44-A, PHOTOFACT PUBLICA kTIION

CIRCUITS
HANDBOOK
by RUFUS P. TURNER

tO1P11°

A concise discussion of
diode circuits, containing
nearly 100 diagrams
with complete explana-
tion of their operation.
 $2.50
Cat. No. DIT-1

DIODE CIRCUITS
HANDBOOK
by

Rufus P. Turner

HOWARD W. SAMS & CO., INC.

THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY, INC.
Indianapolis New York
 Preface
It is almost impossible to overestimate the importance of
the crystal diode in modern electronics. It is everywhere . . .

literally, from the dark reaches of space to the bottom of the

sea.
FIRST EDITION
FIRST PRINTING - MARCH, 1963 And yet diodes are among the simplest of all electronic com-
ponents-so simple, in fact, that they are scarcely ever really
studied. Consequently, they are often misunderstood and mis-
DIODE CIRCUITS HANDBOOK used. This book was written to fill the need for a practical book
on diode functions and applications. The circuits included rep-
Copyright © 1963 by Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc., Indian- resent a generous sampling of the uses for conventional diodes,
apolis 6, Indiana. Printed in the United States of America. either alone or in conjunction with transistors, varactors, and
tunnel diodes.
Reproduction or use, without express permission, of edi-
torial or pictorial content, in any manner, is prohibited. No
patent liability is assumed with respect to the use of the The reader will probably recognize some of the circuits as old
information contained herein. standbys redesigned around modern diodes for improved per-
formance. In each instance, the best diode (germanium, se-
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 63-13904 lenium, silicon, copper -oxide) has been used. In some circuits
more than one type has been used in order to secure the com-
bined advantages of each.

Each of the circuits has been painstakingly tested. In those

cases where specific components are suggested, any equivalent
type may be used ; the types listed are those used in testing
the circuits.
RUFUS P. TURNER
February, 1963
 Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1
Receiver Circuits 9
Basic Crystal Receiver-Bandpass Crystal Receiver-Pocket
Receiver-Second Detector in AM Superhet-Noise Limiter-
Squelch Circuit-FM Discriminator-FM Ratio Detector-
TV Video Detector-DC Restorer-Damper-Clamping Cir-
cuits-Sync Separator (Sync Clipper)-Horizontal Phase De-
tector-FM Dynamic Limiter-Conventional-Diode Frequency
Converter-Tunnel Diode Frequency Converter-Varactor
AFC Circuit-Varactor Tuning of Receiver-Biased Detector

CHAPTER 2
Transmitter Circuits 29
Antenna Current Meter-Carrier Failure Alarm-Conven-
tional-Diode Frequency Multiplier-Balanced Modulator
Circuit-Neutralization Indicator-Tunnel Diode CW Trans-
mitter-Tunnel Diode Phone Transmitter-Varactor Ampli-
tude Modulator-Varactor Frequency Modulator

CHAPTER 3
Audio Circuits 41
Level Clipper-AMC Rectifier-Magamp Rectifier-Voice-
Controlled Relay-Tunnel Diode AF Amplifier-Diode as
Cathode Resistor

CHAPTER 4
Power Supply Circuits 51
Five Low -Level DC Power Supplies-Conventional-Diode
Voltage Regulator-Two Zener-Diode Regulator Circuits-
Zener Diode as Reference Element-Zener Diode as Voltage
Standard-DC Bias Supply-Free-Power Supply-DC Pro-
tector for Transistor Circuits-Diode in Transistor Bias Net-
work-Relay Rectifier
 CHAPTER 5
Control Circuits 65
AF-RF Relay-Tuned RF Relay-Polarity-Sensitive DC Re-
lay-Wired-Radio Receiver-Relay Contact Protector-Mul-
tiple Control Over Two -Wire Line

CHAPTER 6
Instrument Circuits 75
Sensitive Diode Meters-Sensitive Diode Voltmeters-Sensi-
tive Diode Current Meters-Square-Law AC Meter-Square-
Law DC Meter-Quasi-Logarithmic DC Voltmeter-Trans-
former-Coupled Linear AF Milliammeter-Zener Diode Meter
Protector-Zener Diode Voltage Standards-RF Probe-
Peak-to-Peak Probe-Demodulator Probe-Field Strength
Meter-Percent Modulation Meter-SWR Meter-Diode in
Microwave SWR Measurement-RF Wattmeters-Antenna
Impedance Bridge-Amplitude Modulator-AM Phone Monitor
-Square -Wave Adaptor-Timing-Marker (Spike) Generator
-Harmonic Intensifier for Frequency Standards-Noise Gen-
erator-TV Antenna Compass-Grid-Dip Adaptor-Tunnel
Diode Dip -Meter

CHAPTER 7
Computer Circuits 107
Requirements for Computer Diodes-OR Circuit-AND Cir-
cuit-Diode Matrix-Coupling Diodes in Flip-Flops-Clamp-
ing Diodes in Flip-Flops-Tunnel Diode Flip-Flop-Diode-
Capacitor Memory Cell-Tunnel Diode Memory Cell-Photo-
diode Tape or Punched Card Reader

CHAPTER 8
Experimenter's Circuits 119
Varactor Diode Tuned Circuit-Tunnel Diode Code -Practice
Oscillator-Diode as Solar Cell Regulator-DC Transformer

APPENDIX
Diode Symbols Used In This Book 125

Index 126
 Receiver Circuits

The first practical semiconductor diode was the erratic crys-

tal detector of the early 1900's. Although that device was
superior to the coherer and magnetic detector which it suc-
ceeded, it eventually was supplanted, except in experimental
equipment and toys, by the more sensitive and stable vacuum
tube. The modern diode was developed in the 1940's as an
answer to the demand for a radar detector free from the high -
frequency limitations of the conventional vacuum tube. Thus,
the diode has been present, off and on, throughout most of the
history of radio communications.
In communications the modern diode does the same basic
job of signal demodulation as the early crystal detector, but
with greatly increased efficiency and reliability and no need
for adjustment. It also does more; in radio it simplifies FM -
detector circuits, provides automatic amplitude and noise limit-
ing and frequency control, and in television it does all of those
jobs plus providing DC restoration, pulse separation, and sync
clipping. And these are only a few of its functions in com-
munications. This chapter describes typical receiver applica-
tions.

BASIC CRYSTAL RECEIVER

The crystal set is still the simplest and the only true emer-
gency radio receiver, since its circuit is uncomplicated and its
operation requires no battery or other local power supply. In
this set the diode demodulates the amplitude -modulated RF
9
 signal and delivers AF power to the earphones. The diode does BANDPASS CRYSTAL RECEIVER
not amplify; consequently, it cannot boost the received sig-
nal. (In fact, since the diode is not 100% efficient in its opera- The broad tuning which is characteristic of many crystal
tion, it delivers an output signal which is somewhat less than sets is eliminated by the selective, high-fidelity, bandpass
that which it receives.) Good crystal -set design attempts, circuit shown in Fig. 1-2. This circuit uses the same bandpass
through impedance matching and a high -Q tuned circuit, to filter type of tuner employed in some tube -type high-fidelity
transfer the maximum signal from the antenna to the diode AM receivers. But in the crystal circuit, the connections to
and the maximum signal from the diode to the earphones of one RF transformer (T3) have been interchanged for better
the receiver. impedance matching to the 1N48S germanium diode detec-
tor (X).
ANTENNA
Cl )TUNING) C4

Ti I
T3
-13
DUAL 365mm( 0.171
ANT
HIGH -IMPEDANCE
AF OUTPUT
MAGNETIC EARPHONES
100K
12000 0 OR HIGHER) G ND
T2 1/2W
21 4 4

GROUND

Fig. 1-1. Basic crystal receiver.

0.0T
Fig. 1-1 shows the basic circuit. Here, the tuned circuit is
composed of a transistor -type ferrite, loop antenna (L), and CHASSIS
a 365-mmf variable capacitor (C1) . The tuning range is 540- Fig. 1-2. Bandpass crystal receiver.
1,600 kc. The 1N34A germanium diode (X) is connected to
the tap on the antenna coil for matching the low impedance The circuit is tunable from 540 to 1,750 kc by means of
of the diode. This prevents broad tuning, which would result the dual 365-mmf variable capacitor, C1. Transformers T1 and
from loading effect if the diode were connected across the T3 are shielded antenna stage RF coils (Miller No. 242-A) ;
entire coil. C2 is an RF bypass capacitor. The DC resistance T2 is a shielded negative mutual coupling coil (Miller No.
of the magnetic earphones must be 2,000 ohms or higher. Do EL -56) .
not attempt to use crystal earphones in this circuit. If the The audio output of this circuit may be applied directly
earphones are replaced with a 2,000 -ohm, 1/2 -watt resistor, to crystal or magnetic earphones or to an audio amplifier.
the output of the circuit may be used to drive an audio
amplifier. POCKET RECEIVER
In weak -signal areas the circuit works best with a good
outside antenna and ground. Often the antenna may be a short Use of miniature components can keep a receiver using the
piece of wire inside the building, or a window screen or bed- circuit in Fig. 1-3 small enough to fit into a shirt pocket. The
spring. In medium- and strong -signal areas, no external an- antenna may be a length of thin, flexible wire stitched or
tenna or ground will be needed as antenna coil L picks up clipped to the clothing. Such a receiver may be employed for
sufficient signal when it is oriented correctly with respect to broadcast listening or for actor cueing and personal paging
the broadcast station. from a nearby transmitter.
10 11
 typical circuit in which a 1N63S germanium diode (X) acts
both as a second detector and AGC rectifier.
In a transistor -type receiver, the secondary of IF trans-
former T will be the low -impedance winding; C2 and C3 will
be 1 to 10 mfd; and R1, 3,300 ohms. In a tube -type receiver,
T must be a half -wave detector -type IF transformer; C2, 10
mfd; C3, 0.1 mfd; and R1, 5,000 to 50,000 ohms depending on
5000 0
MAGNETIC EARPIECE
the type of tubes to be controlled by the AGC voltage.
In addition to being small, without filaments, and free from
Fig. 1-3. Pocket receiver. heat, microphonics, and internal hum, the diode second de-
The tuner is composed of a 270-mmf silvered mica capaci- tector provides lower dynamic impedance than the equivalent
tor (C1) and slug -tuned ferrite loopstick antenna (L). When tube -type detector.
L has an inductance variation range of 35-300 microhenries
(Miller No. 2002) the circuit may be tuned between 550 and NOISE LIMITER IN AM SUPERHET
1,600 kc with Cl equal to 270 mmf. Tuning is accomplished
simply by adjusting the slug screw of loopstick L. Fig. 1-5 shows a noise limiter (silencer) combined with
The 1N56A germanium diode (X) drives a 5,000 -ohm mag- a diode second detector and having automatic threshold
netic earplug which is bypassed for RF by capacitor C2. control.
If operation in the citizens' band is desired, L may be , X1
2ND DETECTOR
changed to a slug -tuned variable inductor having the
1.5-3.2 microhenries (Miller No. 4404) and C1 to a 10-mmf range FROM 1

