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Chap. 6 Boundary value problems in linear elasticity

Equilibrium equations: σ ij , j + f i = ρ u&&i (1)

Kinematic equations: ε ij =
1
(ui, j + u j ,i ) (2)
2
1 +ν ν
Hooke’s law: ε ij = σ ij − σ kk δ ij or σ ij = 2 με ij + λε kk δ ij (3)
E E

For the most general problems of linear elasticity, you have to solve a system of 15 independent
equations with 15 unknown variables.

There are two kinds of solution techniques:

1. Displacement based solution methods

2. Stress based solution methods

1. Displacement based method (Navier displacement equation)

Eliminate strain by inserting (2) into (3):

σ ij = μ (ui , j + u j ,i ) + λu k , k δ ij (4)

Eliminate stress by inserting (4) into (1):

Equation (5) is called Navier displacement equation. The vector form of this equation is
v v v v
μ ∇ 2u + (μ + λ )∇∇ ⋅ u + f = ρ u&&

Similar to the concept of splitting stress/strain into a volumetric part and a deviatoric part, the
displacement field can also be decomposed into a dilatational part plus a distortional part,
v v
u = ∇ϕ + ∇ ×ψ

v
where ∇ ϕ is the dilatational term and ∇ ×ψ is the distortional term.

ΔV v v v v
The volume change = ε kk = u k , k = ∇ ⋅ u . If u = ∇ ×ψ , ∇ ⋅ u = ∇ ⋅ ∇ ×ψ = 0 , which
V
means the distortional part causes no volume change.

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Longitudinal/dilatational elastic wave:

(λ + 2μ )∇ 2uv = ρ u&v&
where body force is neglected.

v 1 &v&
Comparing this to the standard form of wave equation ∇ 2u = u indicates that the dilatational
Cl2
part of elastic deformation travels with velocity

λ + 2μ
Cl = : longitudinal wave speed
ρ
Shear/distortional elastic wave:
v v v
If u = ∇ ×ψ , ∇ ⋅ u = 0 , the Navier equation becomes

v v
μ ∇ 2u = ρ u&&

v 1 &v&
Comparing this to the standard form of wave equation ∇ 2u = u indicates that the
C s2
distortional part of elastic deformation travels with velocity

μ
Cs = : shear wave speed
ρ

For a rough estimate of these speeds

νE 2ν 1
λ= =μ ≅ μ if ν ≅
(1 +ν )(1 − 2ν ) (1 − 2ν ) 4

E
μ=
2(1 + ν )

Cl = 3Cs ≈ 1.73Cs
Generally, the elastic wave speeds in solids are on the order of a few km/s (~5 km/s in steel). The
longitudinal wave propagates about 70% faster than the shear wave.

Besides longitudinal and shear waves, there are also surface waves, also called the Rayleigh waves,

that propagate at the speed roughly equal to C R ≈ 0.9C s . Surface wave is the slowest one among

the three kinds of elastic wave but usually causes most damages in earthquake. The response

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signal of an earthquake detector may look like the figure below.

CR
Cs
Cl
t

2. Stress based method (2D static equilibrium problems)

Plane stress (thin plates):

σ 3i = 0 ⇒ σ 31 = σ 32 = σ 33 = 0

Plane strain (infinitely long in 3-direction):

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ε 3i = 0 ⇒ ε 31 = ε 32 = ε 33 = 0

If we reduce 3D elasticity problems to 2D, the number of unknown variables will decrease from
15 to 8. The equations of 2D plane stress problems are listed as follows:

∂σ 11 ∂σ 12 ∂σ 12 ∂σ 22
Equilibrium: + =0 (1); + =0 (2)
∂x1 ∂x 2 ∂x1 ∂x2

∂u1 ∂u2 1 ⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞
Kinematic: ε 11 = (3); ε 22 = (4); ε12 = ⎜⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟⎟ (5)
∂x1 ∂x2 2 ⎝ ∂x2 ∂x1 ⎠

Hooke’s law: ε 11 =
1
(σ 11 −νσ 22 ) (6); ε 22 =
1
(σ 22 −νσ 11 ) (7); ε 12 = 1 +ν σ 12 (8)
E E E

v
The objective of stress based method is to eliminate u and ε from the above equations.

v
Eliminate u from (3, 4, 5),

∂ 2ε 12 ∂ 2ε 11 ∂ 2ε 22
2 = + (compatibility condition) (9)
∂x1∂x2 ∂x22 ∂x12

Eliminate ε by inserting (6, 7, 8) into (9):

1 +ν ∂ 2σ 12 1 ⎛ ∂ 2σ 11 ∂ 2σ 22 ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ 2σ 22 ∂ 2σ 11 ⎞
2 = ⎜⎜ − ν ⎟ + ⎜ − ν ⎟
∂x22 ⎟⎠ E ⎜⎝ ∂x12 ∂x12 ⎟⎠
(10)
E ∂x1∂x2 E ⎝ ∂x22

Differentiating equation (1, 2) with respect to x1 , x2 gives:

∂ 2σ 12 ∂ 2σ 11 ∂ 2σ 12 ∂ 2σ 22
=− , = −
∂x1∂x2 ∂x12 ∂x1∂x2 ∂x22
Inserting the above two relations into (10) leads to

∇ 2 (σ 11 + σ 22 ) = 0

Therefore, the plane stress equations are reduced to a system of 3 equations (to solve for three

unknowns σ 11 , σ 22 , σ 12 ):

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⎧ ∂σ 11 ∂σ 12
⎪ ∂x + ∂x = 0
⎪ 1 2
⎪ ∂σ 12 ∂σ 22
⎨ + =0
⎪ ∂x1 ∂x2
⎪∇ 2 (σ 11 + σ 22 ) = 0
⎪⎩

Airy stress function method:

Suppose we represent σ ij by a scalar function φ as

σ 11 = φ, 22 , σ 12 = −φ,12 , σ 22 = φ,11

We see the first two equation of the equation system are always satisfied for any φ . The third

equation becomes

σ 11 + σ 22 = φ,11 + φ, 22 = ∇ 2φ ⇒ ∇ 2 ∇ 2φ = 0

The problem now becomes solving a biharmonic equation. The Airy stress function φ is a called

biharmonic function.

Example 1: φ = a1 + b1 x + c1 y

σ 11 = σ 12 = σ 22 = 0 (rigid body motion)

Example 2: φ = a2 x 2 + b2 xy + c2 y 2

σ 11 = 2c2 , σ 12 = −b2 , σ 22 = 2a2 (states of constant stress)

y
σ0
x
σ0
For uniaxial tension in the x direction, φ = y2 .
2

Example 3: Pure bending

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M
x
My
σ xx = , σ xy = 0 , σ yy = 0
I
These stress expressions correspond to the Airy stress function
M 3
φ= y
6I

Therefore, the beam bending problem can also be treated as a 2D elasticity problem in an
elongated rectangular domain.