://www.thebalancecareers.com/business-letter-examples-samples-and-writing-tips-
2059673
CIP - Каталогизација во публикација
Национална и универзитетска библиотека „Св. Климент Охридски“,
Скопје
811.111:33(035)
NAUMOSKA, Aneta
Business English 2 / Aneta Naumoska, Biljana Naumoska -Sarakinska. -
Skopje : B. Naumoska-Sarakinska, 2019. - 131 стр.; 25 см
Библиографија: стр. [127]-131
ISBN 978-608-66248-1-1
1. Naumoska-Sarakinska, Biljana [автор]
а) Англиски јазик, деловен - Прирачници
COBISS.MK-ID 109571082

Business English 2 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Business English 2 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Business English 2 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aneta Naumoska

Biljana Naumoska - Sarakinska

Reading and Grammar Practice

Chapter 2 pricing; promotions modal verbs; exercises;

Chapter 4 PR concepts; passive; causative exercises;

Chapter 6 security; equity and relative clauses; exercises;

Chapter 10 types of correspon- register; revision writing tasks

Business English 2 is a course book written and intended for students

Aneta Naumoska, PhD

1. Reading and vocabulary

Today’s central problem facing business is not a shortage of goods,

Mobile marketing practices

Text messaging marketing

mer needs, distribution, interest, launch, location, objectives, operations, or-

In 250–300 words, elaborate on one of the following:

2. Grammar focus: verb tenses/forms;

John ____________ (TRAVEL, ALWAYS) a lot. In fact, he _____________ (BE)

2. ARE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES grammatically correct or not? If not,

a) What exactly you do in Manpower Ltd?

Translate the sentences from the previous exercise. What conclusions

a) We’d like to have a new product on the market by next year. / We

4. PARAPHRASE EACH SENTENCE with a focus on the underlined parts:

5. WRITE YOUR OWN SENTENCES using the following adverbs of frequency.

3. Practice and revision

It is not ________________ (USUAL) to make a hobby pay for itself, even

2. CHOOSE the correct option:

One of the keys to a successful start-up is networking. New entrepre-

will be able to (1)____________ , when in fact who invests is often more

1. a) arise b) rise c) raise d) rouse

Communicating is a broad term in marketing that means describing

1. Reading and vocabulary

Promotions and discounts

Price promotions are a major category of sales promotions where

Market segmentation is a marketing term that refers to the grouping

2. Grammar focus: modal verbs

For present/future time: modal verb + present infinitive.

Must — Almost certainly won’t — Certainly (definitely) won’t —

2. CIRCLE the most appropriate option:

a) If your latest project blows up in your face, you mustn’t / shouldn’t /

3. MAKE SENTENCES WITH appropriate modals/semi-modals for the fol-

4. IDENTIFY THE MODAL/SEMI-MODAL VERB, explain what it expresses, and

a) The council cannot afford to maintain them anymore.

3. Practice and revision

RE: Dispatch of our order number TR/09/4577

The import of certain products which we have in the past obtained

Постојат повеќе фактори што влијаат на цената на одреден про-

1. Reading and vocabulary

Advertising broadly refers to the techniques and practices used to

Advertisers pay for advertising to accomplish a wide range of goals.

me service or product. Advertising professionals work on branding not only to

We live in an era of abundant information and connected communi-

1. INFORMATION VS. MANIPULATION – what are your views on the aim of

2. Grammar focus: prepositions,

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES by filling in the gaps with the appropriate

a) When deciding on our new premises, we looked _______ location,

2. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES by filling in the gaps with an appropriate

a) Attached are the details _______ your recent purchase.

i) We apologize _______ any inconvenience this may have caused.

3. FIND THREE EXAMPLES of different collocations in the Reading and vo-

John (TRAVEL, ALWAYS) a lot. In fact, he _ (BE)