CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

Carbon Dioxide Corrosion in Wet Gas

Annular Flow at Elevated Temperature

Y. Sun,‡,* T. Hong,** and C. Bosch***

ABSTRACT (MM) indicates that a low thickness of the corrosion product

film, usually <10 µ m, was responsible for the high protection
Wet gas corrosion rates of plain carbon steel at the top and of the scales formed under these conditions.
bottom of a high-pressure, 10-cm-diameter, horizontal
KEY WORDS: annular flow, carbon dioxide corrosion, carbon
pipeline were measured under annular flow conditions at
steel, corrosion rate, iron carbonate film, localized attack,
0.45 MPa carbon dioxide (CO2) and 90°C. The corrosive me-
surface analysis, wet gas
dium consisted of deionized water and a low viscosity hydro-
carbon phase at water cuts of 80%. Superficial gas velocities
(Vsg) of 15 m/s and 20 m/s were applied at a superficial liq- INTRODUCTION
uid velocity (Vsl) of 0.05 m/s for 100 h. The corrosion rates
measured by electrical resistance (ER) technique advanced in In the natural gas industry, conventional production
three stages, showing an exponential decay corresponding to facilities involve the removal of liquid and transporta-
the iron carbonate (FeCO3) scale forming process. The gen- tion of dry gas. This avoids problems with liquid
eral corrosion rates measured by ER were low, which were holdup, slugging, hydrates, and corrosion.1 As off-
also confirmed by the coupon weight-loss measurements of shore processing is costly, multiphase transportation
average corrosion rates. No flow-induced localized corrosion of oil/water/gas mixtures over long distance trans-
(FILC) was found for the flow and corrosion conditions ap-
portation lines is now a common feature in offshore
plied. Surface analysis techniques such as scanning electron
production systems. Multiphase flow is known to
microscopy (SEM) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
revealed that the FeCO3 film forming process was flow de- result in significant internal corrosion problems for
pendent and different for scales formed on the top and on carbon steel pipelines.2 Dissolved carbon dioxide
the bottom of the pipe, resulting in different crystal sizes. (CO2) in the liquid phase of formation water or stem-
Cross-sectional analysis by use of metallurgical microscope ming from condensed moisture as a result of the
reduction in temperature and pressure along the
length of the pipe forms weak carbonic acid (H2CO3),
Submitted for publication August 2002; in revised form, March
2003. Presented as paper no. 02281 at CORROSION/2002, April which acts as the primary initiator to corrosion for
2002, Denver, CO. carbon steel pipelines.3
‡
Corresponding author. Corrosion in horizontal pipelines is generally ex-
* NSF I/UCRC, Corrosion in Multiphase Systems Center, Institute
for Corrosion and Multiphase Technology, Ohio University, 300 pected to be most severe at the bottom of the pipe-
W. State St., Athens, Ohio 45701. Present address: BP America line, particularly under slug flow conditions.
Inc., 501 Westlake Park Blvd., WL1-18.122, Houston, TX 77079.
** NSF I/UCRC, Corrosion in Multiphase Systems Center, Institute
However, in wet gas pipelines, top-of-the-line corro-
for Corrosion and Multiphase Technology, Ohio University, 300 sion (TLC) can also take place because the fresh con-
W. State St., Athens, Ohio 45701. Present address: Monsanto densing water is very corrosive.4 On the other hand,
Chemical Co., 800 N. Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO.
*** Mannesmann Forschungsinstitut GmbH, PO Box 25 11 16, the typical flow patterns encountered in wet gas
47251 Duisburg, Germany. pipelines are stratified flow, annular flow, and annu-
0010-9312/03/000143/$5.00+$0.50/0
CORROSION—Vol. 59, No. 8 © 2003, NACE International 733
CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

FIGURE 1. Schematic of the high-pressure inclinable flow loop system.

