An Assessment of Stirling Engine Potential

in Total and Integrated Energy Systems

T. J.Marciniak, J. C. Bratis,
A. Davis, and C. Lee

ENERGY RESOURCE
APPLICATIONS GROUP
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS DIVISION
r
ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY
OPERATED FOR THE U. S; DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
UNDER CONTRACT W-31-109-ENG-38
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AN.ASSESSMENT OF STIRLING ENGINE POTENTIAL

IN TOTAL AND INTEGRATED ENERGY SYSTEMS

T.J. Marciniak, J.C. Bratis, A. Davis, and C. Lee

Energy and Environmental Systems Division

February 1979

Work Sponsored by

.
U ,S DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
' .

Assistant Secretary for Energy Technology

Fossil Fuel Utilization Divisiou ,
 T H I S PAGE
WAS INTENTIONALLY
LEFT BLANK
 PREFACE

This report is the first in a series on advanced heat engine concepts

for use in the residential/commercial/institutional sector. This work is-
sponsored by the Heat Engines.Branch of the Fossil Fuel Utilization. (FFU)
Division of the Department of Energy as part of the Total Energy Technology
Alternatives Studies (TETAS) program. The TETAS program is a joint effort
between the Energy and Environmental Systems (EES) ,Division and the Components
Technology (CT) Division at Argonne. The systems analysis work is performed
in EES while the detailed technology work is the responsibility of CT. ,
 TABLE OF CONTENTS '

Page

ABSTRACT ................................................................. xiii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................

1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................

2 . TOTAL AND INTEGRATED ENERGY SYSTEMS ..............................

2.1 BACKGROUND .................................................

2.2 PRIME-MOVER CHARACTERISTICS ................................
2.3 FUTURE MARKET DEVELOPMENT ..................................
.

3 . STIRLING'ENGINES.................................................

3.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND ........................................

3.2 ATTRIBUTES .................................................
3.3 ENERGY SYSTEM APPLICATIONS ................................
3.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS................................
3.5 COSTS .....................................................

4 . ALTERNATIVE PRIME-MOVERS .........................................

4.1 GENERAL ....................................................

4.2 DIESEL ENGINES ............................................

4.2.l C u r r e n t S t a t u s .....................................
4.2.2 . Performance ........................................
4 . 2 . 3 C o s t s ..............................................
4 . 2 . 4 F u t u r e Development .................................

4 . 3 GAS TURBINES .............................................. 41

4 . 3 . 1 C u r r e n t S t a t u s ...................................... 41
4 . 3 . 2 Performance ........................................ 41
4.3.3 C o s t s .............................................. 43
4.3.4 F u t u r e Development ................................. 43

5 . COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVE PKIME-MOVERS ........................... 45

B
5.1 PERFORMANCE ............................................... 45

5.1.1 Thermal E f f i c i e n c y ..................................

5.1.2 .Fuel F l e x i b i l i t y ...................................
5 . 1 . 3 Emissions ...........................................
5.1.4 Noise and V i b r a t i o n .................................
5.1.5 Advantages o f t h e S t i r l i n g Engine ..................

COST AND ECONOMICS .......................................

5.2.1 F i r s t .Generation S t i r l i n g ~ n ~ i ..................
n e
5.2.2' Second Generation S t i r l i n g Engines ................
 TABLE 'o@.CONTENTS ' Ccont ' d >
Page

6 . TOTAL ENERGY SYSTEMS ANALYSIS ...................................

6.1 COMMUNITY DESCRIPTION ....................................
6.2 ENERGY LOAD ................................................
6.3 METHODOLOGY ..............................................

6 . 3 . 1 D e s i g n .............................................
6 . 9 . 2 Cost A n a l y s i s ......................................

6.4 DIESEL ENGINE BASED SYSTEMS ...............................

6 . 4 . 1 Diesel-Rased System w i t h Design O p t i o n A ..........

6.6.2. Diccel-Based Systeul w i t h Design Option H ..........
.6 . 5 GAS TURBINE BASED SYSTEMS .................................
6 . 5 . 1 Gas-Turbine-Based S y s t e m ' w i t h O p t i o n A ............
6.5.2 Gas-Turbine-Based System w i t h O p t i o n B ............

6.6 CURRENT STIRLING ENGINE BASED SYSTEMS .................... 77

6.7 ADVANCED STIRLING ENGINE BASED SYSTEMS ................... 83

6.7.1 Advanced S t i r l i n g - E n g i n e - B a s e d System w i t h Design

...........................................
Option A 83
6.7.2 Advanced S t i r l i n g - E n g i n e - B a s e d
System w i t h Design
..........................................
Option B 84

6.8 CONVENTIONAL. SI'BTEM ....................................... 86

6.9 SYSTEM PERFORMANCE AND COST COMPARISONS .................. BY

7 . DEVELOPMENT GOALS ............................................... 97

7 . 1 GENERAL .................................................. 97
7 . 2 AUTOMOTIVE VS . STATIONARY STIRLING DEVELOPMENT ........... 98
7.3 SPECIFIC TECHNICAL DEVELOPMNT AREAS ..................... 98
7.4 OVEWL ENGINE DEVELOPMENT GOALS ......................... 100

8 . DEVELOPMENTAL LJKOCRIIM .......................................as.. 101

8.1 DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ...................................... 101

8.2 ENGINE DESIGN AND DEMONSTRATIONS ... ...................... 102

8 . 2 . 1 C o n c e p t u a l Engine D e s i g n s ......................... 103

8.2.2 P r e l i m i n a r y Engine D e s i g n s ........................ 103
8 . 2 . 3 F i n a l Engine D e s i g n s and Engine F a b r i c a t i o n ....... 103
8 . 2 . 4 T e s t i n g and D e m o n s t r a t i o n .......................... 104

REFERENCES ........................................................... 105

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................... 108
APPENDIX A ........................................................... 109
APPENDIX B .......................................................... 117
 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Total Energy Systems Installed in the U.S. and Canada (1974) ..... 12
Number and Size of Total Energy Installations in the U.S. (1974) . 14
Reciprocating Engine Installations Versus Number of
Prime-Movers Per Installations ................................... 15
Number of Reciprocation Prime-Movers Per Installation as a
Function of System Electrical Capacity............................ 16
Average Prime-Mover Size Vs Plant Electrical Capacity ............ 17
Integrated Energy Systems Concepts and Size Ranges ............... 18
Stirling ~ngine/HeatRecovery Options ............................ 26
Combined ~ower/HeatingEnergy System Using a Stirling Engine ..... 28
Combined ~ower/AirConditioning Energy Using a Stirling Engine ... 29
Availability of Waste Heat from Engine Options .................... 30
Stirling Engine Heat Balance with 80°F Cooling Water
Temperatures..................................................... 31
Stirling Engine Heat Balance with 120'~ Cooling Water
Temperature...................................................... 32
Generalized Stirling Engine Heat Balance ......................... 32
Effect of Heater Head Temperature on Power and Efficiency in
Stirling Engines . (courtesy United stirling) ..................... 33
Effect of Cooling Water Temperature on Power and Efficiency . ' .
in a Stirling Engine. (courtesy United Stirling) ................ 33
Size Distribution of Oil and Gas Engine Installations
Reported in 1968. 1973. and 1975 Surveys ......................... 36
Energy Distribution Diagram for a Diesel Engine . ................ 37
Lnw-Speed Diesel Heat Balance ..................................... 38
Heat Balance of Simple Cycle Gas Turbines ........................ 41
Heat Balance of Regenerative-Cycle Gas Turbines .................. 42
Comparison of First-Generation Stirling Engine to Current
Diesel Generation Costs (1000 kW) ................................ 53
Comparison uf Electrical Generation Costs of First-Generation
Stirling Engines and Advanced Adiabatic Tnrbo Compound
................................................
Engines (1000 k ~ ) 54
Comparison of Electric Generation Costs of First-Generation
Stirling Engines and Simple and Regenerative Gas Turbines
(1000 kw)......................................................... 55
Comparison of Electrical Generation Costs of Second Gelleration
....................
Stirling Engines and Diesel Engines (1000 k ~ ) 56
 viii

LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)

No.
- Page
5.5 Comparison of E l e c t r i c a l G e n e r a t i o n C o s t s of Second Genera-
t i o n S t i r l i n g Engines and Gas T u r b i n e s (1000 k ~ ) .................
6.1 Fox V a l l e y V i l l a g e s S i t e P l a n .....................................
6.2 Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and H e a t i n g Demand P r o f i l e of t h e Fox V a l l e y
C e n t e r f o r t h e Winter Design Day .................................
6.3 Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and Cooling Demand P r o f i l e of t h e Fox V a l l e y
C e n t e r f o r t h e Summer Design Day .................................
1
6.4 Schematic Diagram o f t h e Diesel-Based System with Design
Option A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 V a r i a t i o n o f Peak and Average Values of Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c ,
H e a t i n g , and Cooling Demand f o r t h e Fox. V a l l e y C e n t e r ............
6.6 V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values of t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g , and
of t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e
~ b s o t ~ t i oCnh i l l e r Dcli~~nd
D i e s e l Based System w i t h Design Option A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7 Schematic Diagram o f t h e D i e s e l Based Sys'tem w i t h Design
Option B ..........................................................
6.8 V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values of t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g , and
Cooling Demand of t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e D i e s e l
Based System w i t h Design Option B . . ..............................
6.9 Schematic Diagram of t h e Gas T u r b i n e Based System w i t h Design
Option A . . . . . . ...................................................
6.10 V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values of t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g , and
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r Demand of t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e
G a s T u r b i n e Boocd S y s t e m w i t h Design Option A . . . .................
6 . 1 1 Scl-lemacic Diagrnm n f t h Gas
~ T u r b i n e Based System wit11
Design O p t i o n B . .................................................
6.12 V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values of t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g , and Cooling
Demand of t h e Fox G a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e Gas T u r b i n e Based
System w i t h Design Option B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 . 1 3 Schematic Diagram o f t h e F i r s t and Second G e n e r a t i o n S t i r l i n g
Based System w i t h Design O p t i o n A . . . .............................
6.14 V a r i a t i o n o f Peak Values of t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g , and
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r Demand o f t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e
F i r s t - and Second-Generatio11 C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g System w i t h
Design O p t i o n A . . . ...............................................
6.15 Schematic Diagram o f t h e F i r s t - and Second-Generation Stirling
Based System w i t h Design O p t i o n B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............
6.16 V a r i a t i o n o f ~ e a k ' v a l u e sof t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g , and Cooling
Demand o f t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e F i r s t - and Second-
G e n e r a t i o n C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g System w i t h Design Option B . . ........
 LIST- OF FIGURES' ( ~ o n ' td l

-
No. Page
6.17 . V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values of t h e E l e c t r i c ' , . H e a t i n g , . and
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r Demand of t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e .
F i r s t - and Second-Generation, Advanced S t . i r l i n g System w i t h
Design Option A . . . . . . . . . . .......................................... 84
6.18 V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values of E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g , and Cooling
Demand o f t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e F i r s t - and Second-
.....
G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g System w i t h Design O p t i o n B . . . 861
8.1 O v e r a l l Large S t i r l i n g Engine Development Program.>.......-........ 101
 LIST OF TABLES
No.
-
ES-1 Nominal Heat Balance o f Prime-Movers a s a P e r c e n t a g e of
Fuel Input ..................................................... 3
ES-2 Summary of E l e c t r i c a l G e n e r a t i o n Cost f o r V a r i o u s Engine
O p t i o n s Vs F i r s t - G e n e r a t i o n S t i r l i n g............................ 4
ES-3 Summary of E l e c t r i c a l G e n e r a t i o n C o s t s f o r V a r i o u s Engine
O p t i o n s V s t h e Second G e n e r a t i o n , Coal Burning, S t i r l i n g
Engine......................................................... 4
2.1 Engine Type Used i n T o t a l Energy System (1974) ................. 13
4.1 Nominal Gas T u r b i n e Heat Balances. ............................. 42
5.1 Nominal Heat Balances of Prime-Movers a s a P e r c e n t a g e of
Fuel Input....................................................... 46
5.2 Comparison of Prime-Mover Options .............................. 49
5.3 Summary o f E l e c t r i c a l G e n e r a t i o n C o s t s f o r V a r i o u s Options a t
a F u e l Cost o f $ 3 1 1 0 ~ Btu (1,000 kW c a p a c i t y ) .................. 55
5.4 Summary o f E l e c t r i c a l G e n e r a t i o n C o s t s f o r V a r i o u s Options V s
Costs of Second-Generation S t i r l i n g Engi-ne ..................... 57
6.1 Fox V a l l e y V i l l a g e s Development ................................. 60
6.2 C o s t s of Diesel-Based T o t a l Energy Systems, O p t i o n A , f o r Fox
Valley Center .................................................. 66
6.3 Costs of ~ i e e e l - ~ n ~ i n e - ~ aTsoet da l Energy System, Option B ,
f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r . . . . . . . . ..................il....,....,.... 73
6.4 C o s t s of Gas-Turbine-Based T o t a l Energy' System, O p t i o n A ,
f o r Fox V a l l e y C a n t e r . . , . . . .................................... 75
6.5 C o s t s .of as-Turbine-~ased T o t a l Energy System, Option B ,
f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r . .......................................... 77
6.6 Costs o f F i r s t - G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g - E n g i n e Based
System, O p t i o n A , f o r t h e Fux Valloy Center. ................... 79
6.7 C o s t s o f Second G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t ' S t i r l i n g - E n g i n e Based
System, O p t i o n A , fnr t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r .................... 80
6.8 C o s t s o f F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t Stirling-Engine-Based
System, O p t i o n B , f o r t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r . . . . . ............... 82
6.9 C o s t s o f Second G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Eogine-Based
. System, O p t i o n B , f o r t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r . ................... 83
6.10 C o s t s o f F i r s t - G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced Stirli-ng-Engine-Based
System, O p t i o n A , f o r t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r . . . . . . . . ............ 85
6.11 C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, O p t i o n A , f o r t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r . ................... 85
6.12 C o s t s of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced Stirling-Engine-Based
System, O p t i o n B , f o r t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r . ................... 87
 LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)
No. Page .

6.13 costs of Second Generation, Advanced Stirling-Engine-Based

System, Option B, for the Fox Valley Center.. .................. 87
6.14 Differential Cost between Conventional and Total Energy
Systems........................................................ 88
6.15 Annual Energy Consumption and Cost of the Conventional System.. 89
6.16 Differential Capital Costs, Operating and Maintenance Costs,
Annual Fuel Cost, and Present Value of All Costs for the
Conventional System ............................................ 90
6.17 Summary of Results for Zone D......... ......................... 91
6.18 Summary of Results for Zones A, D, and E... .................... 92
6.19 Summary of Results for the Fox Valley Center and Villages ...... 93
6.20 Summary of Results for Fox Valley Center ....................... 94
6.21 Assumed Efficiencies of the Prime-Movers as Percent of Fuel
Input.......................................................... 95
6.22 Best Choice of Prime-Mover for the Four Communities ............ 96
 xiii

ABSTRACT

The development o f S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s f o r s t a t i o n a r y power a p p l i c a t i o n s

i n T o t a l Energy Systems i s a t t r a c t i v e f o r two main r e a s o n s : ( 1 ) high poten-
t i a l e n g i n e e f f i c i e n c y , and ( 2 ) f u e l f l e x i b i l i t y e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e u s e o f c o a l
and c o a l - d e r i v e d fuels. T o t a l Energy a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e unique i n t h a t they
o f f e r an o p t i o n f o r u s i n g f u e l e n e r g y most e f f e c t i v e l y o n a l o c a l b a s i s by
recovering the rejected heat from e l e c t r i c power g e n e r a t i o n t o meet thermal
requirements within. a community. These t h e r m a l requirements include space
h e a t i n g , c o o l i n g , and h o t w a t e r s e r v i c e demands.

T h i s r e p o r t a d d r e s s e s t h e a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f l a r g e S t i r -
l i n g e n g i n e s i n T o t a l , o r I n t e g r a t e d , Energy Systems and l o o k s a t t h e p e r f o r -
mance and c o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s u c h e n g i n e s w h i l e comparing them w i t h t h e
main competitors (Diesel engines and gas turbines) for such a p p l i c a t i o n s .
The c o m p a r i s o n s a r e made t h r o u g h s i m p l i f i e d and d e t a i l e d s y s t e m s ' a n a l y s e s .

Lastly, b a s e d on t h e s y s t e m s s t u d i e d and i n t e r c o m p a r i s o n s o f compet-

ing technologies, the requirements for t h e development o f a large Stirling
e n g i n e a r e o u t l i n e d a l o n g w i t h a s u g g e s t e d d e v e l o p m e n t a l program.

From t h i s s t u d y i t i s c l e a r t h a t , g i v e n t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e compet-
ing technologies involved, t h e main a d v a n t a g e o f t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e l i e s i n
its ability to use fuels other than d i s t i l l a t e s . T h i s , a t t r i b u t e .must be
developed further in order to provide engine technologies which can burn
abundant f u e l s such a s c o a l o r coal-derived fuels. S e c o n d a r i l y , t h e poten-
t i a l l y h i g h e f f i c i e n c y o f S t i r l i n g s would b e . e s p e c i a l l y advantageous i n
a p p l i c a t i o n s where a high e l e c trical-to-thermal-energy demand r a t i o e x i s t s .
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. INTRODUCTION

Total, or Integrated, Energy Systems offer a technically feasible

and economic s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f e n c o u r a g i n g r e d u c e d c o n s u m p t i o n
of n a t u r a l g a s and d i s t i l l a t e f u e l s i n t h e r e s i d e n t i a l / c o m m e r c i a l s e c t o r . The
main component of t h e energy system i s the prime-mover which d r i v e s an e l e c -
t r i c g e n e r a t o r and h e l p s supily thermal energy through h e a t recovery from
exhaust g a s e s , lube o i l and prime-mover c o o l a n t .

The main prime-movers used t o date in Total, or Integrated, Energy

Systems i n c l u d e D i e s e l e n g i n e s , g a s t u r b i n e s , and steam t u r b i n e s . Generally,
Diesel e n g i n e s have been used in the s m a l l e r systems; whereas, the larger
systems a r e c e n t e r e d around gas t u r b i n e s o r steam t u r b i n e s . No m a t t e r what
prime-mover i s chosen, t h e o v e r a l l s y s tem e f f i c i e n c y i s improved, b u t t h e s e
systems g e n e r a l l y have lower e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y t h a n an e l e c t r i c
u t i l i t y and use f u e l s such a s n a t u r a l g a s and d i s t i l l a t e s .

Technological advances i n materials, heat transfer, and combustion

have made f e a s i b l e t h e development of a l t e r n a t i v e prime movers with a t t r a c t i v e
characteristics, e .g., high t h e r m a l - e l e c t r i c a l e f f i c i e n c y and/or t h e a b i l i t y
t o use f u e l s such a s c o a l , coal-derived f u e l s , and i n d u s t r i a l o r municipal
wastes. Among t h e s e o p t i o n s a r e ; ( a ) St i r l i n g - c y c l e e n g i n e s , (b) external-
combustion, Brayton-cycle e n g i n e s , ( c ) advanced, s m a l l steam t u r b i n e s , and ( d )
coal-using D i e s e l s .

This s t u d y i s concerned with the f i r s t option -- the Stirling-cycle

engine -- and i s aimed a t p r o v i d i n g ; ( a ) t e c h n i c a l and economic e v a l u a t i o n s ,
( b ) c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h c u r r e n t l y
available technologies, ( c ) s p e c i f i c engine performance and c o s t c h a r a c t e r i s -
tics that w i l l l e a d t o a s i g n i f i c a n t p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e e n g i n e m a r k e t , and
( d ) a g e n e r a l r e s e a r c h and development p l a n f o r t h e e n g i n e .

2. TOTAL OR INTEGRATED ENERGY SYSTEMS EXPERIENCE

T h i s type o f system i s based, e s s e n t i a l l y , on t h e r e c o v e r y o f prime-

mover r e j e c t e d h e a t , from t h e exhaust g a s e s , c o o l i n g w a t e r , or lubrication
o i l c o o l e r s , o r , i n t h e c a s e of s t e a l t u r b i n e s , from e x t r a c t e d o r uncondensed
steam. These systems g e n e r a l l y comprise d i s t r i c t h e a t i n g and c o o l i n g p l a n t s ,
T o t a l Energy Systems ( T E S ) , Modular I n t e g r a t e d U t i l i t y .Systems (MIUS), and
I n t e g r a t e d Community Energy Systems (ICES). Of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n t h i s s t u d y
i s t h e g e n e r a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e T o t a l Energy Systems t h a t were i n s t a l l e d i n
t h e 1960s and e a r l y 1970s u n d e r t h e a e g i s o f t h e n a t u r a l g a s u t i l i t i e s . From
t h i s experience, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o g e t some i d e a o f t h e s i z e and performance
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e q u i r e d o f a new e n g i n e .

I n reviewing t h e d a t a on T o t a l Energy Systems, s e v e r a l f a c t s became

clear :

(1) I n t h i s m a r k e t , o v e r 855 o f t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n s used D i e s e l

e n g i n e s , w h i l e 13% used g a s t u r b i n e s , and o n l y 2% were b a s e d
on s t e a m t u r b i n e s .
2 ) The a v e r a g e size o f t h e s e s y s t e m s was a b o u t 4 MWe, a l t h o u g h
t h e r e were many single b u i l d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s F I ~less t h a n 0 . 2 5
MWe .
(3) Although mnst o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s were i n t h e r e s i d e n t i a l 1
commercial s e c t o r , t h e r e were suu~t 3 y c t e ~ si n t h e 10-15 MWe
r a n g e and s e r v e d g r o u p s o f b u i l d i n g s o r i n d u s t r i a l n e e d s .

Furthermore, on a v e r a g e , t h e r e were a b o u t 3-4 prime-movers per i n s t a l l a t i o n

' w i t h e n g i n e power r a n g i n g from 0 . 2 5 MWe t o 1 . 8 kW--with a maximum e n g i n e s i z e
o f 3 . 3 MW.

3. COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVE PRIMK-HOVERS

The S t i r l i n g e n g i n e h a s s p v e r a l a d v a n t a g e s , including : (a), high

thermal e f f i c i e n c y , ( b ) f u e l £1 e x i b i l i t y , ( c ) godd p a r t - l o a d characler-islics,
( d ) low e m i s s i o n s , and - ( e l low n o i s e and v i b r a t i o n . Of t h e s e , t h e f i r s t two
a r e o f prime c o n c e r n and would be t h e most d e c i s i v e il: t h e e n g i n e i s t o b e
c o m p e L i t i v c w i t h D i e s e l s and g a s t u r b i n e s . The o v e r a l l h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e
several prime-movers considered i n t h i s report a r e sllown i n Tahle ES-1, in
which t h e work o u t p u t efticiency, recoverable h e a t , and rejected heat are
listed. S t i r l i n g engines o f f e r the highest overall thermal e f f i c i e n c y ,
a 1 though they could be significantly challenged by the adiabat i c y turbo-
compound D i e s e l e n g i n e w h i c h i s i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t f o r
military applications.
 T a b l e ES-1 Nominal Heat B a l a n c e s o f Prime-Movers a s a Percentage o f
Fuel Input

Recoverable Rejected
Engine Type Work Heat Heat

Diesel 36 42 22
A d i a b a t i c Turbo- 47 36 17
compound D i e s e l
Gas T u r b i n e ( s i m p l e ) 25 45 30
Gas T u r b i n e ( ~ e ~ e n e r a t i v e ) 38 22 40
S t i r l i n g (Current) 34 54 12
S t i r l i n g (Advanced) 46 41 13'

Concerning c o s t s o f S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s , i t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e c o s t o f
a n advanced s t i r l i n g e n g i n e w i t h h i g h e f f i c i e n c y , b u t u s i n g d i s t i l l a t e f u e l s ,
would b e 20-50% more e x p e n s i v e t h a n a c o m p a r a b l y - s i z e d Diesel engine. This
w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o a s a n advanced, f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n e n g i n e . A second-genera-
tion Stirling engine that can use coal o r coal-derived fuels i s expected
t o c o s t 50-80% more t h a n a D i e s e l o f t h e same s i z e .

A s i m p l e e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i o n c o s t c o m p a r i s o n was made f o r t h e v a r i o u s
engine types, including the S t i r l i n g , with the following r e s u l t s : for a f i r s t
g e n e r a t i o n S t i r l i n g e n g i n e w i t h e f f i c i e n c y r a n g i n g from 3'4-46%, t h e c o s t p e r
kwh i s shown i n T a b l e ES-2 f o r a f u e l c o s t o f $31106 B t u and a n e n g i n e
s i z e o f 1000 kW.

Here i t i s s e e n t h a t t h e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n S t i r l i n g e n g i n e c a n b e c o s t
c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h D i e s e l s provided t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c y ' i s h i g h . I f the Stir-
l i n g e n g i n e e f f i c i e n c y does n o t r e a c h t h e L a r g e r o f a b o u t 40-45%, i t s c a p i t a l
c o s t s must be r e d u c e d t o be c o m p e t i t i v e .

An e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i o n c o s t c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n Stir-
l i n g e n g i n e and v a r i o u s o t h e r e n g i n e o p t i o n s i s shown i n T a b l e ES-3. Here.the
c a p i t a l c o s t o f t h e S t i r l i n g i s h i g h e r b u t i t c a n now b u r n f u e l c o s t i n g i n t h e
r a n g e o f $1.70/106 Btu. The r e d u c e d f u e l c o s t i s c l e a r l y a n a d v a n t a g e t h a t
makes t h e S t i r l i n g c o m p e t i t i v e , e v e n i f e f f i c i e n c y t a r g e t s a r e n o t m e t .
 Table ES-2 Summary o f E l e c t r i c a l Generation Cost f o r Vari-
ous Engine Options Vs F i r s t - G e n e r a t i o n S t i r l i n g *

Engine Option Cost

(dkWh)

Diesel ( C u r r e n t ) 4.6
A d i a b a t i c Turbocompound D i e s e l 4.2
Gas Turbine (Simple) 6.65
Gas Turbine ( R e g e n e r a t i v e ) 6.30
S t i r l i n g Engine ( F i r s t Generation) 4.3-5.4

AErlgiile s i o c = 1000 kW, Fuel c o s t = $31106 ~ t u

Table ES-3 Summary o f E l e c t r i c a l Generation C o s t s

f o r Various Engine Options Vs t h e Second
G e n e r a t i n n , Coal Burning, S t i r l i n g Engine

-- -

Cost
Engine Option (IkWh)

Diesel (Current) 4.6,

A d i a b a t i c Turhncompound D i e s e l 0.2
Gas Turbine (Simple) 6.65
Gas Turbine ( R e g e n e r a t i v e ) 6.30
S L i r l i n g Engi ne ( Second Generet
. ,
ion) 3.6-4.4
-- .,
--

Based on a s i m p l e , e l e c ~ r i c a lg e n e r a t i o n c o s t comparison o f the S t i r -

l i n g e n g i n e and v a r i o u s o t h e r o p t i o n s , t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s c a n b e
drawn :

The m a i n a d v a h t a g e o f t h e S t i r l i n g e n e i n e i s i n i t s .
fuel flexibility - e s p e c i a l l y t h e a b i l i t y t o burn
low-priced c o a l d i r e c t l y .
a, Although t h e e f f i c i e n c y of che S t i r l i n g may be pnten-
t i a l l y h i g h , t h i s may n o t b e a n a d v a n t a g e i f o i l o r
gas f u e l s must be used and c a p i t a l c o s t s a r e 20%-50%
higher than f o r Diesel engines.
Because D i e s e l and g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e s a r e w e l l devel-
oped and h a v e g o o d - t o - e x c e l l e n t reliability, i t i s
d o u b t f u l t h a t S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s w i l l be . more r e l i a b l e .
The good a v a i l a b i l i t y ' o f waste h e a t from t h e S t i r l i n g
e n g i n e c o o l e r s may n o t b e a c l e a r a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e
i t i s a t a r e l a t i v e l y low t e m p e r a t u r e u n l e s s e n g i n e
e f f i c i e n c y i s compromised.
 A l t e r n a t i v e e n g i n e o p t i o n s c u r r e n t l y . c a n meet n o i s e ,
v i b r a t i o n and e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d s p r o v i d i n g l i t t l e
. i n c e n t i v e t o develop a S t i r l i n g . f o r s t a t i o n a r y a p p l i -
c a t i p n s , b a s e d on t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s .

Systems studi.es o f a group o f r e s i d e n t i a l / c o m m e r c i a l communities

have e s s e n t i a l l y confirmed t h e above c o n c l u s i o n s . A large residential/
commercial development was s t u d i e d , and e n e r g y s y s t e m s b a s e d on D i e s e l s , g a s
turbines, and s t i r l i n g e n g i n e s were d e s i g n e d and' a n a l y z e d . These i n c l u d e d :

( 1 ) a community/shopping c e n t e r which was 100% commercial;

( 2 ) o n e w i t h 89% r e s i d e n t i a l ;
( 3 ) a n o t h e r w i t h 60% r e s i d e n t i a l ; and
( 4 ) one w i t h 48% r e s i d e n t i a l occupancy.

Each o f t h e s e s y s t e m s , e x c e p t g a s t u r b i n e s , showed a n economic a d v a n t a g e o v e r

a conventiona.1 s y s t e m w i t h t h e c o a l - u s i n g , second-generation S t i r l i n g engine
b e i n g t h e l e a s t e x p e n s i v e on a l i f e c y c l e c o s t b a s i s . I n t e r m s o f f u e l econ-
omy, t h e S t i r l i n g s and D i e s e l s were r o u g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e , b u t i t i s c l e a r t h a t
'

t h e main a d v a n t a g e o f , t h e S t i r l i n g would be i t s a b i l i t y t o u s e c o a l .

4. STIRLING ENGINE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

'The r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t a l needs o f the S t i r l i n g engine include

work o n : ( a ) working f l u i d o p t i o n s i n c l u d i n g h y d r o g e n , h e l i u m , and a i r ; , ( b )
seal design; (c) engine configuration; (dl heater design; (el combustion
system d e s i g n , e s p e c i a l l y f o r c o a l o r coal-derived fuels; (£1 a i r preheater
d e s i g n ; ( g ) r e g e n e r a t o r d e s i g n ; and ( h ) n o v e l e n g i n e d e s i g n s t u d i e s .

Three o v e r a l l programmatic g o a l s f o r a l a r g e , ' s t a t t o n a r y E t i r l i u g

engine include:

1. Development o f a S t i r l i n g e n g i n e t h a t h a s , a t l e a s t
t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e , medium-speed
D i e s e l e n g i n e s i n t h e 38-40% r a n g e .
2. Development o f e n g i n e s t h a t c a n u s e low-cost' f u e l s , ~ u c h
a s c o a l , i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e , and m u n i c i p a l w a s t e , a s w e l l
as coal-derived fuels.
3. Achievement o f a c a p i t a l c o s t f o r a a l t e r n a t i v e f u e l e d ,
S t i r l i n g e n g i n e which i s n o t more t h a n t w i c e t h a t o f a
c o m p a r a b l y - s i z e d , medium-speed D i e s e l e n g i n e .
5. STIRLING E N G I N E PROGRAM

A program t o d e v e l o p a s t a t i o n a r y S t i r l i n g e n g i n e f o r use i n T o t a l and.

I n t e g r a t e d Energy Systems i s expected t o t a k e about 6-7 y e a r s from i n c e p t i o n
t o a f u l l d e m o n s t r a t i o n of one o r more e n g i n e s . This program would have s i x
p a r t s , including:

(1) b a s i c r e s e a r c h and development;

(2) conceptual engine designs;
(3) preliminary engine designs;
(4) f i n a l engine designs ;
(5) e n g i n e f a b r i c a t i o n ; and
(6) t e s t i n g and d e m o n s t r a t i o n s .

