The management of construction projects requires knowledge of modern management as well as an

understanding of the design and construction process. Construction projects have a specific set of
objectives and constraints such as a required time frame for completion.

Project management is the art of directing and coordinating human and material resources throughout
the life of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve predetermined objectives of
scope, cost, time, quality and participation satisfaction.

From the responses of six contractors, the key factors cited for successful projects are:

 well defined scope

 extensive early planning

 good leadership, management and first line supervision

 positive client relationship with client involvement

 proper project team chemistry

 quick response to changes

 engineering managers concerned with the total project, not just the engineering elements.

Conversely, the key factors cited for unsuccessful projects are:

 ill-defined scope

 poor management

 poor planning

 breakdown in communication between engineering and construction

 unrealistic scope, schedules and budgets

 many changes at various stages of progress

 lack of good project control

The functions of project management for construction generally include the following:

1. Specification of project objectives and plans including delineation of scope, budgeting,

scheduling, setting performance requirements, and selecting project participants.

2. Maximization of efficient resource utilization through procurement of labor, materials and

equipment according to the prescribed schedule and plan.
 3. Implementation of various operations through proper coordination and control of planning,
design, estimating, contracting and construction in the entire process.

4. Development of effective communications and mechanisms for resolving conflicts among the
various participants.

The Project Management Institute focuses on nine distinct areas requiring project manager knowledge
and attention:

1. Project integration management to ensure that the various project elements are effectively
coordinated.

2. Project scope management to ensure that all the work required (and only the required work) is
included.

3. Project time management to provide an effective project schedule.

4. Project cost management to identify needed resources and maintain budget control.

5. Project quality management to ensure functional requirements are met.

6. Project human resource management to development and effectively employ project personnel.

7. Project communications management to ensure effective internal and external communications.

8. Project risk management to analyze and mitigate potential risks.

9. Project procurement management to obtain necessary resources from external sources

The Design and Construction Process

In the planning of facilities, it is important to recognize the close relationship between design and
construction. These processes can best be viewed as an integrated system. Broadly speaking, design is a
process of creating the description of a new facility, usually represented by detailed plans and
specifications; construction planning is a process of identifying activities and resources required to make
the design a physical reality. Hence, construction is the implementation of a design envisioned by
architects and engineers. In both design and construction, numerous operational tasks must be
performed with a variety of precedence and other relationships among the different tasks.

Labor, Material and Equipment Utilization

Good project management in construction must vigorously pursue the efficient utilization of labor,
material and equipment. Improvement of labor productivity should be a major and continual concern of
those who are responsible for cost control of constructed facilities. Material handling, which includes
procurement, inventory, shop fabrication and field servicing, requires special attention for cost
reduction. The use of new equipment and innovative methods has made possible wholesale changes in
construction technologies in recent decades. Organizations which do not recognize the impact of various
innovations and have not adapted to changing environments have justifiably been forced out of the
mainstream of construction activities.

Labor Productivity

Productivity in construction is often broadly defined as output per labor hour. Since labor constitutes a
large part of the construction cost and the quantity of labor hours in performing a task in construction is
more susceptible to the influence of management than are materials or capital, this productivity
measure is often referred to as labor productivity. However, it is important to note that labor
productivity is a measure of the overall effectiveness of an operating system in utilizing labor,
equipment and capital to convert labor efforts into useful output, and is not a measure of the
capabilities of labor alone. For example, by investing in a piece of new equipment to perform certain
tasks in construction, output may be increased for the same number of labor hours, thus resulting in
higher labor productivity.

Factors Affecting Job-Site Productivity

Job-site productivity is influenced by many factors which can be characterized either as labor
characteristics, project work conditions or as non-productive activities. The labor characteristics include:

 age, skill and experience of workforce

 leadership and motivation of workforce

The project work conditions include among other factors:

 Job size and complexity.

 Job site accessibility.

 Labor availability.

 Equipment utilization.

 Contractual agreements.

 Local climate.

 Local cultural characteristics, particularly in foreign operations.

The non-productive activities associated with a project may or may not be paid by the owner, but they
nevertheless take up potential labor resources which can otherwise be directed to the project. The non-
productive activities include among other factors:

 Indirect labor required to maintain the progress of the project

 Rework for correcting unsatisfactory work

 Temporary work stoppage due to inclement weather or material shortage

 Time off for union activities

 Absentee time, including late start and early quits

 Non-working holidays

 Strikes

Each category of factors affects the productive labor available to a project as well as the on-site labor
efficiency.

Labor Characteristics

Performance analysis is a common tool for assessing worker quality and contribution. Factors that might
be evaluated include:

 Quality of Work - caliber of work produced or accomplished.

 Quantity of Work - volume of acceptable work

 Job Knowledge - demonstrated knowledge of requirements, methods, techniques and skills

involved in doing the job and in applying these to increase productivity.

 Related Work Knowledge - knowledge of effects of work upon other areas and knowledge of
related areas which have influence on assigned work.