lar mist flow. These flow patterns also enhance inter- In practice, most pipeline failures are caused by
nal corrosion along the top and bottom of a pipe. localized corrosion instead of uniform corrosion,
Most work in understanding corrosion in oil and such as flow-independent pitting and/or FILC, often
gas pipelines has been carried out with single-phase called erosion-corrosion. The initiation of FILC has
water or two-phase gas/water systems.5-10 Moreover, been extensively studied by Schmitt and coworkers
small scale laboratory tests such as the rotating cyl- in theory as well as in high-pressure laboratory
inder electrode, jet impingement, bubble tests, and scale tests and large scale multiphase slug flow.13-17
small diameter flow loops are suitable methods for However, no research about critical conditions for the
studying flow effects on corrosion. These experimen- initiation of FILC in wet gas conditions has been
tal systems provide easy and inexpensive testing done so far.
under controlled conditions. However, these methods
do not take into account the effect of multiphase flow EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
and the presence of various flow regimes encoun-
tered in oil/water/gas pipelines. Hence, a scale-up of Flow Loop and Test Section
these results to multiphase flow under field condi- A unique, 18-m-long, 10-cm-diameter, high-
tions can lead to serious errors in the prediction of pressure, high-temperature, inclinable flow loop was
corrosion rates and flow-induced localized corrosion used to study CO2 wet gas corrosion (Figure 1). The
(FILC) under field conditions. entire loop is manufactured from Type 316 (UNS
Apparently, knowledge about the formation of S31600)(1) stainless steel (SS). A predetermined oil/
corrosion products by surface analysis should closely water mixture was stored in a 1.4-m3 tank, which
correspond to corrosion studies. The formation of served as a storage tank as well as a separation unit
corrosion products and their morphology strongly for the multiphase gas/oil/water mixture. The tank
depends upon the flow regime, solution chemistry, was heated by a heating jacket and two 3-kW immer-
geometry, pH, CO2 partial pressure, and tempera- sion heaters. Heat transfer oil was preheated in a
ture.3 These parameters influence the corrosion separate tank using four 3.7-kW heaters and pumped
mechanism and, therefore, the resulting corrosion through the heating jacket of the storage tank. Liquid
rates. The corrosion products formed vary accord- was moved through this system by a SS variable
ingly. A lot of research has been done in understand- speed centrifugal pump. The flow was controlled within
ing the corrosion product film properties,5,8,10-12 a range of 0 to 100 m3/h with the variable speed
but so far, no information is available on the flow- pump in conjunction with a recycle stream. The flow
dependent change of properties of iron carbonate rate was controlled by an inline turbine meter.
(FeCO3) scales under multiphase wet gas corrosion A fresh gas feed line at 2 MPa pressure supplied
conditions. CO2 gas from a 20,000-kg storage tank. This line was
(1)
initially used to pressurize the system and for cali-
UNS numbers are listed in Metals and Alloys in the Unified Num-
bering System, published by the Society of Automotive Engineers bration purposes when the system was running with
(SAE International) and cosponsored by ASTM International. once-through gas. In normal operation, gas is con-

734 CORROSION—AUGUST 2003

 CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

tinuously circulated through the system at desired

speeds by a multiphase progressing cavity pump,
driven by a variable speed motor through a reduction
gear system. An exhaust line with a knock out drum
was used to vent gas from the system if required.
The test section was a 10-cm-diameter, 2-m-long
schedule 80 SS pipe, as shown in Figure 2. The two
pairs of ports at the top and at the bottom were used
to insert flush-mountable ER probes and coupon
holders for corrosion rate measurements. The pres-
sure tappings were connected to pressure transduc- FIGURE 2. Test section of the high-pressure flow loop: (A) void
ers and used for pressure drop measurements. The fraction port; (B) thermocouple port; (C) differential pressure tap;
differential transducer taps were set up 7.0 m apart (D) pH port; (E) corrosion probe insertion port.
on the bottom of the pipe in the test section. Ports for
insertion of a pH probe, the sampling tube, and the
thermocouple were provided accordingly. TABLE 1
Chemical Composition of the Carbon Steel (wt%)
Specimen Preparation C Si P S Mn Al Fe
In this study, circular coupons of hot-rolled
plain carbon steel(2) with a diameter of 11.6 mm and 0.21 0.38 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.01 Balance
a thickness of 3.1 mm were used for weight-loss
measurements. The chemical composition of the
carbon steel is given in Table 1.
The coupon holder was designed for insertion
of four flush-mounted coupons at the same time
(Figure 3). Prior to testing, the coupons were polished
by silicon carbide (SiC) paper up to 600 grit, then
rinsed with distilled water, degreased with acetone
(CH3COCH3), and air-dried. Finally, the coupons were
weighed and immediately introduced into the system.
The post-test cleaning procedure was performed
by rinsing the coupons with acetone to remove the
hydrocarbon phase, drying, and then storing them
for surface analysis. Afterward, the specimens were
pickled in inhibited 10% hydrochloric acid (HCl) for
removal of corrosion products, neutralized in alkali,
rinsed with distilled water and acetone, air-dried,
and weighed for mass-loss measurements.