LAST IF STAGE
silvered mica capacitor.
If the earphone volume is insufficient, a 1- or 2 -stage sub-
NEGATIVE
miniature transistorized AF amplifier may be added to the AGC VOLTAG R4
receiver. OUTPUT

C4
SECOND DETECTOR IN AM SUPERHET 0.1

This is a common use of the diode in multistage radio re- 0.001

AF OUTPUT

ceivers of both tube and transistor types. Fig. 1-4 shows a

Fig. 1-5. Combined second detector and noise limiter.
T
AUDIO GAIN
CONTROL--;
C3
In this arrangement, the 1N63S germanium diode (X1)
X
FROM LAST IF 1

TO AUDIO
acts as a conventional second detector-AGC rectifier. It also
STAGE (SEE TOG)
TEXT)
AMPLIFIER supplies a variable DC bias voltage, proportional to the IF
signal, to the two 1N300 silicon junction noise -limiting diodes
(X2 and X3) ; this is the automatic threshold voltage.
NEGATIVE AGC
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
Normally, the AF output of the second detector is trans-
(SEE TEXT)
mitted by the limiter network (C2 -C3 -X2 -X3 -R2 -R3 -R4) to
Fig. 1-4. Second detector.
the audio amplifier through coupling capacitor C4, with a
12
13
 small amount of attenuation by the circuit. But when noise justable from zero to 1.5 volts, is obtained from battery B
is present on the signal, either X2 or X3 effectively short- through voltage -divider network R1 -R2. This voltage reverse -
circuits the noise pulse to ground-a positive noise pulse biases X2, and since this diode is a silicon unit, its leakage
forward -biases X3 momentarily, causing this diode to conduct current is essentially zero. The positive DC component (car-
heavily and limit the AF amplitude; a negative noise pulse rier intensity) of the signal from X1 must exceed the positive
forward -biases X2 and produces the same limiting effect. threshold voltage before X2 will conduct and pass the AF
Silicon junction diodes are used for X2 and X3 because of signal through transformer T ; as long as the signal amplitude
their extremely high reverse resistance and ability to operate is sufficiently below the threshold, no signal will pass through.
with high resistances R2 and R4. A germanium diode is satis- While a battery (B) is shown in Fig. 1-6, the DC source
factory for the second detector (X1) . might also be the power supply of the receiver if the resistance
of R1 is increased proportionately. Maximum threshold values
SQUELCH CIRCUIT
other than 1.5 volts may be obtained by proper selection of
input DC voltage and resistance of R1 and R2.
A simple squelch circuit for quieting a receiver between Transformer T may be any convenient interstage audio -
transmissions is shown in Fig. 1-6. Here, a 1N56A germanium coupling transformer having an input -to -output turns ratio
diode is connected as a shunt detector, through DC of 1 :2 or 1 :3. Capacitor C2 is an RF bypass.
-blocking
capacitor Cl, to the secondary of the second detector trans-
former in the receiver. This diode delivers AF output corre-
FM DISCRIMINATOR
Cl
FROM TOP OF 2ND
Fig. 1-7 shows a discriminator of the Foster -Seeley type
DETECTOR TRANSFORMER
0.01 for FM detection. Although this circuit is not critical in as-
sembly or operation, its quality is enhanced by matching ger-
TO AF AMPLIFIER manium diodes X1 and X2 and resistors R1 and R2. The
specified 1N35S unit is composed of two matched 1N34AS
miniature germanium diodes mounted on a single base. Resis-
tors R1 and R2 should be matched within 1 %. Resistor R3
and capacitor C3 form a de -emphasis network of the con-
ventional type.
R3
NO. 14521
Fig. 1-6. Simple squelch circuit. r
T (MILLER
r1N35S
1- C2 68K

t
I I X1
I
I,
RI

sponding to the modulation envelope of the received AM FROM

, 100K 82mmf
c3 TO AF
sig- I

lel AMPLIFIER
nal, and DC output which is proportional to the average car- LIMITER
R2
100 82
100

rier amplitude of the signal. This combined output is presented X2 mmt

Immf T.
I
1

to gate diode X2.

The threshold of the gate circuit may be set at will by ad-
justment of rheostat R1 so that only signals of desired Fig. 1-7. FM discriminator.
strength
can pass through to the audio amplifier of the receiver. Weaker
signals are held back; hence, squelch action is obtained. The FM RATIO DETECTOR
means for accomplishing this performance is the adjustable Another FM detector is shown in Fig. 1-8. The ratio de-
positive DC bias applied to diode X2. The bias voltage, ad - tector, unlike the discriminator described in the preceding
14 15
 T MILLER NO. 1453)
MISS NEGATIVE AGC
VOLTAGE CUT PUT
The series -peaking coil (L1) and shunt -peaking coil (L2)
IT are slug -tuned miniature inductors which may be set exactly
FROM LAST
IF AMPLIFIER
for the desired pass band as viewed with an oscilloscope. For
AF GAIN CONTROL
4.5-mc bandwidth, Ll (Miller No. 4505) should be set to ap-
TO AF AMPLIFIER
proximately 8 microhenries, and L2 (Miller No. 4514-1) to
approximately 600 microhenries. Negative AGC voltage is
supplied through filter C2 -R2. Capacitors Cl and C4 are
Fig. 1-8. FM ratio detector. silvered mica.
section, requires no limiter-an advantage when receiver lay-
out must be simple and economical. This circuit delivers a DC RESTORER
negative AGC voltage, as well as AF output. Both AC and DC information are present in the output of
As in the discriminator, quality is improved
by matching a TV video amplifier, but the DC component is lost when the
germanium diodes X1 and X2. The specified 1N35S unit is signal is capacitively -coupled to the picture tube, as through
composed of two matched 1N34AS miniature diodes mounted
on a single base. If the matched unit is not used, the individual
diodes should be chosen to have forward conduction
curves as
nearly identical as possible. The gain control potentiometer FROM VIDEO
C
PICTURE TUBE

(R2) may be the regular audio gain control of the receiver. AMPLIFIER
0.1

R4
TV VIDEO DETECTOR FROM +DC
BR GHTNESS
Fig. 1-9 shows a video detector for TV receivers and wide - 1meg
R2
CONTROL

range instruments. It takes advantage of the low

capacitance and low dynamic shunting
impedance of the 1N295 ger-
manium video -detector diode.
Fig. 1-10. DC restorer.
LAST VIDEO
IF TRANSFORMER C in Fig. 1-10. When this happens, the picture tube does not
i I X LI
receive the average brightness information provided by the
C3

FROM VIDEO
1N295
I el video signal, and the brightness control of the receiver does
IF AMPLIFIER 5-9 ph 0.1
(MILLER 4505) not completely compensate for this loss.
CI
. RI The DC component may be restored, however, through sig-
5.6K nal rectification by a germanium diode (X in Fig. 1-10)
lOmmf TO VIDEO AMPLIFIER
shunted across a part (R2) of the picture -tube grid resistor.
L2 X is a 1N927 germanium DC -restorer diode.
480-800 ph
(MILLER
4514-11