 Judgment - soundness of conclusions, decisions and actions.

 Initiative - ability to take effective action without being told.

 Resource Utilization - ability to delineate project needs and locate, plan and effectively use all
resources available.

 Dependability - reliability in assuming and carrying out commitments and obligations.

 Analytical Ability - effectiveness in thinking through a problem and reaching sound conclusions.
  Communicative Ability - effectiveness in using orgal and written communications and in keeping
subordinates, associates, superiors and others adequately informed.

 Interpersonal Skills - effectiveness in relating in an appropriate and productive manner to

others.

 Ability to Work Under Pressure - ability to meet tight deadlines and adapt to changes.

 Security Sensitivity - ability to handle confidential information appropriately and to exercise care
in safeguarding sensitive information.

 Safety Consciousness - has knowledge of good safety practices and demonstrates awareness of
own personal safety and the safety of others.

 Profit and Cost Sensitivity - ability to seek out, generate and implement profit-making ideas.

 Planning Effectiveness - ability to anticipate needs, forecast conditions, set goals and standards,
plan and schedule work and measure results.

 Leadership - ability to develop in others the willingenss and desire to work towards common
objectives.

 Delegating - effectiveness in delegating work appropriately.

 Development People - ability to select, train and appraise personnel, set standards of
performance, and provide motivation to grow in their capacity. < li>Diversity (Equal Employment
Opportunity) - ability to be senstive to the needs of minorities, females and other protected
groups and to demonstrate affirmative action in responding to these needs.

Materials Management

Materials management is an important element in project planning and control. Materials represent a
major expense in construction, so minimizing procurement or purchase costs presents important
opportunities for reducing costs. Poor materials management can also result in large and avoidable costs
during construction. First, if materials are purchased early, capital may be tied up and interest charges
incurred on the excess inventory of materials. Even worse, materials may deteriorate during storage or
be stolen unless special care is taken. For example, electrical equipment often must be stored in
waterproof locations. Second, delays and extra expenses may be incurred if materials required for
particular activities are not available. Accordingly, insuring a timely flow of material is an important
concern of project managers.

Construction Equipment

The selection of the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often affects the required
amount of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity of a project. It is therefore important for
site managers and construction planners to be familiar with the characteristics of the major types of
equipment most commonly used in construction.

In order to increase job-site productivity, it is beneficial to select equipment with proper characteristics
and a size most suitable for the work conditions at a construction site. In excavation for building
construction, for examples, factors that could affect the selection of excavators include:

1. Size of the job: Larger volumes of excavation will require larger excavators, or smaller
excavators in greater number.

2. Activity time constraints: Shortage of time for excavation may force contractors to increase the
size or numbers of equipment for activities related to excavation.

3. Availability of equipment: Productivity of excavation activities will diminish if the equipment

used to perform them is available but not the most adequate.

4. Cost of transportation of equipment: This cost depends on the size of the job, the distance of
transportation, and the means of transportation.

5. Type of excavation: Principal types of excavation in building projects are cut and/or fill,
excavation massive, and excavation for the elements of foundation. The most adequate
equipment to perform one of these activities is not the most adequate to perform the others.

6. Soil characteristics: The type and condition of the soil is important when choosing the most
adequate equipment since each piece of equipment has different outputs for different soils.
Moreover, one excavation pit could have different soils at different stratums.

7. Geometric characteristics of elements to be excavated: Functional characteristics of different

types of equipment makes such considerations necessary.

8. Space constraints: The performance of equipment is influenced by the spatial limitations for the
movement of excavators.

9. Characteristics of haul units: The size of an excavator will depend on the haul units if there is a
constraint on the size and/or number of these units.

10. Location of dumping areas: The distance between the construction site and dumping areas
could be relevant not only for selecting the type and number of haulers, but also the type of
excavators.

11. Weather and temperature: Rain, snow and severe temperature conditions affect the job-site
productivity of labor and equipment.
Dump trucks are usually used as haulers for excavated materials as they can move freely with relatively
high speeds on city streets as well as on highways.

The cycle capacity C of a piece of equipment is defined as the number of output units per cycle of
operation under standard work conditions. The capacity is a function of the output units used in the
measurement as well as the size of the equipment and the material to be processed. The cycle time T
refers to units of time per cycle of operation. The standard production rate R of a piece of construction
equipment is defined as the number of output units per unit time. Hence:

4.4

or

4.5

The daily standard production rate Pe of an excavator can be obtained by multiplying its standard
production rate Re by the number of operating hours He per day. Thus:

4.6

where Ce and Te are cycle capacity (in units of volume) and cycle time (in hours) of the excavator
respectively.