The f i r s t p a r t w i l l be a c o n t i n u i n g ongoing program designed t o support

t h e o v e r a l l e n g i ~ l e development aud w i l l a d d r e s s t h e t e c h n i c a l problem a r e a s
n o t e d i n t h e preview s e c t i o n s . The r e s t of t h e program would i n v o l v e s e v e r a l
teams working on , e n g i n e s t h a t show a good chance of s u c c e s s a s w e l l a s on
t h o s e ' o f a n o v e l n a t u r e t h a t o f f e r some d i s t i n c t ' advantages but which could be
risky. Phases 2-4 would t a k e about t h r e e yea1.s; .engine f s h r i c a t i o n , t e s t i n g ,
and d e m o n s t r a t i o n would t a k e about two y e a r s each, f o r a t o t a l of seven y e a r s .
Of c o u r s e , t h i s s c h e d u l e c o u l d be a l t e r e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e amount of r e s o u r c e s
devoted to it. Fullowing a sl.!crcossful demonstration, a commercialization
program would have t o be undertaken t o t a k e f u l l advantage of t h e engine i n
c o n o c r v i n g friels and u s i n g abundant f u e l s u p p l i e s .
 7

1. INTRODUCTION

Given t h e c u r r e n t emphasis on energy c o n s e r v a t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n of

non-scarce f u e l s because of t h e i n c r e a s e d c o s t s of o i l and n a t u r a l g a s , . t h e
opportunity e x i s t s t o develop new (and n o t so new) technologies t o accom-
p l i s h these conservation goals. Technological advances have opened t h e door
t o t h e development of o p t i o n s which o n l y a few years ago, were deemed un-
suitable. Paramount among t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s , a r e advanced h e a t e n g i n e s and
energy systems t h a t would not o n l y provide for t h e e l e c t r i c a l needs of a
b u i l d i n g o r community, b u t a l s o , through t h e recovery of r e j e c t h e a t , p r o v i d e
fo'r thermal demands such a s s p a c e ' h e a t i n g , c o o l i n g and h o t w a t e r .
. .
The energy systems t h a t g e n e r a l l y f u l f i l l the requirements of meeting
not on.ly t h e e l e c t r i c a l demands, b u t a l s o t h e thermal demands o f a b u i l d i n g o r
community, have been r e f , e r r e d t o a s T o t a l Energy Systems (TES). The concept
of a TES i s n o t new; i n f a c t , i t may w e l l b e one o f t h e o l d e s t types o f energy
systems, d a t i n g back t o the 1 9 t h c e n t u r y when t h e steam r e j e c t e d from e l e c -
t r i c a l power g e n e r a t i o n was used i n municipal d i s t r i c t h e a t i n g systems. These
systems, o r v a r i a t i o n s t h e r e o f , have been used e x t e n s i v e l y , not o n l y i n t h e
residential/commercial s e c t o r , but a l s o i n the i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r . However,
t h e concern of t h i s .report i s limited to those applications in the resi-
dential/commercial s e c t o r .

, The m a i n , component of .a v i a b l e T o t a l Energy Sys tem i s th,e prime-mover . '

H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e e m p h a s i s h a s b e e n on t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f , t e c h n o l o g i c a l
o p t i o n s t h a t were w e l l developed and r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e commercially. These
included (a) D i e s e l c n g i n e a , ( b ) g a s t u r b i n e s , and ( c ) steam t u r b i n e s .
Generally, the s m a l l e r systems u s e Diesel engines; whereas, progressively
l a r g e r systems use e i t h e r g a s t u r b i n e s o r steam t u r b i n e s . Although t h e h e a t
recovered. from the g e n e r a t i o n of e l . e c t r i c i t y improves the o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y
o f TES p l a n t s , ' i n g e n e r a l t h e y a r e o f l o w e r e l e c t r i c a l e f f i c i e n c y t h a n
. u t i i i t y s y s terns and g e n e r a l l y a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o s c a r c e f u e l u s e , i . e . ,
d i s t i l l a t e o i l o r n a t u r a l gas, al.thobgh t h e l a r g e r systems based on steam
t u r b i n e s can be c o a l - f u e l e d . , .
T e c l ~ n o l o g i c a l advances, such a s new m a t e r i a l developments, have made
f e a s i b l e t h e development of a l t e r n a t i v e prime-movers. These o p t i o n s p o s s e s s
a t t r a c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , such a s high-thermal e f f i c i e n c y and/or the a b i l i t y
t o use a non-scarce fuel, e.g., coal. Among t h e s e o p t i o n s a r e included:
(a) Stirling-cycle engines, ( b ) e x t e r n a l l y f i r e d Brayton-cycle engines, (c)
coal-using D i e s e l s , and ( d l a d v a n c e d , s m a l l steam t u r b i n e s . Even though t h e s e
prime-mover alternatives may possess some attractive operational charac-
teristics, t h e y must still compete with currently available technology i n
t e r m s o f r e l i a b i l i t y and a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m e c o n o m i c a l l y i n a TES.

The o b j e c t i v e o f t h e T o t a l Energy Technology A l t e r n a t i v e S t u d i e s

(TETAS) i s ' t o a d d r e s s t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d , t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e , t h e i n s t i -
tutional problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new prime-mover tech-
nologies. Specifically, the objectives nf t h i s e f f o r t include:

P r o v i d e t e c h n o l o g i c a l and economic e v a l u a t i o n s o f
p o t e n t i a l l y e f f i c i e n t and f u e l f l e x i b l e , a d v a n c e d
e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l combustion e n g i n e s f o r use i n
t o t a l o r i n t e g r a t e d energy sygtemo i n t h e r e s i d e n t i a l /
commercial s e c t o t ;
Compare t h e t e c h n i c a l and economic performance o f t h e s e
e n g i n e s w i t h t h o s e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e c o n i ~ r l e r c i a l l yand
w i t h which t h e y w i l l have t o compete;
Based on t h e ' s y s t e m s t u d i e s and t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v a l u a -
t i o n s , s p e c i f y g e n e r a l e n g i n e performance and c o s t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t . w i l 1 lead t o s i g n i f i c a n t penetra-
t i o n o f t h e e x p e c t e d g r o w t h i n t h e TES r e s i d e n t i a l /
c o m e r c i a l marlce t ; and
Recommend, i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e E x t e r n a l Combus-
t i o n EllKine P r o j e c t , a r e s e a r c h and development p l a n
f o r c u u ~ p e t i t i v ch e a t e n g i n e s and components.

These s t u d i e s , t h e n , a r e i n t e n d e d , n o t o n l y t o r e v i e " t h e seace u1 t h e

a r t and e s t i m a t e f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s o f e a c h o f t h e emerging o r advanced
h e a t e n g i n e s , b u t a l s o t o p e r f o r m c o n c e p t u a l systemo p e r f o r m a n c e and economic
s t u d i e s t o d i s c o v e r t h e p r o j e c t e d e n e r g y s a v i n g s and c o s t s o f s u c h s y s t e m s .
These w i l l be cqmpared w i t h t h e perforulance end c o s t s o f systems that are
based on currently available technologies t o discover the advantagesldis-
a d v a n t a g e s o f u s i n g a l t e r a a t i v e , advanced t e c h n o l o g i e s .

In particular, this' report i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e development and

application of large, Stirling-cycle engines f o r use i n T o t a l Energy Sys-
tems. The performanck o f t h e s e e n g i n e s , u s i n g a s f u e l e i t h e r d i s t i l l a t e o i l
o r c o a l , w i l l be compared t o t h o s e systems b a s e d on D i e s e l o r gas turbine
engines. D i e s e l s and g a s t u r b i n e s a r e e x p e c t e d t o be t h e main' c o m p e t i t o r s
o f s t i r l i n g - c y c l e ' e n g i n e s i n e n e r g y s ys tem a p p l i c a t i o n s .
 The g e n e r a l methodo,logy used i n t h e s t u d y i s a s f o l l o w s :
. .

.Determine t h e c u r r e n t and expected, f u l l - a n d p a r t -

l o a d p e r f o r m a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e a c h prime-mover
technology.
Determine, i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h e x p e r t s i n t h e f i e l d ,
t h e c u r r e n t and e x p e c t e d c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s o f
e a c h t e c h n o l o g y ; t h e n i n t e r c o m p a r e e a c h t e c h n o l o g y on a
r e l a t i v e l y simple b a s i s .
S e l e c t o n e o r more s i t e s f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
t o t a l , o r i n t e g r a t e d energy system concepts based
o n t h e s e v e r a l prime-movers u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
These s i t e s w i l l i n c l u d e a mix o f r e s i d e n t i a l and
c o m m e r c i a l b u i l d i n g s o n a community b a s i s . The
intent is to address applications with a variety
o f t h e r m a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l power demand p r o f i l e s .
Design systems, on a conceptual b a s i s , u s i n g sev-
e r a l prime-movers. These systems w i l l be s u f f i -
c i e n t l y d e t a i l e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e t e c h n i c a l and econom5c
performance o f e a c h .
I n t e r c o m p a r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e and c o s t s o f e a c h s y s t e m
t o h e l p d e f i n e t h e a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f e a c h
prime-mover and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l g o a l s f o r t h e ,ad-
vanced t e c h n o l o g y a s t h e y may b e a f f e c t e d by TE s y s t e m
requirements.

T h i s r e p o r t i s s t r u c t u r e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner :

Chapter 2.0 i s a review o f T o t a l o r I n t e g r a t e d Energy Systems., in-

c l u d i n g an e v a l u a t i o n of their past, present, and f u t u r e s t a t u s . This' in-
c'ludes e s t i m a t i n g the range of prime-mover s i z e s . t h a t would b.e needed to
compete e f f e c t i v e l y .

C h a p t e r s 3 . 0 and 4 . 0 a r e b r i e f r e v i e w s o f t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r L o f ehe
v a r i o u s prime-movers .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , Chapter 3.0 considers Stirling-cycle engines, the
main s u b j e c t o f t h i s r e p o r t ; C h a p t e r 4 . 0 i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h D i e s e l and , g a s -
turbine engines.

These two c h a p t e r s a r e n o t meant t o be exhaustive evaluations, but

r a t h e r are ia ~ e n d e dt o o u t l i n e t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e a c h prime-mover
i n terms o f p e r f o r m a n c e and c o s t s .
'

C h a p t e r 5 . 0 , a somewhat s i m p l i f i e d c o m p a r i s o n o f S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s w i t h
D i e s e l s and g a s t u r b i n e s , s h e d s some l i g h t on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e and cconomic
tradeof f s .
 Chapter 6.0 describes the systems, studies. the intercomparison o£ the :
fuel energy consumption of each system and then compares capital and lifecycle
costs.

Chapters 7.0 and 8.0 are devoted to the goals of and programs for
developing a Stirling-cycle engine for use in Total Energy Systems.
 2. TOTAL AND INTEGRATED ENERGY SYSTEMS

2.1 BACKGROUND

U t i l i z i n g r e j e c t e d h e a t from e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n p l a n t s i s not new.

The h i s t o r y of t h i s concept goes back e s s e n t i a l l y t o t h e e a r l y days of e l e c -
t r i c a l power g e n e r a t i o n when t h e r e j e c t e d h e a t was used t o s u p p l y d i s t r i c t
h e a t i n g systems i n t h e downtown b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t s of l a r g e r communities. The
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e concept of r e j e c t e d h e a t u t i l i z a t i o n grew i n t h e e a r l y p a r t
o f t h i s c e n t u r y n o t o n l y i n t h e r e s i d e n t i a l / c o m m e r c i a l s e c t o r , but a l s o i n t h e
i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r , mainly a s d i s t r i c t h e a t i n g systems o r a s p a r t of p r o c e s s
steam p l a n t s . I n t h e 1920s o r 1930s, t h e number of such systems began drop-
ping because o f reduced u t i l i t y p r i c e s . U n t i l r e c e n t l y , t h e r e were r e l a t i v e l y
few such applications, aside from t h o s e on u n i v e r s i t y campuses o r .s
. imilar

i n s t i t u t i o n a l complexes and some i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s .

In the e a r l y 1960s, t h e r e was a s t r o n g marketing e f f o r t by t h e gas

u t i l i t y companies i n T o t a l Energy Systems t o h e l p p r o v i d e an expanded market
f o r gas s a l e s . The systems were based on D i e s e l e n g i n e s and gas t u r b i n e s ,
w i t h some of t h e l a r g e r systems u s i n g g a s - f i r e d b o i l e r s and .steam t u r b i n e s .
S e v e r a l problems, t h a t arose during t h i s period and through t h e e a r l y 1970s
' c a u s e d many of t h e s e systems t o be decommissioned. These problems i n c l u d e d
h i g h maintenance c o s t s and low system r e l i a b i l i t y , both of which made them
uneconomic. However, many of t h e systems' were s u c c e s s f u l and a r e s t i l l i n
operation. Currently, new systems a r e being c o n s i d e r e d and i n s t a l l e d , es-
p e c i a l l y i n a r e a s where e l e c t r i c a l c o s t s a r e h i g h .

In t h e e a r l y 1970s, t h e U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Devel-

opment (HUD) e s t a b l i s h e d t h e Modular I n t e g r a t e d U t i l i t y System (MIUS) Program.
T h i s e f f o r t was aimed a t t h e development of s t a n d - a l o n e energy systems based
o n c u r r e n t t e c h n o l o g y - s y s t e m s t h a t would p r o v i d e f o r t h e e l e c t r i c a l ,
space heating, space cooling, hnt water, and w a s t e d i s p o s a l n e e d s o f a
community. These systems were much more complete t h a n former Total. Energy
Systems i n t h a t t h e y were designed t o p r o v i d e a wider range of energy r e l a t e d
s e r v i c e s t o t h e community. I n 1974, t h i s program r e s u l t e d i n a d e m o n s t r a t i o n
a t a n apartment complex i n J e r s e y C i t y , New J e r s e y .

Subsequently, the Integrated Community Energy S y ~ t e m (ICES) concept

was developed w i t h i n t h e U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The ICES i s a
general concept that includes all energy systems that provide a multitude of
energy-related services to a community. Unlike MIUS,, emerging and advanced
technologies are to be strongly considered for application in an ICES; and
unlike the Total Energy Systems, an ICES does not necessarily have to be a
"stand-alone" system, i.e., not connected to the electric utility grid.
In fact, grid connection appears to offer operational and economic advantages
that a stand-alone system does not have.

Obviously, many variations of systems can be characterized as Total or

Integrated Energy Systems. For the purposes of this report, however, we will
consider ICES to be stand-alone systems designed to supply the elec~i-iealj
space heating, space cooling and hot water needs of residential/commercial
communities .l

In general, the main component of these systems is a prime-mover such

as a Diesel engine, gas turbine, or steam turbine. I'n the case of,a Diesel
engine, rejected heat is recovered from the 'exhaust gases, jacket cooling
water and lube-oil coolers. This recovered heat is used either directly to
supply the community's thermal needs or it may be augmented with a boiler.
Typically, the fuel for such a system is either natural gas or oil. Space-
cooling reqiiireu~ent
s O V E R 150
ALMOST ALL
can be met, by using RECIPROCATING

the rejer.t.ed heat in

RECIPAOCATING I N rtHNAL COMBUSTION
absorption chillera
or by motor-driven
STEAM TURBINE
compressive chillers.
Simi lar arrangement s
can he obtained with E
gas-turbine or
,s,te a r n - t u r b i n e
systems.

Fig,ure 2 . 1
shows the distribu-
tion, by size, of the
Total Energy Systems P L A N T CAPACITY (KW,)

that existed in
t h e United States Fig. 2.1 Total Energy Systems Installed in the
U.S. and Canada (1974)
and Canada in 1974.
Of the more than 500 systems in place and operating at that time, most used
reciprocating, internal-combustion engines as prime-movers. The capacity of
these systems, in most cases, was less than 4 MWe, which would correspond to
about a similar amount of thermal capacity. These data include all the
I
TES applications in existence -- both in the residential/commercial, as
well as in the industrial sectors.

Table 2.1 gives the distribution, by engine type, of the systems

shown in Fig. 2.1. Reciprocating engines dominate in systems with capacities
less than about 8-10 MWe. For larger sizes, the economies of scale inherent
in other technologies are apparently more attractive.

Figure 2.2 shows the number of Total Energy Systems in the United
States in 1974 as a function of system electrical capacity. Also shown,is the
breakdown between industrial and residential/commercial applications wherein
TES applications are seen to dominate in the residential/commercial sector.

2.2 PRIME-MOVER CHARACTERISTICS

To date, it is apparent 'that the dominant engine type in use in Total

Energy Systems is the reciprocating, compression-ignition, Diesel engine.
Furthermore, experience with such systems indicates that the average system
capacity is about 3-4 MWe, with some systems as large as 10 MWe and more.
Discussion of the future of TES-type systems will be deferred to the next
section. Of importance here, in designing a stationary Stirling-cycle engine,
is the size range that should be addressed.

Table 2.1 Engine Types Used in Total

Energy Systems (1974)

Engine Type Number Percent

Diesels 452 85
Gas Turbines 71 13
Steam Turbines 8 3.
 200 .
NUMBER 8 SIZE OF TOTAL ENERGY
FACILITIES IN U. S. (1974)

INDUSTRIAL

PLANT SIZC lldWl

Fig. 2.2 Number and Size of Total Energy Installations in the U.S. (1974)

Data on Tutsl Encrgy Systems have been examined in somewhat more detail
to determine:

(a) the nuruber of prime-movers per installation,

(b) the number of prime-movers as a function of system size, and
(c) the size of prime-movers as a function of system size.

These last data will indicate the target size range for the develop~ue~~t
of
large, stationary Stirling-cycle engines for use i.n TES.
I

Figure 2.3 shows the number of installations using reciprocating

prime-movers as a function of the number of prime-movers per installation.
These data are interesting in that they indicate the "standard practice'' in
the design of such systems, and they represent, to a degree, the tradeoffs .
among reliability, performance, and cost inherent.in Total Energy Systems.
Most of the currently installed systems have 2-4 reciprocating prime-movers
per installation. In practice, systems with more than about six engines are
somewhat rare.
 PRIME MOVERSIINSTALLATION

Fig. 2.3 R e c i p r o c a t i n g Engine I n s t a l l a t i o n s Versus

.Number o f Prime-Movers'Per I n s t a l l a t i o n s

Figure 2.4 shows t h e number o f reciprocating engines as a function

o f p l a n t e l e c t r i c a l c a p a c i t y and i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e number o f prime-movers per
i n s t a l l a t i o n i n c r e a s e s a s a f u n c t i o n o f system s i z e . This i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n
t h a t i t seems t o i n d i c a t e a d e s i r e by t h e s y s t e m d e s i g n e r s t o limit t h e
maxiulum s i z e o f i n d i v i d u a l e n g i n e s e i t h e r b e c a u s e o f c o s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o r a
l a c k o f l a r g e r , medium- o r low-speed, e n g i n e s s u i t a b l e f o r k e e p i n g t h e nuinber
o f prime-movers p e r i n s t a l l a t i o n low. A l s o shown i n t h e f i g u r e a r e t h e u p p e r
and l o w e r numbers o f pFime-move~s i n a g.iven i n s t a l l a t i b n which g i v e s a n i d e a
of the spread i n the d a t a .

F i g u r e 2 . 5 shows t h e s i z e o f e a c h prime-mover a s a f u n c t i o n of system

s i z e and r e p r e s e n t s f a i r l y w e l l t h e r a n g e o f s i z e s t h a t s h o u l d b e a d d r e s s e d
with a mature S t i r l i n g - c y c l e engine. As expected, the size of the engine
i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g system s i z e . Thus, t h e s i z e o f t h e a v e r a g e prime-
mover r a n g e s from a b o u t 250 kW t o 1 . 8 MW. R e c i p r o c a t i n g e n g i n e s thaL r a n g e i n
s i z e from 1 0 0 kWe t o a b o u t 3.3 MWe have b e e n u s e d i n T o t a l Energy Systems.
 0
I I I I I I 1 . I 1
2 4 . 6 8 . 10 12 14 16
PLANT CAPACITY (YWe)
Fig. 2 . 4 Number of R e c i p r o c a t i o n Prime-Movers per I n s t a l l a -
tion as a Function of System E l e c t r i c a l Capac i t y

B a s e d o n t h e a b o v e d a t a the o l l o . w i n g g c n o r a l conc.1.usions c a n b e
drawn :

1. T o t a l Energy Systems, t o d a t e , haye b e e n ' d e s i g n e d mainly

for single-building applications i n the residential1
commercial s e c t o r ( r e t a i l s t o r e s , shopping c e n t e r s ,
o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s , a p a r t m e n t s , townhouses, , . e t c . ) .
2. The a v e r a g e s i z e of T o t a l Energy Systems t o d a t e i s
' about 3-4 MWe, w i t h few a p p l i c a t i o n s l a r g e r t h a n 10-15
m e . The l a r g e r - c a p a c i t y systems u s u a l l y . a r e t h o s e
s e r v i n g groups u f b u i l d i n g s o r u s e r s ; whereas t h e
s m a l l e r system0 a r e ' usual. l y s i n g l e - b u i l d i n g a p p l i c a -
tions.
3. G e n e r a l l y , t h e r e a r e about 3-4 prime-movers per in-
s t a l l a t i o n ; however, l a r g e r - s i z e d systems have been
known t o u s e up t o 10 o r more.
4. The average s i z e range of r e c i p r o c a t i n g e n g i n e prime-
movers i s from 250 kW t o 1 . 8 MW ( 3 3 5 hp t o 2 4 2 0 h p ) .
The maximum s i z e s used r a n g e up t o 3 . 3 MU.
 PRIME HOVER S I Z E
VS.
TOTAL ENERGY P L A N T C A P A C I T Y

PLANT CAPACITY (MW,) .

F i g . 2.5 Average Prime-Mover S i z e V s P l a n t E l e c t r i c a l C a p a c i t y

Although t h e above c o n c l u s i o n s a p p l y t o t h e T o t a l Energy System

experience t o date, i t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y follow t h a t the future experi-
ence w i l l be i d e n t i c a l . I n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n , a b r i e f look w i l l be t a k e n a t
the future prospects for I n t e g r a t e d Energy Systems which may indicate the
t r e n d s between now and t h e y e a r 2000, when S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s c o u l d be a f o r c e
i n t h e engine market.

2.3 FUTURE MARKET DEVELOPMENT

The f u t u r e of T o t a l Energy Systems, o r i n a b r o a d e r s e n s e , I n t e g r a t e d

Energy Systems, i s p r o m i s i n g o v e r a wide r a n g e , o f a p p l i c a t i o n s . These
systems can be grouped i n t o s e v e r a l c a t e g o r i e s t h a t ' are expected t o s e r v e
v a r y i n g si.zed a p p l i c a t i o n s . These system t y p e s a r e :

T o t a l Energy Systems. --
Designed t o m e e t the
community e l e c t r i c a l demand with thermal r e q u i r e m e n t s
met by h e a t r e c o v e r y from prime-movers o r a u a e n t e d
with b o i l e r s .
 S e l e c t i v e E n e r g y S y s t e m s -- D e s i g n e d t o meet t h e
t h e r m a l l o a d w i t h some e l e c t r i c a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e
form o f t o p p i n g o r bottoming c y c l e s . E l e c t r i c a l demand
i s met mainly from t h e e l e c t r i c a l u t i l i t y g r i d i n a
buy-only arrangement.
Grid-Connected Systems -- Designed t o meet both e l e c -
t r i c a l and t h e r m a l demand. The e l e c t r i c a l demand i s
met, however, w i t h a buy-sell arrangement w i t h t h e
grid.
Coal-Using Systems -- Designed t o use. c o a l a s t h e
primary f u e l .
D i s t r i c t H e a t i n g I C o o l i n g s y s t e m s -- L a r g e s y s t e m s
d e s i g n e d s p ~ . r . i ' f i c a l l yt o meet t h e r m a l demands o f
h i g h - d e n s i t y a r e a s u s i n g r e j e c t e d h e a t from e x i s r i n g W L
new power p l a n t s .
T h e r m a l T r a n s p o r t S y s t e m s -- D e s i g n e d for r e m o t e
g e n e r a t i o n of t h e r m a l energy and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n t o
t h e u s e r community f o r e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n and
thermal needs.

The e x p e c t e d r a n g e ' o f sizes Iui. t a c h o f these I n t e g r a t e d Energy

Systems i s . shown i n Fig.. 2.6.3 The T o t a l ~ n e r ~and.
y s e l e c t i v e Energy Sys-
tems a r e e x p e c t e d t o s e r v e t h e ' s i z e range from about 0 . 1 MWe t o about 60
MWe. Grid-Connected and Coal-Using Systems a r e e x p e c t e d t o be a p p l i c a b l e from
about 6 MWe t o about 200 MWe; whereas, District ~ e a t i n g / C o o l i n g and Thermal.
T r a n s p o r t w i l l c o v e r t h e l a r g e r s i z e s from 20 MWe t o 100'0 MWe. Eomc o v e r l a p

INTEGRATED ENERGY SYSTE-MS

TOTAL ENERGY
SELECTIVE ENERGY

<-I
GRID
CONNECTED
COAL-USING
0

"I
DISTRICT
#€ATING/COOLING

I
0.1
I I I 1 I I Ill
1.0
I I I I IIIII
10.0
I
.
I
.
I_L1111l
100
d
,

1000
PLANT CAPACITY (MW,) .

Fig. 2 . 6 I n t e g r a t e d Energy Systems.Concepts and S i z e Ranges

of system t y p e s e x i s t s f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s . with l e s s than about 100 MWe, in-
d i c a t i n g t h a t u s e r s w i l l have a choice, o f systems.

General'ly, l a r g e s t a t i o n a r y S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s c a n be expected t o c o v e r
t h e range. o f systems from about 0 . 5 w e up t o about 10 o r 20 W e . Thus, they
would have a p p l i c a t i o n s b o t h i n s m a l l e r systems where t h e i r high e f f i c i e n c y
would be an a t t r i b u t e and i n l a r g e r systems,. where t h e i r f u e l f l e x i b i l i t y can
be used.

Because a detailed market forecast for ICES h a s not been made, it

i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o e s t i m a t e the. market f o r D i e s e l s and gas t u r b i n e s i n In-
tegrated Energy Systems applications in the residential/commercial sector.
However, t h i s problem i s being addressed i n t h e Community Systems Program of
DOE, and the i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be f a c t o r e d i n t o t h e subsequent development and
c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n s t r a t e g y f o r S t i r l i n g - c y c l e e n g i n e s a s i t becomes a v a i l a b l e .
The average s i z e of an I n t e g r a t e d Energy System c u r r e n t l y i s expected t o be
about 25 MWe. T h i s i s due t o the weighting f a c t o r of t h e l a r g e systems.
About 12,000 systems a r e expected t o b e i n p l a c e i n t h e y e a r 2000. If the
average s i z e i s o n l y 12.5 MWe, then t h e r e w i l l be twice a s many systems i n
place.3 The demand f o r S t i r l i n g - c y c l e e n g i n e s i s expected t o e x i s t i n the
s m a l l e r s i z e d s y s t e m s , which c o u l d be t h e dominant f o r c e i n t h e o v e r a l l
ICES market between now and t h e y e a r 2000.
 21

3. STIRLING ENGINES*

3.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND

I n v e n t e d i n 1816 by R o b e r t S t i r l i n g , a S c o t t i s h m i n i s t e r , the engine

b e a r i n g h i s name i s n o t new. Although i t s o p e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s h a v e b e e n
known f o r o v e r 1 6 0 y e a r s , i t h a s n o t been a n e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r -
n a t i v e prime-mover t e c h n o l o g y u n t i l r e c e n t l y w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f modern t e c h -
n o l o g i c a l developments. The S t ' i r l i n g e n g i n e c a n be d e s c r i b e d a s a thermo-
d y n a m i c , s h a i t power d e v i c e o $ e r a t i n g i n a c l o s e d c y c l e w i t h g a s a s t h e
working f l u i d . It i s r e f e r r e d t.0 a s a n e x t e r n a l - c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e i n which
heat i s supplied from a s o u r c e a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e and r e j e c t e d t o t h e
environment through a water c o o l i n g loop. Thus, t h e f u e l , a i r , and combus-
t i o n p r o d u c t s n e v e r e n t e r t h e e n g i n e ; s o t h e g a s , t h e working f l u i d , o p e r a t e s
i n a closed cycle.

Stirling's l a s t hot-air e n g i n e was t a k e n o u t o f s e r v i c e i n 1847 and

t h i s t y p e o f e n g i n e was n o t a g a i n c o n s i d e r e d s e r i o u s l y u n t i l 1 9 3 8 , when t h e
Philips Research Laboratories of N.V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken, Eind-
hoven, Netherlands, decided to develop a small, quiet and r e l i a b l e heat-
d r i v e n power s o u r c e f o r remote l o c a t i o n s . 4 Because o f s e v e r a l a t t r a c t i v e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e , i t was p u r s u e d f o r d e v e l o p m e n t .
Subsequently, Philip's subjected the Stirling system t o many d e t a i l e d in-
, vestigations, and o v e r t h e y e a r s many e n g i n e s were b u i l t , r a n g i n g from a few
k i l o w a t t s up t o 360 kW. The o r i g i n a l i n t e n t o f t h e e n g i n e a s a r e m o t e power
s o u r c e was made o b s o l e t e w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t r a n s i s t o r s and b a t t e r i e s , but
the e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n t h e development ' e f f o r t i n d i c a t e d t h e p o t e n t i a l o f
the engine. Since. that time, development h a s c e n t e r e d o n S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s
which have low n o i s e and v i b r a t i o n l e v e l s and p o t e n t i a l l y h i g h e f f i c i e n c y ,
b u t which a r e c u r r e n t l y i n h i b i t e d by l a r g e s i z e , w e i g h t and c o s t r e l a t i v e t o
O t t o , D i e s e l , and Rankine-cyc l e e n g i n e s .

Philips' s t r o n g commitment - t o t h e e a r l y and s u b s e q u e n t development o f

S t i r l i n g engines has resulted i n e n g i n e s f o r u s e i n b o a t s , b u s e s , and e l e c -
t r i c power O t h e r s h a v e e n t e r e d t h e f i e l d u n d e r l i c e n s e from

*This s e c t i o n i s b a s e d , i n p a r t , o n a . r e p o r t p r e p a r e d hy Arthur D. Little,

Inc ., f o r Afgonne N a e i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y ( ~ e c e m b e r1977) .
P h i l i p s over the years. United S t i r l i n g , a Swedish f i r m , h a s been a c t i v e l y
p u r s u i n g t h e development o f a n automotive e n g i n e s i n c e 1968, w h i l e two Ger-
man f i r m s , MAN* and MWN** have b u i l t heavy-duty e n g i n e s and have d e m o n s t r a t e d
one i n a b u s .

I n 1958, General Motors became the f i r s t S t i r l i n g engine l i c e n s e e i n

t h e United S t a t e s . During t h e p e r i o d when GM was a c t i v e l y involved i n S t i r -
l i n g development, i t a c q u i r e d over 25,000 hours o f engine o p e r a t i n g ex-
perience. G M ' s major i n t e r e s t was i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f S t i r l i n g s t o c a r s ,
trucks, b u ~ e s , and railroad locomotives, a s well as to large, stationary
engines. A f t e r twelve y e a r s o f e f f o r t , G M ' s e x p e r i e n c e l e d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n
that t h e S t i r l i n g would n o t o f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t advantages o v e r the already
well-developed i n t e r n a l combustion e n g i n e . GM c i t e d problems w i t h :

(1) s e a l s ( l e a k a g e and d i f f u s i o n 'of t h e working . f l u i d around

p i s ton r o d s ) ,
(2) e x c e s s i v e weight ( o v e r 14 I b s per horsepower)
(3) excessive bulk ( d i f f i c u l t y i n v e h i c l e packaging),
(4) low-speed limitation,
(5) , l a r g e r a d i a t o r r e q u i r e m e n t , and
( 6 ) h i g h NO, level^.^
In about 1970, Ford Motor Company conducted an in-house review o f
S t i r l i n g t e c h n o l o g y , b e i n g m o t i v a t e d by che i l r c r c a s i n g d i f f i c u ' l . f y o f achiev-
i n g Pow leiicls r.jT cxhauat p n l l u t a f i t s . i n i t s IC e n g i n e s and t h e p o t e n ~ i , a l
of the external combustion f e a t u r e of the S t i r l i n g engine t o accommodate
emission regulations. 'After considerable dialogue with P h i l i p s . and some
in-house testing, Ford management became optimistic about overcoming key
problem a r e a s and proceeded t o n e g o t i a t e an agreement w i t h P h i l i p s i n 1972,
a s w e l l a s a n o t h e r w i t h United ~ t i r l i n ~ These
. ~ agreements gave Ford a c c e s s
to a l l the relevant technology a t P l i i l i p s and United S t i r l i n g , a n d , s u b j e c t
t o some l i m i t a t i o n s , a l i c e n s e f o r worldwide a p p l i ~ u t i u r r of technology
t o passenger c a r s .

