ROLE OF UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING

Asian Affairs, Vol. 26, No. 3 : 24-40, July-September, 2004 CDRB

publication
Central America, Asia and Southern Africa through the United Nations
(UN) peace keeping. This new international security context, the UN
and regional organizations of all stripes have been called upon to
deploy multilateral peace operations. Peacekeeping is one of the major
ROLE OF UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING IN means by which UN fulfills its responsibilities for the maintenance of
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY: A CRITICAL international peace and security. An increased UN peacekeeping role
ANALYSIS. has been especially evident, and other international organizations have
occasionally also been involved in peacekeeping.

The political context for international security is the anarchic

S. M. TARIQUL ISLAM
structure of the international system. States are the principal referent
objective of security; the dynamics of national security are highly
Abstract : This paper examines the international security context
from both realists and idealists perspective and subsequently
relational and interdependent between states. With this usage,
analyzes how the international security be achieved through individual national securities can only be fully understood when
international organizations, especially by United Nations peace considered in relation both to each other, and to larger patterns of
keeping operations. There is a great debate has raged between relations in the system as a whole. If security depends on either
realists and idealists who have been respectively pessimistic and harmony or hegemony, then it cannot be lasting and achieved within
optimistic in their response to this central question of securing peace anarchy. As a result, under anarchy, security can only be relative, never
and security through UN peacekeeping. Realists believe that the absolute. Consequently, as long as anarchy holds, these conditions
structure of international system is anarchical. Sovereign states remain.1 If there is a structural shift out of anarchy, then the entire
are the only actor in the structure and their security is highly framework of the security problematic would have to redefine. Within
relative and interdependent between and among states. This the anarchic system UN peacekeeping can contribute to serve as an
anarchical structure imposes competitive and self-help conditions effective instrument to reduce conflict within the international system.
for its security. On the other hand, idealists believe that security Moreover, fundamental idea of international security is already
can be achieved through international organizations. After the end contained in the UN Charter. There is a great debate has raged
of Second World War, United Nations was established for keeping between realists and idealists, who have been respectively pessimistic
the peace through peaceful means to collective security. But, the and optimistic in their response to this central question of securing
great power rivalry at the very beginning blocked UN ability for the peace and security through UN peacekeeping. Idealists believe that
collective security action. As a result, peacekeeping evolved as an cooperation is possible and international security can be achieved
alternative to collective security that the UN designed. This paper
through international organization such as UN. On the other hand,
identifies the facts that the great powers are reluctant to operate
realist theorists of international relations argue that the international
peacekeeping missions outside of their own sphere of interests.
system necessarily has to be self-help system made up of unitary state
Without the consent of great powers, there would be no peace
keeping. Moreover, the great powers see peacekeeping as a tool of
actors.
their foreign policy. As a result, peacekeeping is facing problems for
keeping the peace. Moreover, Western states have been accused of being reluctant to
take on some operations and multilateral peacekeeping forces often
Introduction lacked the political will to find a common aim and make a difference.

T HE CENTRAL ISSUES OF INTERNATIONAL SECURITY HAVE CERTAINLY Many nations are increasingly reluctant to operate outside their own
changed after the end of Cold war. The end of bipolar confronta- spare of national interest and doubted whether the UN could operate
tion facilitated the resolution of half a dozen lingering conflicts in effectively in many countries such as Sierra Leon. 2 There is also
Copyright©CDRB, ISSN 0254-4199 25
 ASIAN AFFAIRS ROLE OF UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING

allegation that many countries continue to occupy their neighbor’s Peace-keeping is a technique that expands the possibilities for both
territory contrary to the Security Council’s decisions. Therefore, the the prevention of conflict and making of peace under Chapter VI of the
peacekeeping is facing problems to become an institution for ensuring UN Charter.4 Peace-keeping is also encompass actions ranging from
international peace and security. This article examines the interna- inter-personal conflict resolution through classical inter-positional
tional security context both from realist and idealist perspective and peace-keeping, operations under Chapter VII (peace- enforcement) of
subsequently analyzes how the international security be achieved in the Charter, and democratic development measures to post-conflict
an anarchic international system through peacekeeping operations. reconstruction and development. It proved effective at managing
conflicts between states and as a sort of transitional authority while
Peacekeeping more permanent solution of the conflicts was hopefully established.
The UN was set up to preserve peace between states after the Peacekeeping contributed significantly to international peace
Second World War. Its main purpose was to maintain international monitoring cease-fire arrangements and separating combatants. After
peace and security, in the sense of dissuading states from attacking the Cold War, political tension in the SC was reduced, allowing the UN
each other, and to organize counter measures if this happened. The SC to become more responsive to conflicts in which United States and
was created with the primary responsibility for the maintenance of former Soviet Union interests had previously prevented its effective
international peace and security under the Charter that the UN should involvement. As a result, in the 1990s the number of UN forces
be able to enforce peace by collective security. However, peacekeeping involved in conflict resolution increased. The focus of the SC had moved
was a product of the strategic consequences of the Cold War. In the to civil wars and inter-communal violence, in many cases to states that
early years the superpowers found themselves in increasing had degenerated into anarchy. The UN forces were deployed with more
disagreement over the post- World War II world, and then the clash of intrusive mandates than before. Problems suppressed by the influence
interests rapidly provided an atmosphere of distrust and hostility, of East- West rivalry emerged in regions and states that previously had
especially in the cases of Greece, Iran, Indonesia, and Lebanon and been comparatively stable.
Syria. Thus, from the very beginning, growing rivalry among
superpower blocked the ability of the UN to act. Lack of unanimity and The end of the Cold War there has been a dramatic increase in the
hostility between US and the Soviet Union paralyzed the SC. As a number of peacekeeping operations undertaken by the UN. Since the
result, it was hardly favorable to the implementation and carrying out 1988, peacekeeping has involved very rapidly in the post Cold War
of Charter provisions for keeping the peace. Moreover, the SC failed to situation. Varied types of post-Cold War operation are as follows: 5
come up with specific decision about the conflicts of Indonesia,
Palestine, and Kashmir. In these conflicts the SC hardly made use of Preventive deployment
the provision of collective security under the Chapter VII of the The idea is that, in a potential threaten situation, the UN, at the
Charter, though the situation threaten the international peace and request of one of the parties to the potential conflict, would deploy
security. Moreover, no military, economic, or enforcement action was troops, as a confidence-building measure that would raise the political
taken despite the warfare was on going. The SC failed to authorize price if the potential aggressor were to attack the other party. There is
collective security system because of rift among great powers. As a an only one example, Macedonia.
result, the collective security system under UN Charter VII provision
proved unworkable. The failure of collective security demonstrated the
Traditional peacekeeping
limitations of the UN in dealing with threats to international peace and
The function is to support peacemaking efforts by helping to create
security. The early UN peace observation missions were an attempt to
conditions in which political negotiation can proceed. It involves
fill the void left by collective security. The mixed record of peace
monitoring ceasefires, controlling buffer zones, and so on. There are
observation and the new challenge of the Suez crisis led the
three subtypes. Unarmed military observer groups are currently in Near
organization to seek a new strategy. It was peacekeeping that was
East, Kashmir and Western Sahara. Armed infantry-based forces that
invented in the Suez crisis.3
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 ASIAN AFFAIRS ROLE OF UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING

were deployed in cases to control small incidents, as in Cyprus, Syria, collective use of force by the United Nations. The challenge is that UN
Lebanon and Croatia. The third type is an operation set up as a cannot operate solely on the basis of ideals and principles, divorced
consequence of peace-enforcement operation, as on the Iraq-Kuwait from the realities of the world power politics. This would render it a
border. It has nevertheless been operated in accordance with the utopian project. On the other hand, the UN cannot simply mirror the
principles of peacekeeping. world realpolitik. The UN should be the place where power relations are
recognized but mediated by ideals and principles. It is the unique blend
Helping implement negotiated agreements that can give the UN legitimacy on a universal plane.
The end of the Cold war and the new effectiveness of the SC have
made it possible to negotiate partial or comprehensive settlements of International Security and Peacekeeping
several regional conflicts. This is a new type of peacekeeping operation. The main political context for international security is the anarchic
The United Nations is currently carrying out this short of operation in structure of the international system. The anarchic context sets the
El Salvador, Cambodia Angola and Mozambique. elemental political conditions in which all meanings of international
security have to be constructed. The structure of anarchy is highly
Protecting delivery of humanitarian supplies durable, because their actions states take to preserve their indepen-
This kind of deployment of UN troops is to protect the delivery of dence and sovereignty automatically perpetuate and anarchic system.
humanitarian supplies in civil war or inter-state war situations. This That structure generates system wide effects on relations among states.6
has been tried in Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. An anarchic structure imposes competitive, self-help conditions of
existence on the states within the system. That international anarchy
Painting a country blue makes cooperation unlikely or impossible.7 Idealist argues for security
The United Nations moves into a country that is in a state of total as an outcome of the prevention of warfare and the removal of the
disorder, the institutions of government have collapsed, and there is quest for power, to the contrary realists argue that security is best
no political authority with which one can negotiate. The UN did it once maintained with the maximization of power. This power enabled
in the Congo in the early 1960s. The UN forces in Somalia have the nations to maintain deterrence through the readiness to wage war and
same task. when it served the national interest, the waging of war. From a broad
realist perspective, power is synonymous with security when it
Cease-fire enforcement provides the ability to control one’s environment. Moreover, central to
This is not a peacekeeping but the Secretary General, in An Agenda the realist concept of security is the national interest, which is the
for peace, called “peace enforcement,” though “cease fire enforcement” traditional intrinsic goal of national security. The formula of the
is perhaps a more accurate way of describing it. It was in Bosnia. national interest has come to be practically synonymous with the
formula of national security. In international politics this perspective
Peace enforcement offers a static and rather pessimistic picture of the state system and its
Peace enforcement is the use of UN forces in a war to support processes.
aggrieved country such as Kuwait and Korea. Nevertheless, in both
cases, the troops were not under the command of Secretary General; Today the international security environment is far more complex
they were under the command of national authorities like as ad hoc than it was in the Cold War era of bipolarity. The diminished threat of
coalition of willing states that had been authorized by the SC to use a world war has been replaced by the reality of intra-state conflicts that
force for a specific purpose. undermine stability and security at the domestic and regional level. A
serious challenge for the international system is the increasing
An important aspect of the issue of legitimacy for the UN is the number of weak or even failed states and their inability to control and
question of international perceptions especially with regard to the manage their own affairs and territory. The weakest unsubstantial states
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 ASIAN AFFAIRS ROLE OF UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING

with their high level of domestic conflict present an increasing dilemma society must have governance system that has democratic procedures
for the UN, because large-scale domestic conflict presents an awkward for coping with disputes, and an international force could be mobilized
problem for a collective security system based on sovereign states. in negotiations failed.