Experimental Procedure
The test liquid consisted of deionized water and a
refined oil with a density of 800 kg/m3 and a viscos-
ity of 2 cp at 40°C, which served as the hydrocarbon
phase. The oil and water were mixed using a recycle
line back to the upper level of the tank during the
entire operation. The water cut in the pipe sent to the FIGURE 3. (a) Multiple coupon holder and (b) coupon holder probe.
test section was also monitored by withdrawing
samples of the test fluid. The flow rate of the recycle
stream was then adjusted accordingly to achieve the 10 ppm, respectively. The oxygen and iron levels
desired fluid composition. The system eventually were periodically monitored during testing.
contained 315 gal (1.2 m3) of test solution at 80% At the start of the experiments, the ER probes
water cut. The system was then deoxygenated by and coupon holders were flush-mounted into the test
once-through passing of CO2 at a low constant rate section. The system was pressurized to the desired
for about 4 h to 5 h. The levels of dissolved oxygen level and the liquid pump was turned on and ad-
and dissolved iron were controlled below 20 ppb and justed to the required level. Finally, the recirculating
(2)
gas pump was turned on to set the gas flow rate as
The carbon steel was given as 1018 steel (UNS G10180). How-
ever, the carbon content is a bit beyond the range of 1018, as required. For this work, the superficial liquid velocity
indicated in Table 1. (Vsl) of 0.05 m/s was used at superficial gas velocities

CORROSION—Vol. 59, No. 8 735

CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

FIGURE 4. A typical flow regime map for gas/oil/water three-phase FIGURE 5. Change of dial readings with time at the top of the pipe
flow in horizontal pipes.18 for Vsl = 0.05 m/s, T = 90°C, and P = 0.45 MPa.

corded by the differential pressure transducer during

each test. The average pressure drop in this work
was ~60 Pa/m at a pH of ~5.0.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Corrosion Rate at Elevated Temperature

Wet Gas Conditions
The raw data showing the time-dependent devel-
opment of the dial readings of the manual corro-
someter at Vsg of 15 m/s and 20 m/s are shown in
Figure 5 for the top of the pipe. Different slopes de-
veloping in different time-dependent stages demon-
strate the change of the corrosion rate with time.
Based on this raw data, the change of corrosion rates
FIGURE 6. Change of corrosion rate with time at Vsl = 0.05 m/s, can be plotted according to Figure 6.
T = 90°C, and P = 0.45 MPa. Figure 6 shows the change of the corrosion rate
with exposure time for both top and bottom of the
pipe at 0.45 MPa, 90°C, and the Vsl of 0.05 m/s. It
(Vsg) of 15 m/s and 20 m/s at a pressure of 0.45 MPa appears that for all test conditions the corrosion
and a temperature of 90°C. At these conditions, the rates advanced in three stages that represent three
flow regime is in annular flow according to the earlier different phases of the scale forming process. First,
work (Figure 4).18 The gas/liquid mixture enters the the corrosion rates decreased exponentially for ~25 h.
test section where the corrosion measurements are This represents the corrosion product film formation
performed and is then returned to the storage tank process as previously suggested in the literature.6-7,10
where the mixture is separated. After separation, the It is known that elevated temperature favors the film
gas is then fed to the recirculating pump. formation and protective films form more easily,
ER probes were used with an automatic data log- which consequently reduce the corrosion rate in the
ging system for recording the trend. At the same second stage.
time, a manual corrosometer was used for checking The second stage was characterized by a rather
the accuracy of the data. After 100 h, the liquid and slow further decrease of the corrosion rate up to
gas pump were shut down and the system was de- ~50 h exposure time. As a result of the corrosion
pressurized gradually to 15 psig (0.2 MPa) within half product film built-up in the first stage, a higher cor-
an hour. The ER probes and the coupon holders were rosion resistance of the steel was met by the barrier
then removed from the test section. The coupons properties of the corrosion product scale. Conse-
were rinsed with acetone immediately after removal quently, smaller corrosion rates were observed within
from the test section. The pressure drops were re- this time interval.