In determining the daily standard production rate of a hauler, it is necessary to determine first the cycle
time from the distance D to a dump site and the average speed S of the hauler. Let T t be the travel time
for the round trip to the dump site, T o be the loading time and Td be the dumping time. Then the travel
time for the round trip is given by:

4.7

The loading time is related to the cycle time of the excavator T e and the relative capacities Ch and Ce of
the hauler and the excavator respectively. In the optimum or standard case:

4.8

For a given dumping time Td, the cycle time Th of the hauler is given by:
4.9

The daily standard production rate Ph of a hauler can be obtained by multiplying its standard production
rate Rh by the number of operating hours H h per day. Hence:

4.10

This expression assumes that haulers begin loading as soon as they return from the dump site.

The number of haulers required is also of interest. Let w denote the swell factor of the soil such that wP e
denotes the daily volume of loose excavated materials resulting from the excavation volume P e. Then
the approximate number of haulers required to dispose of the excavated materials is given by:

4.11

While the standard production rate of a piece of equipment is based on "standard" or ideal conditions,
equipment productivities at job sites are influenced by actual work conditions and a variety of
inefficiencies and work stoppages. As one example, various factor adjustments can be used to account in
a approximate fashion for actual site conditions. If the conditions that lower the standard production
rate are denoted by n factors F1, F2, ..., Fn, each of which is smaller than 1, then the actual equipment
productivity R' at the job site can be related to the standard production rate R as follows:

4.12

On the other hand, the cycle time T' at the job site will be increased by these factors, reflecting actual
work conditions. If only these factors are involved, T' is related to the standard cycle time T as:

4.13

Each of these various adjustment factors must be determined from experience or observation of job
sites. For example, a bulk composition factor is derived for bulk excavation in building construction
because the standard production rate for general bulk excavation is reduced when an excavator is used
to create a ramp to reach the bottom of the bulk and to open up a space in the bulk to accommodate
the hauler.

In addition to the problem of estimating the various factors, F 1, F2, ..., Fn, it may also be important to
account for interactions among the factors and the exact influence of particular site characteristics.
Example 4-9: Daily standard production rate of a power shovel

A power shovel with a dipper of one cubic yard capacity has a standard operating cycle time of 30
seconds. Find the daily standard production rate of the shovel.

For Ce = 1 cu. yd., Te = 30 sec. and He = 8 hours, the daily standard production rate is found from Eq. (4.6)
as follows:

In practice, of course, this standard rate would be modified to reflect various production inefficiencies,
as described in Example 4-11.

Example 4-10: Daily standard production rate of a dump truck

A dump truck with a capacity of 6 cubic yards is used to dispose of excavated materials at a dump site 4
miles away. The average speed of the dump truck is 30 mph and the dumping time is 30 seconds. Find
the daily standard production rate of the truck. If a fleet of dump trucks of this capacity is used to
dispose of the excavated materials in Example 4-9 for 8 hours per day, determine the number of trucks
needed daily, assuming a swell factor of 1.1 for the soil.

The daily standard production rate of a dump truck can be obtained by using Equations (4.7) through
(4.10):

Hence, the daily hauler productivity is:

Finally, from Equation (4.12), the number of trucks required is:

implying that 8 trucks should be used.

Example 4-11: Job site productivity of a power shovel

A power shovel with a dipper of one cubic yard capacity (in Example 4-9) has a standard production rate
of 960 cubic yards for an 8-hour day. Determine the job site productivity and the actual cycle time of this
shovel under the work conditions at the site that affects its productivity as shown below:

Work Conditions at the Site   Factors

Bulk composition 0.954

Soil properties and water content 0.983

Equipment idle time for worker breaks 0.8

Management efficiency 0.7

Using Equation (4.11), the job site productivity of the power shovel per day is given by:

The actual cycle time can be determined as follows:

Noting Equation (4.6), the actual cycle time can also be obtained from the relation T' e = (CeHe)/P'e. Thus:

Example 4-12: Job site productivity of a dump truck

A dump truck with a capacity of 6 cubic yards (in Example 4-10) is used to dispose of excavated
materials. The distance from the dump site is 4 miles and the average speed of the dump truck is 30
mph. The job site productivity of the power shovel per day (in Example 4-11) is 504 cubic yards, which
will be modified by a swell factor of 1.1. The only factors affecting the job site productivity of the dump
truck in addition to those affecting the power shovel are 0.80 for equipment idle time and 0.70 for
management efficiency. Determine the job site productivity of the dump truck. If a fleet of such trucks is
used to haul the excavated material, find the number of trucks needed daily.

The actual cycle time T'h of the dump truck can be obtained by summing the actual times for traveling,
loading and dumping:

Hence, the actual cycle time is:

The jobsite productivity P'h of the dump truck per day is:

The number of trucks needed daily is:

so 8 trucks are required.

1. Specification of project, objectives and plans including delineation of scope, budgeting,

scheduling, setting performance requirements, and selecting project participants is one
of the most important functions of CPM. How these functions are performed and
prepared?
2. The construction of any project requires time to complete. What are the important
reasons why we consider time planning in project execution very important?
3. A concrete lined canal is to be constructed with a length of 1 km. determine the items of
work and the corresponding activities.
4. In the above problem, the total excavation volume is 1300 cu.m.. determine the
duration using normal excavation. Make your own assumptions.