The end of the Cold War the theoretical debate regarding conflict Liberalist analysis supports a more optimistic view of the post
and cooperation has not been changed greatly. According to dominant Cold War world. They believe even in the absence of an order in an
tradition in the discipline of international relations, namely realism, anarchical world—states can set aside their differences, unite for the
the changes are limited in nature. After all anarchy prevails, and the greater good, and overcome international anarchy. If organized
international system remains a system of sovereign states with no properly, international society can eliminate the anarchy that makes
system-wide authority, no world government. The absence of problems.11 Idealists believe in cooperation among nation-states. They
government with a legal monopoly of physical force in the international argue that march to democracy is an important factor in the world
system leads realist theorist of international relations to the politics. The march of democracy within states around the globe,
conclusion that the international system necessarily has to be increase in liberal free-trade arrangements that assume trust and the
self-help system made up of unitary state actors. For the realist, the benefit of all, strengthening of international law, the renewed role of
international source of insecurity is rooted in anarchy, a condition that international institutions like the UN to undertake collective security
is fundamental fact of international political life. In a system of initiatives, the proliferation of arms control agreements, and
sovereign states, there can be no central political authority. The international humanitarian responses to state human-rights violations
structure of the system is necessarily anarchic, with each state as evidence of the fulfillment of Wilson’s specific idealistic predictions
retaining the right to judge its own cause and decide on the use of about what international politics would like. 12 Democracy creates
force. The incentives for aggression, risk of tension, conflict, and war in domestic institutions aimed at cooperation that help pave the way for
such a system are high.8 In arming for their security, states set in international institutions. Economic interdependence promotes
motion a vicious circle. Attempts to increase the security of one state transnational relations in general and creates an incentive for
undermine the security of another, creating security dilemma.9 Each developing international cooperation. This is thus having to main views
state considers it’s vulnerable and states operate self-help system. State of the world after Cold War. A pessimistic realist view, and a rather
operating in a self-help world always acts according to their self- inter- more optimistic liberal / idealist view.
est. In addition to, states in the international system aim to maximize
their relative power positions over other states. The aim is to acquire Peacekeeping is neither the collective security nor the balance of
more military power at the expense of potential rivals. Therefore, in the power. Peacekeeping is the functional innovation of the UN.
international system, there is no higher authority to prevent and counter Peacekeeping is concerned with the problem of rivalry. For a variety of
the use of force. Security can therefore be realized through self-help. In reason, the use of UN for peacekeeping purpose is more appropriate
an anarchic structure, self-help is necessarily the principle of action.10 and more feasible in the present era, and performance of the task that
Therefore, states will have to depend for themselves in the aged-old it involves is more acceptable to members of the organization, than
game of balance of power. On the other hand, the era of idealism was would be true of a collective security system. Indeed, the very factors
motivated by the desire of prevent war. The First World War shifted that make the world situation wrong for collective security make it right
liberal thinking towards a recognition that peace is not a natural for peacekeeping.13 Given the limits of collective security, some of its
condition but is one that must be constructed. According to Woodrow proponents argue that two less ambitious forms of the theory might be
Wilson, peace could only be secured with the creation of an realizable: peacekeeping and concerts and they are portrayed as the
international institution to regulate the international anarchy. “budget” version of collective security. 14 Some experts think that
Security could not be left to secret bilateral diplomatic deals and blind peacekeeping and concerts might still be powerful force for
faith in the balance of power. Like domestic society, international international stability. 15 Realists are very pessimistic about the
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peacekeeping of UN.16 Mearsheimer argues, in essence, peacekeeping interest of the dominant groups in a state. Considering the United States
is mainly useful for helping implement ceasefires in wars involving minor invasion to Haiti in 1994, President Clinton stated the American people
powers.17 He also states that peacekeeping has no role to play in that what happens in Haiti “affects our national security interests” and
disputes between great powers. Moreover, it forbids the use of it was therefore imperative that “we must act now” to protect our
coercion, which is essential to a collective security system. Its mission interests.24
is a far away from the ambitious goals of collective security. Peacekeep-
ing by the UN or by regional organizations like the organization of In a national interest based international system the peace
African Unity (OAU) can enhance the prospects for world peace only on keeping missions are actively supported by great powers or powerful
the margin. 18 Although the realists are pessimistic about the powers when they have their national interests related to it. In the
peacekeeping, these days there have a powerful Western community Cold War period only thirteen peacekeeping missions were established
and a surge in multilateral security management, reflecting US power and many conflicts were excluded, because of great power rivalry and
and influence.19 Realists therefore, believe that institutions are not an their vital interests or sphere of interests. During the Cold War,
important cause of peace. Institutions have minimal influence on state peacekeeping advanced US interests in the Middle East, where six
behavior, thus hold little promise for promoting stability in the world operations were deployed between 1948 and 1978 and promoted the
politics. security of Israel, one of America’s closest allies. Peacekeeping efforts
also served US allies, such as Turkey, Greece, Pakistan, and Morocco.25
UN Peacekeeping: Tool of National Interest or In effect, the SC became a victim of great power interests and the US in
Common Interest particular, used the UN to further its national interests. The
Although international society may have substantial elements of International Institute of Strategic Studies reports indicate that
law, order, and authority, it clearly lacks hierarchical government. Waltz peacekeeping operations tended to be more effective when one nation,
argues, domestic systems are centralized and hierarchical, but or a small group with a specific interest in the country they were
international systems are decentralized and anarchic.20 Realists claim policing, took a leading role.26Consider the US-led war against Iraq in