736 CORROSION—AUGUST 2003

 CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

After ~50 h, the corrosion rates remained almost

constant at a comparably low level of up to 0.5 mm/y
at the beginning of the third stage. This indicates
that the corrosion product films were very effective in
preventing the corrosion progress.
The results obtained are in a good agreement
with previous, yet unpublished, results.19 At elevated
temperature (90°C) and pressure (2.1 MPa) in ASTM
saltwater/hydrocarbon phase under full pipe flow, it
was found that the corrosion product film became
more compact after longer exposure times. After 10 h,
the growth of the film tended to be stable. This im-
plies a highly intensive scale growth with a decrease
of the film porosity during the first 10 h of exposure
and an equilibrium behavior afterward. It is reason- FIGURE 7. Average corrosion rate from coupon weight-loss
able that the stabilization process of the corrosion measurement at Vsl = 0.05 m/s, T = 90°C, and P = 0.45 MPa.
product film takes more time under annular flow
conditions of this work with a highly increased flow
intensity compared to the results of full pipe flow. 15 m/s and 20 m/s showed a nonuniform distribu-
Figure 7 shows the average corrosion rates ob- tion of corrosion products.
tained from coupon weight-loss measurements for all SEM analysis was used for comparison purposes
test conditions applied. Three coupons were weighed on all coupons, using the same magnification. Figure
after scale removal for each test. The columns repre- 8 shows the SEM images for the corrosion coupons
sent the average value for each test condition while at all test conditions, showing some common fea-
the error bars indicate the highest and lowest values tures among the coupons. The most common charac-
among the three measurements. The results confirm teristic was the presence of crystals in all cases
the ER corrosion rate measurements (Figure 6), (white and light-gray-appearing areas in Figure 8). It
showing comparable corrosion rates at the bottom was confirmed that FeCO3 was the predominant
for 15 m/s Vsg and 20 m/s Vsg, and slightly increased product formed under the present test conditions by
values for the top of the pipe. XRD and XPS analyses as shown below. It is reported
in the literature12 that FeCO3 is stable and does not
Surface Analysis alter its structure with extended exposure to dry air
It can be noticed from both Figures 6 and 7 that when it is in the ripened form. Therefore, no further
for both test conditions the corrosion rate at the top precautions were taken when removing the speci-
is slightly increased compared to the bottom corro- mens from the flow loop after the tests.
sion rate. This was caused by the different liquid film Figures 8(a) and (b) show the SEM micrographs
thickness and velocities in horizontal annular flow, for the bottom and top coupons at 15 m/s Vsg. Com-
which resulted in the growth of FeCO3 scales with pared with the crystals formed on the top coupon
different scale properties on the top and bottom of (~3 µm to 4 µm), a smaller average crystal size (~1 µm
the pipe. The effect of the flow intensity on the prop- to 2 µ m) can be observed at the bottom, yielding a
erties and morphology of the corrosion product more compact scale structure with decreased poros-
scales formed under the conditions tested was inves- ity. In horizontal annular flow with very low liquid
tigated by surface analysis. Scanning electron mi- content (0.05 m/s), the liquid film will always cover
croscopy (SEM) and metallurgical microscopy (MM) the bottom of the pipe while the top of the pipe may
were applied to examine the surface morphology. The not get a continuous film all the time. In addition,
powerful structure and composition identification the liquid film thickness at the bottom is increased
tools, x-ray diffraction (XRD) and x-ray photoelectron compared to the top due to gravitational effects, re-
spectroscopy (XPS), were used to characterize the sulting in a lower local film velocity at the bottom of
scale composition. the pipe. Consequently, a more uniform corrosion
Visual examination of the ER probes and the test product film formation and growth at the pipe bottom
coupons after each test revealed that the surfaces is facilitated.
were completely covered with dark-grey, almost black The effect of an enhanced gas velocity of 20 m/s
corrosion products. Only the bottom coupons, cor- on the scale morphology as shown in Figures 8(c)
roded at a superficial gas velocity of 15 m/s, showed and (d) indicates that the topography of the FeCO3
uniformly distributed corrosion products. For the film formed on the top coupon becomes more un-
coupons at the bottom of the pipe, at 20 m/s Vsg, the even. The scale morphology at the bottom exhibits
surface topography exhibited characteristic plateaus different plateaus. The raised areas patch together
of different heights. The top of the coupons for both and show a higher porosity and increased surface

CORROSION—Vol. 59, No. 8 737

CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

FIGURE 8. SEM micrographs for coupons at Vsl = 0.05 m/s, T = 90°C, and P = 0.45 MPa. (a) Vsg = 15 m/s bottom;
(b) Vsg = 15 m/s top; (c) Vsg = 20 m/s bottom; (d) Vsg = 20 m/s top.