In a joint Ford/United S t i r l i n g program, various e n g i n e e r i n g model

v e r s i o n s o f a 40 kW ( 5 4 , h p ) e n g i n e have been t e s t e d , i n c l u d i n g , o p e r o t i o n i n
a Ford P i n t o and a Ford Torino. ~ o r dand P h i l i p s have c o o p e r a t e d t o examine

*Maschinenfabrik ~ u g s b u r g - ~ u e r n b e r ~
**Motorenwerke Mannheim
and t e s t a 170 hp S t i r l i n g e n g i n e a l t e r n a t e t o Ford's 351 C I D Otto-cycle
e n g i n e packaged i n a Ford Torino. I n mid-1975, Ford Motor Company began
working under contract t o t h e Department of Energy 8 , 9 on t h e "80-100 HP
S t i r l i n g Engine F e a s i b i l i t y Design Study Program" which was completed i n 1977.
I n October, 1977, t h e Department o f Energy and Ford Motor Co. s i g n e d a c o s t -
sharing contract for t h e development of a S t i r l i n g passenger car engine.
DOE'S s h a r e o f t h e development e f f o r t w i l l be a b o u t $110 m i l l i o n , w h i l e Ford
w i l l c o n t r i b u t e about $50 m i l l i o n o v e r an e i g h t - y e a r p e r i o d . This program was
t o h a v e b e e n r e v i e w e d j o i n t l y e a c h y e a r and f u n d e d o n a n a n n u a l b a s i s .
However, i n October, 1978, Ford Motor Co. n o t i f i e d the Department o f Energy
and P h i l i p s that i t would n o t renew i t s c o n t r a c t t o develop the S t i r l i n g
engine. A s a r e a s o n , Ford Motor Co. c i t e d t h e need t o c o n c e n t r a t e i t s r e -
s e a r c h r e s o u r c e s t o meet government r e q u i r e m e n t s i n s e v e r a l a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y
f u e l economy and e m i s s i o n s . DOE p l a n s t o c o n t i n u e t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e de-
velopment program w i t h a team c o n s i s t i n g o f United S t i r l i n g , American Motors,
..
and Mechanical Technology, I n c . -..

DOE p l a n s c a l l f o r a d e c i s i o n whether t o d e v e l o p b o t h t h e g a s t u r b i n e
and t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e a s s u c c e s s o r s t o t h e s p a r k - i g n i t i o n I C engine.
The r e c e n t funding a c t i o n s by t h e f e d e r a l government a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e
recommendations o f a s t u d y by t h e J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory ( JPL) completed
in July, 1975, which, i n part, urged a massive R&D e f f o r t l e a d i n g t o t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a S t i r l i n g engine-driven c a r i n mid-1985. T h i s r e p o r t made
a case for the S t i r l i n g engine t o supplant the conventional Otto c y c l e a s
a b e n e f i t b o t h t o c o n s u m e r and n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e o f
i t s superior f u e l ecuuomy and Low p ~ l l u t ~ i o cnh a r a c t e r i s t i c s . At t h e same
t i m e , t h e r e p o r t acknowledged t h a t , because o f i t s r e l a t i v e l y i n f a n t s t a g e ,
development would be a high r i s k v e n t u r e and would require a substantial
r e s o u r c e commitment by b o t h government and i n d u s t r y . JPL estimated a t o t a l
development c o s t o f $260 m i l l i o n (1974 d o l l a r s ) f o r each independent e f f o r t ,
T h.e r e. a f t e r , a front-end commitment of $500 m i l l i o n i n e n g i n e e r i n g , t o o l s and
p l a n t , .and a p e r i o d o f a t l e a s t f i v e y e a r s i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d a s neces-
s a r y f o r the q u a n t i t y (400,000 units/yea,r) production of a s t a n d a r d i z e d
engine.

Given t h e l e v e l o f commitment t o t h e development o f S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s

fwr aueomo.tive u s e , i t appears t h a t engines f o r s t a t i o n a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e
equally feasible. However, such a developmental p r o g r a q would be signif-
i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t because s i z e and weight a r e n o t t h e dominant f a c t o r s ; r a t h e r
fuel f l e x i b i l i t y , e s p e c i a l l y t h e a b i l i t y t o burn c o a l , along with p o t e n t i a l
high efficiency, make t h e s t a t i o n a r y S t i r l i n g 'engine a t t r a c t i v e and unique.
Similar to the development of automotive engines, a stationary, Stirling
e n g i n e i n t h e 500-3000 h p c l a s s , c o u l d n o t be a v a i l a b l e u n t i l t h e mid-to-late
1980s.

3.2 ATTRIBUTES

The primary advantages of the S t i r l i n g engine that could make its

u s e a t t r a c t i v e i n community energy systems a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h automotive a p p l i c a t i o n s , namely:

h i g h thermal e f f i c i e n c y ,
e good p a r t - l o a d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
e fuel f l e x i b i l i t y ,
low e m i s s i o n s ,
e good r e l i a b i l i t y , and
low n o i s e .

O f t h e s e a d v a n t a g e s , t h o s e t h a t ~ 6 u l dbe u u s t decisi'vc a r e :

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a c h i e v i n g very h i g h . e f f i c i e n c y l e v e l s
i n t h e 40-50% r a n g e , and
t h e a b i l i t y t n . 11se a m u l t i p l i c i t y of f u e l forms i n c l u d -
i n g c o a l , c o a l - d e r i v e d f u e l s , municipal and i n d u s t r r a l
w a s t e s , and low-Btu g a s e s (from d i g e s t o r s y s t e m s ) .

A l t h o u g h S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s w i t h r C C i c i e n c y l e v e l s a p p r o a c h i n g 40%
h a v e been b u i l t and t e s t e d a s p a r t of , t h e P h i l i p s developlnent progrcimu, iliast
S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s b u i l t t o d a t e have e f f i c i e n c y l e v e l s of about 32-35%. The
ideal efficiency of these e n g i n e s would Ire as high'. a t 60-70%; therefore,
most present engines achieve about 50% of Carnot efficiency. The r a t h e r ,
l a r g e d i v e r g e n c e between o b t a i n e d e f f i c i e u c y and t h c i d e a l i s due, i n p a r t ,
t o t h e r ~ s t r i c t i o n s p l a c e d on t h e e n g i n e s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r . predomi,nant
d c v c l o p m e n b L u L u s c in a u t o m o t i v e p r o p v 1 s i . o n s y 5 t e m s . This application
requires:

v e r y low f i r s t c o s t s ( i $ 6 / h p ) which r e s t r i c t s t h e u s e of
high-temperature m a t e r i a l s and e l a b o r a t e f a b r . i c a t i o n tech-
niques ;

e h i g h power-to-volume ( o r w e i g h t ) r a t i o s which r e s u l t i n :
. - h i g h working gas p r e s s u r e l e v e l s t h a t reduce t h e
allowable temperature l e v e l s i n t h e h e a t e r s e c t i o n ,
 - h i g h o p e r a t i n g s p e e d s t h a t i n c r e a s e flow l o s s e s ,
- high heat f l u x input r a t e s t h a t increase temperature
d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e h e a t e r t u b e s and t h e working
fluid;
t h e requirement f o r a i r c o o l i n g which, when combined w i t h
the f r o n t a l area r e s t r i c t i o n s , leads t o r e l a t i v e l y high
h e a t r e j e c t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s (170"-220°F);

I n general, t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s do n o t a p p l y t o s t a t i o n a r y e n g i n e
applications. This g r e a t l y indreases t h e f l e x i b i l i t y i n designing S t i r l i n g
e n g i n e systems and a l l o w s f o r maximizing e f f i c i e n c y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h achiev-
i n g a low o v e r a l l o p e r a t i n g c o s t . E f f i c i e n c y c a n be a s t r o n g economic
driving f o r c e because a 5% i n c r e a s e in efficiency i s worth about $100/hp
i n i n i t i a l coscs, assuming $3/1-0~Btu f u e l , 20% c a p i t a l c h a r g e s , and a
high load f a c t o r .

The realistic limit on Stirling engine efficiency is difficult to

specify. However, e x t r a p o l a t i o n s of e x i s t i n g d a t a assuming a h e a t r e j e c t i o n
temperature of l C ) O O ~ , optimum e f f i c i e n c y o p e r a t i o n speeds, and h e a t input
t e m p e r a t u r e s ( o f t h e g a s ) of 1 9 0 0 " ~i n d i c a t e t h a t S t i r l i n g e n g i n e e f f i c i e n c i e s
of about 45% a r e a realistic goal. Even h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c y l e v e l s may be
obtainable i f ceramic heat exchangers can be developed that allow higher- '

temperature operation. These h i g h e f f i c i e n c y l e v e l s would be o b t a i n a b l e w i t h

e n g i n e s o v e r a wide power range ( a few k i l o w a t t s t o thousands of k i l o w a t t s ) ,

which make t h e i r u s e v i a b l e f o r s e v e r a l I n t e g r a t e d Energy System a p p l i c a t i o n s .

The e f f i c i e n c y p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e i s n o t matched by t h e a l t e r -
native engines considered, particularly a t more modest power levels. For
example, t h e most. e f f i c i e n t c o n v e n t i o n a l systems wnl-~ld ucc l a r g e , low Speed,
U i e s e l e n g i n e s which have e f f i c i e n c y l e v e l s i n t h e 34-38% r a n g e .

The second major advantage of t h e S t i r l i n g engine i s i t s a b i l i t y t o

use various k i n d s of fuel forms, i n particular, coal, coal-derived .fuels,
m u n i c i p a l s o l i d w a s t e s , and p o s s i b l y b i o m a s s - d e r i v e d f u e l s (wnod c h i p c ,
b i o g a s , eLc.1.

A s au example, Fig. 3.1 i n d i c a t e s a s y s t e m t h a t would a l l o w f o r

using such a multiplicity of fuels and h a s been demonstrated by P h i l i p s .
I n t h i s system, t h e heat i s t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e f u e l combustor t o t h e
S t i r l i n g engine by a sodium h e a t pipe. T h i s a l l o w s f o r a uniform, high-
f l u x heat input t o t h e S t i r l i n g engine h e a t e r without s u b j e c t i n g t h e h e a t e r
 -590°-B000F
,Ibi,
tvvvTt loo0,
MEDIUM TEMPERATURE
STORAGE 150'- 3 0 0 ° F
I -C

HOT WATER

- -
&
/
. .
I / I
. \
d
COMBUSTION AIR

AIR PREHEATER
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
HOT ( 1 4 0 0 ~ - 2 5 0 0 " ~ )COMBUSTION GASES

HEATER SECTION

-. .- -. - HOT WATER

. LOW TEMPERATURE
STORAGE 8 0 " - 2 2 0 ° F

POWER GENERATOR

Fig. 3 . 1 S t i r l i n g ~ n g i n e / H e a t Recovery O p t i o n s

t u b e s t o t h e p o t e n t i a l c o r r o s i o n and f o u l i n g a s s o c i a t e d with t h e combustion

, o f many s o l i d f u e l forms. The h e a t i n p u t t o t h e h e a t p i p e system can be v i a
h e a t exchanger c o n f i g u r a t i o n s ( f i n s , e t c . ) t h a t a r e e a s i l y c l e a n e d and s t i l l
have sufficient heat-transfer a r e a t o keep gas-to-metal h e a t f l u x e s and
t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s Inw. T h i s arrangement allows d e c o u p l i ~ l g t h e combustion gas
t o m e t a l from t h e h e a t e r tube t o engine gas h e a t t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s e s and makes
i t p o s s i b l e t o optimize both functions. I t should be noted t h a t t h i s
arrangement i s n o t without i t s problems; part icul.arly those associated
w i t h t h e s a f e t y of l i q u i d metal s y s t e m s and t h e c l i o i c e o f contai.nment
materialc,

The file1 f l e x i b i l i t y of t h e ' s t i r l i n g e n g i n e i s matched o n l y by t h e

Rankinc-cyclu engine alternatives. However, small Rankine cycle engiaes
u s i n g w a t e r o r o r g a n i c working f l u i d s would n o t have n e a r l y t h e e f f i c i e n c y
of t h e S t i r l i n g engine systems. T h i s w i l l be an i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t
f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g c h o i c e of power system o p t i o n s .

3.3 ENERGY SYSTEM APPLICATIONS

A s i n d i c a t e d i n .Fig. 3.1, t h e r e a r e two s o u r c e s of h e a t i n a S t i r l i n g

e n g i n e which can b e used t o h e a t w a t e r . These a r e from t h e combustor exhaust
 g a s and from t h e c o o l i n g w a t e r . The r e j e c t e d h e a t c a n , - i n t u r n , b e used f o r a
. v a r i e t y o f a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g h o t w a t e r , s p a c e h e a t i n g and t h e o p e r a t i o n
of absorption c h i l l e r s . The two h e a t ;ources are:

(1) Heat r e i e c t e d from t h e cycle durina the c o m ~ r e s s i o n

process. Stirling engines require coolers that
s h o u l d o p e r a t e a t a s low a t e m p e r a t u r e a s p o s s i b l e t o
maximize e n g i n e e f f i c i e n c y . T h i s makes p r e h e a t i n g
domestic hot water o r process water p a r t i c u l a r l y
a t t r a c t i v e because these preheat functions o f t e n
c a n be accomplished w i t h water a t temperatures of
90"-140°F. However, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e
cooling water temperature, a t a s a c r i f i c e i n e f f i -
c i e n c y , t o meet h e a t i n g and c o o l i n g n e e d s .

(2) E x h a u s t g a s e s from t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e combustor a t

t e m p e r a t u r e s above 500°F (even w i t h p r e h e a t e r ) .
A p o r t i o n o f t h i s e x h a u s t g a s h e a t c o u l d be used t o
h e a t water i n a gas-liquid h e a t exchanger. Because
o f the r e l a t i v e l y high temperature o f the exhaust
g a s e s , water ( o r steam) could be e a s i l y heated t o
t e m p e r a t u r e s above 3 0 0 " ~t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e r a n g e
of applications f o r t h i s heat source. The i n c l u s i o n
of t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n i n a S t i r l i n g engine system
c o n c e p t would r e d u c e t h e i n c e n t i v e t o a c h i e v e v e r y
h i g h e f f e c t i v e n e s s o n t h e a i r p r e h e a t e r . s y s tem
b e c a u s e t h e e x h a u s t h e a t would n o t b e w a s t e d .
Gas-to-liquid h e a t exchangers a r e l e s s expensive t h a n
gas-to-gas r e c u p e r a t o r s (because o f h i g h e r average
h e a t - t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s o f l i q u i d s a s compared t o
gases), so t h a t relaxing the effectiveness require-
ments o f t h e r e c u p e r a t o r c o u l d r e s u l t i n a n o v e r a l l
c o s t reduction.

. I n t h e system o f Fig. 3.1, h e a t i s s t o r e d a t two. d i f f e r e n t tempera-

t u r e r a n g e s t o p r o v i d e maximuu syscem f l e x i b i l i t y i n m e e t i n g t h e r m a l l o a d s .
F i g u r e s 3 . 2 a n d 3 . 3 show two a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s w i t h i n a
Community Energy System c o n t e x t .

I n t h e s y s t e m o f F i g . 3 . 2 , which m i g h t b e t y p i c a l o f a h o s p i t a l complex
i n n o r t h e r n c l i m a t e s , b o t h h o t w a t e r and s p a c e h e a t i n g n e e d s a r e s a t i s f i e d
by:

(1) p r e h e a t i n g t h e w a t e r a t modest t e m p e r a t u r e s w i t h h e a t
p r o v i d e d by t h e c o o l e r s , and

(2) ' "topping o f f " t h e temperature w i t h h i g h e r temperature

h e a t p r o v i d e d by warm w a t e r from t h e c o o l e r s i n a c o i l
placed i n the a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n system.
 EXHAUST HEAT
- DOMESTIC HOT
WATER (160°F)
EXCHANGE LOOP-

ELECTHICI'I
i
IU biilLDlNO
. ' +
COLD 'IAP WATER
. .

Fig. 3.2 Combined PowerIHeating Energy System Using a Stirling Engine

One advantage of this system,arrangement is that the c u l i l e r o are operated at a

relatively low temperature coaducivc to high engine efficiency while supplying
a major portion of the water and space heating loads.

I n the system of Fig. 3.3, which might be applicable to a large

shopping center, the lieat energy i.s stored at temperatures consisterlt with
operation of an absorption air conditioning system (190"-230"~). This
arra~sgcment requires operating the engi.ne coolers it relatively high temper-
atures which results iil deg.r"adationof cn~i.neperformance. The apprup.riate
tradeoffs between engine efficiency and the temperature availability of
reject heat from the coolers will require study of specific applications.

The application of Stirling engines in a Community Energy System

context is, of . course, rlot unique to this engine concept. Fig. 3.4 shows
the avei.lability of waste energy trom alterliativc engine systems under con-
sideraeion.

As indicated, the waste heat availability from the Stirling engine is

primarily at low temperatures from the cooler systems. In contrast, heat
availability from D i c ~ e land gas turbine engines is primarily at higher
temperatures in the exhaust gases. Fortunately, most of the heating functions
in a residential/commercial community can be performed at relatively low
temperatures, so that the performance of the Stirling engine is not sig-
nificantly degraded. ' However, the operation of absorption air conditioning
 COOL AIR TO BUILDING
ABSORPTION AIR
CONDITIONING UNIT ,-

COOLING COIL

STIRLING ENGINE -
tt
WARM AIR
RETURN

-
-
-210
-
- DOMESTIC
HOT WATER

J~~~~~
II tL

COLD TAP WATER

Fig. 3 . 3 Combined PowerIAir C o n d i t i o n i n g Energy Using a S t i r l i n g Engine

u n i t s could d e c r e a s e engine performance a s much as. 20% i f a b s o r p t i o n u n i t s

d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e a t 180°-200°F a r e u t i l i z e d .

One. advantage of t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e i n an I n t e g r a t e d Energy System

context is t h a t the heat can be e x t r a c t e d from t h e c o o l e r s i n t h e form of
hot water a t l i t t l e , o r no, additional cost (i.e., t h e c o o l e r s must be
provided w i t h w a t e r . c o o l i n g even i f t h e o n l y f u n c t i o n of t h e engine i o
e l e c t r i c power p r o d u c . t i o n ) . This i s i n c o n t r a s t with t h e s i t u a t i o n of
D i e s e l o r gas t u r b i n e e n g i n e s ; i n which most, o r a l l , of t h e h e a t must be
e x t r a c t e d by p l a c i n g w a s t e - h e a t b o i l e r s i n t h e h o t . e x h a u s t gas streams.
These h e a t exchangers represent a substantial cost factor in the overall
t o t a l e n e r g y system, and t h e S t i r l i n g i o a t a n advantage i n t h i s c a s e .

The a b o v e a d v a n t a g e (i. e . , e a s e o f e x t r a c t i n g h e a t ) i s somewhat

c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d by t h e fact that t h i s h e a t w i l l be p r i m a r i l y a t lower
temperature levels ( 2 0 0 " ~ ) unless significant degradations i n engine e f f i -
ciency a r e acceptable. T h i s may i n c r e a s e t h e c o s t of t h e energy d i s t r i b u -
t i o n and s t o r a g e systems a s compared w i t h t h e D i e s e l and gas t u r b i n e o p t i o n s ,
where h e a t can be g e n e r a t e d r e a d i l y i n t h e form of steam o r hot
w a t e r i n t h e waste-heat boilers.
 Fig. 3 . 4 Availability of Wasce IItat from Vari.ous Engine Options .

3.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

To have sufficient data to perform systems analysis, it is necessary to

know the characteristics of Stirling engine performances at full and part
load. Furthermore, correction factors would be needed to determine the
effect of variations in hearer head temperature and. coplant temperature on
Srirlil~g engine efficiency and power output. These data were gathered frnm
the literature and are based, where possible, on actual engine experimental.
data.

Ferformance characterist ics of arlvanced s!tir1ine engiiles are estimated,

based on expected system efficiency for the fully developed, mature eech-
nology. . .

Figure 3.5 shnw3 the part-load performance characteristics of a Stir-

ling engine, including recoverable heat at 80°C. These curves were developed
from a study by Philips of Total Energy Systems for single buildings.12 The
shaft work is strictly the mechanical output and must be multiplied by the
generator efficiency to get the electrical output. The cooling water temp-
erature is 80°C (176°F). Figure 3.6 shows the same engine with the cooling-
water temperature at 120°C (248°F). In each of these cases, the total amount
of usable fuel energy is almost identical at about 85-90%. This will be
considered as a general- 100
ly fixed percentage so , that t
REJECTED HEAT
v a r i a t i o n s i n engine e f f i c i e n c y
w i l l r e s u l t i n o p p o s i t e changes .
i n recoverable heat.

Figure 3.,7 shows the

v a r i a t i o n of e n g i n e s h a f t work
efficiency for the current and
advanced technology., Stirling
engines can now b e 0perate.d
a t about 30-34% e f f i c i e n c y . The .

expected advanced f ull-load

2
efficiency i s about 46%, a l - W
40
though t h e r e i s some u n c e r t a i n t y
i n t h i s estimate. The shape o f
t h i s c u r v e g e n e r a l l y conforms t o
d a t a g i v e n by b o t h p h i l i p s 9 and
~mtech
.I3

F i g u r e s 3.8 and 3.9 g i v e

t h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s on e n g i n e
e f f i c i e n c y and power, o u t p u t a s a
f u n c t i o n o f h e a t e r head tempera-
' RATED ENGINE LOAD (W
t u r e and c o o l i n g w a t e r tempera-
ture, respectively. These d a t a
a r e needed f o r a d a p t i n g S t i r l i n g F i g . 3.5 s t i r l i n g Engine Heat Balance
w i t h 8 0 " ~Cooling Water
'engines to specific system
Temperatures
designs. 13

3.5 COSTS

Expected costs of a mature S t i r l i n g e n g i n e t e c h n o l o g y , a r e d i f f i -

cult t o e s t i m a t e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e a r l y - s t a g e s o f development. In t h i s
c a s e , r e c o u r s e must be t a k e n t o e x p e r t o p i n i o n w h i l e acknowledging t h a t
t h e numbers w i l l change a s more i n f o r m a t i o n i s g a i n e d d u r i n g development.
 '"1 RECOVERABLE HEAT I

. .
a
e .
*
w
50 -
a
W
Z
W

4n-
3
h,

30 -
TECHNOLOGY

RATED CNGINE LOAD (910) R A T E D ENGINE LOAD 1%)

Fig. 3.6 Stitling Eligine Heat Fig, 3.7 Generalized .Stir-

Balance with 1 2 0 " ~ ling Engine ticat
Cooling Water Temp- Balance
erature

Generally, Stirling-engine construction, installation, and opera-

tion are. expected to be very similar to those of Diesel engines. In thc
Philips report,12 the cost of the Stiilirlg engine was assumed to be twice that
of a similar-sized Diesel engine when the technology is m a t u r c . Howe.ver, we
are really considering essentially two Stirling engine developments:

1) Advanced Engine - First Generation: A large, stationary

engine with high efficiency using distillate fuels ; ,and

2) Advanced Engine - Second Generation: A large, stationary,

high-efficiency engine using coal or coal-derived fuels.
 HEATER HEAD TEMP (OC) COOLING WATER .TEMP ( O C )

Fig. 3.8 E f f e c t of Heater Head Fig. 3.9 E f f e c t of Cooling Water

Temperature on Power Temperature on Power and
and E f f i c i e n c y i n Efficiency i n a S t i r l i n g
S t i r l i n g Engines Engine
( c o u r t e s y United S t i r l i n g )

Amtech c o n s i d e r e d e a c h o f t h e s e o p t i o n s 1 3 and e s t i m a t e d t h e c o s t
of a first-generation e n g i n e t o be 20-50% more expensive t h a n a s r m i l a r l y
s i z e d Diesel engine. For a second-generation S t i r l i n g e n g i n e burning c o a l , i t
was e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e c o s t of such an ,engine would be 50-80% more e x p e n s i v e
than a similarly sized Diesel engine. With t h i s i n m i n d , t h e c o s t o f a
S t i r l i n g engine i n a Total, or I n t e g r a t e d Energy System can be e s t i m a t e d .

The u n i n s t a l l e d c a p i t a l c o s t of a D i e s e l e n g i n e i s g i v e n by7

where :

I E =~C a p i t a l Cost ($/kW), and

Q = Engine C a p a c i t y (kW).
~ e n e r a l l ~t h, e r e s t of t h e i n s t a l l a ' t i o n c o s t s about $150/kW and i s comprised
of the c o s t s o f : ( a ) t h e generator, ( b ) i n s t a l l a t i o n , ( c ) c o n t r o l s , and' (d)
h e a t r e c o v e r y equipment. Therefore, t h e c o s t of. a Diesel engine i n s t a l l e d i n
a ~ o t a lEnergy P l a n t i s g i v e n a s :

L i k e w i s e , . t h e t o t a l i n s t a l l e d c o s t o f a n a d v a n c e d S t i r l i n g e n g i n e . would

where :

Cg = C o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r
CS = 1.2-1.5 f i r s t generation
CS = 1.5-1.8 second g e n e r a t i o n

The maintenance c o s t s of t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d t o b e
equal to those of a s i m i l a r l y s i z e d D i e s e l e n g i n e and a r e g i v e n i n S e c t .
4.2.3.
 4.1 GENERAL

. (he of t h e main o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s t u d y 'is t o compare t h e performance

o f S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s w i t h t h a t o f t h e main t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o m p e t ' i t o r s i t w i l l
: face i n p e n e t r a t i n g the Total , or I n t e g r a t e d , Energy System m a r k e t . Competi-
t i o n . i n s ys terns a p p l i c a t i b n s w i l l i n c l u d e :

( a ) internal-combustion p i s t o n engines,
( b ) Brayton-cycle g a s t u r b i n e s , and '.
( c ) steam t u r b i n e s .

The most important c o m p e t i t o r s i n t h e system s i z e s o f i n t e r e s t h e r e w i l l be.

the first two, w h i l e t h e t h i r d i s expected t o be, not only competitive i n
l a r g e s y s t e m s , b u t a l s o a b l e t o o f f e r t h e f u e l f l e x i b i l i t y a t a h i g h e r thermal
e f f i c i e n c y which i s a s t r o n g a t t r i b u t e o f t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e .

The i n t e n t here i s not t o p r o v i d e a n e x h a u s t i v e review o f i n t e r n a l

combustion p i s t o n e n g i n e s ( D i e s e l s i n t h i s c a s e ) and g a s t u r b i n e s , b u t o n l y t o
present enough d e t a i l t o provide a base f o r comparing systems d e s i g n s and
s i m p l e performance/cos t evaluations. More d e t a i l on v a r i o u s e n g i n e o p t i o n s
and their a p p l i c a t i o n i n I n t e g r a t e d E n e r g y S y s t e m s c a n be f o u n d e l s e -
where .15'17

4.2 DIESEL ENGINES

Of t h e i n t e r n a l combustion p i s t o n . e n g i n e s c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e f o r use
i n T o t a l Energy Systems, t h e compression igni.ti.on Dieocl engiue i s t h e most
widely used. T h i s e n g i n e , which h a s been developed o v e r t h e p a s t 40 o r more
y e a r s , h a s g a i n e d wide a c c e p t a n c e i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n as well a s s t a t i o n a r y ,
power'generation applications. ~ h u s , ' t h e concern h e r e w i l l be w i t h D i e s e l
e n g i n e s , a l t h o u g h s p a r k i g n i t i o n e n g i n e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r use i n s t a t i o n a r y
a p p l i c a t i o n s i n many o f t h c same e n g i n e s i z e s .

4.2.1 Current S t a t u s

The D i e s e l e n g i n e i s a h i g h l y a c c e p t e d , m a t u r e t e c h n o l o g y , that
embodies relatively low c o s t , good efficiency, and high reliability thus
making i t a t t r a c t i v e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l power g e n e r a t i o n .
The s i z e range covered by D i e s e l s i s from a few hundred horsepower i n h i g h
speed automotive application to low-speed marine engines with horsepower
ratings in excess of 10,000. The size distribution of stationary engines is
shown in Fig. 4.1. ' Many engines are installed in the 500 -- 1000 hp class
with a significant number also in the 3000 -- 4000 hp range. The projection
through 1982 shows significant growth in these markets.

The . Diesel engine, especially the low-to-medium speed engines, is

especially suitable for application in energy systkms in the residential/com-
mercial sector, not only because of its relatively low installation and
maintenance costs and high reliability, but also because of its good effi-
ciency and the availability of recoverable heat, to meet thermal demando.

SURVEY RANGE OF REPORTED

DATE STARTING DATES

499 999 1499 1999 2499 2999 3499 3999 4499 . 4999 5499 5999 UP
ENGINE HORSEPOWER

Fig. 4.1 Size Distribution of Oil and Gas Engine Installa-

tions Reported in 1968, 1973, and 1975 surveys14
 F i g u r e 4 . 2 shows t h e g e n e r a l h e a t b a l a n c e of a t y p i c a l D i e s e l e n g i n e .
Not o n l y i s s h a f t work a v a i l a b l e t o d r i v e e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r s , compressors,
o r pumps, b u t h e a t may be . r e c o v e r e d from t.he: ( a ) exhaust gas, (b) jacket
cooling water, (c) lube oil and (d) intercooler. The t e m p e r a t u r e s which
this usable heat c o v e r s r a n g e o v e r t h e e n t i r e .spectrum of t h e s e needed in
r e s . i d e n t i a 1 and commercial a p p l i c a t i o n s . . .

. An e x p e n s e , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e o f r e j e c t e d w a s t e h e a t from D i e s e l
engines; i s u s u a l l y r e l a t e d t o c o s t s of t h e h e a t exchangers, controls, and
e x t r a pkping a n d i n s . t a l l a t i o n . These c o s t s w i l l be a d d r e s s e d l a t e r .

COOL l NG WATER
- -
J
JACKET WATER HEAT
I

- FUEL
(Btu/Bhp-hr)
,
I
1

I . C . ENGINE
I

- , SHAFT
*

I.
LOAD
E l e c t r i c Gen.
2. Compressor
3. Pump
1'
I 1 I,
I I I LUBE OIL 7 1
I I
L-LUB,E
( ru 160°F)
OIL HtAT
I
INTERCOOLER HEAT
A

Fig. 4 . 2 Energy D i s t r i b u t i o n Diagram f o r a D i e s e l Engine

4.2.2 Performance

As the basis for evaluating the performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the

Diesel engine, the heat balance a t full- and p a r t - l o a d o f a low-to-medium-
s p e e d e n g i n e was s e l e c t e d . T h i s h e a t b a l a n c e i s shown i n F i g . 4 . 3 . The n e t
work output of the Diesel and S t i r l i n g engine a r e remarkably s i m i l a r and
show l i t t l e l o s s . of e f f i c i e n c y down t o about 50% of f u l l load. Unlike t h e
S t i r l i n g , h o w e v e r , h e a t i s r e j e c t e d f r o m s e v e r a l p o i n t s a s shown; Most
of the rejected heat l e a v e s t h e e n g i n e through t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e (650"~
t o 1 0 0 0 " ~ )e x h a u s t gases.

The peak efficiency at HEAT BALANCE - LOW SPEED DIESEL ENGINE.

f u l l . l o a d o f t h e D i e s e l i s about
36 - - . 3 8 X . his i s clss~~rncdt o 100
a i i i n r ~ o r ~ , ~ ~ ~ ! I
a p p l y down t o a b o u t 5 0 % o f f u l l -
load. Of the heat rejected
I1 I
through t h e exhaust gases, cooling 80 EXHAUST HEAT
-I
water and lube o i l , o n l y p a r t of
it is recoverable as useful
energy. For example, t o avoid 5 60 -
condensation of harmful acids f
which would destroy the heat g J A C K E T WATER HEAT

exchanger, exhaust gases a t e noL -

cooled t o l e s s t h a n 300-325"~.
W

W
//--
Cooling to lower temperatures 2
would
exchanger,
require
and
a
more
larger heat.
expens i v e
l u a t e r i o l o would h a v e - t d be used.
I/
NET EFFECTIVE WORK

1I
Forty-two percent of the fuel OF I I I I
0 25 50 75 100
energy is recoverable a s useful
thermal energy. Some 2 2 % i s RATED ENGINE LOAD ('lo)
rejected.to the environment,
f o r a net thermal efficiency of Fig. 4 . 3 Low-Speed D i e s e l
Heat Balance
about 78%.
4.2.3 Costs

The u n i n s t a l l e d c a p i t a l ' c o s t o f a D i e s e l e n g i n e i s g i v e n by:

where :

IED= C a p i t a l Cos<($/kW), and.

Q = Engine C a p a c i t y (kw).

The . t o t a l i n v e s t m e n t , . when t h e e n g i n e i s i n p l a c e f o r use i n a T o t a l Energy

System, . a l s o must include the installation cost, generator cost, controls
c o s t , and heat-recovery equipment c o s t . I n g e n e r a l , on a c o s t / u n i t of power
o u t p u t , t h i s amounts t o about $150/kW o f i n s t a l l e d e n g i n e c a p a c i t y . Thus, t h e
t o t a l ' i n v e s t m e n t c o s t f o r a Diesel engine is given a s :

For example, t h e t o t a l i n s t a l l e d c o s t ( i n 1977$) o f a 1000 kw machine:would be

$375/k~.

The o p e r a t i n g c o s t s o f a D i e s e l i n mill;/Bhp-h a r e given as:16

-7 2 -11 3
= 10.644-4.031.10-~ X +6.659.10 X -3.870.10 (4.3)
Co
where :

X = Engine C a p a c i t y (Bhp).