C2
DAMPER
NEGATIVE AGC
0.25 R2 The Q of magnetic deflection coils in TV and radar receivers
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
I meg is high enough for ringing to be produced by the sawtooth
Fig. 1-9. Video detector. deflection currents. A damping resistor shunted across the
16
17
 coil will suppress this effect, but the resistor
also robs the
coil of current. A reverse -connected silicon diode in vide, instead of zero, a reference level corresponding to a de-
the resistor (D in Fig. 1-11) will pass virtually no series with sired positive (+E) or negative (-E) amplitude. The DC
static cur- reference voltage is obtained from a battery, as shown, or
rent, since it is reverse -biased by the DC power
it will be forward -biased by the back supply; but from a power supply and voltage divider. In Fig. 1-12C, the
the collapsing magnetic field at the end ofvoltage generated by output is positive -going and swings between the positive refer-
the sawtooth sweep,
and thus will switch the energy through resistor R in which ence value (+E) and a maximum amplitude determined by
it will be dissipated to prevent ringing. the input amplitude. In Fig. 1-12D, the output is negative -
The specified 1N1413 silicon diode has a peak -reverse rating C

of 2,400 volts. At this voltage its reverse -leakage current is

(A) Zero reference,
positive clamping. OUTPUT
DEFLECTION 100K -500K
AMPLIFIER

DEFLECTION
1N1413
COIL
Fig. 1-11. Damper.
o--

(B) Zero reference,

TO B+ negative clamping. OUTPUT

only 1 microampere. The value of resistor R will be between 0- <

100 and 500 kilohms and must be selected with
respect to DC
voltage, peak sawtooth voltage, and deflection -coil inductance INPUT
X
in a particular circuit. (C) Positive reference, INPUT OUTPUT +E

positive clamping. 0

I T OUTPUT
CLAMPING CIRCUITS
A diode clamp, like a- DC restorer, is used to set or re-
establish a DC reference potential in an AC circuit. 0

either peak of an AC wave may be held to zero or to a selected Thus, -E

(D) Negative reference, INPPUT OUTPUT
amplitude, either positive or negative. negative clamping. E

Fig. 1-12 shows a typical input wave which oscillates about I

OUTPUT

the zero axis, and the corresponding output wave delivered

by each of four clamping circuits. These are the Fig. 1-12. Clamping circuits.
simplest pos-
sible circuits, in which a clamping diode (X) shunts a con- going and swings between the negative reference value (-E)
ventional resistance-capacitance coupling circuit
1-12A, the reference is clamped at zero, and the (RC). In and a maximum amplitude which is determined by the ampli-
nal swings between zero and a positive maximum output sig- tude of the input signal.
determined by the peak input amplitude and amplitude Diodes of all types may be used in clamping circuits ; how-
rectification
the diode. Action of 1-12B is similar, except that the diode by ever, they must be rated to withstand safely the combined ap-
is reversed and the output swings between zero and a negative plied AC and DC voltages. The R and C values in the coupling
maximum amplitude. The circuits in Figs. 1-12C and D pro - network must be chosen in the usual manner for optimum
time constant at the desired operating frequency.
18
19
 SYNC SEPARATOR (SYNC CLIPPER) FROM SYNC
TO HORIZONTAL
OSCILLATOR
Diode -type sync separators are not often SEPARATOR IMULTIV I ORATOR)
found in present-
day regular production TV receivers. However, this simple
device will be preferred to the triode
torized TV circuits and in home -designed type in some transis-
receivers in which
complexity and size must be minimized.
Fig. 1-13 shows one type of diode
sync separator. This is
essentially a shunt -diode rectifier with an additional
(R2) in series with the diode. The output signal is resistor
R2. In this taken across
arrangement, the positive -going video
signal, which Fig. 1-14. Horizontal phase detector.
contains picture information, sync, and
blanking pulses, is
FROM VIDEO
quently, a 6GD-1 dual selenium diode (X1 and X2) may be
AMPLIFIER used in this application.
TO SYNC
AMPLIFIER
FM DYNAMIC LIMITER
A simple subcircuit composed of a capacitor, resistor, and
high -conductance diode may be connected in parallel with the
primary winding of an FM discriminator (or ratio detector)
Fig. 1-13. Sync separator. transformer to provide dynamic limiting action. (Fig. 1-15
applied to the circuit through coupling capacitor C. Diode - shows the arrangement.) In this circuit, T is the regular dis-
rectified current develops a DC voltage across R1 (top criminator transformer.
tive, bottom positive) and this voltage charges C. nega- T

tor remains charged at this level, This capaci-

because of the time constant CR1.equal to input signal E,
The diode is biased to
cutoff and the output is zero. The TO DISCRIMINATOR
sync pulses drive the diode
positive into forward conduction and produce
output pulses which are delivered to the synccorresponding
A 1N484B very low -leakage germanium diodeamplifier.
in this circuit. Capacitance C and resistances (X) is used lOmfd
250 V
R1 and R2 may TO
require some adjustment in individual circuits. 1-15. FM dynamic limiter.
Fig.

HORIZONTAL PHASE DETECTOR Here, a portion of the plate current of the last IF tube
(V) flows through resistor R and the 1N281 high -conductance
Fig. 1-14 shows a phase detector for horizontal germanium diode (X) in series. This develops a diode self -
TV receiver (in this case, the arrangement used AFC in a
in Philco bias voltage across resistor R. The high capacitance of C
Model TV7L40, but typical of the application) . tends to maintain this voltage. The biased diode acts as a
Since the frequency limit is not high, the
acteristics of germanium and silicon are not wide -band char- simple limiter or peak clipper, tending to maintain the signal
needed. Conse- level despite amplitude excursions.
20
21
 In a transistor receiver
using NPN transistors, the
of C and X will be the same as in Fig. 1-15 ; for PNP polarity used (for example, 1N72, 1N82, 1N82A) . At microwave fre-
both should be reversed. receivers, quencies (where, incidentally, the lumped -constant tuned cir-
Resistance R may require some
change; its best value for limiting at a desired signal cuits may be replaced with lines, cavities, or waveguides) ,
tude depends upon the DC collector voltage. ampli- special silicon point -contact mixer diodes must be used (for
example, 1N21A to 1N21F, 1N23, etc.).
Because the diode does not amplify, this circuit gives no
CONVENTIONAL -DIODE FREQUENCY CONVERTER conversion gain. Power in the IF output is provided chiefly by
The nonlinear conductance of a conventional diode enables the local oscillator. The conversion loss may be minimized by
the mixing of two signals to obtain a third by heterodyne using high -Q circuits and a good impedance match between
action. This property is utilized in simple front-end converters converter and IF amplifier, and hand picking the diode for
in which a local oscillator signal is beat with an incoming maximum output.
nal to produce an output signal at a desired intermediate sig-
fre-
quency. Fig. 1-16 shows the basic circuit of such a converter. TUNNEL DIODE FREQUENCY CONVERTER
In this arrangement, C1 and L2 resonate at
incoming signal As an active element, the tunnel diode can amplify. In a
mixer circuit, therefore, it will provide conversion gain, unlike
the circuit shown in Fig. 1-16. But it requires DC power which
the previous circuit does not. Inexpensive tunnel diodes will
x operate at frequencies up to several thousand megacycles at
low noise level and with low DC input, and their two -terminal
LI
simplicity makes them attractive for converter use.
4 OUTPUT
ITO IF AMPLIFIER) OSCILLATOR INPUT

1C2
50-250
Cl mmf

RF INPUT IF OUTPUT

Fig. 1-16. Conventional -diode frequency converter.

frequency f1, and C2 and L3 resonate at desired intermediate

frequency f3. The local oscillator generates frequency f2 of
such value that f2 equals f1 - f3. The oscillator, which
may be
either tube, transistor, or tunnel -diode type, is shown coupled
to the converter circuit by means of a low -impedance Fig. 1-17. Tunnel diode frequency converter.
coil, but capacitance coupling sometimes is employed. output
C1 is mechanically ganged and electrically tracked with Capacitor Fig. 1-17 shows a typical tunnel -diode converter circuit.
the Here, C1 and L2 resonate at the incoming -signal frequency.
oscillator tuning capacitor for single -control tuning, but the T is a transistor -type IF transformer. The local oscillator,
converter output circuit (C2 -L3) is fixed -tuned to the inter-
mediate frequency. which may be either tube, transistor, or tunnel -diode type,
At frequencies up to 10 mc, a general-purpose is coupled to the converter circuit through capacitor C2 ;
germanium oscillator frequency f2 is chosen with respect to incoming -
diode, such as 1N34A, will be satisfactory. At higher fre- signal frequency f1 and intermediate frequency such that
quencies, however, a mixer -type germanium diode should be f2 f1 - f3.
22
23
 By adjustment of R3, the DC operating point of the 1N3712
germanium tunnel diode (X) is set within the negative -resist-
ance region of the diode forward conduction characteristic. AFC circuit. The DC voltage, in turn, changes the capacitance
Since the diode is tapped down the primary of IF trans- of the varactor, and this corrects the oscillator frequency to
former T, it looks into a low impedance. If the negative resist- retune the receiver to the signal.
ance of the diode exceeds this impedance, however, the circuit The operating point of the varactor is set by an 8-volt DC
will oscillate. Maximum gain is obtained just short of oscilla- bias obtained from the receiver power supply through voltage
tion, and for this condition the resistance of R1 divider R3 -R4. If the power -supply output is some value other
may require
some adjustment with individual diodes. than 300 volts, resistance R4 must be proportioned accordingly
to give 8 volts at the junction of C2 and R3.
VARACTOR AFC CIRCUIT VARACTOR TUNING OF RECEIVER
The varactor is a specially processed junction diode which The voltage -variable capacitance of the varactor may be
acts as a variable capacitor when its DC reverse voltage is employed for the remote tuning of a radio receiver by means
varied. The DC leakage current is practically zero so that this of a DC voltage-no DC power is required.
device is essentially voltage -operated. Fig. 1-19 shows the scheme. The conventional two -gang
Fig. 1-18 shows an automatic frequency -control circuit variable capacitor in the receiver is replaced with V-100 Vari-
utilizing the property of voltage -variable capacitance. Here, cap silicon varactors (C3 and C4 in Fig. 1-19) . Each of these
DC voltage from the discriminator of an FM receiver is ap- units provides a capacitance range of 57 to 260 mmf for an
plied to varactor C2 (V56 silicon Varicap) through an RF applied potential of zero to 15 volts DC. The local oscillator
filter system (RFC -C3 -C4 -R1 -R2) . This voltage varies accord- and RF (amplifier, 1st detector, or converter) stages thus
ing to the degree of tuning of the receiver to the FM are tuned simultaneously by the DC control voltage.
and varies the capacitance of C2 proportionately. C2 is signal,
con- Cl RI
nected across the local oscillator tank through DC
-blocking
capacitor Cl, and retunes the oscillator by an amount propor- LI

tional to the DC received from the discriminator or ratio de-

tector. Thus, drift of the local oscillator detunes the receiver
from the signal and this results in a DC input signal to the RF TUNING
VARIABLE DC INPUT (0-15V)
C2 R2