that in anarchy, states compete with other states for security, markets, 1991. Even allowing that US interests were completely egoistic- oil,
and influence. The first move of the state is to organize power regional security, and international security- institutional and
domestically, and the second is to accumulate power internationally.21 normative focus were essential to the ability of the US to realize those
Therefore, with respect to states themselves, national-state to be the objectives. Without United Nations authorization, many Americans, as
only actor in international relations. Such things as MNCs and IGOs well as many allies in Europe and Middle East, would have been less
are seen as tools of the most powerful states. willing to participate.27 If countries have substantial national interest,
states are willing to pay considerable financial and political price.
The core national interest of all states must be survival. Survival International Institute of Strategic Studies cited the examples of
is held to be a precondition for attaining all other goals, whether these Australia in East Timor, and to an extent, Nigeria in Africa. In 1999,
involve conquest or merely independence. According to Waltz, survival the UN Security Council unanimously authorized an Australian-
is the goals of state and states are unitary actors with a single motive— peacekeeping mission to use whatever means necessary to end a wave
the wish to survive. The survival motive is taken as the ground of of terror by pro-Indonesian militants, who killed thousands and
action. By assumption, economic actors seek to maximize expected displaced hundreds of thousands after East Timor voted for indepen-
returns, and states strive to secure their survival.22 According to dence from Indonesia.28The report also said the US was unlikely to
Mearsheimer, the ultimate goal of the states is to achieve a hegemonic withdraw from the Balkans because it maintains a core strategic
position in the international system. States always desire more power interest in European stability. However, the US might be slower to deploy
and are willing, if the opportunity arises.23 All politics is a struggle for military support in less pressing regions. IISS reported “ With respect
power, analyzed the national interest as nothing more than the selfish to substantial engagement in peacekeeping in non strategic areas, such
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as sub-Sahara Africa, US officials and the American public probably States, multilateralism is a tool to be used when it can support the
will remain reluctant to place troops at risk.” 29 Therefore, the achievement of American interests or support US idealism. As
peacekeeping mission of UN is depends on the national and security Ambassador Madeline Albright told a Senate Committee, When threats
interests. arise, we may respond through UN, through NATO, through a
coalition, through a combination of those tools or we may act alone. We
The UN in general fell into disfavor with the Regan administration will do whatever is necessary to defend the vital interest of the United
as it appeared that Soviets and Third World nations were using it as a States.”37 On the other hand Peacekeeping operations are serving com-
tool directed against American interests.30 But with the decline and fall mon interest in many cases. For Canada, multilateralism has always
of the Warshaw pact and the Soviet Union, and with the success of the been viewed as an attractive means to achieve broad foreign policy
gulf war, the United States found that the UN could again serve objectives. Canadian internationalism simply equates Canada’s well
American foreign policy interests. President Bush “argued for a more being with broad global stability and the belief that Canadians should
activist role for the United Nations and pushed to pay U.S. dues. He help the international community foster that stability... they can offer
viewed the institution as capable of supporting American interests.”31 corresponding skills-mediating disputes; counseling, good governance
In the period of Clinton administration has argued that the U.S. in a diverse society; helping the less fortunate; and peacekeeping. 38
“participations in operation to enforce sanctions, provide humanitar-
ian relief and assist peacekeeping, when, and only when it is our Idealists believe that after the Cold War states are now engaged in
interest to do so.”32 The attitude of Clinton administration towards the restoring a pace for morality in foreign policy. They are pursuing
role of UN in its foreign policy had changed in 1994. Presidential collective, cooperative interests that all states have always had in
Decision Directive 25 sought to reassess US support for new and common—like peace, justice, and a better way of life. These are
continuing peacekeeping operations in included whether participation interests about welfare within and among states rather than warfare
would advance US national interest. Moreover, it reduced share of cost among states. And these moral goals that lead to a better way of life for
level to only from 31.7 percent to 25 percent.33 Washington was people and states are as much in states’ individualistic national
selective in its support, providing more funding and assistance to those interests as they are in their collective interests. Because the world has
missions most closely aligned with American interests such as the Middle been recognized, they are realizable once again. Central to idealism
East. In this, the Clinton administration’s approach has not been was the formation of an international organization to facilitate peaceful
substantially different from its predecessors’ that have long viewed UN change, disarmament, arbitration and enforcement. The UN Charter
peacekeeping as a useful “tool” for promotion of American interests was signed in June 1945. Outside the military security issue area,
and values abroad.34 liberal ideas made an important contribution to global politics even
during the cold war. The principle of self-determination, championed
The great powers became increasingly reluctant to operate outside by liberal internationalists for centuries, signaled the end of empire.
their own sphere of interest and doubted whether, for example, the UN The protection of individuals from human right abuse was enshrined.
could operate effectively in countries such as Sierra Leone. Moreover, The security scheme of the Charter was conceived as an arrangement
UN activities also became victims of other great power interests. For for collective action against relatively minor disturbance of the peace,
example, the Bush administration said that it would consider cutting in cases where the great powers were united in the desire to permit or
as many as a dozen UN peacekeeping missions in a growing dispute take action.39 Peacekeeping evolved as an alternative to collective
over the new International Criminal Court.35 security that the UN designed. Some experts think that peacekeeping
might still be a powerful force for international security overarching
Overall, the American approach to peacekeeping reflects the mix- structure of anarchy.40 However, it is unlikely that many countries are
ture of self-interest and ideals of multilateralism and unilateralism that reluctant to actively participate in peacekeeping missions, considering
has always characterized American foreign policy.36 For the United their national interest. Experience shows, however, that although there
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 ASIAN AFFAIRS ROLE OF UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING

were missions to prevent human suffering, and protect human rights, However, peacekeeping is facing many problems. To make it
many deadly conflicts were ignored. The UN’s or SC’s selectivity in these effective and strengthen need political will of the member countries
crises suggest that a range of state and great power interests, continue and to support strongly. On the other hand, collective military action
to affect the role of the SC. In effect, without the consent of the great under UN command and control remains extremely problematic,
powers, there would be no peacekeeping. The great powers continued especially in the context of intra-state conflicts that originate and are
to see peacekeeping as a foreign policy tool. sustained by ethnic and communal strife. There is problem also
reflects differences of interest and limited consensus among member-
states about the priorities of peacekeeping mission. With the rapid
For this, need participating counties to agree on a common advance of globalization and a number of new threats to global
solution to keeping the peace. On the other hand, while absolute security, the UN has become more, not less, relevant in international
security is not attainable in an anarchical society, relative security may politics. International institution can resolve all the problems and
be achieved. In this regard the development of the idea of common issues on their own, but neither can national states resolve them
security, including the strategy of non-provocative defence; such ideas without international institutions. For better or worse, then, we are
seek to deal with the military problem that lies at the heart of the condemned to improve existing international institutions or to invent
security dilemma. new ones to take their place. In this respect, to foster the international
security may be workable on creating a UN led system of common
Conclusion security.
At the turn of the century, the international situation is
undergoing profound changes and the world is not all peace. Various
factors that threaten world peace and security still exist. The common
development of all countries is being hindered by complicated
problems and conflicts. People all over the world are calling, more
strongly than ever before, for peace, stability and development. How to
enable the UN to more effectively maintain international peace and
security and create a favorable environment for the development of all
countries has become a pressing task. In this respect, peacekeeping of
UN is trying to make the international security possible. Although, UN
was unable to end the conflicts in Cambodia, Somalia or the former
Yugoslavia, the peacekeeping missions saved thousands of lives.
Fortunately, the UN has had a number of successes, most notably in
Cambodia, El Salvador, and Namibia and its more recent operations in
Mozambique and Angola. Former UN Secretary-General said,