S i m i l a r l y , t h e maintepance c o s t s ( $ / B h p - ~ r ) a r e : 2
'

C~ = 4.9633-1.9709.10-~ X +3.2972.10-~ X - 1 . 8 8 3 9 . 1 0 - ~ ~X (4.4)

Ln p r a c t i c e , most o f t h i s c a n be reduced t o a c o n s t a n t o f about $.05/kWh.

4.2.4 F u t u r e Development

The f u t u r e development of the Diesel engine i s somewhat u n c e r t a i n .

With normal improvements in technology, the e f f i c i e n c y of today's engines
may be e x p e c t e d t o improve. The main t e c h n o l o g i c a l "breakthrough" areas are
s e e n i n t h e development o f : ( a ) coal-using Diesels, and ( b ) a d i a b a t i c
Diesels.

The first development, if successful, w i l l result i n Diesel engines

a b l e t o u s e a non-scarce f u e l , such a s c o a l , i n e i t h e r a c o a l - o i l slurry or as
a f i n e l y ground powder, C u r r e n t l y , t h e Department o f Energy i s i n t h e e a r l y
s t a g e s o f a program aimed a t d e t e r m i n i n g t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of b u r n i n g such f u e l s
i n modified engines. I f t h i s program i s s u c c e s s f u l , and such an engine i s
d e v e l o p e d , i t would p o s s i b l y be i n t h e same time s c a l e a s t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e
development. Thus, a c o m p e t i t o r would be c r e a t e d for the S t i r l i n g engine,
which not o n l y would have good efficiency, but a l s o would use non-scarce
fuels.

A most interesting developmental program is thaL of the adiabatic

D i e s e l , 1 8 , 1 9 t h e i n i t i a l impetus of which, i s t o d e v e l o p an e n g i n e f o r use i n
U.S. Army t a n k s . The program . i s sponsored by the U.S. Army Tank - Automotive
Research and Development Command a l u l ~ g with t h e Cr~mmins Engine Co. Using
ceramic m a t e r i a l s on t h e upper c y l i n d e r w a l l s , p i s t o n , and head, t h e a d i a b a t i c
D i e s e l i s designed s o t h a t l i t t l e o r no h e a t i s r e j e c t e d rlrrough t h e con1 i n g
water. T h i s , i n i t s e l f , i n c r e a s e s t h e c f f i c i c n c y of the b a s i c e n g i n e by about
two p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s . E x h a u s t g a s e s now c a r r y away t h e r e j e c t e d h e a t
and a r e passed t h r o u g h i t u r b i n e o r Rankine-cycle engine where more work i s
done. The u v e r a l l effici.c?ncy o f t h i s e n g i n e i s n o t e x p e c t e d t o approach 50%.
C u r r e n t p l a n s c a l l f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and t e s t i n g o f a p r o t o t y p e e n g i n e lor
automotive a p p l i c a t i o n i n 1979. The d e v e l o p e r s f e e l t h a t t h i s engine, if
succc.s.sfu1, w i l l h e e a s i l y a d a p t a b l e t o s t a t i o n a r y ellgine a p p l i c a t i . o n s , Costs
a r e e x p e c t e d t o be t h e same, o r s ' l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a u a s i m i l a i l y sirzed,
conventkonal D i e s e l e n g i n e .
4.3 GAS, TURBINES

4.3.1 current Status

Gas turbines constitute the second most popular prime-mover used i n

t o d a y ' s T o t a l Energy Systems. They h a v e a v e r y low i n i t i a l c o s t , s m a l l
m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s , and h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y . Modern g a s t u r b i n e s a r e manu-
f a c t u r e d w i t h a much l a r g e r s i z e r a n g e t h a n t h a t o f D i e s e l s . Currently
a v a , i l a b l e e n g i n e s range from about 80 . t o w e l l o v e r 100,000 hp. These i n c l u d e
several different subtypes, such as: ,simple, regenerative, intercoo.led,
r e h e a t , . and compound c y c l e s . O £ i n t e r e s t h e r e w i l l be t h e simple-cycle and
regenerative-cycle t u r b i n e s because t h e y r e p r e s e n t some i n t e r e s t i n g t r a d e o f f s
f o r energy system d e s i g n . A d e t a i l e d review of gas t u r b i n e s and t h e i r c u r r e n t
s t a t u s can be found e l s e w h e r e . l 5 , 1 7

The smaller size, simple-cycle g a s t u r b i n e s h a v e r e l a t i v e l y low

t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c i e s r a n g i n g from about 11 t o about 25%. Although t h e l a r g e r
s i z e s can r e a c h e f f i c i e n c i e s of about 30-33%, t h e y a r e , i n g e n e r a l , t o o l a r g e
and n o i s y t o u s e i n r e s i d e n t i a l / c o m m e r c i a l energy system a p p l i c a t i o n s .
R e g e n e r a t i v e c y c l e e n g i n e s a r e a v a i l a b l e i n l a r g e r s i z e s , r a n g i n g from 12,000
' t o 50,000 hp and can a t t a i n e f f i c i e n c i e s of' up t o 35%.
I00 I
1
4.3.2

balanci
Performance

F i g u r e 4 . 4 shows t h e h e a t

turbine^.^^
of simple-cycle
Gas turbines
gas
I-
80

60
1 1.4 uw '

offer the significant advantage

W
40
in that almost a l l of their W

W
rejected heat is through the 3
LL

high-temperature exhaust gases. 20

Fi.gure ' 1 . 4 shows. t11aL t h e range

of e f f i c i e n c y v a r i e s a s a func-
U 20 40 60 80 100
t i o n o f e n g i n e s i z e from a b o u t RATED ENGINE LOAD ('lo)
15-30%. ' The r e c o v e r a b l e h e a t T = TOTAL EFFICIENCY.
ranges from about 40-45%, . s o E = ELECTRIC EFFICIENCY.
H = RECOVERED HEAT EFFICIENCY
that the t o t a l usable heat is Fig. 4 . 4 Heat Balance of Simple
about 60-70%. Cycle Gas ~ u r b i n e s ~
 -
E = E L E C T R I C EFFICIENCY
H RECOVEREtI HEAT EFFICIENCY

.::::::: .:,:,:*,.:.,.,,:,:.,:.;::.;
.:?:::;,:$,~:~:;:,:;;;:::;;;:i::;;;~~g~;i:~~~~:~
.:;.,. .-...........*x.x:
T

1.4 MW
H

Fig. 4 . 5 Heat Balance f o r Regenerative-Cycle Gas T u r b i n e s

The h e a t b a l a n c e f o r r e g e n e r a t i v e e y c l e gas t u r b i n e s i s shown i n Fig.

4.5. Here, t h e t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y v a r i e s from 20-40% w i t h r e c o v e r a b l e h e a t
v a r y i l ~ from
~ 20-254. 'L'hl~s, a b ~ u45.-55X
~ of the inpit f u e l energy can hc

used.

Table' 4 . 1 listsi t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of gas t u r b i n e s t h a t w i l l

I

be used i n t h e systems s t u d i . e s . G a s ' t u r ~ i a e kdo not have t h i good p a r t - l o a d

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Diesels and ' S t i r l i n g s , but , i t w i l l be assumed t h a t . the
systems can be d e s i g n e d such t h a t the e n g i n e s a r e uced a t o r n e a r f u l l load a t
a 11 t i m e s .
Table 4 . 1 Nominal Gas T u r b i n e Heat Balances

Re~o~erable Rejected
Engine Type Work - ( % ) . Heat ( % ) Heat (%I

Simple Cycle 25
R e g e n e r a t i v e Cycbe 38 22 , 40
4.3.3 Costs

'AS in the case of Stirling engines and Diesels, $ 1 5 0 / k ~will be

allocated
. .
for the cost of installation, cqntrols, heat recovery equipment,
and electric generator'. Including 'these costs, and the cost of the simple-
cycle gas turbine engine itself, the total investment per kW is given as: l7

where :

I:~~= Total Capital Cost ($/kW), and

Q = Engine size (kW).

For the regenerative cycle engine, the total capital cost is given by.

The operating and maintenance costs are about $1.50/hr of operation, based on
'8,000 hr/yr.

4.3.4 Future ~ e v e l o ~ m e n t l ~

Several companies recently have opened multimillion dollar research

f a ~ i l i t i e s ~ ldedicated
-~~ to gas-turbine technologies. The greatest efforts
are'.concentrated on improving thermal efficiency. Because the theoreti-
cal limit of efficiency is a function of maximum temperature', research is
being done to iucrease the allowable turbine inlet temperature and is pro-
ceeding in two directions. The first-stage blades of multi-stage turbines are
cooled by compressed air which is admitted to the hollow center of the blade
and then passed into the flow stream through a porous-mesh blade surface
material. currently, this allows turbine inlet temperatures of up to 2 , 5 0 0 ° ~
and 'thermal efficiencies of 38% for smaller size turbines. Allowable tempera-
tures may Le further increased by using ceramics. If the combustor, nozzles,
and turbine blades were made of high-temperature ceramic, the theoretical
staichiometric temperature limits could be approached. However, this would
cause problems, such as emissions; in other areas.
 Fuel a l s o i s an i m p o r t a n t . a r e a of development, and t h e d e s i g n of a g a s
turbine .allows i t potentially t o burn almost any fuel. The advantages of
burning s o l i d waste, crude and residual oils, pulverized coal, and high-
s u l f u r f u e l s a r e many, s o r e s e a r c h i n t h e s e a r e a s would be v a l u a b l e i n ' v i e w
o f p r e s e n t energy problems.

Another a r e a of gas-'turbine development c o n c e r n s maintenance. Many

components of i n d u s t r i a l gas t u r b i n e s a r e undergoing design e v a l u a t i o n
and a r e s u b j e c t t o f u t u r e improvements i n maintenance i n t e r v a l s , procedures,
aild c o n t r o l . The c l a s s i c a l , aircraft-engine a p p r o a c h . i s . t o s c h e d u l e main-
t e n a n c e a t v e r y s h o r t i n t e r v a l s t o p r o t e c t p a s s e n g e r s and p l a n e s . However,
because industrial-type gas turbine reliability i s not as c r i t i c a l , main-
tenance i s subject t o other constraints.
 5. COMPARISONS OF ALTERNATIVE PRIME-MOVERS*

5.1 PERFORMANCE

The primary e n g i n e l g e n e r a t o r .systems with which the S t i r l i n g engine

must compete i n community system a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e :

Diesels,
gas t u r b i n e s , and
Rankine c y c l e t u r b i n e s .

Of these opt'ions, the first two a r e seen a s t h e o n l y c o m p e t i t o r s for the

r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l systems of l e s s t h a n about 5 MWe s i n c e s m a l l steam t u r b i n e
c o s t s i n c r e a s e and e f f i c i e n c y d e c r e a s e s r a p i d l y . With t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n
of o r g a n i c R a n k i n e ~ c y c l ee n g i n e s , a l l of t h e s e c o m p e t i t i v e prime-mover options
a r e i n a more advanced s t a t e of development t h a n a r e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s and have
been used i n T o t a l Energy Systems. T h e r e f o r e , t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e must show
significant potential advantages over the alternatives to justify a large
dyi ;"

r e s e a r c h and development e f f o r t .

The most important characteristics f o r comparing engine options in-

clude :

thermal e f f i c i e n c y
fuei flexibility
emission'.
n o i s e and v i b r a t i o n
capital costs'
o p e r a t i o n a l and maintenan'ce c o s t s
c,

The f i r s t f o u r of t h e s e a w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n ; the l a s t t w o w i l l
b e covered i n S e c t . 5 . 2 .

5.1.1 Thermal ~ f f i ~ i e n c ~ * ~

Thermal e f f i c i e n c y , q t , i s d e f i n e d a s :

leet ti-i.c ouLput

'I.t =
energy c o n t e n t of f u e l consumed

*Parts of t h i ~s e c t i o n were adapted from a r e p o r t by A r t h u r D. L i t t l e , I n c . ,

f o r Argonne N a t i o n a l Laboratory.
 With f u e l c o s t s c u r r e n t l y a t about ' 4 5 6 I g a l ( 3 . 2 0 1 1 0 ~ ~ t u )f u e l a l o n e
c o n t r i b u t e s about 3.ldIkWh t o t h e o p e r a t i o n of a 35% e n g i n e - g e n e r a t o r . This
cost increases t o 4.461kWh if the engine-generator i s only 25% e f f i c i e n t .
For l a r g e r e n g i n e l g e n e r a t o r systems, w i t h h i g h l o a d f a c t o r s , t h e c o s t o f f u e l
i n d i c a t e d above i s t h e l a r g e s t , s i n g l e , o p e r a t i n g c o s t . I f the cost of
f u e l i n c r e a s e s t o 90Clgal ( $ 6 . 4 0 1 1 0 ~ Btu) f u e l c o s t s would predominate by a
wide margin o v e r o t h e r o p e r a t i n g c o s t s . This' s e n s i t i v i t y o f power c o s t s t o
e f f i c i e n c y a l l o w s a . s i g n i f i c a n t premium t o be p a i d f o r a highly e f f i c i e n t
engine. For example, increasing engine-generator efficiency from 30% t o
35% c a n b e worth about $100/kW i n a d d i t i o n a l c a p i t a l expendicuces assuming
c a p i t a l c o s t s o f about 20% and a high- l o a d f a c t o r .

Thc above argl-~nienrsc e r ~ a i u la~c t v a l i d f o r an engine-generator where

the only output i s e l e c t r i c energy. However, t h e r e a r e c o m p l i c a t i o n s when
using engine-generators within a Community Energy system c o n t e x t because
t h e waste h e a t resulting from t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i o n o f t e n can b e u t i l i z e d .
1n those systems where there i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t waste h e a t available, ' the
above arguments f o r h i g h e f f i c i e n c y would have t o be r e e v a l u a t e d . Even h e r e ,
however, i t may be more advantageous t o : ( 1 ) o p e r a t e a h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t power
c y c l e t h a t d r i v e s a heat-pump system r a t h e r t h a n compromise t h e e f f i c i e n c y
o f t h e b a s i c power g e n e r a t i o n u n i t , o r ( 2 ) u s e s o l a r e n e r g y t o s u p p l y a
portion nf lnw t e m p e r a t u r e h e a t needs.

Prl .tQe systeui$ studied i i ~t h i s chapter, the thermal e f f i c i e n c y , r e -

coverable heat, and r e j e c t e d w a s t e h e a t f o r each e n g i n e o p t i o n a r e g i v e n i n
Table 5 . 1 : Tncluded i n t h i s t a b l e a r e nominal v a l u e s f o r each e n g i n e t y p e .

Table 5.1' Nominal Heat Balances. o f Prime-Movers

a s a P e r c e n t a g e o f Fuel I n p u t

Ruccsvershl n Rejected
Engine Type Work Heat Heat

Diesel 36 42 22
A d i a b a t i c Turbo-
Compound ~ i e s e l 47 36 '17
Gas T u r b i n e (Simple) 25 45 30
. Gas Turbine
(Regenerative) . 38 22 40
S t i r l i n g (Current) 34 54 12
S t i r l i n g (Advanced) 46 41 13
The a d i a b a t i c , turbocharged D i e s e l i s i n c l u d e d h e r e , but i s not c o n s i d e r e d i n
t h e systems s t u d i e d . T a b l e 5 . 1 n o t e s t h a t , w i t h ' t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n of t h e
a d i a b a t i c D i e s e l , t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e o f f e r s an o p t i o n t h a t , n o t o n l y has h i g h
efficiency, but also has high recoverable heat. This p a r t i c u l a r attribute
makes t h e S t i r l i n g v e r y a t t r a c t i v e f o r Community Energy System a p p l i c a t i o n s .

5.1.2 Fuel F l e x i b i l i t y

0,ne of t h e major thrusts of the present National Energy P o l i c y is

t o d e v e l o p power s y s t e m s t h a t c a n u s e a v a r i e t y o f l i q u i d , g a s e o u s , and
solid fuels. In particular, t h o s e systems t h a t can u t i l i z e c o a l , municicpal
s o l i d wastes, and biomass d e r i v a t i v e s (wood c h i p s , e t c . ) have a g r e a t long
term advantage over t h o s e systems t h a t r e q u i r e h i g h l y r e f i n e d l i q u i d o r
gaseous f u e l s f o r t h e i r operation. Of t h e s y s t e m s c o n s i d e r e d , o n l y t h e
n
S t i r l i n g e n g i n e and Rankine e n g i n e s have .a h i g h d e g r e e of f u e l f l e x i b i l i t y .
High and medium s p e e d , D i e s e l e n g i n e s r e q u i r e r e f i n e d D i e s e l f u e l * ; gas'^
turbines are highly r e s t r i c t i v e in their acceptable fuel types t o refined
petroleum p r o d u c t s and gaseous f u e l t y p e s .

Although programs t o l i q u i f ) a n d / o r g a s i f y c o a l i n t o e a s i l y used f u e l

forms have a high priority, the resultant fuel forms appear t o have h i g h
p r o j e c t e d c o s t s a t t h i s time a s compared t o d i r e c t c o a l combustion, and may
have problems w i t h fuel-bound n i t r o g e n a s w e l l .

5.1.3 Emissions

All engine systems w i l l have t o s a t i s f y EPA-imposed emission stan-

dards. When b u r n i n g r e f i n e d l i q u i d f u e l s o r g a s , a l l t h e systems can s a t i s f y
these requirements, a l t h o u g h t h e D i e s e l e n g i n e s have l i n g e r i n g NO,, smoke,
and odor problems, which have not y e t been r e s o l v e d . However, both S t i r l i n g
and Rankine can burn any g i v e n f u e l c l e a n e r t h a n t h e i r i n t e r n a l combustion
counterparts because they use sceady-state, external-combustion processes.
Moreover, t h e S t i r l i n g and Rankine e n g i n e s probably can s a t i s f y t h e s e re-
q u i r e m e n t s by burning a wide range of s o l i d o r unrefined fuels and u s i n g
proper combustion technology (exhaust gas recirculation, fluidized beds,

*Coal-driven D i e s e l e n g i n e s a r e under a c t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and c u r r e n t l y

a v a i l a b l e low-speed, marine e n g i n e s have been r u n i n r e s i d u a l f u e l .
etc.). However, each fuel type/combustor system arrangement would have to be
considered separately as is now the 'case for large steam power plants.

5.1.4 Noise and Vibration

The operation of all mechanical and combustion systems causes some

level of noise and vibrati.on. Such noise and vibration problems are parti-
cularly severe for Diesel engines because of the periodic nature of the
combustion and mechanical mot ion processes. Even with Diesel engines, how-
ever, noise levels can be made consistent with OSHA standards with careful
acoustic design (mufflers, sound-proof enclosures, etc. ) and with mechanical,
isolation. However, the requirements to lower noise levels to the OSHA
standard could significantly (15-25%) increase the installed cost of Diesel
generators in a Community Energy System application.

Gas-turbine generators can meet OSHA noise standards by using inlet

and exhaust* mufflers, but at significant cost increases over the base-
line engine costs.

St irling engines can be made completely mechanically balanced thus

eliminating the mechanical vibration problems. ~oise.wouldresult primarily
from the combustion system which can readily be made acceptably quiet with
proper combustion chamber design (again, because of the continuous nature of
the combustion chamber) as well as by operating at near atmospheric pressure.

Rankine cycle engines also should have little problem meeting OSHA.
noise standards.

The main characteristics of the engine alternatives are summarized

in Table 5.2. The uncertainty of the figures relating to Stirling engines is
greater than tor those relating to the gas eurbine which, iu L u i i ~ , is greater
than for the Diesel as reflective of their relative states of development.

The Diesel engine characteristics are consistent with a four-stroke,

turbo-supercharged, IC engine with exhaust gas recirculation for pollution
control. The gas turbine for applicat2ons in the 100-kW, or better, range
(following an extrapolation of current development trends) is taken to be of

*The exhaust muffler can often be incorporated into the waste heat boiler
system in a Total Energy System arrangement.
 Table 5.2 Comparison of Prime-Mover Options

St i r l i n g Diesel Gas T u r b i n e

Efficiency
Near Term
Development a 1
Fuel F l e x i b i l i t y All Fuels Diesel, Natural Speci.f-ied l i q u i d
Gas, P o s s i b l e C o a l and Gaseous F u e l s
Waste Heat A v a i l a b i 1 i . t ~ P , r i m a r i l y a t Low High T e m p e r a t u r e High T e m p e r a t u r e
Temperatures E x h a u s t , Water E x h a u s t s . (>30O0F)
(80-220'~) J a c k e t , Lube O i l
L i f e (MTBO) Hours
R e l a t i v e C o s t of M a i n t e n a n c e
A b i l i t y t o Meet 1976 E m i s s i o n
Standards Yes No (smoke and o d o r Yes
problem)
Can Meet OSHA N o i s e Yes Yes Yes
Weight ( l b l ~ p ) 6-30 6-30 4-6
Box Volume ( f t3/Hp) 0,15-0.3 0.1.2-0.25 0.05-0.2

the internal combustion, (4:l) pressure ,ratio, highly (85%) regenerative,

single or two-shaft open-cycle, type. ' To meet top temperature conditions
best, it will. have blade cooling and ceramic parts in some combination t.o
be determined by future developments.' . Also; it will have a pre-vaporizing
combustor for NO, control. For applications in the 1,000 kW'range (again , '

.., ?
,,

extrapolating current development trends), a similar technology is assumed and "

applied to a simple-cycle engine having an 18:l pressure ratio with regenera-

tor option.

The base-line Stirling engine (for applications in the 100 kW rarige) is

taken to have a Philips/Rinia arrangement .of double-acting pistons with
swashplate drive, hydrogen working fluid, and'mean pressure level p.ower
control. For.applications in the 1,000 kW range, a "V"-type double-acting
piston arrangement with .a conventional c.rankshaft
. . may be substituted.

Most of our electricity is now produced by modern, large steam power

systems. In larger sizes 0 5 0 0 MW) they are quite efficient (30-36%), rela-
tively low in cost, and highly reliable. Some central facilities use back
pressure turbines and supply hot water or low pressure steam for district
heating and cooling. and are, therefore, already being used in a rudimentary
form of a Community Energy System.
 However, because steam power systems do not scale down well into
smaller power units, their flexibility is limited in a Community System
application. The smallest steam power systems commercially available have an
output of 1 MW power range, and these have relatively low efficiency (15-
25%), and relatively high costs. This reduced technical/economic performance
of smaller outputs results from. several factors, including higher optimum
turbine speeds, inability to justify the complexities of feedwater heating via
interturbine stage extraction, costs.of water control, etc.

5.1.5 Advantages of
--
the Stirling Engine

Based on the above comments, it appears that the Stirling engine has
relatively limited advantages over one.or more alternative systems b a s e d 6il:

noise level,
,
e ~ l l i s iso ~ l s
size,
weight,
reliability, and
waste heat availability.

In these areas, alternative systems can do as well (or nearly as well)

as is projected for Stirling engines, thereby providing little incentive for
Stirling development. However, two important advantages exist for a properly
developed Stirling engine system over any single alternarive:

Fuel f lezibiliry, and

High efficiency.

These two areas are critical in justifying the development of a

S t i r l i n g engine for use in Total Energy System applications and thus are
discussed in more detail below.

Current efficiency of Stirling engines is about 30-35%, a range already

as high a3 that for Dicocl cnginco and coneiderably better than.that a h t a ' i n e d
with. gas turbines. 'only large, central station steam power plants can attain
the higher end of this efficiency range.

IL i s duubLLul whether- the efficiency of Diesel powcr cyctems will

improve significantly beyond that now obtained. Development of higher tempe-
rature gas turbine materials indicates that gas turbines may attain efficiency
levels in the 35-38% range.
 For s t a t i o n a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e r e i s a good p o s . s i b i l i t y
t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c y of S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s could be pushed i n t o t h e 45% r a n g e ,
with o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y of 8 5 % , t h u s making S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
more e f f i c i e n t t h a n most a l t e r n a t i v e s . Even i n many Community Energy Systems
applications, power generation e f f i c i e n c y could be an important parameter.

The only. two systems t h a t c u r r e n t l y have a h i g h d e g r e e o f f u e l f l e x -

. .
i b i l i t y a r e t h e Rankine-cycle e n g i n e s and S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s . High performance
(and efficiency) Diesel engines require refined petroleum p r o d u c t s with a
c e t a n e number of about 50. However, large, low-speed, D i e s e l e n g i n e s can
operate with a range of p a r t l y refined o r unrefined liquid fuels (such a s
bunker C f o r marine D i e s e l s ) . Gas t u r b i n e s must o p e r a t e w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y
narrow r a n g e . o f l i q u i d d i s t i l l a t e s and gaseous f u e l s . These f u e l r e s t r i c t i o n s
may be reduced i n t h e f u t u r e .

F u e l f l e x i b i l i t y may become paramount, assuming t h a t t h e major t h r u s t

o f an o v e r a l l energy p o l i c y i s t o put i n c r e a s i n g r e l i a n c e on c o a l . Moreover,
t h e a b i l i t y t o use m u n i c i p a l s o l i d wastes and biomass-derived , f u e l s c o u l d be
of p a r t i c u l a r importance w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of a T o t a l Energy System.

Although it w i l l be possible t o operate Diesel and gas t u r b i n e s on

synthetic liquid and gaseous f u e l s . derived from c o a l , present indications
are that t h e s e f u e l forms. w i l l be e x p e n s i v e ; c e r t a i n l y more s o t h a n burning
coal directly.

Presently it i s d i f f i c u l t t o attach a q u a n t i t a t i v e value t o the fuel

f l e x i b i l i t y advantage of t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e . Bas'ed on t h e above c o n s i d e r a -
tions, however, i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s advantage may be t h e most i m p o r t a n t of
all.

5.2 COST AND ECONOMICS

The c o s t s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e f o r i n i t i a l c a p i t a l , o p e r a t i o n , and mainte-

nance, were d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 3 . 0 f o r S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s and i n Chapter 4 . 0
f o r D i e s e l s and gas t u r b i n e s . The purpose of t h i s s e c t i o n i s t o g i v e some
i n d i c a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e economics of each t e c h n o l o g i c a l o p t i o n f o r e l e c -
trical generation only. T h i s a n a l y s i s i s o n l y a s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n of t h e
systems s t u d i e s of Chapter 6 , but i t helps t o i n d i c a t e t h e t r a d e o f f s i n
capital cost and e f f i c i e n c y when a new e n g i n e o p t i o n i s b e i n g developed.
 The cost of generating e l e c t r i c a l energy, given only technological
o p t i o n s , i s g i v e n by:

where :

C = t o t a l c o s t of e l e c t r i c i t y generation ( b l k W h ) ,
e
Cc = c a p i t a l c o s t s ,
CF = f u e l c o s t s ,
C = o p e r a t i o n c o s t s , and
0
CM = maintenance c o s t s .
Fillitig i i ~the t ~ be i n v c ~ l v s d aorl
terma for cach o f t h c o c s o ~ can iili~st rak~
i n t o ' a c c o u n t t h e d e b t i e q u i t y s p l i t , i n t e r e s t r a t e s f o r d e b t and e q u i t y , t a x
rates, etc. E q u a t i o n 5 . 1 can be r e w r i t t e n a s :

when

= instabled cnst n f pfanc ($/kW)

IC
r
C
= annual c a p i t a l c h a r g e raLe
L = load f a c t o r
Cf = c o s t of f n p l

Ne = thermal e f f i c i e n c y
M = annual operating and maintenance c o s t s
P = plant capacity.

Although t h i s a n a l y s i s c o u l d apply a l s o t o t h e thermal energy g e n e r a t e d a t a

p l a n t , h e r e we w i l l be concerned o n l y w i t h the e l e c t r i c a l c o s t s . For t h i s
analysis, i t w i l l b e assumed t h a t ( 1 ) . t h e annual c a p i t a l r e c o v e r y r a t e i s
0 . 2 5 , which t a k e s i n t o account t h e i n t e r e s t and. t a x r a t e s t h a t would a p p l y t o
a utility, and ( 2 ) f o r a T o t a l Energy System, t h e l o a d f a c t o r , L, i s 0.6.
 The efficiencies assumed for each e n g i n e o p t i o n were g i v e n . i n Table 5 . 1 .

The comparison w i l l c o n s i s t mainly of two p a r t s : ( 1 ) a comparison

based on t h e f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n S t i r l i n g e n g i n e , i . e . , a s t a t i o n a r y engine u s i n g
d i s t i l l a t e f u e l s , and ( 2 ) a comparison of t h e c o s t s of a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n o l -
o g i e s to' t h e second-generat i o n st i r l i n g engine, i. e . , t h e c o a l burning ver-
sion. Throughout, we w i l l assume a s c a r c e - f u e l o i l c o s t of $31106 Btu and a
c o a l c o s t of $ 1 . 7 0 1 1 0 ~ Btu. T h e s e c o s t s a r e b a s e d on a c o s t o f o i l o f
$0.44/gal and $40/ton f o r c o a l . These a r e t h e c o s t s used i n Chapter 6. All
comparisons 'are based on 1 . 0 MW e n g i n e s .

5.2.1 F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n S t i r l i n g Engine

Assuming t h e d a t a and model p r e s e n t e d above, t h e c o s t of electrical

g e n e r a t i o n may be p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of f u e l c o s t .
8
Figure 5.1 shows the
comparison of S t i r l i n g engines -
rr 7
with current technology D i e s e l I
I

engines. The s h a d e d a r e a f o r
the Stirling engine option
shows e s s e n t i a l l y t h e range of
variation between what is
p o s s i b l e i n terms of e f f i c i e n c y
and c a p i t a l c o s t u n c e r t a i n t i e s .
The S t i r l i n g e n g i n e becomes c o s t
c o m p e t i t i v e with D i e s e l e n g i n e s
when the fuel cost exceeds
$ 1 . 7 5 1 1 0 ~ Btu, provided that a . 2
-
0
target efficiency of 46% i s
reached by t h e s t i r l i n g and t h a t *
w I
-J
the cost of the S t i r l i n g is
. o n l y 20% g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of a 0
0 I 2 3 4 5 6
similar Diesel. I f t h e c o s t and.
e f f i c i e n c y t a r g e t s a r e n o t met, FUEL COST ( $/lo6 B t u )
t h e n t h i s break-even point w i l l
Fig. 5.1 Comparison of C o s t s f o r F i r s t -
shift to the right, and, in Generation S t i r ' l i n g Engines and
the extreme, the Stirling Current D i e s e l Engine (1000 kW)
w i l l never be c o s t competitive. I f t h e S t i r l i n g m e e t s minimum c o s t and
maximum e f f i c i e n c y t a r g e t s , t h e n a t $ 3 1 1 0 ~ Btu, the cost of e l e c t r i c a l
g e n e r a t i o n w i l l be 0.3d/kWh lower t h a n t h a t o f t h e D i e s e l .

Figure 5.2 shows a

comparison of t h e ,St i r l i n g w i t h
the adiabatic, turbocompound
Diesel engine. Admittedly, 7-

there is at least as great a

r i o k i n t h c dcvelopment of t h i c
e n g i n e as w i t h t h e S t i r l i n g , b u t
i t g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e
tradeof fs to be considered
-
when looking at alternative
technology options. In thi,s ENGINE 3 . 4 7 %

case, the current prediction is

t h a t t h e a d i a b a t i c , turbocom-
pound engine w i l l .have an I I
e f f i c i e n c y s i m i l a r t o t h a t of
0l I 1 I I 1 1
0 I 2 3 4 5 6
t h e f u l l y developed S t i r l i n g , FUEL COST ( $ / l o 6 Btu)
and i t s c o s t w i l l be comparable
to t h a t of a Diesel. If this Fig. 5.2 Culuparisoa ul: E l e c ~ r i c a lGellera-
t i o n C o s t s of First-Generatbon
were true, then the coat Seirling Engines and Advanced
. .
of o p e r a t i n g t h e S t i r l i n g would A d i a b a t i c Turbo Compound En-
g i n e s (1000 kW)
be always g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t ,of
the adiibatic engine, and t h e r e might n o t b e an i n c e n t i v e t o d e v e l o p t h e
Stirling. However, i n t h i s c a s e , t h e c a p i t a l c o s t s o f each o p t i o n a r e s ' t i l l
uncertain, and t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y h a s a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on system economics.