Cl =C2 0.005 (MICA)

1meg
ANTENNA
FM RECEIVER C3= C4 V-100 VARICAP
157-260mmt)
I+
DISCRIMINATOR

IF
MIXER AMPLIFIER LIMITER AF
SPEAKER
OSCILLATOR TUNING
AMPLIFIER
Fig. 1-19. Varactor tuning of receiver.
In each tuned circuit, a blocking capacitor (C1, C2) protects
OSCILLATOR

-1-
CI RFC RI R2
DC TAKEOFF the varactor from any DC voltage that might be present in
g) 5mmf 20 pn
471(

470TC3
I meg
the receiver stage. The 1-megohm resistors R1 and R2 act
V56 mml WPM 0.1 both as RF chokes and as isolation resistors for the DC con-
82K
C2

R3
1300 IN FROM 3000 DC
trol -voltage supply. This eliminates loading of the tuned cir-
I IV 470mmf
AFC UNIT cuits by stray capacitance of the supply.
Fig. 1-18. Varactor AFC circuit.
Where higher tuning capacitances are required, two or more
varactors may be connected in parallel.
24 25
 BIASED DIODE DETECTOR
In some instances, a small forward bias will increase the
output of a detector stage employing a general-purpose ger-
manium diode, such as a 1N34A. Since this DC voltage is
applied to the diode in series with the amplitude -modulated RF
voltage, it must be developed across a very low resistance,
otherwise the signal will be attenuated by the DC supply.
Fig. 1-20 shows the circuit. In this arrangement, the am-
plitude -modulated RF signal is tuned -in by means of C1 and
L2. The DC bias, variable between 13.6 and 148 millivolts by
adjustment of rheostat R1, is developed across a 10 -ohm re-
sistor, R3. The AF output of diode X, together with the DC
bias current flows through the primary of output transformer
T. The primary of this transformer has low DC resistance to
minimize attenuation of the bias current.
With a constant -amplitude RF-input signal, the AF output
is measured first (with an oscilloscope or AC VTVM) with
the battery disconnected and R1 temporarily short-circuited.
Then, with the short circuit removed and the battery con-
nected, the bias is adjusted to the point at which the AF output
increases over the original value. The RF input must be main-
tained at the same amplitude during each of these
steps.
It is advisable to check the AF signal with an oscilloscope
or harmonic distortion meter before and after the DC is ap-
plied, to verify that the increase in output is due to a boost in
amplitude and not just to added distortion.
This is not a method of amplification. It is only a means
of increasing the ratio of diode output to input by shifting
operation to a more favorable point on the diode forward con-
duction curve. Some diodes give better performance when
biased than do others of the same type; other diodes operate
best without the bias.

T ISTANCOR TA -26)

MODULATED LI
_L
BIAS ADJUST 12°
RI RE INPUT
A'. R2
11

1K 910
1W C;.\\* TUNING
B= R3 0
1-1/2 V 1W10

TO.01
Fig. 1-20. Biased diode detector.

26
 Transmitter Circuits

Semiconductor diodes may be used in various ways in radio

transmitters, in auxiliary devices for transmitting stations,
and in instruments for adjusting transmitters. These applica-
tions depend on the rectifying, modulating, demodulating, and
distorting properties of passive diodes. Active diodes, such
as the varactor and tunnel diode, perform direct transmitter -
circuit functions because of the ability of these units to am-
plify, multiply frequency, or oscillate. Active diodes often
greatly simplify a circuit which otherwise would employ tubes
or transistors.

ANTENNA CURRENT METER

Fig. 2-1 shows the circuit of a low -resistance radio -frequency
ammeter. This instrument may be used for measuring current
at frequencies of up to 200 me in antennas, transmission lines,
and tank circuits.
RF current flows through 1 -ohm noninductive resistor R1
across which it develops a voltage drop. This voltage is rectified
by the 1N34A germanium diode (X) , and the resulting DC
2
CALIBRATION
CONTROL
5000 WW

Fig. 2-1. Antenna current meter. RF

0-1 DC MA
INPUT

29
 deflects the 0-1 DC milliammeter (M). Rheostat R2 serves
to limit the meter current for calibration purposes, and Cl signal -carrier frequency at some setting of the 365-mmf tuning
is a radio -frequency bypass capacitor. capacitor (C1). The 1N34A germanium diode (X) rectifies
The range of this instrument is 0-1 ampere rms, but higher the RF signal, and the resulting DC operates the 0.54 -ma,
140 -ohm DC relay (RY).
ranges may be provided by connecting suitable noninductive As long as the signal is present, the DC keeps the relay
shunt resistors in parallel with the RF INPUT terminals. contacts open. When the signal is interrupted, however, the
To calibrate the instrument, apply an accurately known DC drops to zero, and the relay contacts close, operating a
1 -amp RF current to the RF Input terminals, and adjust R2
for exact full-scale deflection. Note also the reading of milli - bell, buzzer, light signal, or other type of alarm device in the
ammeter M for intermediate current values, such as 0.1, 0.2, external circuit.
This type of carrier failure alarm has the advantage of
0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, and 0.9 ampere. (It is necessary that small size, excellent stability, good sensitivity, and extreme
this circuit be calibrated at these points, using a variable RF simplicity. Furthermore, it requires neither a power supply
supply and an external RF ammeter, because of variations nor attended service. Being reasonably broad in response, its
in diode curves and meter internal resistance.) Using these tuning may be left untouched for protracted periods.
readings, prepare either a curve or chart or a special ampere
scale for the meter. NOTE : It is possible also to calibrate
the meter at an audio frequency, such as 1,000 cps, if the RF CONVENTIONAL -DIODE FREQUENCY MULTIPLIER
source and standard meter are not available. The final accu- The nonlinear conductance of the germanium diode may be
racy will be somewhat lower, however. utilized for frequency multiplication at low-RF power levels.
A simple passive frequency doubler, tripler, or quadrupler thus
CARRIER FAILURE ALARM may be obtained if sufficient amplification is available for
When a transmitter leaves the air accidentally, the in- building up the signal amplitude after multiplication.
terruption can be both confusing and costly, the amount de-
1_
pending on the class of service supplied by the station. It is CI
x
C2 L3

important, therefore, that the operator be alerted immediately L112

on carrier failure. RF INPUT

If)
1N281 L4 RF OUTPUT
(of)
Fig. 2-2 shows the circuit of a simple carrier failure alarm.
Here, the signal is picked up with a short, vertical, whip an-
Fig. 2-3. Conventional -diode frequency multiplier.
tenna. The inductance of coil L is chosen to resonate at the
PICKUP ANTENNA
Fig. 2-3 shows the circuit of this type of multiplier. In this
arrangement, Cl and L2 are chosen to resonate at input fre-
quency f. This frequency is to be multiplied n times by the
x
RY
circuit. C2 and L3 resonate at the desired higher frequency,
0.54 ma, 140n DC RELAY nf. The 1N281 high -conductance germanium diode is tapped
(Barber -Colman 7303-100)
across one-third of the turns of L2 and one-third of those of L3
for improved impedance match.
In adjusting the circuit, it is only necessary to tune C1 to
TO ALARM CIRCUIT
the incoming frequency and C2 to the desired harmonic fre-
quency. The 1N281 is a 60 -volt, 100 -ma unit so that it will
Fig. 2-2. Carrier failure alarm. handle a respectable amount of low power.
30
31
 BALANCED MODULATOR CIRCUIT pensate for the asymmetry of the circuit, the RF output voltage
In a single-sideband transmitter, RF carrier is reduced to a null level very close to zero. This null holds
AF modulation voltage are presented voltage and for only one value of RF input voltage, however, because diode
simultaneously to a bal- resistance changes with voltage. When the AF voltage is ap-
anced modulator. Because of the circuit symmetry, the modu-
lator suppresses the carrier and delivers an output plied, the increase changes the resistance of the diodes, the
of the upper and lower sidebands (RF + AF, and RF consisting bridge therefore unbalances, and RF appears at the output.
- AF) Audio frequencies cannot pass through the L3 -L4 circuit. The
produced by the modulation process. A bandpass filter is then
used to select the desired upper or lower sideband. Balanced RF energy that emerges is a combination of the upper and
modulators may employ tubes, transistors, or diodes. lower sidebands. When the AF signal ceases, the RF output
again falls to zero.
RF INPUT
RF TUNING
In this circuit, X1 and X2 are 1N55A 150 -volt general-
XI purpose germanium diodes. For good balance, capacitors C5
U.T. C. and C6 must be matched within 1 %, and coil L3 must be
S1
R
1ryC2
C3 C5
RFC o
SIDEBAND
accurately center -tapped. C3 and C4 are the two sections of
12 1K
1