Multilateral operations through the United Nations are the most

effective way of maintaining peace. This is particularly so now that
conflicts within state boarders is more common than war between
countries—making the resolution of conflicts seem of little
importance to the national interest of most other states. But, the
effectiveness of multilateralism is difficult to demonstrate in the
absence of adequate money, materials and movability from one type
of an operation to another.41
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4. Buotros, Buotros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace, 2nd edition. (New York: 16. Ibid.
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17. Ibid.
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6. Barry Buzan, “Rethinking Security and Anarchy,” in Ken Booth (ed.)
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7. Ibid. 21. Time Dunne, op.cit.150.

8. Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (New York: Random 22. Jack Donnelly, op.cit. 52.
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23. Ibid.
9. John H. Hertz, “Idealist Internationalism and Security Dilemma, World
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(Guilford: Dushkin publishing Group, 1995): 17.
10. Tim Dunne and Brian C. Schmidt, “Realism,” in John Baylis & Steve
Smith (eds.) The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to In- 25. Frederick H. Fleitz, Jr., Peacekeeping Fiasco of the 1990s: Causes,
ternational Relations 2nd edition. (New York: Oxford University Press, Solutions, and U.S. Interests (Westport, Connecticut & London: Praeger,
2001):153. 2002): 67.

11. Cynthia Weber, International Relations Theory: A Critical Introduction 26. CNN. May 16, 2001.
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27. Jack Donelly, op.cit. 134.
12. Ibid.
28. CNN, May 16, 2001.
38 39
 ASIAN AFFAIRS

29. Ibid.

30. John Gerard Ruggie, “The United States and the United Nations:
Towards a New Realism,” International Organization, Vol. 39 (Spring
1985): 343-56.

31. Victoria Holt, Briefing Book on Peacekeeping: The United States Role in
United Nations Peacekeeping Operations (Washington, DC: Council for
a Livable World Education Fund, 1994): 114.

32. Joel J.Sokolsky, “The Americanization of Peacekeeping: Implications

for Canada” Martello Papers, 17 (Kingston: Centre for International
Relations, Queen’s University, 1997):17.

33. Stephen M. Hill & Shahin p. Malik, Peacekeeping and the United
Nations (Brookfield: Dartmouth Publishing Company Ltd., 1996): 156.

34. Sokolsky, The Americanization of Peacekeeping, 20.

35. washtime .com, 7/2/2002.

36. Sokolsky, The Americanization of Peacekeeping, 23.

37. Ibid. 28

38. See, Ibid. 39.

39. Inis L. Claude, Jr. Power and International Relations (New York:
Random House, 1962): 62.

40. John J. Mearshiermer, op.cit. 34.

41. Major General Indar Rikhye, The Politics and Practice of United
Nations Peacekeeping: Past, Present and Future. (Toronto: Brown Book
Company Ltd., 2000): 61.

40