A comparison o f g a s t u r b i n e s w i t h t h e f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n S t i r l i n g i n Fig.
5 . 3 shows t h a t t h e S t i r l i n g o f f e r s overwhelming advantages w i t h i n t h e p r o j e c -
t i o n s of c o s t and e f f i c i e n c y . Table 5 . 3 summarizes t h e c o s t s o f e l e c t r i c a l
g e n e r a t i o n f o r v a r i o u s o p t i o n s a t a f u e l c o s t of $3.00./10 6 Btu.
5.2.2 Second Generation Stir-
ling Eniines

T h e second-generation -a
--
' I
advanced St irl ing engine is
z
\
expected to be the next step in
the development that will I-
V)
0
U
ultimately allow direct coal
Z
combustion. This option is 0
I-
u
expected to cost 50 to 80% more a
W
Z
W
than a s imilar-sized Diesel C)

-1
engine. Nevertheless, we are u
U
a
comparing a St irling engine that I-
U
W
A
uses coal costing $1.70110~ W

Btu against engines with fue.1

c o s t s o f $ 3 . 0 0 1 1 0 ~ Btu. A FUEL COST ( $ / l o 6 B t u )
significant economic advantage
accrues to the second generation Fig. 5.3 Comparison of Electric Generation
Costs of First Generation Stir-
advanced Stirling. ling Engines and Simple and Re-
generative Gas Turbines (1000 kW)

Table 5.3 Summary of Electrical Generation Costs for

Various Options at B Fuel Cost of $ 3 1 1 0 ~Btu
(1,000 kW capacity)

Engine Option cost (#/kwh)

Diesel (current) 4.6

Diesel (~diabatic) 4.2
Gas Turbine (Simple) 6.65
Gas Turbine (~e~enerative) 6.30
Stirling Engine (~irsts en era ti on) 4.3-5.4
 Figure 5.4 compares Stirlings against both the current Diesel and
adiabatic, turbocompound engines. At a fuel price of $ 3 . 0 0 / 1 0 ~ Btu, the
e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i o n c o s t s of t h e D i e s e l o p t i o n s a r e 4.64lkWh and 4.2dlkWh.
The S t i r l i n g engine, howevei-, uses ' coal a t $1. 7 0 1 1 0 ~ Btu, and, given the
u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n c o s t and e f f i c i e n c y , t h e g e n e r a t i o n c o s t would b e 3.6-4.441
kWh. T h i s makes t h e S t i r l i n g a v e r y a t t r a c t i v e o p t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i f the
e f f i c i e n c y t a r g e t i s met.

I n F i g u r e 5 . 5 , t h e second g e n e r a t i o n S t i r l i n g i s compared w i t h t h e g a s
t u r b i n e o p t i o n s . H e r e , t h e c o s t a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s t i = l i n g i s e v e n more
d r a m a t i c t h a n p r e v i o u s l y shown f o r t h e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o p t i o n . The s i m p l e
and r e g e n e r a t i v e g a s t u r b i n e s have c o s t s of 6.74lkWh and 6.34/kWh,
r e s p e c t i v e l y ; whereas, t h e S t i r l i n g c o s t i s 3.6-4.4d/kWh.

FUEL COST ( $ / l o 6 Btu) FUEL COST ( $/lo6 Btu)

F i g . 5.4 Comparison of E l e c t r i c a l Fig. 5.5 Comparison of E l e c t r i c a l

Generation C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n C o s t s of Second
Generation S t i r 1-ing Engines ene era ti on S t i r l i n g Engines
and D i e s e l Engines (1000 kW) . and Gas ~ u r b i n e s( 1000 kW)
 Table 5 . 4 summarizes t h e s e . c o s t s :

Table 5 . 4 Summary o f E l e c t r i c a l G e n e r a t i o n C o s t s f o r
Various Options v s C o s t s o f Second-Gene-
r a t i o n S t i r l i n g Engine

Engine Opt i o n Cost (klkWh)

Diesel (Current) 4.6

Diesel ( ~ d i a b a t i c ) 4.2
Gas Turbine ( s i m p l e ) 6.65
Gas Turbine ( ~ e g e n e r aitv e ) 6.30
S t i r l i n g Engine (Second G e n e r a t i o n ) 3.6-4.4

5.3 CONCLUSION

Based on t h e above d i s c u s s i o n and comparisons, t h e f o l l o w i n g conclu-

s i o n s may be drawn c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e v e r a l o p t i o n s ' c o n s i d e r e d with r e s p e c t t o
S t i r l i n g engines:

The m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e l i e s i n i t s
p o t e n t i a l a b i l i t y t o use non-scarce, r e l a t i v e l y cheap f u e l s ,
such a s c o a l . However, t o r e a l i z e t h i s a d v a n t a g e , t h e
e n g i n e should use c o a l d i r e c t l y and not depend on c o a l -
d e r i v e d f u e l s . ' T h i s advantage could be negated i f c o a l -
u s i n g D i e s e l s a r e developed.

Although t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e S t i r l i n g i s p o t e n t i a l l y
hi.gher t h a n t h a t of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s , t h i s f a c t o r may n o t be
a s s t r o n g an advantage i f the c a p i t a l c o s t s a r e high.
The p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s f o r d e v e l o p i n g a d i a b a t i c D i e s e l s t h a t
c o u l d have a t l e a s t a s good an e f f i c i e n c y , and have lower
capital costs.

The D i e s e l and g a s t u r b i n e power s y s t e m s a r e a l l w e l l

developed and h i g h l y r e l i a b l e i n s t a t i o n a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s .
T h u s , i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t t h e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e w i l l be
s i g n i f i c a n t l y superior t o the conventional options i n
r e l i a b i l i t y and w i l l probably have s i m i l a r o r o n l y s l i g h t l y
b e t t e r m a i n t e n a n c e requirement,^ t h a n a s i m i l a r D i e s e l . '

engine.

I t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of w a s t e h e a t from t h e
c o o l e r s of a S t i r l i n g e n g i n e i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t
advantage. T h i s h e a t i s a v a i l a b l e on1y ' a t r e l a t i v e l y low
t e ~ p e ~ a t u r e s ,u n l e s s e n g i n e e f f i c i e n c y i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
compromised.
. T h e alternative (and well-proven)' engines c a n satis,fy'
.the requirements relative to noise, vibration, and emissions
sufficiently well to provide little incentive to develop
an alternative engine based on these criteria.
 6. TOTAL ENERGY SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

6.1 COMMUNITY DESCRIPTION

To i n v e s t i g a t e t h e v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n o l o g i e s t o be used i n t h e
t o t a l energy s t u d y , t h e Fox. Valley Center and V i l l a g e s were chosen. This
community i s a new development l o c a t e d i n Aurora, Illinois. The Fox V a l l e y
Center i s a two-level, e n c l o s e d m a l l , shopping c e n t e r ' t h a t houses f o u r l a r g e
department s t o r e s and some 150 s p e c i a l t y shops, b o u t i q u e s , and r e s t a u r a n t s ,
having a t o t a l f l o o r s p a c e of 1,709,000 f t 2 . The l a n d a r e a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e c e n t e r i s 115 acre.s. The remaining a r e a o f t h e development - some- 725
acres - i s subdivided i n t o four zones. Zones B and C c o n s i s t of o f f i c e s and
commercial s p a c e ; whereas, D and E i n c l u d e mainly r e s i d e n t i a l , b u i l d i n g s . The
l a y o u t of t h e community i s g i v e n i n F i g . 6 . 1 i n which Zone A r e p r e s e n t s t h e
. .
Fox Valley Center. Table 6 . 1 shows a breakdown of t h e d i f f e r e n t zones o f t h e
community w i t h t h e corresponding f l o o r s p a c e .

Fig. 6.1 Fox V a l l e y V i l l a g e s S i t e P l a n

 Table 6.1 Fox Valley Villages ~'evelopment

ZONE
A Fox Valley Center 1,709,000 ft2
.B Office
Commercial(a)
C Commercial(a) 800,000 ft2
D Residential . .
Townhouses 750 dwelling units
Garden Apartments 408 dwelling units
Mid-Rise Apartments 466 dwelling units
Town Center Commercial 206,000 ft2
School (K-8) 23,000ft2 .
Fire Station , 10,000 ft2
E Residential
Townhouses 900 dwelling units
Garden Apartments 702 dwelling units
officesb a 360,000
Commercia1 15,000 ft2
SUBTOTALS
Fox Valley Center 1,709,000 ft2
Of £ice 1,112,000 ft2
Commercial 1,088,000 ft2
Town Center Commercial 206,000 ft2
School 23,000 ft2
Fire '3tatiotl 10,000 ft7
Residential 3,871,200 ft2

(a)~o~mercialincludes hotel, restaurants, theaters, the Metro-

politan Life Insurance Company Building, and similar uses.
(b)Includas future expansion of the Metropoli.ran Life Insurance
Company Building site.

The Fox Valley ~cnterand Villages were selected for this study because
they had been the subject of earlier inveseigaeionr, and thus the required
information is readily available. Furthermore, by being subdivided into
zones, it allows us, through combination of different zones, to construct
communities with various proportions of residential .and commercial occupancy
and various thermal-to-electric demand ratios. , For the study, four different
groupings of these zones were examined:
 ( 1 ) Zone A ; Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r (commercial o n l y ) ;
( 2 ) Zone D; 89% r e s i d e n t i a l , 1 1 X c m e r c i a l ;
( 3 ) Zones A , D , and E ; 60% r e s i d e n t i a l , 40% commercial; and
( 4 ) Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s ; 48% r e s i d e n t i a l , 52%
commercial.

6.2 ENERGY D E M A ~ D

For each of t h e f o u r groupings chosen, t h e energy demand was c a l c u l a t e d

for e l e c t r i c i t y , cooling, heating, and domestic h o t w a t e r . Reference 26 was
used a s a b a s i s f o r t h e s e c a l ' c u l a t i o n s . Figure 6 . 2 presents t h e hourly
b e h a v i o r of t h e non-HVAC (Heating V e n t i l a t i n g and A i r C o n d i t i o n i n g ) e l e c t r i c
demand a s w e l l a s t h e h e a t i n g demand d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r d e s i g n day of t h e Fox
Valley Center. The non HVAC e l e c t r i c demand peaks i n t h e evening h o u r s , and
c o n s i s t s m a i n l y o f t h e i n t e r i o r and e x t e r i o r l i g h t i n g , and i n c l u d e s t h e
parking lot l i g h t i n g a f t e r dark. The maximum h e a t i n g load o c c u r s i n the
morning hours because of the temperature setback during t h e n i g h t . In the

TIME, h

Fig. 6 . 2 Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and Heating Demand P r o f i - l e of

t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e Winter Design Day
e a r l y evening h o u r s , t h e h e a t i n g demand d r o p s t o z e r o because '.the h e a t pro-
duced by t h e l i g h t i n g i s s u f f i c i e n t t o c o v e r t h e h e a t l o s s e s o f t h e c e n t e r .
F i g u r e 6 . 3 g r a p h s t h e h o u r l y non-HVAC e l e c t r i c demand, a s w e l l a s t h e c o o l i n g
demand d u r i n g t h e summer d e s i g n day o f t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r .

I n t h e c a s e o f t h e c o o l i n g l o a d , t h e maximum o c c u r s i n t h e l a t e a f t e r -
noon h o u r s when t h e o u t s i d e temperature r e a c h e s i t s maximum. Similar curves
f o r t h e w i n t e r and summer d e s i g n days were o b t a i n e d f o r t h e remaining t h r e e
g r o u p i n g s of z o n e s , and t h e s e a r e g i v e n i n Appendix A . The demand f o r domes-
t i c h o t water has not been included i n t h e f i g u r e s because o f i t s small
magnitude compared t o t h e h e a t i n g and c o o l i n g demands. ,However, t h e domestic
h o t w a t e r demand h a s been t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e d e s i g n of t h e system and
i.n t h e f u e l consumption c a l c u l a t i o n s .

TIME, h

F i g . 6.3 Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and Cooling Demand ~ r o f i i eo f

t h e Fox V a l l e y Center f o r t h e Summer Design Day
6.3 METHODOLOGY

6.3.1 Design

Given t h e energy demands f o r t h e w i n t e r and summer d e s i g n d a y s , the

t o t a l energy system can be a d e q u a t e l y d e s i g n e d . I n t h e following paragraphs,
an o u t l i n e o f t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s , common t o a l l prime-movers considered, w i l l
be p r e s e n t e d . More d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s w i l l be g i v e n i n l a t e r s e c t i o n s
where t h e systems f o r each prime-mover a r e d i s c u s s e d .

The first constraint that has t o be s a t i s f i e d by t h e T o t a l Energy

System i s t h e maximum e l e c t r i c power demand. The prime-mover chosen h a s t o
s a t i s f y , n o t only t h i s peak non-HVAC e l e c t r i c demand, b u t a l s o t h e e l e c t r i c
l o a d r e q u i r e d f o r d r i v i n g t h e pumps and t h e o t h e r a u x i l i a r y equipment o f t h e
system. This load i s only estimated i n t h i s study; a d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n o f
a u x i l i a r y e q u i p m e n t was deemed u n n e c e s s a r y f o r o u r o b j e c t i v e s . For the
prime-mover chosen and t h e e l e c t r i c o u t p u t r e q u i r e d , t h e amount of r e c o v e r a b l e
h e a t can be e s t i m a t e d . I f t h i s heat i s not s u f f i c i e n t t o cover the heating
load f o r t h e d e s i g n w i n t e r d a y , t h e power o f t h e prime-mover i s increased.
The a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r i c a l o u t p u t i s used i n e l e c t r i c b o i l e r s and, together
with the recoverable h e a t , s a t i s f i e s the heating load. The system t h u s f a r
can s a t i s f y t h e e l e c t r i c and h e a t i n g l o a d ; t h e o n l y c o n s t r a i n t l e f t i s t h e
cooling load. Recovered h e a t from t h e prime-mover i s u s u a l l y i n s u f f i c i e n t to'
produce, through a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s , t h e amount of c o o l i n g r e q u i r e d . 'l'wo
d e s i g n o p t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e amount o f c o o l i n g produced.
I n t h e f i r s t o p t i o n , A , h o t water b o i l e r s a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e system t o
i n c r e a s e t h e h o t w a t e r a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s , t h e number of
which i s a l s o i n c r e a s e d a c c o r d i n g l y . I n t h e second o p t i o n , B , t h e e l e c t r i c a l
o u t p u t o f t h e prime-mover i s i n c r e a s e d , and t h e a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r i c power i s
used t o d r i v e compressive c h i l l e r s t o s a t i s f y t h e remaining c o o l i n g demand.

I n t h e above c a l c u l a t i o n s , hot- and c h i l l e d - w a t e r s t o r a g e i s included

t o reduce t h e peak h e a t i n g and c o o l i n g l o a d s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e d e s i g n power
of t h e e q ' u i - p e n t and i n c r e a s e t ' h e ' e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e system.

TO compare t h e c o s t s of d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s , an e s t i m a t e o f t h e a n n u a l
f u e l consumption by t h e T o t a l Energy System i s r e q u i r e d . From. t .h e demand
curves f o r the d e s i g n d a y s , t h e r a t i o o f t h e a v e r a g e demand
. . t o t h e peak demand

i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e e l e c t r i c , h e a t i n g , and c o o l i n g l o a d s . v a r i a t i o n s of
peak and o f t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e o v e r t h e y e a r a r e assumed t o ' have a c e r t a i n
profile. Thus, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e annual f u e l consumption becomes r a t h e r
s i m p l e and w i l l be shown i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s .

6.3.2 Cost A n a l y s i s

A f t e r t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s h a s been completed and t h e equipment h a s been

s i z e d , t h e c o s t of t h e components i s e s t i m a t e d . The c o s t of t h e prime-mover
i s c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e formulae p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t . 4 . This c o s t i n c l u d e s , . n o t
o n l y t h e prime-mover, b u t a l s o t h e g e n e r a t o r , h e a t r e c o v e r y equipment, i n s t a l -
latlon, and c o n t r o l s . For t h e e i e c f r i c iieaeeits with power below 4.6 MW, a
constant value of $20/kW (which includes installation) was assumed. For
l a r g e r u n i t s , t h e formula g i v e n i n Kef. 2 7 i s u t i l i z e d , and t h e i n s t a l l e d c o s t
i s c a l c u l a t e d by assuming t h a t t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n i s 80% o f t h e i n i t i a l equip-
ment c o s t . The r e s u l t i n g t o t a l c o s t of t h e e l e c t r i c b o i l e r f o r u n i t s l a r g e r
t h a n 4.6 MW becomes

where Q i s t h e power of t h e b o i l e r i n MW.

Cost of t h e o i l - f i r e d , a s w e l l a s of t h e c o a l - f i r e d hot-water b o i l e r s ,
was estimated uoing Rcf. 28. For t h e r a n g e of o u t p u t capacities considered
h e r e , th'e c o s t o f t h e o i l - f i r e d b o i l e r s i s g i v e n by t h e r e i a t . i o n :

where :

Q, t h e o u t p u t c a p a c i t y o f t h e b o i l e r i n lo6, ~tu/h.

For t h e c o a l - f i r e d b o i l e r s , a c o s t of $0.0184/(Btu/h) was assumed.

A l l a b s o r p t i v e c h i l l e r s used i n t h e v a r i o u s d e s i g n s a r e assumed t o be
s i n g l e - e f f e ' c t c h i l l e r s , t h e c o s t of which i s . c a l c u l a t e d from Ref. 29. For t h e
compressive c h i l l e r s , Ref. 30 s u p p l i e s t h e equipment F.O.'B. c o s t , a s well a s
t h e t o t a l amount of.man-hours r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n . Assuming a c o s t
of $50/man-hour, which i n c l u d e s t h e c o s t of m a t e r i a l s , overhead, e t c . , the
t o t a l c o s t of t h e compression c h i l l e r s can b e c a l c u l a t e d .
 The cost of the ,wet cooling towers used in this study was taken from
Ref. 31. For 'the oil preparation, which includes storage, pumps, piping,
itc., a cost of $l.OO/gal of storage was assumed for installations. of less
than 0.28 x lo6 gal and 50dlgal of storage for installations larger than 3
x lo6 gal. For capacities in between, a linear interpolation was used. The
cost of coal preparation, obtained from Ref. 32, is directly related to the
maxihum feed rate. For feeding rates from 5 to 30 tonslh, the following
formula was used:

where :

X is the maximum feed rate in tonslh.

This cost is very approximate, especially when the coal is supplied to Stir-
ling engines. Installations of this nature, on which cost estimates could be
based, do not exist; therefore, a large uncertainty dominates the values
derived from the above formula. For the cost of the electric distribution
system, a price of $80/kW was assumed. The cost estimate for the chilled- and
hot-water distribution system was based on Ref. 33, where the cost of ,instal-
led piping systems as a function of pipe diameter is given for three different
metropolitan areas. In this study, the cost of the piping system in suburban.
Philadelphia was used. First, the diameter and the length of the main piping
systems for the chilled and hot water were estimated. Second, the cost per
foot was taken from Ref. 8 for the various pipe diameters, and the costs of
the chilled- and hot-water systems were calculated separately. The total cost
was estimated to be that of the chilled-water system plus 70% of the cost of
the hot-water system, because some of the cost is common to both systems,
e.g., excavation and backfill., The piping for the chilled- and hot-water
systems in the plant was estimated to have a cost equivalent to 300 ft of
installed pipe having a diameter equal to the maximum diameter encountered in
the distribution system. Storage of chilled and hot water that is used to
reduce the peak demand of cooling and heating was assumed to cost $0.40/gal.
 For the chemical treatment of the water, we assumed that the cost
is proportional to the total amount of high- and average-quality water re-
quired. The proportionality factor was obtained from a previous study of a
plant using 2000 gpm at a cost of $300,000. Estimates of the other costs are
best illustrated with the aid of Table 6.2, which presents costs of a Diesel-
engine-based energy system for the Fox Valley Center. The costs of the
building and land are assumed to be 10% df the sum of the costs down to the
chemical treatment, indicated by CD,. The,cost of instrumentation and controls
is assumed to be 15% of the sum CE that includes the oil preparation. An
estimate of the operating and maintenance costs for the total energy plant is
6% of the sum CE indicated in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 C o s t s of Diesel-Based Total Energy Systems,

Option A, for Fox valley Center

Cost
Desci-iptioa ' ( $ thousand)

Diesel Engines 4 X 3 MW 4,032

In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems 260
Hot and Chilled Water Storage 64
Electric Heaters 2 X 4.6 MW . 184
Hot Water Boilers 4 X 9.6 MW 613
Absorption Chfllers 6 X 1450 tons 1,163
Cooling Towers 6 X 1450 tons 684
Chemical Treatment 87 (CD 7,087.)
Oil Preparation (5 + 2.43) X 105 gal 676 (CE 7,763.)
Building and Lot 10%. CD 709
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 1,164
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 1,715
Electric 427
'TOTAL COST .11,778

O&M 6% CE 466.
fuel 4.53 X lo6 gallyr oil
 To c o m p a r e t h e c o s t s o f t h e v a r i o u s d e s i g n s f o r t h e t o t a l e n e r g y
systems, t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e s of t h e v a r i o u s c o s t s were c a l c u l a t e d under t h e
assumption t h a t t h e u s e f u l l i f e of t h e p l a n t and a l l components i s 20 y e a r s .
The c o s t of t h e p l a n t h a s been c a l c u l a t e d i n 1 9 7 7 ' d o l l a r s . To f i n d t h e c o s t
i n 1978, which w i l l be t h e y e a r when t h e p l a n t goes i n t o o p e r a t i o n , a price
e s c a l a t o r of 6% was assumed. The p r e s e n t v a l u e of t h e o p e r a t i n g and main-
tenance c o s t s , a s w e l l a s t h e c o s t .of t h e . f u e 1 , a r e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g a 10%
interest rate. For 1978, a f u e l o i l p r i c e of $ 0 . 4 4 / g a l and a c o a l p r i c e of
$ 4 0 / t o n were used. These p r i c e s were assumed t o e s c a l a t e a t an annual r a t e o f
10%; whereas, t h e c o s t of o p e r a t i n g and maintenance was assumed t o e s c a l a t e a t
an annual r a t e of 6%. When t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e s of t h e o p e r a t i n g and main-
t e n a n c e and of t h e f u e l c o s t s o v e r t h e 20-yr p e r i o d a r e added t o t h e c o s t of
the installation, a comparison of t h e v a r i o u s d e s i g n s c a n be made. Uncer-
t a i n t i e s o v e r t h e c o s t of i t e m s t h a t a r e common t o t h e v a r i o u s d e s i g n s , e . g . ,
thermal d i s t r i b u t i o n system, w i l l not a f f e c t t h e r e s u l t of t h i s comparison.,
However, uncertainties i n t h e c o s t of items t h a t are peculiar t o a certain
d e s i g n can a f f e c t t h e comparison.

6.4 DIESEL-ENGINE-BASED SYSTEMS

Two d e s i g n o p t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r each prime-mover, depending on

whether t h e c o o l i n g ' l o a d i s s a t i s f i e d by t h e a d d i t i o n o f fossil-fuel-fired,
hot-water boilers, and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s , o r by t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n of compressive c h i l l e r s . The f i r s t d e s i g n o p t i o n w i l l be re-
f e r r e d t o a s Option A ; t h e second, a s Option B. Each w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n
t u r n i n t h e following paragraphs.

6.4.1 Diesel-Based System w i t h Design Option A

F i g u r e 6 . 4 p r e s e n t s a schematic diagram of a Diesel-engine-based system

w i t h d e s i g n Option A. The D i e s e l e n g i n e s s u p p l y t h e non-HVAC e l e c t r i c power
r e q u i r e d by t h e community, w h i l e t h e h e a t r e c o v e r e d by t h e c o o l i n g water --
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h a t r e c o v e r e d from t h e e x h a u s t g a s e s and l u b r i c a t i n g o i l -- is
used t o s a t i s f y t h e h e a t i n g needs o r , through a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s , t h e c o o l i n g
needs. For t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r , f o r which the load c u r v e s o f . non-HVAC
e l e c t r i c , heating, and c o o l i n g demand f o r t h e d e s i g n days were p r e s e n t e d i n
Figs. 6.2 and 6 . 3 , t h e peak non-HVAC e l e c t r i c demand i s 5.3 MW. I f an es-
0

t i m a t e of t h e e l e c t r i c demand f o r t h e a u x i l i a r y equipment i s . i n c l u d e d , t h e n
 Ylg. 6 . 4 Schematic Diagram o t t h e Diesel-Based System w i t h Design Optlon A

t h e peak e l e c t r i c demand i s 6.4 MW f o r t h e w i n t e r and 8.66 MW f o r t h e summer.

Assuming t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c e f f i c i e n c y , i s 34.2% f o r t h e D i e s e l e n g i n e and t h a t
42% of t h e e n e r g y i n p u t i s r e c o v e r e d a s h e a t , t h e maximum h e a t f o r the. h e a t i n g
s e a s o n i s 7.86 MW. The maximum e l e c t r i c h e a t i n g i s chosen a s 1 . 3 MW, where
5 . 1 MW i s t h e a v e r a g e non-HVAC e i e c t r i c demand p l u s t h e e l e c t r i c demand of t h e
a u x i l ' i a r y equipment.' Hence, t h e maximum h e a t i n g power during the heating
s e a s o n i s 7.86 + 1 . 3 = ' 9 . 1 6 &.
. To c a l c u l a t e t h e amount of h o t w a t e r s t o r a g e , r e f e r t o F i g . 6.2, and
n o t e t h a t t h e peak h e a t i n g demand i s 15 MW; whereas, t h e maximum h e a t i n g power
i s 8:78 MW f o r t h e t o t a l energy system. To' s a t i s f y t h e 1 5 MW h e a t i n g demand,
5.84 MW would be r e q u i r e d from t h e hot-water' s t o r a g e . From F i g . 6 . 2 i t can be
e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h i s power w i l l be r e q u i r e d f o r two h o u r s , i . e . , t h e hot-water
s t o r a g e must have a c a p a c i t y of 11.68 MWh. For a 60°F change i n t e m p e r a t u r e
of t h e hot-water storage, a s t o r a g e volume of approximately 80,000 g a l i s
needed.

The c o o l i n g demand c a l c u l a t i o n s a l s o a r e needed. Figure 6.3 indicates

a peak c o o l i n g demand o f 26 MW o r 7,400 t o n s t h a t is c o n t i n u o u s over a p e r i o d
of 6 hr. Assuming a , c h i l l e d - w a t e r s t o r a g e having an 80,000-gal c a p q a i t y and
a t e m p e r a t u r e change o f 1 5 " ~ ,t h e peak c o o l i n g demand c a n be reduced t o 7,260
*
tons. For t h e a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s , g i v e n a h o t w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e drop from
220O.F t o 1 6 0 " ~and a chilled-water temperature change .from 57°F t o 4 2 " ~ ,
manufacturers'. data i n d i c a t e t h e need for 6.07 kW of h e a t per one t o n of
cooling. Because t h e maximum c o o l i n g power i s 7,260 t o n s , t h e h e a t i n g power
requirement f o r t h e . a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s i s 44.07 MW. he recovered h e a t from
t h e D i e s e l e n g i n e s i s 1'0.64 MW; t h e e l e c t r i c h e a t l o a d i s t h e n 2 . 6 6 M W .
oreo over, by u t i l i z i n g t h e h e a t s t o r e d i n t h e hot-water s t o r a g e over a p e r i o d
of s i x hours, a n o t h e r 1.96 MW a r e o b t a i n e d . The remaining h e a t r e q u i r e d by
t h e a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s must be s u p p l i e d by t h e o i l - f i r e d hot-water .boilers,
or, i n o t h e r words, t h e power of t h e b o i l e r s must be 28.81 MW. Thus, the
components of the ~iesel-engine-based with Opt i o n A have been specified.

The n e x t s t e p i s t o e s t i m a t e t h e a n n u a l f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n o f t h i s
system. From F i g . 6.2, we can o b t a i n t h e peak and t h e average e l e c t r i c and
h e a t i n g demand f o r t h e w i n t e r d e s i g n day, and from F i g . 6 . 3 , t h e peak and t h e
average c o o l i n g demand f o r t h e summer d e s i g n day. Using t h e s e v a l u e s , Fig'.'
6 . 5 i s c o n s t r u c t e d t o show t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e peak and average v a l u e s over
t h e whole y e a r .

#
. u

- -

25 -
- -
20 - -
-

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG. SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN

Fig. 6 . 5 V a r i a t i ~ nof Peak and Average Values o f Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c ,

Heating and Cooling Demand f o r t h e Fox V a l l e y - C e n t e r
 The v a r i a t i o n of t h e peak v a l u e s of t h e e l e c t r i c demand, t h e h e a t i n g
demand, and t h e demand f o r h o t w a t e r by t h e a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s i s shown i n
Fig. 6.6. The bottom l i n e marked 8 . 6 6 i n d i c a t e s t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e peak
e l e c t r i c demand; whereas, t h e t o p l i n e marked 44.07 i n d i c a t e s t h e v a r i a t i o n o f
t h e peak demand f o r h o t w a t e r by t h e a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s . The f i r s t t h r e e and
l a s t t h r e e months of t h e y e a r ( a t o t a l of 4,368 h o u r s ) , a r e t h e months d u r i n g
which t h e peak e l e c t r i c demand remains c o n s t a n t ; w h e r e a s , . d u r i n g t h e r e s t of
t h e y e a r , o r 4,392 h o u r s , t h e peak e l e c t r i c demand v a r i e s a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g .
6.6. The a r e a under t h i s curve can be e s t i m a t e d a s 6 . 1 1 x 104 MWhIyr. This
value, m u l t i p l i e d by t h e r a t i o of t h e average t o t h e peak e l e c t l - i c demand,
. d e r i v e d from F i g . 6.2, y i e l d s an annual e l e c t r i c consumption of 4.58 x 104
MWh/yr. Using t h e e l e c t r i c e f f i c i e n c y of 34.2% f o r t h e D i e s e l e n g i n e and t h e
h e a t i n g v a l u e of 150,060 ' ~ i u / ~ aL ul i t k t ~ i e a c lf u c l , t h e ccrnol.!mpti~n n f , f ~ l e l
by t h e D i e s e l e n g i n e s i s found to be 3.05 x lo6 galIyr. For t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
o f t h e f u e l consumption by t h e h o t w a t e r b o i l e r s , t h e a r e a i n F i g . 6 . 6 between
t h e curve with t h e 42.11 MW peak and t h a t with t h e 1 3 . 3 MW peak, is esti-
mated. The v a l u e found,' 9.77 x 104 MWhIyr, m u l t i p l i e d by t h e r a t i o , 0 . 5 , of
the average t o the peak c o o l i n g demand, that was obtained from Fig. 6.3,
y i e l d s t h e a n n u a l amount of energy t o be s u p p l i e d by t h e hot water b o i l e r s .
Assuming a 75% e f £ i c i e n c y f o r t h e boiler, che arluual Luel demand i o found
t o be 1.48 x lo6 galIyr. For t h e Diesel-engine-based d e s i g n with Option A,
5U

40

30
t
i
. W

E 20

-
10 9.16
7.86
6.40

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG . S E P OCT NOV DEC JAN

Fig. 6.6 V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values o f t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g , and

A b s o r p t i o n . C h i l l e r Demand of t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r
t h e D i e s e l Based System w i t h Design Option A
 t h e t o t a l annual f u e l consumption i s 4.53 x lo6 gal of o i l . Table 6.2
. presents t h e c o s t of t h e v a r i o u s components, a s . w e l 1 a s t h e o p e r a t i n g and
maint enancd c o s t and t h e annual f u e l cohsumpt i o n .

6.4.2 Diesel-Based System w i t h Design Option B

Figure 6.7 indicates diagramatically the Diesel-engine-based system

w i t h d e s i g n Option B . The d i f f e r e n c e s between t h i s system and t h e p r e v i o u s
one a r e t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e compression c h i l l e r s and t h e absence o f o i l - f i r e d
hot-water b o i l e r s . Because t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e peak e l e c t r i c demand i s t h e
same a s i n ' t h e p r e v i o u s o p t i o n , i t i s not repeated here. I n t r o d u c t i o n of
compressive c h i l l e r s r e q u i r e s an i n c r e a s e of t h e D i e s e l e n g i n e power which, i n
t u r n , i n c r e a s e s t h e r e c o v e r a b l e h e a t and t h e amount o f c o o l i n g s u p p l i e d by t h e
absorption c h i l l e r s . Two c o n s t r a i n t s have t o be s a t i s f i e d :
1
( 1 ) The amount of c o o l i n g s u p p l i e d by t h e a b s o r p t i o n and t h e
compressive c h i l l e r s should s a t i s f y t h e demand, which i n
t h i s system i s 7,260 t o n s ( t h e e f f e c t of c h i l l e d - w a t e r
s t o r a g e i s taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n ) .

( 2 ) The r a t i o of t h e e l e c t r i c a l energy produced t o s a t i s f y non-

HVAC, a u x i l i a r y equipment, and compression c h i l l e r demand t o
t h e amount of h e a t used i n t h e a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s has t o
have t h e same v a l u e a s t h e r a t i o of t h e D i e s e l e l e c t r i c e f f i -
c i e n c y t o t h e r e c o v e r a b l e h e a t e f f i c i e n c y , i . e . , 0.342/0.42.

F i g . 6 . 7 ,Schematic Diagram of t h e Dj-esel-Based System w i t h Design Option B

 With t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s and t h e v a l u e of 1 kW p e r t o n of c o o l i n g f o r t h e
compressive c h i l l e r s , and 6.07 kW o f h e a t p e r t o n of c o o l i n g f o r t h e absorp-
t i o n c h i l l e r s , t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e compression c h i l l e r s must be 3,500 t o n s and
t h a t o f t h e a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r 3,760 t o n s .