num100 OUTPUT a dual 365-mmf variable capacitor. The C3 -C4 -05 -C6 -L3 com-
G C62.5 mh
V - CI CARRIER
bination has been chosen for operation in the 75 -meter amateur
15Ko
1100 mmf BALANCE X2
phone band. Ll is the RF oscillator tank coil, and L2 a 2- or
200
C3 -C4: Dual 365mmf 3 -turn pickup coil mounted near L1. The oscillator must de-
XI, X2: 1N55A
LAST AF
C5 -C6: 0.0018 silvered mica
L3: 14 turns No. 20 enameled
velop an RF signal of approximately 2.5 volts rms across L2.
AMPLIFIER
16 C4, 6J5. wire closewound on 1/2"
12 AU?. etc. diameter form. Tap 7th turn. Adjust the circuit initially in the following manner:
1. With the AF switched off, apply the RF signal.
Fig. 2-4. Two -diode balanced modulator.
2. Adjust tuning capacitor C3 -C4 for maximum RF out-
The diode circuit is simple, compact, and requires put, as indicated by peak deflection of a sensitive RF
no power VTVM or oscilloscope at the SIDEBAND OUTPUT
supply. It has the disadvantage that it must operate at a low
power level. This is seldom inconvenient, since suitable RF terminals.
amplification may be provided following the modulator, al- 3. Carefully adjust R to reduce the RF output to zero-
though it may not be balanced as closely as some tube circuits, The modulator circuit is now balanced.
even with matched diodes. However, the balance is 4. Apply the AF signal, noting that the RF indicator de-
for amateur and experimental purposes. Diode satisfactory flects.
-type balanced
modulators are found in many single-sideband exciters.
Fig. 2-4 shows a popular variety of two -diode balanced mod- NEUTRALIZATION INDICATOR
ulator circuit. Here, a four -arm bridge is formed
top half of L3, and bottom half of L3. This bridge by Xl, X2, Fig. 2-5 shows the circuit of an untuned meter -type indica-
tor sensitive enough to show the last remnant of oscillation
is excited by an RF voltage coupled into the circuit initially
Now, if the diodes were matched exactly and L3 by L2. during the process of neutralizing a transmitter stage.
If a 1 -inch meter is used, the entire instrument may be
center -tapped, the bridge would be exactly balancedperfectly
and no housed in a transparent plastic case or bottle to protect the
RF output voltage would appear at L4. But since this high
degree of matching is seldom obtained in practice, rheostat R operator from electric shock and may be used as a probe.
When using the instrument, coil L is held near the tank coil
is provided for correcting the circuit. When R is set to com- of the stage being neutralized. Before complete
neutralization,
32
33
the stage will oscillate and meter M will be deflected full scale
by the DC output of rectifier diode X. As neutralization pro-
gresses, the oscillation becomes less intense and the deflection
decreases proportionately, finally reaching zero when neutral-
ization is complete.
RF
OUTPUT

Fig. 2-6. Tunnel diode CW transmitter.

0-50
DC p A
Fig. 2-5. Neutralization indicator.
TUNNEL DIODE PHONE TRANSMITTER
3 turns No. 12 copper wire
1" in thameter. Space to
The diode transmitter shown in Fig. 2-6 may be modulated
winding length of 3/4 inch. by applying an AF modulating voltage in series with the DC
bias, as shown in Fig. 2-7. Otherwise, the transmitter circuit
TUNNEL DIODE CW TRANSMITTER is the same as that given in Fig. 2-6 and the operating instruc-
A tunnel -diode RF oscillator makes the simplest possible tions are the same. The RF output is frequency modulated,
low -powered CW transmitter. The circuit is shown in Fig. 2-6. hence C2 and Ll should be chosen for resonance at a frequency
Although this transmitter has an unloaded DC input of only at which FM is lawful.
1.4 milliwatt, it can give surprisingly good account of itself Carbon microphone M receives its DC from the same 1.5 -
on a clear frequency with a sensitive receiver. volt battery (B) that biases tunnel diode X. The bias current
The heart of the circuit is the 1N3720 germanium tunnel is adjusted by means of rheostat R2. The AF output of the
diode (X). This diode will oscillate in suitable circuits at fre- microphone is superimposed upon the diode bias by trans-
quencies up to 0.67 kilomegacycle. In this the former T. The low -impedance (16 -ohm) secondary of this
oscillation frequency is determined principally by tuning ca- transformer has low DC resistance (1.4 ohms) , necessary to
pacitor C2 and plug-in coil L1. (For the amateur bands, Barker minimize effect on the negative resistance of the diode. The
& Williamson Type JEL coils provide main coil L1 and link - RI
coupling coil L2 in each single plug-in unit.) The RF output CARBON
MICROPHONE
may be applied to an antenna through a suitable tuner or
coupler.
To adjust the transmitter, connect an RF VTVM temporarily
across L1. If a VTVM is not available, use an RF indicator TRIAD TA -40

such as the unit shown in Fig. 2-5. Depress the key and adjust
R1 for peak deflection of the meter. This indicates that the x

DC bias has been set to the most favorable point along the
negative -resistance curve of the diode. Operate the key rapidly
several times to determine that oscillation starts readily when
the key is depressed; if it does not, readjust R1 for quick F T(puFT

starting. Disconnect the VTVM and tune C2 to the desired CROLI

frequency, as indicated by a frequency meter or calibrated re-
ceiver. It sometimes is necessary to reset R1 when Cl is tuned. Fig. 2-7. Tunnel diode phone transmitter.

34 35
amount of FM swing depends upon the AF amplitude, henc keep L2 from short-circuiting the DC bias, and its reactance
R1 acts as an FM control; the swing is maximum when micro is negligible in the circuit. Ll is a link -coupling coil.
phone output is highest. When the swing is low (narrow -ban The AF modulation is applied in series with the DC bias,
FM), the signal may be received on an AM receiver detune by means of transformer T which has a 2:1 or 3:1 stepup
to one side of the center frequency of the signal. turns ratio. Because of the extremely high resistance of the
Since this type of transmitter is readily subminiaturized varactor, virtually no audio power is required. An AF voltage
it is finding increased application as a wireless microphon of 1.5 volts rms should be developed across the secondary of T.
and RF detectaphone. The modulation voltage may be derived from a one- or two -
stage transistor speech amplifier or a carbon microphone.
VARACTOR AMPLITUDE MODULATOR Fig. 2-8B shows operation of the circuit. Note that the cir-
cuit is tuned to the high -frequency side of resonance by adjust-
A low -powered CW transmitter, such as a transistorize ing the DC bias to the level Ed, (approximately -7 volts). The
unit, may be amplitude modulated externally by means of th AF voltage (Eaf) is superimposed upon Edo. This causes the
ANTENNA
bias to swing above and below Ede at the AF rate. The result-
ing voltage across L2 therefore has the amplitude -modulated
RESONANT
POINT
shape shown by the output pattern in Fig. 2-8B.
For adjustment, R2 is set for best linearity of modulation,
Cl
and the AF amplitude for desired percentage of modulation.
0.005 0CC
AM An oscilloscope, coupled to L2, serves as the monitor.
(mica) OUTPUT

12 C2 V100
UNMODULATED
RF INPUT RI 1 meg VARACTOR FREQUENCY MODULATOR
A low -powered tube or transistor oscillator stage in a trans-
mitter may be frequency modulated by means of a varactor-
AF INPUT
DC BIAS
VOLTAGE
I
tuned tank circuit. An AF voltage applied to the varactor in
Eat
series with its DC bias tunes the tank above and below reso-
nance at the AF rate, thus producing an FM output. The FM
swing is proportional to the AF voltage.
B -B -9V R2
1K
Fig. 2-9 shows the circuit. The capacitance of varactor C3,
WW a V33 Varicap, may be varied from 39 to 85 mmf by adjusting
the DC bias from zero to -3 volts, by means of potentiometer
(A) Modulator circuit. (B) Modulator performance. R2. The inductance of L1 is chosen such that the oscillator is
Fig. 2-8. Varactor amplitude modulator. tuned to the desired center frequency when the varactor ca-
pacitance is set to 50 mmf. This corresponds to a DC bias of
varactor-tuned antenna coupler (L1 -L2 -C1 -C2) (Fig. 2-8A) 1.5 volts and places the operating point along the steepest
This coupler is tuned to the carrier frequency by V-100 Varica portion of the varactor voltage -capacitance curve. The tank
C2, the capacitance of which is varied by adjusting rheosta circuit is isolated from the tube plate or transistor collector by
R2 to vary the varactor DC bias. The inductance of L2 capacitor Cl which blocks DC voltage coming from the tube.
chosen such that the circuit will resonate at the carrier fre Similarly, a second blocking capacitor (C2) prevents L1 from
quency when the capacitance of C2 is adjusted to 80 mmf. Th short-circuiting the varactor DC bias. L2 is a one- or two -turn
circuit is tuned entirely by C2; Cl is a blocking capacitor link -coupled output coil.

36 37
 Audio voltage is applied to the circuit through transformer
T which has a 2:1 or 3:1 stepup turns ratio. The maximum
voltage developed across the secondary of T should be between
2 and 3 volts rms. This voltage, being in series with the DC
bias, swings the latter above and below the 1.5 -volt level at
which the tank is tuned to the desired center frequency. This

TO OSCILLATOR PLATE
OR COLLECTOR
I
Cl

0.005
C2
OSCILLATOR
TANK COIL
CHAP R3
RFC
2-1/2mh L2 FM OUTPUT

TO PLATE
OR R1 1 meg
COLLECTOR
VOLTAGE

AF
INPUTi,

R2 1K -=- -
B 3V
WW

Fig. 2-9. Varactor frequency modulator.

detunes the oscillator above and below the center frequency at

the AF rate, thus producing FM output. The FM swing is pro-
portional to the AF amplitude and may be set at a desired
width by means of the audio gain control. The AF may be
obtained from a transistor- or tube -type speech amplifier or
directly from a carbon microphone and battery. Because of
the extremely high resistancd of the varactor, virtually no AF
power is required.