roughness. The lower plateaus are smoother and x-ray into the metal substrate, which means the film
appear to be topotactically grown. is <30 µ m in thickness, porous, or nonuniform.8 The
These results are in accordance with observations bottom coupon’s XRD spectrum (Figure 9 [b]) for the
reported in the literature.1,8 At comparable tempera- same test conditions revealed only the high-intensity
tures, the scales formed in a CO2 environment were iron peaks at 2θ of 44.6 and 65.2 degrees. The FeCO3
usually thin (<30 µ m), compact, and highly adherent, peaks almost disappeared and remained at a very
which was always related to a pronounced reduction low level. This is because the film is much thinner
of the corrosion rate.8 Once protective scales form at and it presumably consists of some noncrystalline
temperatures ~80°C, they appear very robust and components. Further examination by XPS was ap-
resistive even under severe flow conditions.1 plied on this coupon because XPS can provide ele-
In Figures 9 through 11, the results of the sur- ment and chemical state identification for atoms
face analysis investigations are presented. Figure 9(a) located at the top atomic layers of the sample investi-
shows the XRD spectrum for the top coupon cor- gated.20 Figure 10 shows Fe 2p, O 1s, and C 1s peaks
roded under 0.45 MPa CO2 at 90°C, 20 m/s Vsg, and in the XPS spectrum. The atomic ratio of Fe and O
0.05 m/s Vsl. It shows both iron (Fe) and iron carbon- was found to be about 1:3, the carbon content was
ate (FeCO3) peaks at their corresponding characteris- comparably high, most probably due to an insuffi-
tic Bragg’s angles, 2θ. The high-intensity peaks for cient removal of the hydrocarbon phase, resulting in
FeCO3 appear at 2θ of 32.05, 52.87, 46.28, 24.77, some carbon contamination of the surface of the cor-
42.39, 38.42 degrees, which indicates that FeCO3 is rosion product scale.
the corrosion product formed on the metal surface. The stability and therefore the protection of cor-
The Fe peaks are the result of the penetration of the rosion product scales strongly depends on their me-

738 CORROSION—AUGUST 2003

 CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

chanical properties and on the scale thickness.13-14

Thin, compact scales exhibit much higher resistance
against flow-induced corrosion attack than thick,
porous scales. Figure 11 shows that the FeCO3 scale
thickness for both top and bottom is <10 µ m for
15 m/s and 20 m/s Vsg, and in some areas, even as
low as ~1 µ m. The scale exhibits a good adherence to
the metal substrate and shows a low porosity, which
are the preconditions for a high protectivity. No indi-
cations for the initiation of FILC were found for the
test conditions investigated. Thus, the observed cor-
rosion rates were low. A slightly higher degree of
roughness at a Vsg of 20 m/s possibly increased the
risk for the initiation of FILC at extended exposure
times, which is intended to be confirmed by further
experimental work.
(a)
CONCLUSIONS
❖ In experiments with horizontal annular flow under
wet gas CO2 corrosion of plain carbon steel in a
deionized water/hydrocarbon mixture (80:20 vol%) at
Vsg of 15 m/s and 20 m/s and a Vsl of 0.05 m/s at
90°C, the average corrosion rate varied between
0.4 mm/y and 0.7 mm/y after 100 h exposure, de-
pendent on the gas flow rate and on the position in
the pipe. The general corrosion rates recorded by ER
probes advanced in three stages, showing an expo-
nential decay corresponding to the film forming pro-
cess. The corrosion rate at the top of the pipe was
slightly increased compared to the bottom of the pipe
at horizontal wet gas flow as a result of the local dif-
ference of the liquid film thickness in horizontal an-
nular flow regime, which resulted in the reduction of
(b)
the protectivity of the FeCO3 corrosion product scales
formed at the top of the pipe. The formation of thin FIGURE 9 (a). XRD results for (a) top and (b) bottom of the pipe at
(<10 µ m), protective FeCO3 layers was responsible for Vsl = 0.05 m/s, Vsg = 20 m/s, T = 90°C, and P = 0.45 MPa.
comparably low corrosion rates and protection from
FILC, even at higher gas transportation capacities.
The presence of a hydrocarbon phase exhibited a
favorable effect even in non-inhibited, wet gas trans-
portation systems, allowing acceptable gas flow rates
when annular flow was maintained.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the Institute for Corro-
sion and Multiphase Technology at Ohio University
and its member companies for the financial support
of this research; M. Kordesch and D. Ingram in the
Physics Department at Ohio University for helpful
discussions about XRD analysis and XPS studies;
and S. Nesic for helpful discussions.

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CORROSION—Vol. 59, No. 8 739

CORROSION ENGINEERING SECTION

FIGURE 11. Cross sections for coupons at Vsl = 0.05 m/s, T = 90°C, and P = 0.45 MPa. (a) Vsg = 15 m/s bottom;
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740 CORROSION—AUGUST 2003