To c a l c u l a t e t h e a n n u a l f u e l consumption, F i g . 6 . 8 i s c o n s t r u c t e d . The
a r e a between t h e c u r v e s having maxima 8.66 and 12.16 MW i s r e l a t e d t o t h e
e l e c t r i c energy used by t h e compressive c h i l l e r s ; whereas, t h e a r e a below t h e
c u r v e w i t h t h e 12.16-MW maximum i s r e l a t e d t o t h e t o t a l energy produced by t h e
Diesel engine-generator sets. Using an e l e c t r i c e f f i c i e n c y of 34.2% f o r t h e
D i e s e l e n g i n e s , and a r a t i o of 0.75 fof t h e average-to-peak e l e c t r i c demand, a
f u e l o i l consumption of 3.12 x lo6 gal/yr i s obtained.

Tahlc 6.3 presents the cost of the v a r i o u s components used i n t h e

Diesel-engine-based system, Option B y f o r t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r . Also pre-
I,
s e n t e d i n Table 6 . 3 a r e t h e c o s t of o p e r a t i n g and maintenance of t h e p l a n t and
t h e a n n u a l amount of f u e l consume'd by t h e system. Tables 6 . 2 and b . 3 were
constructed f o r t h e o t h e r t h r e e groupings of zones d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t . 6.1.
These t a b l e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix B .

Fig. 6.8 V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values of t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g ,

and Cooling.Demand of t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e
Diese-l Based System w i t h Design Option B
 Table 6.3 Costs of Diesel-Engine-Based.Tota1 Energy
System, Option B, for Fox Valley Center.

Cost
Description (kS )

Diesel Engines 4 X 4.1 MW

In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems 260
Hot and ~hiiledwater Storage
. Electric Heaters 2 X 4.6 MW
Absorption'Chillers 4 X 1253 tons
Cooling T0wer.s 4 X 1253 tons'
Compression Chillers'3 X 1750 tons
Cooling ~owers3 X 1750 tons 405
Chemical Treatment ' 80 (CD 7,915.)
Oil Preparation 5.12 X lo5 gal X .95 $/gal ., 486 (CE 8:401.)
Building and Lot 10% CD 792
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 1,260
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 1,715
Electric 427
, TOTAL COST 12,595

O&M 6% CE 504.
fuel 3.12 X 106 gallyr oil

6.5 GAS-TURBINE-BASED SYSTEMS

As with the Diesel-engine-based system, there are two design options

for the Gas-turbine-based system:

(1) Option A that uses fuel-fired, hot-water boilers and only

absorption chillers for satisfying the cooling demand, and

(2) Option B that uses compressive chillers to satisfy the

cooling demand with no fuel-fired, hot-water boilers in
the syslem. .

The main difference between the Diesel-based and gas-turbine-based systems is

the smaller electric efficiency and recoverable heat in the turbine system.
For the calculations, the electric efficiency of the turbine was assumed to be
22f, and the heat recovered 48% of the energy input. The amount of heat
required by the absorption chillers was 5.6 kW of heat per ton of cooling
because of the higher temperature of the hot water.

6.5.1 Gas-Turbine-Based Svstem with O~tionA

Figure 6.9, presents schematically the gas-turbine-system, Option A, for

the Fox Valley Center.

Using the same procedure as for the Diesel-engine-based system, the

maximum gas turbine power is found to be 8.66 MW for Option A. The required
absorption chillers have a power of 7,260 tons and .the boilers a rating of
17.15 MW. Estimates of the annual fuel consumption are based on Fig. 6.10,
and follow the same procedure explained in Sect. 6.4 for the Diesel-engine-
based system. The estimate derived for Option A 1s 4./ 2 x lo6 gal of oii/yr
for the gas turbines and 0.69 x lo6 gal of oillyr for the boilers. Table 6.4
lists costs of the various components, the cost of operating and maintenance
of the plant, and the annual fuel consumption for a gas-turbine-based Total
Energy System with Uption A.

HECOVERY BOILERS
(HEAT EXCHANGERS) A 4 I
tlm WATER
SYSTEM
I
'.420F CHILLED .
II 1 5 7 0 ~WATER SYSTEM
BOILERS

t
88
ABSORPTION
-....- .... - .. .-. ..

Fig. 6.9 Gas-Turbine-Based Systems with Design Option A

 15.26
13.96

6.4

JAN FEB.MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP .OCT NOV DEC JAN

Fig. 6.10 V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values of t h e E l e c t r i c ,

Heating, and Absorption C h i l l e r Demand of
t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e Gas-Turbine-
Based System w i t h Design Option A

Table 6 . 4 C o s t s o f Gas-Turbine-Based T o t a l Energy

System, Option A, f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r

Cost
Description (kS)

Gas Turbines 4 X 4.5 MW

I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 2 X 1 . 3 MW
Hot Water B o i l e r s 3 X 8;58 MW
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 6 X 1450 t o n s
Cooling Towers 6 X 1450 t o n s
Chemical Treatment
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n (7.87 x 1.15)105 X 0.89 $ / g a l
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and Cu~rLrols15% CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

ObM 6% CE 487.
fue'l 5.41 X 106 g a l l y r
6.5.2 Gas-Turbine-Based System with Option B

Turning now t o t h e Option B of t h e gas-turbine-based system f o r t h e Fox

V a l l e y C e n t e r t o t a l e n e r g y s y s t e m , we c a l c u l a t e t h e g a s t u r b i n e maximum
e l e c t r i c power t o be .10.61 MW; compression c h i l l e r s t o be 1,950 t o n s ; and
a b s o r p t i o n c h i l l e r s t o be 5,310 t o n s . Figure 6.11 presents a schematic
diagr of this system. Based on e s t i m a t e s of t h e annual f u e l consumpt i o n
shown F i g . 6.12, a v a l u e of 5.41 x lo6 g a l of o i l I y r i s obtained.
RECOVERY BOILERS

I 1

Fig. 6.11 Gas-Turbine-Based System w i t h Design Option B

F i g . 6.12 V a r i a t i o n of Peak v a i u e s of t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g ,
and Cooling Demand o f the Fox V a l l e y Center f o r
t h e Gas-Turbine-Based System w i t h Design Option B .
 77

Table 6.5 lists the costs of the various components, the operating
and maintenance costs, and the annual fuel consumption for a gas-turbine-based
total energy system with Option B.

6.6 CURRENT STIRLING-ENGINE-BASED SYSTEMS

Stirling engines of current technology are assumed to have an electric

efficiency of 32.3% and a heat recovery of 54% of the energy input. Figure
6.13 presents a schematic diagram of a Stirling-engine-based system using the
design Option A. The fuel, as indicated in Fig. 6.13, can be either oil or
coal. It has been assumed that a second generation of Stirling engines will

Table 6.5 Costs of Gas-Turbine-Based Total Energy

.System, Option B, for Fox Valley Center

Description

Gas Turbines 3 X 5.3 MW

In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems
Hot and Chilled Water Storage
Electric Heaters 2 X 1.3 MW
Absorption Chillers 5 X 1327 tons
Cooling Towers 5 X 1327 tons
Compression Chillers 2 X 1950 tons
Cooling Towers 2 X 1950 tons
Chemical Treatment
Oil Preparation 0.9 X lo6 gal X 0.89 $/gal
Building and Lot 10% CD
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

06M 6% CE 509. .
fuel 5.41 X lo6 gal/yr
 RECOVERY BOILER
IHEAT EXCHANGER)

Fig. 6.13 First- and Second-Generation Stirling-

Based SysLeiu with Design Option A

be available in the future and will have the same operating characteristics as:
. . the current version but will be able to bur'n coal. With these assumptions,
the calculations proceed as in the case of the Diesel-engine-based system.
The maximum engine power required is 8.66 MW; the absorption chillers u~ust
have a cooling power of 7,200 tons; the hot-water boilers, a power of 23.14
MW. Figure 6.14 cu~ls~itutestkc baoio for s a l c u l a t i , n g t h e annual fuel cuu-
sumption for a first- and second-generatiun, current Sclrllng syste~u with
Design Option A. This consumption expressed, in Btus, is 4.84 x 1011 ~tu/yr
for the Stirling engines and 1.41 x 1011 ~tu/yr for the boilers. Assuming
that the boilers use the same fuel as the Stirling engines, a system based on .
first-generation (i.e., oil-burning) current Stirling engines, will have a
total annual fuel consumption of 4.17 x lo6 gal of oil. For the second
generation (i-e., coal-burning) current Stirling-engine-based system, the fuel
consumption is 26,000 tons of coallyr.

Tables 6.6 and 6.7 list the cost of the components, the operating
and maintenance costs, and the annual fuel consumption for the first.- and
second-generation current Stirling-engine-based system, respectively.
 JAN. FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN

Fig. 6.14 Variation of Peak Values of the Electric, Heating, and Absorp-
tion Chi,ller Demand of the Fox Valley Center for the First- and
Second-Generation Current Stirling System with Design Option A

Table 6.6 Costs of First-Generation, Current Stirling-Engine

Based System, Option A, for the Fox Valley Center

Cost i
Description . (k$)
First Generation Current
Stirling Engines 4 X 3 MW ($429/kW) ' 5,148
In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems, 260
Hnt and Chilled Water Storagc . 64
Electric Heaters 2 X 4.6 MW 184
Hot Water Boilers 4 X 7.2 M W , 552
Absorption Chillers 6 X 1450 tons 1,163
Cooling Towers 6 X 1450 tons 684
Chemical Treatment 87 (CD 8,142)
Oil Preparation (5.3 + 1.541105 gal X 0.92 $/gal 629 (CE 8,771)
Building and Lot 10% CD 814
Instrumentation and Controls'l5% CE 1,316
Distribution: Hcnting and Coaling . 1,715
Electric 427'
TOTAL COST 13,043
ObM 6% CE 526.
fuel 4.17 X lo6 gal/yr
 Table 6.7 Costs of Second Generation, Current stirling-~ngine
Based sys'tem,Option A, for the Fox Valley Center

Cost
Description (k$)

Second Generation Current

Stirling Engines 4 X 3 MW '($429/k~)
In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems
Hot and Chilled Water storage
Electric Heaters 2 X 4.6 MW
Hot Water Boilers 4 X 7.2 MW (coal)
Absorption Chillers 6 X 1450 tons
Cooling Towers 6 X 1450 tons
Chemical Treatment
Oil Preparation 7.06 tonlh
Building and Lot 10% CD
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling
Electric

fuel 26,000 tor~/yrcual

-- ---- .-

Turning now to design Option By which uses compressive chillers but no

hot-water boilers, a schematic diagram of this system is presented in Fig.
6.15, which indicates the use of either oil or coal as fuel. The maximum
engine power required is found to be 11.26 MW; the needed capacity of the
compressive chillers is 2,600 tons; and that of the absorption chillers is
4,460 tons. Figure 6.16 is the basis for calculating the annual fuel consump-
tion which is found to be 3.48 x lo6 gal of oil for the first-generation, and
21,800 tons of coal for the second-generation current Stirling engines.
 Fig. 6.15 F i r s t - and Second-Generation S t i r l i n g -
Based System with Design Option B

F i g . 6.16 V a r i a t i o n of Peak Values o f t h e E l e c t r i c , H e a t i n g , and Cool-

,
ing Demand o f t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r f o r t h e F i r s t and Second
Generation C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g System with Design Option B
 Tables 6.8 and 6.9 list the costs of the components, the operating
and maintenance costs, and the annual fuel consumption for the first- and
second-generation current Stirling-engine-based design, respectively.

Table 6.8 Costs of First Generation, 'Current Stirling-Engine-

Based System, Option B, for the Fox Valley Center

Cost
Description (k$)

First GeneraLiciu Cur.r.ttl~L

4 X 4 Mb!
S t i r l i n g Fnginee
In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems
Hot and Chilled Water Storage
' Electric Heaters 2 X'4.6 MW
Absorption Chillers 4 X 1553 tons
Cooling Towers 4 X 1553 tons
Compression Chillers 3 X 1300 tons ($95/ton)
Cooling Towers 3 X 1300 tons
Chemical Treatment
Oil Preparation 5.7 X 105 gal X 0.94 $/gal
Building and Lot 10% CD
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE
Distribution: Hcnting and Cooling
Electric

TOTAL COST 14,290

O&M 6% CE 586.
fuel 3.48 X 106 gaLl/yr
 .Table 6.9 Costs of Second Generati0n;Current Stirling Engine
Based System, Option B, for the Fox Valley Center

Cost
Description (k$)

Second Generation Current

Stirling Engines 4 X 4 MW
In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems
Hot and Chilled Water Storage
Electric Heaters 2 X 4.6 MW
Absorption Chillers 4 X 1553 tons 1,812
Cooling Towers 4 X 1553 tons 484
Compression Chillers 3 8 1300 tons 378
Cooling Towers 3 X 1300 tons 312
Chemical Treatment 80 (CD 10,078)
Coal Preparation 4.96 tonlh
Building and Lot 10% CD
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

fuel 21,800 tonlyr

6.7 ADVANCED STIRLING-ENGI~E-BASEDSTSTEblS

Stirling engines of advanced tech.nology are assumed to achieve an

electric efficiency of 43.7% and to recover 41% of the-energy input. Here, as
in the case of the current Stirling engines, the first-generation, or oil-
burning, advanced Stirling engines, and second-generation, or coal-burning,
advanced Stirling engines will be discussed. ,

6.71 Advanced Stirling-Engine-Based System with Design Option A

A system, based on the advanced Stirling and using design Option A, has
the same schematic diagram as the current Stirling system shown in Fig. 6.13.
With the assumption that 5.6 kW of heat are required for one ton of cooling by
the absorption chillers, the calculations,proceed as in the previous cases.
The maximum required power of the engines 'is 8.66 MW; the capacity of the
chillers is 7,192 tons, and that of the hot-water boilers 26.57 MW. Figure
6:17 can be used to calculate the annual fuel consumption which is found to be
3.7 x lo6 gal of oil or, for the second-generation engines, 24,300 tons of
coal.

Costs of the first and second generation advanced Stirling-engine-based

systems with design Option A are shown in Tables 6.10; and 6.11, respectively.

6.7.2 Advanced-Stirling-Engine-Based System with Design Option B

For the system with design Option B, the required maximum engine power
output is 12.16 MU. The capacity of the compression chillers must be 3,500
tons and that of the absorption chillers, 3,692 tons.

I IUr~HuL-
HOT WATER
BOl LERS
;\ [ELECTRIC HEAT 4

Fig. 6.17 Variation of'Peak Values of the Electric, Heating, and Absorp-
tion Chiller Demand of the Fox Valley Center for the First- and
Second-Generation, Advanced Stirling system with Design Option A
 Table 6.10 Costs of First.-Generation,'Advanced. Stirling-Engine-
Based System, Option A, for the Fox Valley Center

Cost
~ e s c r i ion
~t (k$

First Generation Advanced

Stirling Engines'4 X 3 MW 5,184
In Plant Hot and Chi,lled Water.Sys.tems 260
Hot and Chilled water Storage 96
Electric Heaters 3 X 4.6 MW 276
Hot Water Boilers 4 X 8.86 MW ' ' 594
Absorption Cli:illers 6 . X 1440 tons. . 1,157
Cooling Towers 6 X 1440 tons ' 684 . .
Chemica1 '~reatment 84 (CD 8,335)
Oil Preparation (3.92 + 2.48110~X 0.93 $/gal 595 (CE 8,930)
Building and Lot 10% CD 833
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE' 1,339
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 1,715
Electric . 427
TOTAL COST 13,244
06M 6% CE 536.' '

fuel 3.9 X lo6 gal/yr

Table 6.11 Costs of Second Generation, Advanced Stirling Engine

Based,System, Option A, for the Fox Valley Center

Cost
Description (k$
Second Generation Advanced
Stirling Engines 4 X 3 MW 5,820
In plait Hot and Chilled Water Systems 260
Hot and Chilled Water Storage . , .9h
Electric Heaters 3 X 4.6 MW 276
Hot Water Boilers 4 X 8.86 MW (coal) 2,226
Absorption chillers 6 X 1440 tons 1,157
Cooling Towers 6 X ,1440 tons 684
Chemical Treatment 84 (CD 10,603)
Coal Preparation 7.86 ton/h 1,127 (CE 11,730)
Building and Lot 10% CD 1,060
Instrumentation and Controls 15%.CE a 1,759
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 1.,71 5
Electric 427
TOTAL COST ' 16,691
0&M 6% CE 704.
fuel 24,300 tonIyr
 Using Fig. 6.18,
the annual fuel con-
sumption of the system
is calculated to be
15
2.59 x 106 gal of oil
W
for the first-genera- 3
X lo
tion and 16,200 tons of. 7.30
6.40
coal for the second- 6.00
5
generation advanced-
Stirling-based . system. JAN FEE MAR APR MAY JUN JUL .AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN

Tables 6.12 and Fig. 6.18 Variation of Peak Values of'Electric, Heatink,
6.13 list the costs of 'and Cooling Demand of the Fox Valley Center
for the P i r e t - and Eaesnd-Generationi Ad-
c u u y u n e i i t ~, t l i c o p i r - .vai~cedS L ~1L . i ~ ~ ~ w i ~ 1 1D e s i g n OytiGn D
Sy~Leur
ating and maintenance
cost, and the annual consumption of the :first- and second-generation, advanced
Stirling-engine-based systems, respectively.

6.8 CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM

The conventional system will be assumed to be a decentralized, in-

building, customer-owned and - maintained building, ventilating, and air
conditioning system. For the Fox Valley center and villages, compressive
chillers and electric resistance heaters are assumed for the large commercial,
office, and apartment building areas. For low-rise commercial and office
buildings, rooftop, multizone units with electric cooling and heating are
assumed. For garden apartments and fowrihouses, gas fiirnaces and central
air-conditioning units will be considered.

In cost estimating the various Total Energy Systems examined previous-

ly,' the cost of the in-building systems was never calculated. This cost is
common to all Total Energy Systems and, for this reason, the economic compari-
sons are not affected when this cost is ignored.

To compare the cost between the conventional system and systems pre-
sented earlier, only the cost of components that are not common to these
systems have to be considered. For example, in the Total Energy Systems,
chilled water is supplied to the office buildings for satisfying the cooling
demand. In the conventional system, the chilled water is supplied by in-
 Table 6.12 Costs of First ~eneration,;~dvancedstirling-~ngine-.
Based System, Option B, for the Fox Valley Center,

Cost
Description (k$)

First Generation Advanced

Stirling Engines 4 X 4.2 MW 6,955
In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems 260
Hot and Chilled Water Storage 96
Electric Heaters 3 X 4.6 MW 276
Absorption Chillers 4 X 1230 tons 696
Cooling Towers 4 X 1230 tons 394
Compression Chillers 3 X 1750 463
Cooling Towers 3 X 1750 tons 405
Chemica1 Treatment 84 (CD 9,629)
Oil Preparation 4.25 X lo5 X 0.97 $/gal 412 (CE 10,041)
Building and Lot 10% CD 963
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 1,506
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 1,715
Electric 427
TOTAL COST 14,652
OCM GX CE 602.
fuel 2.59 X lo6 gal/yr

Table 6.13 Costs of Second Generation, Advanced Stirling-Engine-

Based System, Option B, for the Fox Valley Center

Cost
Description (k$ -
%I- %

Second Generation Advanced

Stirling Engines 4 X 4.2 MW ($466/kW) 7,829
Iu Blal~LHot and Chilled Water Systems 260
Hot and Chilled Water Storage 96
Electric Heaters 3 X 4.6 MW 276
Absorption Chillers 4 X 1230 tons 696
Cooling Towers 4 X 1230 tons 394
Compression Chillers 3 X 1750 tons 463
Cooling Towers 3 X 1750 tons 405
Chemical Treatment 84 (CD 10,503)
Coal Preparation 3.7 ton/h 608 (CE 11,111)
Building and Lot 10% Cll 1,050
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 1,667
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 1,715
Electric 427
TOTAL COST 15,970
O&M 6% CE 667.
fuel 16,200 tonlyr coal
building compressive chillers, the cost of which should be included in the
cost of the conventional system. The cost of the chilled-water distribution
system inside the building is common to all systems and.can be ignored in.the
cost comparisons. Some costs should be charged only to the Total Energy
.Systems because they are not common to the conventional system. For example,
electric baseboard heaters are used in the conventional system and hot-water
heating for the Total Energy Systems. Thus, the cost of the electric base-
board heaters should be included only in the conventional system cost, and
that of the in-building hot-water distribution system in the Total Energy
System coot. For the Box Valley renter, we calculated for the conventional
system a c o s t of $5.53 million, and Lur the Total Energy Eyotem an additional
$1.14 million. To simplify the comparisons without revising Tables 6.2
through 6.13, only the differential cost will be charged to the conventional
system, with the cost of the Total Energy Systems remaining unchanged. Table
6.14 presents these costs for all four communities considered.

Next, an estimate of the annual energy consumption of the conventional

system is made, based on Fig. 6.5, which presents the annual variation of the
peak and average values of the non-HVAC electric, heating, and cooling demand
for the Fox Valley Center. By integrating the area under the average demand
curves, th'e annual non-HVAC electric demand is 35.04 x 106 kWh; the cooling
demand 12.59 x lo6 kWh; and the heating.demand 12.59.x 106 kWh. Assuming an
electricity cost of $O.O4/kWh, the cost of the non-HVAC electric demand is
$1.4 million. If the coefficient of perfurmalice of the compressive chillers
is 3, then the electric demand for cooling becomes 14.48 x 106 kWh which, at
$O.O4/kWh, yields a cost of $580,000.

Table 6.14 Differential Cost between Conventional and Total Energy Systems

Conventional System Total Energy System

Oose Nor Common C o s t Not Uommon Differ~uLia1
To Total To Conventional Cost
Community ~ n e r gsystem
~ ($10~2 Energy System ($lo6) ($lo6)

Fox Valley Center 5.53 1.14 4.39

Zone D 3.45 0.49 2.96
Zones A,D, and E 13.61 2.24 11.37
Fox Valley Center 19.71 3.20 16.57
and Villages
 Because electric heating has been assumed for the Fox Valley Center,
the cost of heating becomes $504,000., and the total cost of energy for the Fox
Valley Center amounts to $2.48 million. Similar calculations were made for
the remaining three-zone groupings, and the results obtained are summarized in
Table 6.15.

To compare the conventional system with the various ' ~ o t a lEnergy

Systems presented earlier, the present value of all costs is required. It
will be sufficient to take into account only the differential capital costs
for the conventional system. Assuming a 10% annual price escalation for gas
and electricity, a 6% escalation of the operating and maintenance cost, a rate
of return equal to lo%, and a system life span of 20 years, the present value
of the costs is calculated. Table 6.16 presents the results for all four zone
groupings considered.

6.9 SYSTEM PERFORMANCE AND COST ' COMPARISONS

After the capital cost, the operating and maintenance ,cost, and the
annual fuel consumption were estimated, the Net Present Value (NPV) of the

Table 6.15 Annual Energy Consumption and Cost of the Conventional System

Non-HVAC
Community Description Electrica coolingb Heating Total

Fox Valley Center Energy, lo6 kWh 35.04

Cost, $lo6 1.402
E u e ~ g y , lo6 kWh . 26.28
Cost , $lo6 1.05
Zones A,D, and E Energy, lo6 kWh 87.6
Cost, $106 3.5
Fox Valley Center Energy, lo6 kWh 131.4
and villages Cost, $lo6 5.26
- -

(a)Cost of electricity 4d/kWh.

assumed equal to 3.
(b)Coefficient of performance for the compressive chil.1e.r~
(c)~upplied by natural gas with furnace efficiency of 0.75 and a cost of $2.30/
lo6 Btu.
(d143.4 x lo6 kWh supplied by gas and the remaining by electric resistance.
 Table 6.16 Different-ia-l . Capital costs, Operating and Maint.e-
nance Costs, Annual Fuel Cost, and Present Value . .:
of ~ 1 ' 1Costs for the Conventional System

Differential Annual Fuel Present Valuea

Capital Cost 06M Cost cost of all Costs
Cooinunity ($106) ($106) ($106) ($106)

Fox Valley center 4.39 '0.10 2.48 55.43

Zone D 2.96 0.088 1.91 42.43
Zones A,D, and E 11.37 0.297 7.24 160.44
Fox Valley Center 16.57 0.43 11.11 244.96
and Villages

(a)Calculated for a 20-yr life span.

. total cost was calculated with the assumptions described in Sect. 6.3.2.
Table 6.17 summarizes the results obtained fpr a Total Energy System serving
zone D only, together with the cost of a conventional system as described in
Sect. 6.8. Zone D consists mainly of residential space and has demand curves
representative of residential customers. The second column of the table gives
the capital cost of the installation followed by the NPV of the total cost and
the annual fuel consumption for each of the prime-movers and the design
options considered.

First we look for the prime-mover that has the minimum fuel consump-
tion. Assuming that the advanced Stirling engine is not yet available, then
the Diesel-based system, as well as the current Stirling-based system with
design Option B y consume the least amount of fuel. The small difference in
the annual fuel consumption between the two systems is considered negligible.
(It should be noted that the first- and second-generation Stirling-engine-
based systems consume the same amount of heat annually whether it is obtained
from coal or oil.) Comparing present values of the total cost of the various
systems, the Diesel system with design Option B is the cheapest, if coal is
not
- an acceptable fuel. However, if coal -is acceptable, then the second
generation, current Stirling-based-system with design Option B is the most
economical.
 Table 6.17 Summary of Results. for Zone D

P r e s e n t Voluc Annual
C a u i t a l Cost of T o t a l C o s t Fur 1
System Based On: (kS) (ii?) Consumpt ion
--- -.-
I ) i r s e l E n g i ~ l e s ;O p ~ i o nA 12,748 40,428 2.78X1Ocgalofoil
Diesel Engines; Option H 13,203 38,256 2.35 X l o 6 " " "
Gas T u r b i n e s ; O p t i o n A . 13,522 49,362 3.59 X l o 6 " " "

Cab: T u r b i n e s ; O p t i o n 0 13,468 49,447 3.68X106 " " "

F i r s 1 G c n c r a t ion C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g s ; O p t i o n A 14,060 42,299 2.66 X 106 " " "

F i r s t C e n u r a ~ i o nC u r r c ~ iS~t i r l i n g s ; O p t i o n B 14,315 40,895 2 . 4 2 X 10' " " "

F i r s t G u n c r a t ion Advanced S t i r l i n g s ; Opt ion A 14,018 38,929 2.24 X l o 6 " " "
F i r s t C r ~ i c r i l tion Advol~ccd S t i r l i n g s ; Opt ion B 14,805 37,195 1 . 8 6 X 10' " " "

Second ( : c ~ ~ e . r ion
a t CurrenL S t i r l i n g s ; O p t i o n A 15,182 34,961 16,60CI t o n s nf c o a l

Second C : e ~ ~ c r ion
a t Adva~i<:cdSt i 1-1 i n g s ; Opt ion A 15,736 34 , 0 9 6 14 , 0 0 0 " " "
Second CencrilL ion A d v a ~ i c e d St i r I i ngs ; Opt ion 11 15,866 32,495 I I ,600 " " "

Repeating the above comparisons and assuming that the advanced Stirling
engine is available, then it is found by examining the fuel economy of the
various systems that the advanced, Stirling-based system with design Option B
consumes the least amount of fuel. As far as the present value of the total
cost is concerned, the first-generation, advanced Stirling-based system with
design Option B costs the least, if coal is -
not an acceptable fuel option; the
second-generation, advanced-Stirling-based system with design Option B costs
the least when coal -
is an acceptable fuel.

Now, turn to the community consisting of zones A, D, and E. Table 6;18

summarizes the results obtained for this community using the various prime-,
movers.

If the advanced Stirling engine is not available, then the system that
consumes the least' amount of fuel is the current Stirling and also the Diesel-
based system with design Option B. The difference in fuel value of the total
cost is concerned, the Diesel-based system with design Option B is the
cheapest when coal is not acceptable, and the second-generation current
Stirling-based system with design Option B when coal -
is an acceptable fuel.
When coal is not an acceptable fuel, the advanced Stirling-based system and
also.the Diesel-based system with Option B presently cost the least; whereas,
the second-generation, advanced Stirling-based system with design Option B
 T a b l e 6.18 Summary o f R e s u l t s f o r Zones A , D , and E

Present Value Annual

Capital Cost of Total Cost Fue 1
System Based On: (k$
- ...
(kS) Consumption

Diesel Engines; Option A 30,344 128,169 10.36 X lo6 gal of oil

Diesel Engines; Option B 33,325 115,110 8.09 X 10' " " "

Gas Turbines; Option A 30,150 151,118 13.27X106 " "

Gas Turbines; Option B 31,137 136,805 11.28 X 10' I' " "

First Generation Current Stirlings; Option A 33,002 127,662 9.72X106 " " "
First Generation current Stirlings; Option B 35,858 118,937 8.O3X1O6 " I' "

First Generation Advanced Stirlings; Option A 35,240 132,434 9.83 X 10' " I' "

Firet Generation Advanced Stirlings; Option B 36,746 115,012 7.35 X 10' " " "

Second Generation Current Stirlings; Option A 40,049 106,270 60,700 tons of coal ,

Second Generation Current Stirling@; Option B 38,740 96,317 50,200 " " "

Second Generation Advanced Stirlings; Option A 43,987 113,606 61,40Q " I' "
Second Generation Advanced Stirlings; Option B 39,441 94,415 45,900 I' " "

Conventional System 11,370 . 160,440 --

presently costs the l e a s t when c o a l i s an a c c e p t a b l e fuel option. Similar

c o n c l u s i o n s a r e r e a c h e d f o r t h e community c o n s i s t i n g of t h e Fox V a l l e y Center
and.Villages. These r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 6.19.

Finally, we examine the results obtained for t h e Fox V a l l e y Center

(zone A i n Fig. 6.1). These r e s u l t s are presented i n Table 6.20 for the
v a r i o u s prime-movers.

If t h e advanced S t i r l i n g i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , then t h e Diesel-based

system w i t h d e s i g n Option B consumes t h e l e a s t amount of f u e l . This i s e a s i l y
e x p l a i n e d because Fox V a l l e y Center i s t o t a l l y commercial, and t h e e l e c t r i c
demand i s t h e c o n t r o l l i n g element. Table 6 . 2 1 summarizes t h e assumed e f f i -
c i e n c i e s o f t h e prime-movers and shows t h a t t h e D i e s e l e n g i n e has t h e h i g h e s t
electric efficiency compared t o the current S t i r l i n g and t h e gas turbine;
t h u ~ , i t out-pcrformo b o t h of thcm i n f u e l economy. When the advaneed Stir -
l i n g becomes a v a i l a b l e w i t h i t s h i g h e l e c t r i c a l e f f i c i e n c y , t h e n any system
based on i t would consume t h e l e a s t amount of f u e l . When t h e advanced S t i r -
l i n g engine i s -
n o t a v a i l a b l e and c o a l is -
not an acceptable f u e l , then t h e
Diesel-engine-based system with design Option B has t h e l e a s t c o s t . If
coal -
i s an a c c e p t a b l e f u e l , t h e n t h e second-generation, current Stirling-based
system ( i f a v a i l a b l e ) has t h e l e a s t c o s t , whether c o a l i s considered an
acceptable or unacceptable fuel. ' However, when c o a l i s n o t a c c e p t a b l e , the
. Table 6.19 Summary o £ . R e s u l t s f o r t h e Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s

Present Value Annua 1

Caoital 2ost of Total Cost Fur 1
System Based On: (k$ (k? ~nsumption

Diesel Engines; Option A 41,495 178,658 14.63 X 10' gal of oil

Diesel Engines; Option B 45,60: 165,007 12.04 X lo6 " I' "

Cas Tcrbines; Option A 40,591 210,904 18.86 X lo6 " '"

Cas ~urbines;Option B 42,340 192,298 16.i7x106
First Generation Currect Stirlings; Option A 44,76+ 183,159 14.51 X lo6 " " "

First Generation Current Stirlings; Option B 48,70.. 169,630 11.95 X lo6 " " "
First Generat ion Advanced St irlings; Opt ion A 48,863 188,088 14.22X106 " " "

First Generation Advenced Stirlings; Option B 50,343 164,275 10.94 X lo6 " " "

Second Generation Current Stirlings; Option A 55,106 151,178 90,700 ~ o n sof coal
Second Generation Current Stirlings; Option B 52,662 135,238 74,700" " "
S e ~ o n dGeneration Advalued Stirlings; O p ~ i o nA 61,63Cl 161,178 89,000 " I' "
Second Generation Advanced Stirlings; Option B 54,20i 133,350 68,400 " " "
Convent ional System 16,570 244,960 --
 Table 6 . 2 0 Summary of R e s u l t s f o r Fox Valley C e n ~ e r

P r e s e n t Value .. Annua 1
C a p i t a l Cost of T o t a l Cc-st Fue 1
System Based On: (kS) (kS 1 Zonsumpt ion

Diesel Engir-es; Cption A 11,778 55,129 4.53 X 10' g a l of o i l

D i e s e l Engir.es; C p t i o n B
Gas T u r b i n e s ; O p t i o n A
Gcs ~ u r b i n i s ;O p t i o n B 12,660 63,75* 5.41 X l o 6 " " "
F i r s t C e y e r - t i o n C u r r e n t S t i r 1 i n g . s ; O ~ t i ~A n 13,043 54,5811 4.17 X l o 6 " " "

F i r s t G e x r a t i o n Advanced S t i r l i r r g s ; C p t i o n A 13,244 52,74! 3.7 X106 I' 'I "

F i r s t G e n e r a t ion Advanced S t i r l i ngs ; C p t ion B 14,652. 44,605 2.59 X l o 6 I' " "
Second G e n e r a t ior. Curren: S t i r 1 i n g s ; Gpt ion A 15,907 45,065 26,000 t o n s of c o a l
Second G k n r r a t i o n C u r r e n r S t i r l imgs; Opt ion B 15,596 41,351 21,800 " " I'

Second G e n e r a t i o m Advanced S t i r l i n g ; , Option A 16,691 45,083 24,300 " " "

Second Gknerat iom Advancrd S t i r l i ngs ; Gpt i o c B 15,970 37,995 16,2OCN " "
Convent i o n a i S y s ~ e ~ n 4,390 55,433 --
 Table 6.21 Assumed Efficiencies of the Prime-Movers
as Percent of Fuel Input

Electric Recoverable Overall

Efficiency Heat Efficiency Efficiency
Prime-Mover (% 1 (%I (%>

Diesel 34.2 42 76.2

Gas Turbine 22 48 70
Current Stirling 32.3 54 86.3
Advanced Stirling 43.7 41 84.7

Diesel-based system has almost the same present total cost as the advanced
Stirling-based system.