38
 Audio Circuits

Although the semiconductor diode does not figure as prom-

inently in audio -amplifier circuits as it does elsewhere, its ap-
plications in that area are noteworthy. Both active and passive
diodes are used in AF systems to greatly simplify the circuitry
needed to perform a given function. This chapter describes
typical applications.

LEVEL CLIPPER
Automatic maintenance of signal amplitude at a constant
level is often of great importance in AF amplification. For
example, such amplitude limiting in the speech amplifier of a
radio transmitter results in a higher average modulation level,
increasing transmitter effectiveness in spite of variations in
voice loudness. The limiting device must operate quickly.
Fig. 3-1 shows the circuit of a simple clipper. Here, each
of two 1N81A high -back -resistance germanium diodes is re-
verse -biased by a 1.5 -volt battery (B1 and B2). The AF input
R

AF
INPUT -r\-7 SI ON -OFF S2
DPST
JQ

BI 1/2V
4-1 B2-11 I/2V
1

Fig. 3-1. Level c ipper.

41
 signal is applied to these biased diodes simultaneously through
series resistor R. Because of the bias, diode X1 cannot conduct vice versa, thus holding the output constant. Although this sys-
forward current until the positive half-cycle of signal voltage tem is not as rapid in action as the clipper shown in Fig. 3-1,
exceeds +1.5 volts peak; diode X2 cannot conduct forward neither does it generate the harmonics produced by the clipper.
Fig. 3-2 shows an AMC rectifier circuit. Lead B is connected
current until the negative half -cycle of signal voltage exceeds
-1.5 volts peak. Accordingly, from zero to the 1.5 volt peak, to a signal point at or near the output of the amplifier. The
sampled signal is applied to a shunt -diode rectifier consisting
there is no voltage drop across R, and the output voltage in-
creases uniformly from zero to 1.5 volts peak. But as soon as of C2, gold -bonded 1N277 germanium diode X, and potentiom-
the peak amplitude of the input signal exceeds 1.5 volts, cur- eter R2. Because of the high impedance of this rectifier circuit,
rent begins to flow and produces a voltage drop across R. The the amplifier is loaded only negligibly. The negative DC output
of the diode is filtered by Cl and R1, and the resulting negative
higher the input amplitude, the greater the forward current bias voltage, which is proportional to the AF amplitude, is
and the higher the voltage drop. The result is that the ampli- available at A. This voltage, which is continuously variable
tude of the output signal does not rise higher than +1.5 volts through adjustment of potentiometer R2, may be applied to
and -1.5 volts.
Because of the high resistance of R, the external load of NEGATIVE DC VOLTAGE 0OM
the clipper must be high (500K or more) to minimize insertion ITO CONTROLLED STAGE)

loss. Generally, this imposes no hardship, since the clipper O C2

OUTPUT
1A.MFPRLIFIER
0.05

may be operated between two tube stages where it works out

of a medium -impedance plate into a high -impedance grid. RI R2
I N277
High -back -resistance diodes are employed to minimize reverse 3300 r)
current leakage from the batteries. Although batteries are CI
20mfd
shown in the schematic, the bias voltage may also be obtained 25V

from a well -filtered DC power supply through suitable voltage

dividers.
Fig. 3-2. AMC rectifier circuit.
The squaring action of the clipper generates harmonics of
respectable amplitude, and for this reason the clipper must the control grid or suppressor of a front-end stage in series
be followed with a suitable low-pass filter to remove the dis- with the normal bias of that stage. When a positive bias volt-
tortion. The cutoff frequency of the filter depends upon range age is needed for some transistor amplifiers, diode X must be
and fidelity requirements, 2,500 cps or so being common in reversed.
amplifiers and modulators for voice communication. AMC operates in an audio amplifier much the same as AGC
does in an RF amplifier or receiver. Unlike an AC -operated
AMC RECTIFIER audio AGC system, however, AMC utilizes a DC control volt-
age and therefore is not phase sensitive.
Another system for automatically limiting the output of an
audio amplifier is the automatic modulation control (AMC).
In this circuit, the AF output of the amplifier is sampled and MAGAMP RECTIFIER
a portion of this voltage is rectified. The DC output of the Most magnetic amplifiers operate in the audio -frequency
rectifier is then filtered to remove the AF component and ap- spectrum and are finding increasing application in various
plied in series with the normal bias to one of the or areas of electronics. They can provide very high gain. If the
transistors in the front end of the amplifier. As the output sig- power supply frequency is made high enough (10 kc or above) ,
nal increases, the bias reduces the gain of the amplifier, and a magamp may be used for sound reproduction.
42
43
 Self -saturation improves the efficiency and control of a mag-
netic amplifier and is obtained by means of a semiconductor VOICE -CONTROLLED RELAY
rectifier circuit. Power rectifiers must be used in magamps A voice -controlled relay, operated from a speech amplifier,
that deliver power output of 5 watts or more and operate at has numerous uses. One of these is to keep a radio transmitter
high voltages (100 volts and above) In low-level units, such
.
or wired -radio intercom operating only as long as the operator
as preamplifiers, instrument amplifiers, and control amplifiers, is speaking. This frees the operator from working a switch.
lower -powered signal diodes may be used. Fig. 3-4 shows a voice -controlled relay circuit. The control
Fig. 3-3 shows a representative magamp circuit. For sim- signal is picked from any point in the speech amplifier which
plicity, the core is omitted in this schematic. L2 and L3 are will yield an AF voltage of at least 2 volts rms at approximately
the reactance windings, connected phase -bucking to prevent 0.5 milliwatt. C1 is a blocking capacitor to isolate the diodes
induction into the other two coils. L1 is the control winding, from DC components in the amplifier. The signal is rectified
into which a DC control signal is introduced, and L4 is a feed - by the 1N300 silicon junction diodes (X1, X2) , and the re -
TO SIGNAL POINT
IN AF AMPLIFIER

Feedback
Winding

-111kM11111 X1
RY
110.A DC, 3550
DC CONTROL SIGNAL - (Barber -Colman 7310-1001
INPUT 1111
Control, TO CONTROLLED
Winding
CIRCUIT

AC POWER INPUT

Fig. 3-3. Regenerative magamp.

back winding for improving amplifier action through re- Fig. 3-4. Voice -controlled relay.
generation.
The output of the magamp is connected to an AC power sup- sulting DC charges capacitor C2 and closes relay RY. Rheostat
ply, load device, and the rectifier circuit in series. The rectifier R is adjusted for closure of the relay on maximum AF signal.
unit, consisting of diodes XL X2, X3, and X4, has a double When the signal is interrupted, the diodes have no output, but
function ; the load is supplied through two 2 -diode legs in the voltage due to the charge in capacitor C2 holds the relay
parallel (that is, X1 -X2 and X3 -X4) , but the feedback wind- closed. C2 cannot discharge back through the high reverse
ing is excited by full -wave pulses delivered by the four diodes resistance of X1, so it discharges slowly through the relay.
acting as a bridge rectifier. For best operation, the forward After an interval, the discharge current reduces the capacitor
conduction curves of the four diodes should be closely matched. voltage sufficiently for the relay to drop out. (With the 7.300-
Completely assembled matched units containing four diodes mfd capacitor and 3,550 -ohm relay specified in Fig. 3-4, this
are available under the name quad or varistor. The 1N42 Interval is approximately 3.5 seconds.) The on interval may
shown in Fig. 3-3 is a 100 -volt germanium plug-in unit which be lengthened by increasing the value of C2, or shortened by
contains four matched diodes. decreasing this capacitance.
44 45
 TUNNEL DIODE AF AMPLIFIER
Fig. 3-5 is the circuit of an experimental tunnel diode audio
amplifier. This circuit provides a gain of approximately 20 db
at 1,000 cps and operates into a 100 -ohm load. Input imped- Fig. 3-6. Diode as cathode resistor. normal grid
resistor ZENER DIODE
ance is of the order of 200 ohms.
For highest gain and best linearity, the operating point of
the 1N3712 germanium tunnel diode (X) must be set to the
center of the negative -resistance region of the forward con-
duction characteristic, by adjustment of rheostat R3. This is
done most readily by applying a 10 -millivolt rms, 1,000 -cps, which has the desired bias voltage at the center of its zener
sine -wave signal to the AF Input terminals and adjusting R3 region, and for which the maximum DC cathode current of the
for highest amplitude and lowest distortion of the output tube will furnish the corresponding zener current.
signal, as viewed with an oscilloscope at the AF Output ter- The advantages of this scheme are that the tube current
minals. can vary considerably without materially changing the bias
voltage developed across the diode, and that the dynamic
Cl Argonne AR -162
impedance of the diode is so low that no cathode bypass ca-
I 500 0 CT TO 500 0 CT)
pacitor is required.

AF TPUT

0111,

Fig. 3-5. Tunnel diode AF amplifier.

Care must be taken that the circuit does not break into
oscillation, either with or without an input signal. To prevent
oscillation with some diodes, it may be necessary to alter the
resistance of Rl.
Output transformer T has a 1 :1 turns ratio and very low
DC resistance. Only one half of the primary and one half of
the secondary are used. The transformer has a full -winding
impedance ratio of 500 -to -500 ohms.

DIODE AS CATHODE RESISTOR

Automatic bias in a tube -type amplifier or oscillator may
be supplied to advantage by a zener diode, as shown in Fig. 3-6.
From the various available types, a diode should be selected
46 47
 Power -Supply Circuits

Rectification is the basic property of the diode, therefore,

diodes are useful in all applications demanding simple con-
version of AC to DC. Conventional small -signal diodes, unlike
semiconductor power rectifiers, are low -power devices which
cannot safely handle more than a few hundred milliwatts at
the most. But where only low power is involved, the con-
ventional diode is entirely adequate as a rectifier and, at the
same time, is smaller and cheaper than a power rectifier. It
lends itself well to subminiature power supplies for tran-
sistorized equipment, photoconductive cells, varactors, and
thermistors.
In addition to AC rectification, voltage regulation is afforded
by diodes-principally the zener diode. This is made possible
by the nonlinear conductance of the unit. Unilateral conduc-
tivity of the diode also may be used, as in the application
shown in Fig. 4-8.

FIVE LOW-LEVEL DC POWER SUPPLIES

Fig. 4-1 shows the circuits and performance curves of five
miniature AC line -operated DC power supplies suitable for
the operation of low -power devices, such as photoconductive
cells, varactors, and conventional transistors, and for supply-
ing fixed bias for tube circuits. Each of these circuits operates
on 6.3 volts AC delivered by a small 1.2 -ampere filament trans-
former (T). Higher -voltage secondaries (for example, up to
24 volts) may be used with proportionately higher DC output,

51
 10 higher -voltage capacitors are substituted for those
1N34A
V2 8 providedThe volt-ampere curves show the DC output voltage de-
06 shown.
117 VAC
INPUT
6.3
VAC
10mfd
25V DC OUTPUT 4
livered by
each of these circuits at various currents up to 5
2
0 milliamperes.
1 2 3
DC MA
Half -Wave
(A) Half -wave. Fig. 4-1A shows a simple, single-phase half -wave supply.
is the
10 A single 1N34A general-purpose germanium diode ( X) value of
117 VAC
X2
r, 8 rectifier. The no-load DC output is equal to the peak
INPUT 86 AC input minus the small forward voltage drop in
10 the 6.3 -volts
mfd DC OUTPUT
the diode, and is approximately 8.5 volts. This drops to approxi-
6.3 25V 2
VAC 0 mately 6 volts at 5 ma. The output ripple is low enough for
most applications; however, additional filtration may be ob-
2
Xl, X2, X3, X4: 1N34A 4
DC MA

(B) Bridge. tained by adding a 10 -henry choke and 10-mfd capacitor.

20
Bridge
117 VAC
INPUT
,n16
812 Fig. 4-1B shows a full -wave bridge rectifier employing four
(-1 8 1N34A general-purpose germanium diodes. The no-load and
4
full -load DC output is the same as for the half -wave circuit, but
Xl, X2: 1N34A 1 2
DC MA
3 4 the ripple frequency is twice that of the power line.
Cl, C2: lOmfd 25V
(C) Doubler. Doubler
30
Fig. 4-1C shows a voltage -doubler circuit. This circuit de-
livers a no-load DC output that is more than double the AC
p, 20 input voltage-it is equal to two times the peak value of the
210
AC voltage, or approximately 17.7 volts for 6.3 volts rms input.
This drops to approximately 13 volts at 5 ma load. Two 1N34A
0
2 3 general-purpose germanium diodes are used in this circuit.
DC MA

Cl, C2, C3: lOmfd 25V (D) Tripler. Tripler

Xl, X2, X3: 1N52A Fig. 4-1D shows a voltage-tripler circuit. This circuit
X1 actually delivers a no-load DC output voltage that is more than
v, 40 triple the AC input voltage-it is 3 times the peak value of the
117 VAC 8 30 AC voltage, or approximately 26.7 volts for 6.3 volts rms input.
INPUT 20
c'10 This drops to approximately 13 volts at 5 ma load.
0
1 2 3 4 5
Three 1N52A general-purpose germanium diodes having in-
DC MA creased peak inverse voltage ratings, are used in this circuit.
(E) Quadrupler.
Cl, C2, C3, C4: lOmfd Quadrupler
XI, X2, X3, X4: 1N52A Fig. 4-1E shows a voltage-quadrupler circuit that delivers
Fig. 4-1. Low-level DC power supplies. a no-load DC output voltage which more than quadruples the
52 53
 AC input voltage-it is four times the peak value of the A Practical constants for the circuit shown in Fig. 4-2 are :
voltage, or approximately 35.5 volts for 6.3 volts rms input R is a 40 -ohm, 1 -watt resistor; and X is a 1N270 gold -bonded
This drops to approximately 14.5 volts at 5 ma load. Fou diode. At 1 volt input, the diode current is 10 ma
germanium voltage is 0.6 volt; at 3 volts input, the diode cur-
1N52A general-purpose germanium diodes are used in thi and output
circuit. rent rises to 50 ma, but the output voltage increases only to
1 volt. Thus, the output voltage changes only 1.67 time for an
input voltage change of three times.
CONVENTIONAL -DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The nonlinear forward conductance of a germanium diode at TWO ZENER-DIODE REGULATOR CIRCUITS
low current levels may be used to stabilize a low DC output
voltage against excursions of the DC input voltage. With con- Zener diodes, because of their lower internal resistance and
ventional small -signal diodes, this scheme is practical onl steeper curve at the operating point, provide considerably bet-
when the current drawn from the circuit by an external load ter voltage regulation than the conventional diode circuit
is a small percentage of that flowing through the diode. shown in Fig. 4-2. Fig. 4-3 shows two regulator circuits using
Fig. 4-2 shows the regulator circuit. The DC input voltage these more expensive diodes.
is obtained from a power supply or battery. Resistance R is
chosen to set the forward current through diode X to the 12ma R
12ma R

center of the steepest portion of the diode forward -conduction 1.5K

WW
1.5K
WW
R
10 VDC 24 VAC INPUT
400 1W 24VDC INPUT
1N714 X OUTPUT

DC INPUT X DC OUTPUT
Fig. 4-2. Conventional -diode
1N270 voltage regulator.
(A) DC circuit. (B) AC circuit.
Fig. 4-3. Zener diode voltage regulators.
curve. DC output voltage is taken across the diode. As the in-
put voltage changes, the diode current changes proportionately. In the DC regulator (Fig. 4-3A), a 1N714 diode is reverse -
But because of the steepness of the curve, the voltage across biased to its zener point by 12 ma of current flowing from the
the diode changes only slightly for a large increase or de- 24 -volt DC supply through limiting rheostat R. (The latter is
crease in current. Thus, the output voltage changes only initially set for this value of current.) The input voltage can
slightly, although the input voltage fluctuates considerably. change several hundred percent without changing the 10 -volt
As the output load current approaches the diode current in output by more than a few percent in the same direction. The
magnitude, the regulation becomes poorer, since increasingly reason for this is the steep slope of the reverse conduction
more current flows through the load and is not subject to con- curve within the zener region of the diode (a small change in
trol by the diode. applied voltage produces a large change in reverse current,
Because of the voltage -divider action of R and X in series, and vice versa).
the output voltage is less than the input voltage. Therefore the Zener-type regulators are ideally suited for regulation of
input voltage must be properly selected, if a given output low voltages. Other devices, such as gaseous tubes, are avail-
voltage is to be realized. This regulator is basically a low volt- able for higher voltages; however, several zener diodes may be
age scheme, since the most usable portion of the forward cur- connected in series to regulate a multiple of the single -diode
rent of a conventional germanium diode lies between 0.05 and voltage. Higher -voltage and higher -current diodes than the one
0.2 volt. shown in Fig. 4-3A are also available.

54 55
 current is amplified by X3
The AC regulator (Fig. 4-3B) employs a ZZ-10 double -anode) ever, the diode conducts, and this the
zener diode. (Two separate zener diodes may also be connected, and X2, in that order, and applied to X1. This increases
back-to-back, for this purpose.) This arrangement holds each resistance of X1 and pulls the output back to 24 volts.
peak of the AC output voltage to 10 volts, resulting in a This supply delivers 24 volts DC at 1 ampere. The output
squared output wave. voltage is regulated within 1%.
In this circuit, as in the DC regulator previously described,
current -limiting rheostat R is set for a diode current of 12 ma. ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE STANDARD
Double -anode zener diodes are available with higher voltage
and current ratings than the unit shown in Fig. 4-3B. The constant voltage drop across a zener diode may be used
as an accurate standard voltage for instrument calibration
and the accurate biasing of electronic circuits. Because the
ZENER DIODE AS REFERENCE ELEMENT zener diode is a silicon unit, its temperature characteristics
Because the zener diode will deliver a constant DC voltage in are good and the voltage may be relied on within -±-5% when
a suitable circuit, it may be used as the DC reference source in only the diode current is controlled, and to a much closer
a transistor -type regulated power supply. In tube -type supplies tolerance when the voltage is initially checked with an accurate
this function usually is performed by a gaseous regulator tube, voltmeter.
but a series string of zener diodes may be used.
5ma RI
10K WW
Heat Sink

0 10
DC MA
R2 2.5K 1W
B = 22 1/2V

1N705 CONSTANT 5V OUTPUT

30V Fl TERED 24V 1 AMP
DC INPUT 1N3029B REGULATED
DC OUTPUT
Fig. 4-5. Zener diode as voltage standard.

Fig. 4-4. Zener diode as reference element.