The results obtained in the above comparisons are summarized in Table

6.22. The four groupings of zones or communities are arranged in order of
increasing commercial and office component. Zone D with 11% commercial is
followed by zones A, D, and E with 40% commerci.al. Next is the Fox Valley
Center and Villages with 52% commercial, and finally the Fox Valley Center
which is 100% commercial. For all the grouping of zones and all the criteria
for choosing the best prime-mover the design Option B gave the best results;
therefore, this design option is implied in all systems listed in Table 6.19.
The criteria for selecting the prime-mover are the fuel economy and the
present value of the total cost; these are applied under four different
situations. For selecting the prime-mover with the best fuel economy, we
considered two cases. In the first case, we assumed that Stirling engines of
current technology are available; whereas, in the second case, we assumed that
current-as well as advanced-technology-Stirling engines were available. In
the first case, the Diesel engine gave the best fuel economy for all four
communities. The fuel economy of the current-technology Stirling was almost
the same as that of the Diesel, except for the Fox Valley Center for the
reason given earlier. For the second case, we see that the advanced Stirling
engine outperforms all other prime-movers as far as fuel economy is concerned.

Turning now to the present value of the total cost, consider, in

addition to the two cases .descri.hed above, two different scenarios.. In the
I1
no coal" scenario, use of coal as a fuel is not allowed because the requir,ed
technology is not yet availab1.e. In the "coal" scenario, the capability 'of
. :

using coal as a fuel exists. Table 6.22 shows that in all four communities
 Table 6.22 Best Choice of Prime-Mover for the Four Communities
,

Fox Valley C'6nter

Zone D Zones A , D, and E and Villages Fox Valley Center
Criterion/Community (89% Residential) (60% Residential) (48X.Residential) (100% Commercial)

Fuel Economy
Current Technology
Advanced ~ e c h n o l & ~

Present Value of Total

-
Diesel, Stirling Diesel, Stirling
Advanced Stlirling
Diesel, Stirling Diesel
c

Cost (no coal)

Current Technology
Adv.ariced Techno logy
M

Advanced Stirling
Diesel
Advanced Stirling, Advanced Stirling,
-
Advanced Stirling,
Uiese 1 ul ese 1 Diesel

Present Value of Total

Coat (coal allowrd)
-
-
Current Technology 2nd Generat ion t
currant stirling
Advanced Technology ' 2nd Generation
Advanced Stirling

the Diesel-based system costs the least for all four communities; whereas, the
Diesel-based system has a comparable cost with the advanced Stirling for three
out of the four.communities. For the "coal" scenario, the conclusions are the
same ., for all the four communities, i.e., 'second-generatiorl, current Stirling
'for the current technology, and second-generation, advanced Stirling for the
advanced technology.

The conclusions to be drawn from these result's are that, in the "no
coal" scenario; only the advanced Stirling can compete with the Diesel.
However, in the "coal" scenario, both the current and the .advanced-technology,
Stirling-based systems outperform the Diesel-based systems. When coal is
considered as an alternative fuel, then the second-generation (i.e., coal-
burning) Stirling gives the best results. The reason is very simple: if,
using the assumptions described in Sect. 6.3.2, we calculate the cost of
fuel/10~ Btu; the cost of oil turns out to be $2.93110~ Btu; whereas, for
coal, it is $1.67/106 .Btu. This lower price for coal makes this alternative
attractive.
 7. DEVELOPMENT GOALS'

The Stirling engine clearly offers .unique capabiliti'es, such as

high efficiency. and fuel flexibility, that make it a prime candidate for
development. Its use in Total or Integrated Energy Systems would be advan-
tageous in terms of fuel conservation, non-scarce fuel utilization, and
lifecycle costs if certain development targets are met. However, three points
that should be emphasized to make the Stirling truely competitive with Diesel
engines are:
(1) capital costs,
( 2 ) operating and maintenance costs, and
( 3 ) fuel flexibility.

Furthermore, for such an engine, development is significantly different

from that for automotive use, so that a different strategy and set of goals
are required.

Upwards of $250 million is expected to be spent over the next 8-10

years in developing Stirling engines for automotive applications. Certainly
a large portion of this effort would be applicable ,to the development of
Stirling engines for stationary applications; thus, it may not be obvious why
a substantial development effort should be initiated for stationary Stirling
engines for use in Total Integrated Energy Systems. However, the development
of stationary Stirling engines may proceed along considerably different paths
than that of automotive systems to maximize the Stirling engines advantages ~f
fuel flexibility and high thermal efficiency. Moreover, the reliability and
operating life requirements of stationary Stirling engines are far more
demanding,than those for automotive engines.

The primary requirements for automotive engines are considerably

different from those for stationary applications which place a unique set of
criteria on these engines. These requirements include:

size and weight,

combustion/heat exchanger arrangement,
"isothermalized" Stirling engines,
'"partial" Stirling engines, and
coot.
7.2 AUTOMOTIVE VS STATIONARY.STIRLING DEVELOPMENT

To fit under the hood of an automobile, the automotive Stirling.engine

must have a very high power density ( 0.23 hpllb). This stringent size
requirement, in turn, has greatly influenced system design and operating
parameters by:

e stressing the use of hydrogen as the working gas with its

attendant safety problems, i.e., tendency to permeate ma-
terials of construction, and adversely affect the strength
of high-temperature materials (hydrogen embrittlement),

forcing the system to use a high-pressure gas which causes

high stresses in the hot end and limits operating tempera-
ture levels,

requiring a very high heat flux in the hot end which leads
to significant temperature drops between the hot end tubes
. and the working gas; and

e limiting the choice of sealing arrangement, drive mecha-

nism, and cylinder arrangements to result in highly com-
pact configurations.

The automotive Stirling engines are being designed to burn conven-

tional liquid (gasoline) or gaseous fuels In high heat flux artadgemears
with good transient response. Therefore, the requirements for stationary
power systems would be considerably different and, in,particular, would
probably stress combustor/heat transfer systems capable of butding solid fuels .
as well as liquids and gases.

To be competitive with automotive Otto, gas turbine, and Diesel

engines, the automotive Stirling engine must cost between $5 and $lO/hp.
This cost restriction is about an order of magnitude lower than that accep-
table for a Community System application.. This very stringent cost goal
severely .restricts the choice of materials and fabrication techniques that can
be used in an automotive stirling engine.

7.3 SPECIFIC TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT AREAS

The above restrictions on the automotive Stirling engine can
be relaxed for stationary applications so that engines optimized for use
in Community Energy Systems can be developed. Several areas that might
be subject to such a development program include:
 Working Gas. Helium may be a better working gas in stationary
S t i r l i n g e n g i n e s because i t does n o t permeate through containment m a t e r i a l s a s
r e a d i l y a s hydrogen, and t h e r e a r e fewer s a f e t y problems a s s o c i a t e d with i t s
use.

e S e a l Design. Lower working p r e s s u r e l e v e l s , lower o p e r a t i n g s p e e d s ,

l e s s stringent cost goals, and t h e use of helium, may make i t p o s s i b l e t o
d e v e l o p s e a l i n g arrangements t h a t a r e more r e l i a b l e t h a n t h e r o l l s o c k s e a l s
now used.

Engine C o n f i g u r a t i o n . P r e s e n t automotive a c t i v i t i e s s t r e s s double

a c t i n g l s w a s h d r i v e d e s i g n s t o m a x i m i z e power d e n s i t y and r e d u c e c o s t s .
A l t e r n a t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , such a s t h o s e u s i n g c r a n k s h a f t d r i v e s , may be more
appropriate for stationary applications that s t r e s s efficiency, maintainabil-
i t y , and r e l i a b i l i t y .

HeaterICombustion System. The t u b u l a r h e a t e r arrangements can be

directly fired on1 y w i t h very clean f u e l s without undergoing unacceptable
fouling. For s t a t i o n a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s , i t w i l l p r o b a b l y be n e c e s s a r y t o
emphasize h e a t e r s u s i n g h e a t p i p e s t o t r a n s f e r h e a t from t h e h o t combustion
gases t o the heater tubes. The u s e of h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e ( p r e f e r a b l y 1600°F and
higher) materials also should be stressed to increase efficiency levels.
Moreover, a p p r o p r i a t e combustion systems, t h a t c l e a r l y can burn a v a r i e t y o f
fuel forms u s i n g h i g h l y p r e h e a t e d a i r , w i l l have t o be developed f o r t h o s e
systems.

A i r Preheater. The overall thermal efficiency of a fuel-fired

S t i r l i n g e u g i u e i s 11igl1ly i n f l u e n c e d by r h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e a i r pre-
heater. Requirements on t h e p r e h e a t e r become more s e v e r e a s h e a t e r input
temperature levels increase t o maximize e n g i n e e f f i c i e n c y . For s t a t i o n a r y
applications, therefore, ceramic preheaters (either stationary or rotary
r e g e n e r a t i v e ) may have t o be developed ( p o s s i b l y based on gas t u r b i n e t e c h -
nology) if the high efficiency potential of the S t i r l i n g engine i s t o be
realized.
 a Regenerator. Thermal e f f e c t i v e n e s s and p r e s s u r e d r o p s a c r o s s t h e
regenerator a r e c r i t i c a l i n determining engine e f f i c i k n c y . Present designs
(usually stacked, perforated stainless-steel d i s k s ) s t r e s s low c o s t a t r e a -
sonably high e f f e c t i v e n e s s (about 0.9). A l t e r n a t i v e , d e s i g n s t h a t emphasize
e f f i c i e n c y should be pursued. Also, a s o p e r a t i n g temperature l e v e l s i n c r e a s e ,
h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e a l l o y s a n d / o r c e r a m i c s may have t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
regenerator design. The h i g h e r a l l o w a b l e c o s t s o f s t a t i o n a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s ( a s
compared w i t h a u t o m o t i v e ) p r o v i d e a h i g h d e g r e e o f c o n f i g u r a t i o n and m a t e r i a l
s e l e c t i o n f l e x i b i l i t y i n the design of the regenerator.

+ Radical D e p a r t u r e s . Implieit i.n t h c foregoing d i o c u o o i o n i s t h e

assumption that the basic Stirling engine configuration, typified by the
d e v e l o p m e n t s o f P h i l i p s and U n i t e d S t i r l i n g , w i l l be t h e b a s i s o f a n e n g i n e
o p t i m i z e d f o r a s t a t i o n a r y power a p p l i c a t i o n . A r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e and
t h e g o a l s o f t h e a u t o m o t i v e S t i r l i n g e n g i n e program i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l m o s t a l l
present-day S t i r l i n g engine developments a r e outgrowths o f the.work a t P h i l i p s
and i t s l i c e n s e e s ( s u c h a s U n i t e d S t i r l i n g , MAN, and v a r i o u s U.S. automotive
c o m p a n i e s ) . . T h i s i n c e s t u o u s s i t u a t i o n c o u l d t e n d t o s t i f l e t h e i n f l u x o f new
i d e a s which r e s u l t i n e n g i n e a p p r o a c h e s now u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t .

7.4 OVEFULL GOALS OF ENGINE DEVELOPMENT

The above specific technical research and development goals should

b e aimed a t d e v e l o p i n g a S t i r l i n g e n g i n e t h a t c a n meec r t t l i a l j i l i e y ail9 iiiain-
tainability standards already achieved with the larger stationary Diesel
engines. The s p e c i f i c o v e r a l l g o a l s s h o u l d be t o :

(1) develop s t a t i o n a r y S t i r l i n g engine with a thermal

e f f i c i e n c y a t l e a s t a s good a s c u r r e n t , low-to-medium.
speed Diesel e n g i n e s , i . e . , 38-40%;
(2) d e v e l o p e n g i n e s t h a t c a n uac f u c l o o t h c r t h a n d i o t i l -
l a t e s , i n c l u d i n g c o a l , wood c h i p s , m l l n i c i p a l w a s t e ,
e t c ; and
(3) achieve a c o s t f o r a non-scarce-fueled, S t i r l i n g engine
t h a t i s n o t more t h a n t w i c e t h e c o s t o f c u r r e n t low-
to-medium s p e e d D i e s e l e n g i n e s .
 8. SUGGESTED DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAM

8.1 GENERAL

The development of a large Stirling engine suitable for stationary

power applications admittedly is a large undertaking with numerous technolog-
ical risks., However, many of the technical problems that must be resolved
already are being addressed in the automotive Stirling engine development
programs, so that most of the effort can be devoted specifically to large
Stirling engine technological issues as outl'ined in Chapter 7. With this in
mind, a general outline is given in the following of an overall program th.at
should result in a demonstrated large Stirling .engine in about 6-7 years.
However, detailed program plans and budget allocations can change the overall
program progress. After the successful completion of this program, the engine
technology is expected to be commercialized.

8.1 DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

A generalized milestone chart for the overall large Stirling engine

developmental program is given in Fig. 8.1 which shows the program is broken

DEVELOPMENT YEAR
TASKS
2 3 4 5 6 7
. . 1 I I 1 I I I I I I I I I r
1. Supporting
Rh D

2. Conceptual I
Engine Designs

3. Preliminary
Engine Designs

4. Final r
Engine Dsnignn

5. Engine rn
Fabricat ion

6. Testing end
h n o n n t r a t inn

Fig. 8.1 Overall Large Stirling Engine Development Program

1
down into six main tasks including:

1. supporting R&D;
2. conceptual engine designs;
3. preliminary engine design;
4. final engine designs;
5. engine fabrication, and
6. testing and demonstrations.

Each of the initial tasks is expected to. involve a number of contracts ,

for the development 'of several engines with, perhaps, unique technical ap-
proaches. ,The ultimate goal of the program is to demonstrate for commerciali-
zation a reliable, high-efficiency, economically competitive engine that can
burn non-scarce fuels such as coal, coal-derived fuels, and industrial and
municipal wastes.

8.1.1 Supporting Research and Development

This portion of the program would .be devoted to the development of

solutions to the various technical areas addressed in Chapter 7 and would
support the engine development and fabrication in the subsequent, on-going
tasks. Supporting R&D would include work in solid-fuel combustion systems,
engine working fluids, seal designs, heat transport system, preheater design,
and recuperator designs. These particular areas can be addressed separately
from the overall engine design and will help in the design of novel engine
configurations. Work in this area would be performed either by the prime
engine contractors of Phases I-V or by independent researchers.

8.2 ENGINE DESIGN AND DEMONSTRATIONS ..

The overall engine,desi- and demonstration will be divided into four

phases as.follows :

( 1 ) conceptual engine designs

( 2 ) preliminary engine designs
( 3 ) final engine designs and
engine fabrication, and
( 4 ) testing and demonstration.
A brief description of each phase follows.

18.2.1 Conceptual Engine Designs

The first ph,ase'of engine design and demonstration will develop several
engine conceptual designs that emphasize: /

(a) fuels flexibility,

(b.) high efficiency,
(c) reliability,
(dl serviceability, and
.(el potentially economic, competitive production costs.

This phase will include state-of-the-art conceptual design with a high poten-
tial for demonstration by 1985, as well as advanced designs that may require
significant R&D before demonstration and subsequent cominercialization. These
designs include a potentially workable heat transport system and combustion
systems that could handle a variety of fuels. Thes.e engine designs are to be
directed toward engines in the 500-3000 h i range.

8.2.2 Preliminary Engine Designs

Based on the conceptual designs developed in the first phase of the

development program, a more detailed preliminary design phase will be under-
taken. This effort 'is intended to develop the most promising designs of Phase
I to a stage where a definitive evaluation can be made. Next, a detailed,
working drawing phase would be begun toward the fabrication of one or more
demonstration engines.

8.2.3 Final Engine Designs and Engine Fabrication

After evaluating the preliminary designs, the most promising will go

into final design and fabrication of one or more engines. These phases are
expecLed to cover a one-year period and will be strongly coordinated with
ongoing, supportive research and development work to help resolve technical:
probl'ems as they arise.
8.2.4 Testing and Demonstration

When the engines have been built they will undergo extensive laboratory
and field tests to deinonstrate their technical attributes. These tests will
cover at least a two-year period to allow enough documentation of performance
and cost to determine a commercialization strategy. It should be expected
that further developmental.work would be needed for various engine components
subsequent to this phase.
 REFERENCES

1. Holtz , R.E., On the ~ r C dConnection of An Integrated Community Energy

System, Energy Conversion, 17, pp. 41-44 (1977). P

2. Calm, J.M., et al., Thermal Transmission Integrated Community Energy

Systems, Proc. of 13th Intercity Energy Conversion Engineering Confer-
ence (Aug. 20-25, 1978).

3. Kennedy, A. S. , Argonne National Laboratory, private cokmunication

(June 1978).

4. Meijer, R.J., %itips Stirling Engine Activities, International Automotive

Engineering Congress, Society of Automotive Engineers, Detroit, Michigan
(Jan. 11-15, 1965).

5. Postma, N.D., R.V. Giessel, and F. Reinink, The Stirling Engine for Itzssenger
Car Application, by Ford Motor Company and N.V. Philips, Holland, S.A.E. paper
730648 (June 1973).

6. Meijer, R.J., The %itips Stirling Engine, Philips Research Laboratories,

Netherlands. De Ingenieur, 8, No. 18, p. G9-79, May 2, 1969, pp. 81-93
(May 9, 1969).

7. Michels, A.P.J., and R.J. Meyer, State of the Art of the Development of the
Stirling Engine with Emphasis on the Low Pollution Btential and L m Fuel
Consumption, First Symposium on Low Pollution Power Systems Development,
N.V. Philips, Eindhoven, Netherlands (October 14-19, 1973).

8. Stirling Engine Program, Energy Research and Development Administration,

Advanced Automotive Power Systems contractors' Coordination Meeting, Ford
Powertrain Research Office (May 8, 1975).

9. Stirling Engine Program, Energy Research and Development Administration,

Advanced Automotive Power Systems Contractors' Coordination Meeting, Ford
Powertrain Research Of £ice (October 19, 19.76) .

10. Rosenqvist, N.K.G., S.G. Bummesson, and S.G.K. Lundholm, The Development
of a 150 kW (200 hp) Stirling w i n e for Medium Duty Automotive Applica-
tion--A Status Report, International Automotive Engineering Congress and
Exposition, Society of Automotive Engineers, Detroit (Feb. 28 - Mar. 4 , 1977).

11. ERDA Authorization Bill Advances, Energy Research Digest, Volume I1I,
No. 2, (October 10, 1977).

12. Lehrfeld, D., System Analysis Design and Proof of Concept Experiment of
Total Energy System, Final Report for period May 15, 1976 - June 13, 1977,
Philips Laboratories, Briarcliff Manor, N.Y.
Hoagland, L.C., e t a l . , A Technology Evaluation of the S t i r l i n g Engine for
Stationary Ebwer Generation i n the 500 t o 2000 Horsepower Range, AMTECH
Report 78-2, prepared f o r t h e Department o f Energy AM an. 5 , . 1 9 7 8 ) .

S e g a s e r , C h a r l e s , J . , Internal Combustion. Piston Engines, Argonne N a t i o n a l

Laboratory Report ANLICESITE-77-1 ( J U ~ Y 1977).

Samuels, G . , and J . T . , Meador, MTUS Technology Evaluation -

Prime-Movers,
Oak Ridge N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y Report ORNL-HUD-MIUS-I1 ( A p r i l 1974).

S e g a s e r , C.L., ICES Technology Evaluation -

Internal Combustion Piston
Engines, Argonne N a t i o n a l Laboratory Report ANLICESITE 77-1 ( J U ~ Y
1977).

Farahan; E . , and J . P . Eudaly, Oak Ridge N a t i o n a l Laboraeory, p e r s o n a l

communication (1978).

B r y z i k , W . , Adiabatic Diesel Engine, Research/Development, pp. 34-40

( J a n u a r y 1978).

Kamo, R . , and W. Bryzik, Adiabatic Turbocompound Engine Brformance Prodic-

t i o n , Paper No. 780068, p r e s e n t e d a t t h e S o c i e t y o f Automotive E n g i n e e r s ,
D e t r o i t , Mich. (Feb. 2 7 -
Mar. 3 , 19781.

I n s t i t u t e o f Gas Technology, unpublished i n f o m a e i o n (December 1 9 7 6 ) .

T h e u r i n g e r , F., Operating Experience with Two Modem, Medium-Sized Gas

Turbines, ASME Paper No. 74 GT-102 (1974).
.
Boyce , M. P. , e t a 1 , Gas il'urbine ~ y te6
c f o r sthe Proceu I d u L~P ~ , ASME
Paper No. 766T-102 (1976).

Gas Turbine I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1 7 ( 2 ) p . 31 and l 7 ( 3 ) p . 27 arch-June 1976)

Aero 06. Industrial Maintenance Costs, Gas Turbine I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 17( 2 )
p. 52 (March-April 1976).

Cadsby, G . N . , A PPeZiminary Study of t h e Market B t e n t i u l uf Lhe SL.irt.i?y

Engine Vis-a-vis Industrial Diesel and Gas Turbine Engines i n the >I000
HPRange, MITRE T e c h n i c a l Report 7665 (November 1977).
Kennedy, A.S., C. Lee, and W. P f e r d e h i r t , Argonne N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y ,
p e r s o n a l cammunicatiutl (19713).

Farahan, E . , Central Heating -

Rzckage Boilers, Argonne N a t i o n a l Laboratory
Report ANL/CES/TE 77-6 ( ~ a y1977.).

T i s o n , R.R., I n s t i t u t e of Gas Technology, p e r s o n a l communication (1978).

C h r i s t i a n , J. E. , Central Cool ing'

Laboratory Report ANLICESITE
-
Absorptive Chit l e r s , Argonne N a t i o n a l
77-8 ( ~ u g u s t1977).

Christ i a n , J.E., Oak Ridge N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y , p e r s o n a l communication (1978)

C h r i s t i a n , J.E., Oak Ridge N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y , p e r s o n a l communication (1978).

32. Donakowski, T., Institute of Gas' Technology, personal communication (1978).

33, Burns and Roe, Inc., Urban Area District Energy System.Study, Report No.
W,O 3251-06 (1.978).
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

~ h a n k s 'a r e due t o Dr. Robert E . Holtz for helpful discussions and

i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e development of S t i r l i n g , e n g i n e s , and t o t h e s t a f f
of Arthur D. L i t t l e Co. who p r e p a r e d t h e p r e l i m i n a r y assessment of S t i r l i n g
e n g i n e s which c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n t e n t of C h a p t e r s 1 . 0 , 3 . 0 and 7 . 0 .
S p e c i a l t h a n k s a r e due t o J a c k i e Dzingel and G e r i T o n e l l i who s o a b l y typed
t h e d r a f t s and f i n a l v e r s i o n of t h i s r e p o r t , and t o Mary J o K o e l b l and Linda
Samek who d i d t h e a r t w o r k .
 LIST OF FIGURES
(For Appendix A)

Number Title Page

A.l Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and H e a t i n g Demand P r o f i l e of Zone D

f o r t h e Winter Design Day ......................................
A.2 Non-HVAC E l e t r i c and Cooling Demand P r o f i l e of Zone D
f o r t h e Summer Design Day .....................................
A.3 Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and H e a t i n g Demand P r o f i l e of Zones A ,
D, and E f o r t h e Winter Design Day ............................
A.4 Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and Cooling Demand P r o f i l e of Zones A ,
D , .and E f o r t h e Summer.Design Day ....
............
A.5 Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and H e a t i n g Demand P r o f i l e of t h e Fox
..........
V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s f o r t h e Winter Design Day
A.6 Nan-HVAC E l e c t r i c and Cooling Uemanrl P r n f i l e o f the Fox
..........
V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s f o r t h e Summer Design Day
 -- - 1
I
HEQTING LOAD
Go- -20

50 -
w
0
s
m

40 -
--aJ
3
ZE , : 0
- /--
1'
I Cn
43

-./,
h
'Z.
W 30-\./ si

\. 1
/- -4
10 c
3
o NON-HVAC ELECTRIC -1-
-<
.
/' \
3-
[L

20- DEMAND
1

1
I0 - I
1 -- - 1

0 -
- - I 1 I - I 1 A

4 8 12 16 20 24
TIME, h

Fig. A.l Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and Heating Demand P r o f i l e

of Zone D for t h e Winter Design Day
Fig. A . 2 Non-HVAC ~ l e c t r i cand Cooling Demand P r o f i l e
of Zone D for the Summer ~ e s i g nDay
' '
 50- I
1

,
1
HEATING LOAD
I - 1.5
40-
\,f')

/'
I, I
I

f
*I 30- /' 1 '
I -10
- f-
(L
W
\
'i 1, I j
r-•
.
\
3
0
20-
-j---- \-
1-
-J'
?-

NON- HVAC ELECTRIC

DEMAND

I0 -

-
o
4 8 12 I I6 2I0 24

TIME, h

F i g . A.3 Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and Cooling Demand P r o f i l e of

Zones A, D, and E f o r the Winter Design Day
Fig. A.5 Won-HVAC E l e c t r i c and Coolin g Demand P r o f i l e of
the Fox Valley Center and V i l l a g e s for the
Winter Design Day
. ('

, . , .
 T I ME.,, h

Fig. A . 6 Non-HVAC E l e c t r i c and Cooling Demand P r o f i l e of

the Fox Valley Center and V i l l a g e s for the
Summer Design Day
 LIST OF TABLES
( f o r Appendix A)

No. * Page

C o s t s of D i e s e l Based T o t a l Energy System, O p t i o n A ,

f o r Zone D.................................................. i 19
C o s t s of D i e s e l Based T o t a l Energy System, Option B ,
f o r Zone D . . . . . . . . .......................................... 120
C o s t s of Gas Turbine Based T o t a l Energy System, O p t i o n A ,
f o r Zone D.................................................. 121
C o s t s of Gas T u r b i n e Based T o t a l Energy System, Option B y
f o r Zone D...;...................1........................... 122
C o s t s of F i r s t ene era ti on, C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, Option A , f o r Zone D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
C o s t s o f Second G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, Option A , f o r Zone D . ................................. 124
C o s t s of F i r s t Generat i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based .
System, Option B , f o r Zone D . . .............................. 125
C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, Option B y f o r Zone D................................ 126
C o s t s of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, Option A , f o r Zone D . . . ............................. 127
C o s t s o£ Second G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, tion on'^, f o r Zone D ................................. 128
C o s t s of F i r s t Generation,.Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, Option B y f o r Zone D................................ 129
C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced s t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, Option B , f o r Zone D . . ..............................
; .... 130
C o s t s of D i e s e l Rased T o t a l Energy Syotcm, Option A , f u r
Zones A , D , and E........................................... 131
C o s t s of D i e s e l Engine Based T o t a l Energy System, Option B ,
f o r Zones A , D , and E....................................... 132
C o s t s of Gas T u r b i n e Based T o t a l Energy System, Option A ,
f o r Zones A , D , and E . . . . . . . ................................ 133
C o s t s of Gas T u r b i n e Based T o t a l Energy System, Option B ,
f o r Zones A , D , and E . . . . . . ................................. 134
C o s t s o f F i r s t . G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, Option A , f o r Zones A , D , and E . . . . ................. 135
C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, Option A , f o r Zones A , D , and E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 136
C o s t s of . F i r s t Generat i o n , Clirrent: S t i r l i n g Engine Bnocd
System, Option B , f o r Zones A , D , and E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 137
 LIST OF TABLES ( ~ o n t ' d )
( f o r Appendix A)

No. . Page
- ' a

A. 20 C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based

System, O p t i o n B , f o r Zones A , D , and E ........................ 138
C o s t s of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, O p t i o n A , f o r Zones A , D , and E . . . . . . . . ............... 139
C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, O p t i o n A , f o r Zones A , D , and E ....................... 140
C o s t s of F i r s t Generat i o n , Advanccd S t i r l i n g Engine Rased
System, O p t i o n B , f o r Zones A , D , and E....................... 141
C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, nptinn B , for Zones A , D , and E.......,............... 142
C o s t s of ~ i e s e lBased T o t a l Energy SygLeur, Option A , 6dr Fox
....................................
V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s 143
C o s t s of ~ i e s e lBased T o t a l Energy System, O p t i o n B , f o r Fox
................................
V a l l e y , C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s 144
C o s t s of Gas T u r b i n e 'Based T o t a l Energy System, Option A , f o r
Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s................................ 145
C o s t s of Gas T u r b i n e Based T o t a l Energy System, Option B , f o r
Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s................................ 146
C o s t s of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, O p t i o n A , f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s .......... 147
C o s t s of Second ene era ti on, C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
Sysrem, O p t i u n A , f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and Villages .......... 148 .
C o s t s of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, O p t i o n B , f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s .......... 149
C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine.Based
System, O p t i o n B , f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s ........... 150
C o s t s of F i r s t Generat i o n , ~ d v a n c e dS t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, O ~ L ~ O AL, I for Pox Volley Center and Vi.1 l a g e s . . ........ 151
C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, O p t i o n A, f o r Fox V a l l e y Center and V i l l a g e s .......... 152
C o s t s of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine Based
Systeru, O p t i o n B , f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s .......... 153
C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g ~ n g i n eBased
System, O p t i o n A, f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s .......... 154
 Table A . l C o s t s of D i e s e l Based ~ o t a Energy
i System,
Option A , f o r Zone D

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

D i e s e l ~ n g i n e s " X 3 . 7 MW ( $ 3 3 0 / k ~ ) 3,663
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 206
. .
Hot and C h i l l e d Water ~ t ' o r a g e 64
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s .2 X 4 . 5 MW 180
Hot Water B o i l e r s 3 X 5.57 MW 383
Absorption C h i l l e r s 4 X 1500 t o n s
Cooling Towers 4 X 1500 t o n s
Chemical ~ r e a t m e n t 84 (CD 5,845)
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n (3.79 + 0.771105 g a l 0.97 $ / g a l 442 (CE 6,287)
B u i l d i n g and 'Lot 10% CD 584
Instrument a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE
Distribution: Hearing and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

O&M 6%'CE 377.

f u e l 2.78 X lo6 gal/yr .oil
 T a b l e A.2 C o s t s of D i e s e l Base'd T o t a l Energy System,
Option B , f o r Zone D

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

D i e s e l Engines 3 X 4.4 MW ( $ 3 2 4 / k ~ ) 4,277 '

I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 206
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 64
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 2 X 4 . 5 MW 180
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 3 X 1580 t a n s 6 15
Cooling Towers 3 X 1580 t o n s 372
~ n m p t e s s i o nC h i l l e r s 2 X 1340
c o o l i n g Towets 2 X 1340
Chemical Treatment 84 (CD 6,268)
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n 3 . 8 5 X 105 g a l X 0.98 $ / g a l 377 (CE 6,645)
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 62 7
1nstrume.nta t i o n and C o n t r o l s '15% CE
Distribution: Heat-ing and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

O&M 6% CE 399.
fuel 2 . 3 5 X loh gally= o i l ,
 Table A.3 C o s t s of Gas T u r b i n e Based T o t a l Energy
System, O p t i o n A , f o r Zone D

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Gas turbine.^ 2 X 7.4 MW ( $ 2 9 7 / k ~ ) 4,396

I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 20 6
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 64
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 2 X 2.4 MW 96
Hot Water B o i l e r s 2 X 4.56 MW 24 2
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 4 X 1500 t o n s 793
Cooling Towers 4 X 1500 t o n s 47 2
Chemical Treatment 84 (CD 6,353)
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n 5.99 X lo5 g a l X 0.94 $ / g a l 563 (CE 6,916)
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 635
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE 1,037
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling 4,550
Electric
TOTAL COST

O&M 6% CE 415'.
. .
f u e l 3.65 X lo6 gal/yr o i l
 T a b l e A.4 , C o s t s of Gas T u r b i n e Based T o t a l Energy
System, Option B , f o r Zone D

. Cost
~ e s c r ii o~nt ( $ 1000)

Gas T u r b i n e s 2 X 7.7 MW ( $ 2 9 4 / k ~ )
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e '
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 2 X 2.4 MW
Absorption C h i l l e r s 4 X 1427 t o n s
Cooling Towers 4 X 1427 t o n s
C o m p r ~ s s i o nc h i l l e r s 2 X 220 t o n s
Cooling Towers 2 X 220 t o n s
Chemical Treatment
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n 6.04 X lo5 X U.94 $ / g a l
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD
Instrument a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15%.CE
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST
 Table A.5 C o s t s of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g
Engine Based System, 'Option A , f o r Zone D

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

F i r s t Generat(ion C u r r e n t
S t i r l i n g Engines 3 X 3.7 MW ($420/kW) . ' ' 4,662
I n . P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water 'Systems 20 6 . .

Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 64

E l e c t r i c Heaters' 2 X 4 . 5 MW . .. .. . .. 180
'Hot Water B o i l e r s 3 X 2.88 MW ,331 . .
Absorption C h i l l e r s 4 X 1500 t o n s .. , , , . a ,793 .
Cooling Towers 4 . X 1500 t o n s 472 .

Chemical Treatment 84 (CD6,792)

O i l P r e p a r a t i o n ( 4 . 1 + 1.781105 g a l X 0.94 $ / g a l ' 553 (CE 7,345)
. ,
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 67.9...
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE 1,.lo2
Distribution: Heating and Cooling.. ' . .' ' 4.,.550
Electric
TOTAL COST

O&M 6% CE 441.
f u e l 2.66 X lo6 gallyr o i l
 Table A . 6 C o s t s of ..Second Generat i o n , Current s t i r l i n g
,Engine Based System, Option A', f o r ' Zone D

Cost
. . Description ( $ 1000)

Second G e n e r a t i o n C u r r e n t
S t i r l i n g Engines 3 X 3.7 MW . ( $ 4 7 3 / k ~ ) 5,250
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Syst.ems 206
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 2 X 4 . 5 MW ( 2 0 / k ~ )
H o t Water B o i l e r s 3 X 2.87 MW
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 4 X 1500 t o n s
' Cooling Towers 4 X 1500 LOLLS

CKemical Treatment
Coal P r e p a r a t i o n 4 . 3 3 t o n / l ~
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE 1,238
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling 4,550
E .l e c.t r i c 384
TOTAL COST 15,182

f u e l 16.600 t o n / y r c o a l
P- - . -
 T a b l e A . 7 . C o s t s of . F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , . C u r r e n t S t i r l i i n g
Engine Based .Systein, Opt i o n B , f o r .Zone ' D

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n Cur.rent
S t i r l i n g E n g i n e s 3 X 4 . 2 MW ( $ 4 1 4 / k ~ )
I n P l a n t Hot .and C h i l l e d Water Systems
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 2 X 4 . 5 MW
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 4 X 1266 t o n s
C o o l i n g Towers 4 X 1266 t o n s
Compression C h i l l e r s 2 X 700 t o n s '

C o o l i n g Towers 2 X 700 t o n s
Chemical T r e a t m e n t '84 (CD 7 , 1 4 7 )
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n 3.97 X 105 g a l X 0 . 9 8 $ / g a l 389 (CE 7 , 5 3 6 )
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 715
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE 1,130
Distribution: H e a t i n g and C o o l i n g 4,550
Electric 384
TOTAL COST 14,315

O&M 6%.CE 452.

f u e l , 2.42 X lo6 .. g. a l / y . r oil
. , .
 Table A.8 C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , Current S t i r l i n g
Engine Based System, Option B , f o r Zone:. D

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Second G e n e r a t i o n C u r r e n t
S t i r l i n g Engines 3 X 4.2 MW ( $ 4 6 6 / k ~ . ) 5,872
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 206
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 64
E l e . c t r i c H e a t e r s 2 X 4.5 MW
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 4 X 1266 tnns
Cooling Towers 4 X 1266 t o n s
Compression C h i l l e r s 2 X 700 t o n s
Cooling Towers 2 X 700 t o n s
Chemical Treatment
Coal P r e p a r a t i o n 3: 57 t o n / h
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD , . .

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 4,550
Elecr v i c
TOTAT2 GnST

f u e l 15,100 t o n j y r c o a l
---
 .. . .
. T a b l e A.9 C o s t s of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g
Engine Based System, O p t i o n A , . f o r Zone D

Cost
Description . ($. 1000)

F i r s t Generat-'ion Advanced
S t i r l i n g Eng'ines 3 X 3.7 M W .
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems
Hot and ~ h i i l e dWa'ter S t o r a g e
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 'X 4 . 5 MW ( $ 2 0 / k ~ )
Hot w a t e r boi'lers 3 X 4.75 MW 366
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 4 X 1470 t o n s 784
Cooling Towers 4 X 1470 t o n s ,4,68
i
Chemical Treatment 84. (CD
. . 6,936)
O i l P r e p a r a t i . o n 3.68 X lo5 g a l , X .98 $ / g a l 360 ( C E 7,297)
~
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 694
~ n s t r u m e nat t ion and C o n t r o l s 15% CE ,1,094 '
1

Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling 4,550

Electric 384
TOTAL COST 14,018

O&M 6% CE 438.
. . f u e l 2.24. X lo6 gal/yr o i l .
 T a b l e A.10 C o s t s o f Second Generati.on, Advanced S t i r l i n g
Engine Based System, Option A , f o r Zone D

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Second G e n e r a t i o n Advanced
S t i r l i n g Engines 3 X 3.7 MW ($473/k~)
- I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e
E l e c ~ i i eH c n t e r s 3 X 4.5 MW
Hot w a t e r b o i l e r s 3 X 4.75 MW ( c o a l )
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 4 X 1470 t o n s
, C o o l i n g Towers 4 X 1470 t o n s
Chemical Treatment
cbal ~ r e ~ a ri oa nt 4 . 2 t o n / h
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

O&M 6 % -CE 522.

f u e l 14,000 t n n l y r c u a l
-,....,--- ..-. .. .. ,.-
 Table.A.ll .Costs of First Generation, Advanced Stirling
Engine.Based System, Option B, for zone D

Cost
Description ($ 1000)

First Generation Advanced

Stirling Engines 3 X 4.5 MW ($410/k~) 5,535
In Plant Hot and. Chilled Water Systems 206
Hot and Chilled watdr Storage. 96,.
Electric Heaters 3 X 4..5 MW 270
Absorption Chillers 3 X' 1575 tons. 6.15
Cooling Towers 3 X 1575 tons . 369,
Compression,Chillers2 X 1250'tons. 244 .
Cooling ~owers2 X 1250 200
Chemical Treatment 84 (CD 7,,619)
Oil preparation 3.05 X 105 gal X 0.99 $/gal 302 (CE 7,921.)
Building and Lot 10% CD . . 762
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 1,188
Distribution: Hea'ting and Cooling 4,550
Electric
TOTAL COST

fuel 1.86 lo6 gal/yr oil

 Table A. 12 Costs of Second ~eneration,.Advanced St irling
Engine Based System, Option B, for Zone D

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Second Generation Advanced ,

Stirling Engines 3 X 4'.5 MW ($463/k~) . 6,250

In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems 206
Hot and Chilled Water Storage 96

Absorption Chillers 3 X 1575 tons 369

Cooling Towers 3 X 1575 tons 244
Compression Chillers 2'X 1250 tons 200 .
Cooling Towers 2 X 1250 238
Chemical Treatment 84 (CD 8,334)
Coal Preparat ion 2.82 ton/h 448 (CE 8,782)
Building and Lot 10% CD 833
Instrumentat ion and Controls 15% CE 1,317
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 4,550

OCM 6 2 CE 5 2 7 . .
coal
fuel 11,600 to~l/~r
 , . Table A..13 Costs of .Diesel Based To.t,alEnergy System;
. . :Opti'onA, .for.
Zones A, D,, and E

Cost
Description .($. 1000)

Diesel Engines 5 X 5.5 MW ($318/k~). . 8,745

In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems. . . . . 26.0
Hot and Chilled Water Storage 96
Electric Heaters 3 X 13.4 MW 462
Hot Water Boilers 5 X 17.3 MW 1,002
Absorption Chillers 12 X'1440 tons 2,316
Cooling Towers 12 X 1440 tons 1,368
Chemical Treatment '230 (CD 14,4~9)
Oil Preparation 16.99 X lo5 gal X 0.74 $/gal 1,257 '(CE 15,736)
Building and Lot 10% C D . 1,448
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 2,360
Distribution: Heating and Cooling ' 9,600 .

Electric . 1.200.
TOTAL COST -. 30.344

O&M 6% CE 944.
fuel 10.36 x lo6 gal/yr.oil
 Table A.14 Costs of Diesel Engine Based Total Energy
System, Option B, for Zones A, D, and E

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Diesel Engines 5. X 7.6 MW ($309/kW) 11,742

In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems
Hot and Chilled Water Storage
Electric Heaters 5 X 13.4 MW
Absorption Chillers 7 X 1580 tons
Cooling Towers 7 X 1580 tons
Compression Chillers 6 X 1580 tons
Cooling Towers 6 X 1580 tono
Chemical Treatment
Oil Preparation 13.27 X lo5 gal X 0.81 $Ig.al
Building and Lot 10% CD
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

O&M 6% CE 1,086
fuel 8.09 X lo6 gallyr oil
 Table."A; 15 . C o s t s of Gas Turb,ine. ~ a s e d T o t a l Energy
System, Option A , f o r Zones A , D , and E

Cost
Description ($ 1000)
. . -. 8'

' Gas T u r b i n e s 4 X 7.4 MW ( 2 9 7 / k ~ ) 8,791 .

I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d . Water Systems 260

Hot. and Ch i.1l e d W.at e r S.torage. 96
E l e c t r i c ~ e . a t e r s3 X. 7 MW 330 '

Hot Water B o i l e r s 4 X. 15.64 MU 768

A b s o r p t i o n . C h i l l e r s 12 X 1440 t o n s 2,316
Cool.ing Towers 1'2 X 1440 t o n s ' 1.,'36.8
Chemical Treatment 230 (CD 14,159)
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n . 2,l. 76 X l o 5 g a l . X. $10.6.6. 1,.436 (CE' 15,59.5.)
B u i l d i n g and ~ d 10%
t CD 1,416
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE 2,339
Di.st r i b u t ion: 1Itat.ing and Cooling ' 9.,6-00
Electric 1.200
TOTAL COST 30,150

O&M 6% CE 936.
f u e l 13.27 X lo6 gallyr oil
 Table A.16 Costs of Gas Turbine Based Total Energy .
,System,Option B, for Zones A, D, and' E

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Gas Turbines 4 X 8.8 MW ($286/k~) 10,067

In Plant Hot and Chilled Water systems . : 260
Hot' and Chilled Water Storage 96
Electric Heaters 3 X 7 MW 330
Absorption Chillers 10 X 1440 tons
Cooling Towers 10 X 1440 tons
Compression Chillers 4 X 1467 tons
Co,olingTowers 4 X 1467 tons
Chemical Treatment 230 (CD 15,061)
Oil Preparation 18.5 X 105 gal X $0.71/gal 1,314 (CE 16,375)
Building and Lot 10% CD 1,506
.Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 2,456
.Distribution: Heating and Cooling 9,600
Electric, 1,200
TOTAL C03T 31,137

0&M 6% CE 982.
'
fuel 11.28 X lo6 gally= o'il
T a b l e A.17 C o s t s of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , ,Current S t i r l i n g Engine :

Based System, O p t i o n A, f o r Zones A , D , and E

Cost
Descrption ($ 1000)

F i r s t Generation Current
S t i r l i n g Engine 5 X 5 . 5 MW ($402/kw) 11,055
I n P l a n t Hot. and C h i l l e d Water Systems
I
. 260
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 96
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X 13.4 MW , , 46 2
Hot Water B o i l e r s 5 X 12.5 MW
Absorption C h i l l e r s 12 X 1440 t o n s ,
Cooling Towers 12 X 1440 t o n s 1,368.
Chemical Treatment 230 (CD 16,647)
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n 15.94 X 105 g a l X $ 0 . 7 6 I g a l 1,211 (CE 17,858)
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 1*,665
T.nstrumentotion and Concrols ISX CE 2,679 .
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling 9,600.
Electric 1,200
TOTAL COST 33,002

f u e l 9.72 X lo6 gal/yr o i l

T a b l e . A . 1 8 ' C o s t s of Second G e n e r a t i o n , Current S t i r l i n g Engine
. Based System, Option A , f o r Zones. A , D , and E

Cost
Descript'ion ( $ 1000)

Second G e n e r a t i o n C u r r e n t
S t i r l i n g Engine 5 X 5.5 MW ( $ 4 5 2 / k ~ )
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X 13.4 MW
Hot Water B o i l e r s 5 X 12.5 MW
'
Ahsnrptian C h i l l e r s 1 2 X 1440 t o n s .

Cooling Towers 1 2 X 1440 ~ u i k

Chemical Treatment 230 (CD 21,081)
Coal P r e p a r a t i o n 19.16 t o n / h . 2,513 (CE 23,600)
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 2,109
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE 3,540
Distribution: Heating and Cooling - 9,600
Electric
TOTAL COST . .

O & M bZ CE 1,416.
f u e l 60,700 t o n / y r c o a l
--
Table A.19 Coscs of F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine
Based System; O p t i o n B , f o r Zones A , D , and E

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

F i r s t Generation Current
S t i r l i n g Engine 5 X 7.2 MW ( $ 3 9 0 / k ~ ) 14,040
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 260 .
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 96
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X 13.4 MW
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 8 X 1610 t o n s : .:
Cooling Towers 8 X 1610 t o n s
Compression C h i l l e r s 6 X 1220 t o n s
Cooling Towers 6 X 1220 t o n s
Chemical Treatment
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n 13.17 X lo5 g a l ($0.81/gal)
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST 35,858

O&M 6% CE 1',208.
f u e l 8.03 X lo6 gallyr o i l
T a b l e A. 20 C o s t s of Second ~ e n i r ai to n , Current S t i r l i n g Engine
Based System, Option B , . f o r Zones A , D , and E .

Cost
~escription ( $ 1000)

Second G e n e r a t i o n C u r r e n t
S t i r l i n g Engine 5 X 7.2 MW ( $ 4 3 8 / k ~ )
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X 13.4 MW
Absorption C h i l l e r s 8 X 1610 t o n s
Cooling Towers 8 X 1610 t o n s
~ o m ~ r e s s i aCn h i l l e r s 6 X 1.220 tons
Cooling ~ o w e ' r s6 X 1220 t o n s
Chemical Trea.tment
Coal P r e p a r a t i o n 12.37 t o n / h
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling
Electric
TOTAT, COST

O6M 6% Ci? 1,349.

f u e l 50,200 con/yr coal
 Table A.21 C o s t s of F L r s t G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine'
Based System, Option A , f o r Zones A, D , and E

.. . .

Cost
D e s c r i p t i. o n. ( $ 1000)
. . ., .. , ,. . . . .
F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n Advancqd
S t i r l i n g Engine 5 X 6.35 MW ( $ 3 9 6 / k ~ ) 1.2,573
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i.l l. e d Water Systems 260
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 96
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X 21.4 MW 59 1
Hot Water B o i l e r s 5 X 16.53 MW 988
. A b s o r p t i. p. n C h i l l e r s 12 X 1440
. t o. n .s
Cooling Towers 12 X 144.0 t o n s
Chemical Treatment
.. .

O i l P r e p a r a t i o n 16.12 X 105 g a l X $ 0. . 7 6
. / g a. l

B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s .15%
. .. CE

Distribution: Heating and Cogling ..

Electric
TOTAL
. . . COST

; O&M 6%'CE 1,179.

f u e l 9.83 X lo6 g a l I y r . o i l
. . .. . .. . .. . . . .... ... . . .. .
T a b l e A.22 C o s t s o£ Second G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g Engine
Based System, Option A, f o r Zones A,' D ; and E

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Second G e n e r a t i o n Advanced
S t i r l i n g Engine 5 X 6.35 MW ( $ 4 4 5 / k ~ ) 14,129
I n P l a n t Hot and c h i l l e d Water Systems 260
Hot and C h i l l e d .Water S t o r a g e ' 96
E l e c t r i c Heat,ers 3 X 21.4 MW 59 1
Hot Water B o i l e r s 5 X 16.53 MW 5,190
Absorption C h i l l e r s 12 X 1440 t o n s ' 2,316
Cooling Towers 1 2 X'1440 con8 1,360
Chemical Treatment 230 (CD 24,180)
Coal P r e p a r a t i o n 1 9 . 7 ~ u n / h ' .
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE 4,013
Distribution:. Heating and Cooling 9,600
Electric -..- 1 200
TOTAL COST 43,987

06M 52 CE 1,605.
f u e l 6i ,400 t o n / y r - c o a l
Table A.23 Costs of First Generation, Advanced Stirling Engine
Based System, Option B, for Zones A, D; and E

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

First Generation Advanced

Stirling Engine 5 X 7.6 MW ($388/k~) 14,744
In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems 260
Hot and Chilled Water Storage
Electric Heaters 3 X 21.4 MW
Absorption Chillers 7 X 1645 tons
Cooling Towers 7 X 14645tons
Compression Chillers 7 X 1250 tons
Cooling Towers 7 X 1250 tons
Chemical Treatment
. .
Oil Preparation 12.05 X 105 gal X $0.82
~ u i l d i nand
~ Lot 10% CD
Instrumentat ion and Controls 15% CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

O&M 6% CE 1,250.
fuel 7.35 X lo6 galIyr oil
Table .A.24 Costs of Second en era ti on, Advanced Stirling Engine
~ a s e dSystem, Option B, for Zones A, D, and E

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Second Generation Advanced

Stirling Engine 5 X 7.6 MW ($436/k~) 16,568
In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems 260
Hot and Chilled Water Storage 96
Electric Heaters 3 X 21.4 MW 591
Absorption Chillers 7 X 1645 tons . 1,477
Cooling Towers 7 X 1645 tons 896
Compression Chillers 7 X 1250 tons 854
Cooling Towers 7 X 1250 tons 700
Chemical Treatment 230
Coal Preparat ion 9.6 t on/h
Building and Lot 10% CD
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE , 3,453
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 9,600
Electric
TOTAL COST

O&M, 6% CE 1,381.
fuel 45,900 'tonlyr coal
 Table A.25 C o s t s of D i e s e l Based T o t a l Energy System,
Option.A, for.,Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

D i e s e l Engines 6 X 6 . 1 MW ($315/kW) 11,529

I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 278
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e ~.
, . 112
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 4 X 20.5 MW 772
Hot Water B o i l e r s 6 X 19.8 MW . . 1,310
Absorption C h i l l e r s 17 X 1495 t o n s .. 3,366
Cooling Towers 17 X 1495 t o n s . 1,989
Chemical Treatment 300 (CD 19,656)
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n 24. X 105 g a l X $ 0 . 6 1 / g a l 1,464 (CE 21,120)
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 1,966
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE . 3,168
~ i s t r i b u t i o n : Heati..ng and C o a l i l ~ g . 13,400
Electric

TOTAL COST

O&M 6% CE 1,268..
f u e l 14.63 X l o 6 g a l / y r o i l
Table A.26 Costs of Diesel Based Total Energy System,
Option B, for Fox Valley Center and Villages

Cost
Description ($ 1000)

Diesel Engines 6 X 8.6 MW ($305/k~) 15,738

In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems 278
Hot and Chilled Water Storage
Electric Heaters 6 X 20.5 MW
~ b s o r ~ t i oChil'iers
n 10 X 1494 tone
Cooling Towers 10 X 1494 tons
Cnmpression Chillers 9 X.1480 tons .1,242
Coolifig Toweks 9 X 1480 t o d ~ 1,044 '

Chemical Treatment 300 (CD 23,038) ,

Oil Preparation 19.75 X lo5 gal X 0.69 $/gal 1,362 (CE 24,400)
Building and Lot 10% CD 2,304'
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 3,660 '

Distribution: Heating and Cooling 13,400

Electric 1,840
TOTAL COST 45,604

O&M 6% CE 1,464.
fuel 12.04 X 1LI6 gal/yr oil .
.... <
: - -
Table A.27 Costs of Gas Turbine Based Total Energy System,
Option A, for Fox Valley Center and Villages

. . . .
-- -. .- -
Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Gas Turbines 4 X 1'0.2 MW ($277/k~) . 11,302

In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems 278
Hot and Chilled Water'Storage
Electric Heaters 3.X 25.5 MW
Hot Water Boilers 4 X 20 MW 876
Absorption Chillers 17 X 1495 tons . 3,366
Cooling Towers 17 X 1495 tons 1,989
Chemical Treatment 300 (CD 18,855)
Oil Preparation 31 X 105 gal X $0.5/gal 1,550 (CE ,20,405)
Building and ,Lot 10% CD , , 8 1,885:.
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 3,061
Distribution: Heating and Cooling 13,400 . .

Electric 1,840
TOTAL COST 40,591

fuel 18.86 X lo6 gallyr oil

T a b l e A.28 C o s t s ' o f Gas T u r b i n e Based T o t a l Energy System,
- O p t i o n B , f o r Fox V a l l e y ' C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s

Cost
'. Description ( $ 1000)

Gas T u r b i n e s 4 X 12.5 MW ( $ 2 6 5 . 6 / k ~ ) 13,280

I n P l a n t H o t ' a n d C h i l l e d Water Systems 278
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 96
$ l . e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X 25.5 MW 648
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 1 4 X 1440 t o n s 2,707.
Cooling Towers 14 X 1440 t o n s 1,582
Compression C h i l l e r s 6 X 1360 t o n s 780
C o o l i n g Towers 6 X 1360 t o n s 648
Chemical 'Treatment 300 (CD 203314)
O i l P r e p a r a t i o n 26.52 X l o 5 galX $O.Sh/gal 1,485 (CE 21,799)
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 2,031
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE . 3,270
Distribution.: H e a t i n g and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

O&M 6 %' (:fi: 1,300.

f u e l 16.11 X lo6 g a l / y r o i l
 ..
Table A. 29 C o s t s of F i r s , t ' denbirat i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, Option A , f o r Fox v a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)
.. .

F i r s t Generation Current
S t i r l i n g Engine 6 X 6 . 1 MW ( $ 3 9 7 / k ~ ) 14;530
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 278
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X 20.5 MW .

Hot Water B o i l e r s 6 X 15.12 MW

~ b s o r ~ t i oCnh i l l e r s 17 X 1495 t o n s
Cooling Towers 17 X 1495 t o n s
Chemical Treatment
OilPreparation23.8X10~galX0.61$/gal
B u i l d i n g and ' l o t 10% CD
. .
~ n s t r u m e n t a t i n n and ConLrols 15x.CE
Distribution: H e a t i n g and c o o i i n g '

Electric
TOTAL COST 44,746

, . f u e l 1 4 . 5 1 " ~lo6 g a l I y r o i l
T a b l e A.30 C o s t s o f Second G e n e r a t i o n , C u r r e n t S t i r l i n g Engine Based
System, o p t i o n A , f o r . F o x V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)
--

'second Generation Current

S t i r l i n g Engines 6 X 6.1.MW ( $ 4 4 7 / k ~ ) 16,360
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 278
Hot and Chi1 l e d Water S'torage 96
E l e c t r i c f i e a t e t s 3 X 20.5 MW 579
Hot Water B o i l e r s 6 X 15.12 MW 6,697
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 17 X 1495 t o n s 3,366
e o o l i d g Towcra 17 X 1.695 tons
Chemical ~ r e a t m e n t
Coal P r e p a r a t i o n 27.76 to.n/h
B u i l d i n g and L o t S . l 0 %CD
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE 4,826
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling 13,400.
~lectric 1,840
TOTAL COST . , 55,106

f u e l 99.700 t o n / y r c o a l
Table A.31 Costs of First Generat.ion, Current Stirling Engine Based
System, option B, for Fox Valley Cepter and Villages

. .
Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

First Generation Current

Stirling Engines 6 X 8.1 y.($.386/k~)
In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems
Hot and Chilled Water Storage
Electric Heaters 3 X 20.5 MW
Absorption Chillers 11 X 1624 tons
Cooling Towers 11 X 1624 tons
Compression Chillers 7 X 1533 tons ,

Cooling Towers 7 X 1533

Chemical Treatment
Oil Preparation 19.6 X 105 gal X 0.69$/gal ,

Building and Lot 10% CD

~nstrumentationand Controls 15%.CE
Distribution: Heating and Cooling
Electric.
TOTAL COST.

O&M 6% CE 1,,613.
fuel 11.93 X 106 gallyr oil
Tab.le A. 3 2 C o s t s of Second Generat'ion, 'Current S t i r l i n g ~ n g i n eBased
System, O p t i o n B, f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s

Cost
Description ' ( $ 1000)

Second G e n e r a t i o n C u r r e n t
S t i r l i n g Engines 6 X 8 . 1 MW ( $ 4 3 3 / k ~ ) 21,044
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 278
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 96
E l e c t r i c H'eaters 3 X 20.5 MW
A b s o r p t i o n C h i l l e r s 11 X 1624 t o n s
Cooling Towers 11 X 1624 t o n s
Compression C h i l l e r s 7 X 1533 t o n s
Cooling Towers 7 X 1533
Chemical ~ r e a t m e n t 300 (CD 27,809)
Coa.1 p r e p a r a t i o n 17.48' t o n / h 2,314 (CE 30,123)
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10%'CD 2,781
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE 4,518
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling 1.3,400
. Electric
TOTAL COST

OLM 6% cE' 1 , 8 0 7 .
f u e l 74,700, t o n / + coal
T a b l e A.33 C o s t s of , F i r s t 'Generat i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g .Engine Based
1. . ' System, Option A, f o r ' Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r ' and V i l l a g e s

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)
... . ..
F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n Advanced
S t i r l i n g Engines 6 X 7.5 MW ($389/1;W) 17,505 '

I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water ~ y s t & r & ' 2 78

.., .
Hot and c h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X 32.5 MW
Hot Water B o i l e r s 6 X 19.59 MW
Absorption C h i l l e r s 17 X 1495 t.ons .
Cooling Towers 17 X 1495 t o n s . .

Chemical Treatment 300 (CD 25,568)

. O . i l P r e p a r a t i o n 2.3.32 X lo5 gal ($0.62/g~l-1 1,446 (CE 27,014)
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD 2,557
Instrument a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 1'5% CE 4,052
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling 13,400
Electric 1,840
TOTAL COST 48,863

- ' o & M ~CE% 1,621. :

f u e l 14.22 X lo6 gal/yr o i l

T a b l e A.34 C o s t s o f . S e c o n d G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced S t i r l i n g , E n g i n e Based
System, Option A , . f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r and V i l l a g e s

Cost
Description ($ 1000)

Second G e n e r a t i o n Advanced
S t i r l i n g Engines 6 X 7.5 MW ( $ 4 3 7 / k ~ ) 19,665
I n P l a n t Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems 2 78
Hot and C h i l l e d Water S t o r a g e 96.
E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X 32.5 MW
Hot Water B o i l e r s 6 X 19.59 MW
Aki4nry~ion C h i l l o r s 17 X 1495. t o n s
Cooling Towers 1 7 X ,149'5 t o a s
Chemical Treatment
Coal P r e p a r a t i o n 28.5 ~ u u / h
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15% CE
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling
. Electric
TOTAL COST

06M 6 1 6~ 2,244.
f u e l 89,OUU t o n / y r c o a l
Table A.35 C o s t s of . F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n , Advanced; S t i r l i n g Engine ~ a s e d
, System, Opt ion.,B , f o r Fox V a l l e y C e n t e r , and V i l l a g e s

Cost
( $ 1000)

F i r s t G e n e r a t i o n Advanced
S t i r l i n g Engines 6 X 8.9 MW ( . $ 3 8 2 / k ~ )
I n P.lant Hot and C h i l l e d Water Systems
Hot and c h i l l e d Water. S t o r a g e , .

E l e c t r i c H e a t e r s 3 X' 32.5 MW
Absorption C h i l l e r s 8 X 1555 t o n s
Cooling Towers 8 X 1555 t o n s
Compression C h i l l e r s 1 1 X 1300 t o n s .

Cooling Towers.11 X 1300 t o n s

Chemical Treatment
O i l p r e p a r a t i o n 17.94 X 105 g a l ( $ 0 . 7 I g a l )
B u i l d i n g and Lot 10% CD
1 n s trument a t i o n and C o n t r o l s 15%.CE .
Distribution: H e a t i n g and Cooling
Electric
TOTAL COST

f u e l .10.94 X lo6 gallyr o i l

Table A. 36 Costs of Second Generat ion, Advanced st'irling Engine Based
System, Option A,.for Fox Valley Center.and Villages

Cost
Description ( $ 1000)

Second Generation Advanced

Stirling Engines 6 X 8.9 MW ($428/k~) . 2'2.,885
In Plant Hot and Chilled Water Systems 278 .

Hot and Chilled Water Storage 96

Eiectric kieatrrs 3 X 32.5 MW 732
Absorption Chillers 8 X 1555 tons 1,624
Cooling Towers 8 X 1555 tons
Chillers 11 X 1300 tons
~om~ression
Cooling Towers 11 X '1300 tons 1,144
Chcmi.cal Treatment ' 300 (CD 29,413)
Coal Preparation '14.16 ton/h 2,914 (CE 31,327)
Building and Lot 10% CD ' 2,94'1
Instrumentation and Controls 15% CE 4,699
Distribution: Heating and Cooling. 13,400
'.- Electric
TOTAL COST

fuel 68,400 e o i ~ / ~coal

r
 DISTRIBUTION LIST

Internal

P.T. Bauer A.S. Kennedy

J.C. Bratis C . C . Lee
J . M . Calm K.S. Macal
R.R. C i r i l l o T.J. Marciniak ( 2 5 )
E . J . Croke . E.G. P e w i t t
J . G . Daley V.A. Rab'l-
A.. Davis J.J. Roberts
R . J . Faddis G. S. Rosenberg
C.H. G a r t s i d e W.A. S i l j a n d e r
R.M. Graven K.L. Uherka
T.J. Heames J . A . Voelker
R.E. Holtz ( 2 5 ) R.S. Zeno.
L . J . Hoover ANL .Cont r a c t F i 1 e
.A.A. Jonke ANL L i b r a r i e s ( 5 )
R.N. Koopman TIS F i l e s ( 6 )

External

DOE-TIC, f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n . p e r UC-90e ( 2 7 0 )
Manager, Chicago o p e r a t i o n s and Regional O f f i c e , DOE
C h i e f , O f f i c e of P a t e n t Counsel, DOE-CORO
P r e s i d e n t , Argonne U n i v e r s i t i e s A s s o c i a t i o n '
Energy and Environmental Systems D i v i s i o n Review Committee:
E.E. Angino, U. o f Kansas
R.E. Gordon, U. o f Notre Dame
W.W. Hogan, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y
L.H. Roddis, J r .
G.A. R o h l i c h , U. o f Texas, A u s t i n
R.A. Schmidt, EPRI
Components Technology D i v i s i o n Review Committee:
W.E. K e s s l e r , Commonwealth A s s o c i a t e s
P.F. C u n n i f f , U. o f Maryland
C.H. K r u g ~ t J r . , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y
N.C. Rasmussen, Massachusetts I n s t . o f Technology
M.A. S c h u l t z , ~ e n n s ~ l v a n iSat a t e U n i v e r s i t y
A. Sesonske, Purdue U n i v e r s i t y
H. T h i e l s c h , I I T G r i n n e l l C o r p o r a t i o n
Y.C.L. Susan Wu, U. o f Tennessee Space I n s t i t u t e
N . J . P a l l a d i n o , Pennsylvania S t a t e Universi.ty
J . H . Gibbons, O f f i c e of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress
D.E. Kash, USGS, Reston, Va.