Fig. 4-5 shows a DC voltage -standard circuit employing a
1N705 zener diode. The output is 5 volts when the current, as
In Fig. 4-4, X is a 1N3029B zener diode used as the DC read with milliammeter M, is set to 5 ma by adjustment of
reference for transistor X3. Transistors X2 and X3 constitute rheostat R. While a battery is shown for maximum portability,
a DC amplifier which receives its input signal from diode X the input voltage may be obtained also from a rectifier -type
and delivers its output signal to transistor X1. X1 is con- power supply.
nected between the +DC input terminal and +DC output A standard AC voltage may be obtained with a circuit such
terminal, acting as a series resistor. Its resistance is controlled as the one shown in Fig. 4-3B, provided an AC milliammeter
by current fed from the +DC output terminal back to its base. is inserted for setting the current to the zener level of 12 ma.
Thus, when the output voltage rises, the resistance of X1 is in- This type of standard is often used as an oscilloscope voltage
creased, and this reduces the output to its initial level. This calibrator.
action is accomplished in the following manner; normally X These circuits are designed for low voltage output, but
acts as an extremely high resistance, permitting almost no higher standard voltages may be obtained with zener diodes
current to flow into the base of X3. When the voltage at the having higher voltage rating, or by operating a suitable num-
+DC output terminal exceeds the zener point (24 volts), how - ber of zener diodes in series.

56 57
 current devices. It is so called because the power is taken from
DC BIAS SUPPLY the air at no cost to the user.
Fig. 4-6 shows the circuit of a compact and inexpensive DC This supply is essentially a broadcast -band crystal receiver
unit for supplying fixed bias to tubes in a radio or TV receiver tunable from 540 to 1,600 kc. The DC output current of the
or audio amplifier. Filtered output voltages are -1, -2, -3, -5, 1N279 high -conductance germanium diode (X) develops the
and -8.5 volts. DC output voltage across 1,000 -ohm resistor R. Capacitor C2
The AC input power is taken from the 6.3 -volt filamen effectively bypasses the audio modulation in the received sig-
(heater) winding of the power transformer in the receiver or nal, rendering the output voltage a smooth DC.
amplifier. Since this bias supply draws only 170 microamperes,
OUTS! DE ANTENNA
it will not upset the filament circuit. The AC is rectified by a
1N34A general-purpose germanium diode (X). (At the power -
line frequency, a small selenium diode also might be used.) The
DC is filtered by C1, C2, and Rl. A 50,000 -ohm voltage divider DC OUTPUT

(R2 to R6) supplies the five bias voltages. If a 50,000 -ohm - For negative output,
reverse C2 and X
wirewound resistor with sliding clips is used, the clips may be
set to the various voltages shown (or to any other desired FERRITE - STR P
ANTENNA ROD
values) with the aid of a DC VTVM. If fixed resistors are used, (Miller 2004)

the odd values are made up as follows; R2 = 15K + 5.6K, Fig. 4-7. Free -power supply.
R3 = 11K + 750 ohms, R4 = 5.6K + 300 ohms, R5 = 5.1K +
750 ohms, and R6 = 5.6K + 300 ohms. All resistors are one- The output voltage magnitude depends upon the strength
half watt. of the received signal. For highest output, therefore, the
strongest and/or nearest local broadcast station should be
8.5V tuned in. A good outside antenna and ground are essential.
R2 20,600

5V
DC PROTECTOR FOR TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
R3 11,750

3V
Some transistors are sensitive to power -supply polarity and
POWER
R4
may be damaged if the supply polarity is reversed. Fig. 4-8
TRANSFORMER shows how a diode may be connected as a one-way valve in
-2V
series with the DC supply line within the transistorized equip-
RI
R5
ment to prevent such damage.
1V
1N34A 1K
R6 0 -210ma
Cl

TUBE FILAMENTS
lOmfd
25V
X i1N3728
Fig. 4-6. DC bias supply. fs50--

TRANSISTORIZED EQUIPMENT

FREE -POWER SUPPLY

Fig. 4-7 shows the circuit of a free -power supply which de-
livers DC voltage for operating transistors and other low- Fig. 4-8. DC protector for transistorized circuits.

59
58
 Here, X is a 1N3728 subminiature silicon diode. Its polarit through the diode. The zener voltage of the diode must be the
in the circuit is such that it passes forward current into th same as the desired base -bias voltage. Thus, in the IF amplifier,
equipment. If the power supply inadvertently is reversed, th Fig. 4-9, X is a PS1171 diode which has a zener voltage of 1.5
diode is then polarized for reverse current, which for the sili volts, R is 375 ohms 2 watts, and E is 9 volts. Because of its
con diode is so tiny that the power supply may be considere low dynamic impedance (9 ohms), the diode does not need a
to have been switched off.
bypass capacitor.
This switching action is instantaneous and very effective The cost of the increased stability provided by this bias
The diode will pass as much as 210 ma to the equipment at scheme is the relatively high current which must be supplied
maximum voltage loss of only 1.1 volts across the diode (th to the diode (5 to 20 ma, depending on diode type). But where
power -supply voltage may be increased by this amount). Thi high stability is imperative, this is a simple, inexpensive
will be sufficient for some power transistors, as well as al method.
small -signal types. When the polarity is reversed, the diode re
sistance becomes more than 5,000 megohms. This is equivalen
RELAY RECTIFIER
to an open switch, since with a 20 -volt supply the current flow-
ing into the equipment is less than 0.004 microampere. To eliminate the nuisance of batteries in some installations,
For operating currents higher than 210 ma, heavier -duty it sometimes is desired to operate a sensitive DC relay from the
silicon diodes may be used with comparable results. AC power line. Fig. 4-10 shows a miniature power supply for
this purpose.
The 6.3 -volt output of a small filament transformer (T) is
DIODE IN TRANSISTOR BIAS NETWORK
rectified by a 1N281 high -conductance germanium diode (X)
For maximum stability, a stiff voltage divider, operated and filtered by C1, C2, R1 and R2. Switch S2 represents the
from the main power supply, is used to furnish DC base bias to contacting device normally used to operate the relay.
a common -emitter -connected transistor. If a zener diode biased
to its zener region is used as the bottom section of the divider,
the regulating property of this type of diode will provide a Actuating
Contacts
stable bias voltage. RY

In Fig. 4-9, resistor R1 and zener diode X form the bias

voltage divider. Resistance R1 must be chosen with respect to
TO CONTROLLED
the power supply voltage (E) so that zener current will flow Si CIRCUIT

T2
TI

SIGNAL
INPUT 117VAC

Fig. 4-10. Relay rectifier.

Rheostat R2 is set to the point at which the relay picks up

firmly when S2 is closed. For maximum response speed, no
capacitor is permanently connected across the relay coil. The
relay may be any one of the available sensitive DC types in the
Fig. 4-9. Diode in transistor bias network. range 100 microamperes to 2 milliamperes and having coil
60 61
resistance between 100 and 5,000 ohms (Table 5-2, Chapter 5).
For lower relay currents, select a higher maximum resistance
for R2.

62
 Control Circuits

The ability of the diode to rectify, switch, demodulate, or

provide nonlinear resistance makes this device suitable for use
in many control circuits where more complicated devices would
otherwise be needed for comparable operation. Such applica-
tion include the operation of a DC relay from AC or RF,
separation and routing of DC control signals, and switching
DC control signals.
This chapter describes several practical control applications
of diodes which are indicative of the scope, but they by no
means exhaust the applications possibilities. Diodes may be
found in industrial and amateur electronic circuits where it is
necessary to change AC to DC, hold back a DC signal, limit
signal amplitude, or alter the shape of a response curve.

AF-RF RELAY
Fig. 5-1 shows a simple circuit for adapting a sensitive DC
relay to operation at AF or RF up to 200 megacycles. Two
1N56A high -conductance germanium diodes (X1 and X2) are
employed in a half -wave rectifier circuit. Table 5-1 gives the
input AF or RF voltage (rms) required to close various com-
mercial relays in this circuit.
Capacitor C1 (1,000 mmf ) is not needed unless the signal
source has a DC voltage in its output; when such a voltage is
present, the diodes must be protected from it by means of the
blocking capacitor. At audio frequencies of 1,000 cps and lower,
it may be necessary to connect a capacitor (0.1 mfd or higher)
In Parallel with the relay coil to prevent chatter.

65
 Table 5-1. AF-RF Relay Operating Data ANTENNA

Relay Closing Coil AF or RF

1N56 A
Current Resistance Voltage
(ohms) (rms volts)
Barber -Colman
7310-100 110 µa 3,550 1.1
Barber -Colman nTO CONTROLLED
7303-100 0.54 ma 140 0.54 CIRCUIT

Sigma 5F-5000-
S/SIL 1 ma 5,000 5.8
Lafayette F-260 1.2 ma 5,000 7.0 Fig. 5-2. Tuned RF relay.
Lafayette F-482 2 ma 100 1.0
With this combination, 27,255-mc response is obtained at
Sigma 4F-8000-
S/SIL 2 ma 5,000 11.0 about half -maximum setting of the tuning capacitor.
The pickup antenna may be any available whip, rod, or flat-
top which will operate at the signal frequency. A good ground
is essential for maximum sensitivity.
1N56A Best sensitivity will be obtained with a low -current, low -
voltage relay, such as the 110 -microampere, 3,550 -ohm unit
listed in Table 5-1. Where field strength is high, one of the
A -F OR R -F

I N56 A
less sensitive relays may be used.

c TO CONTROLLED

T
I .. IT
POLARITY -SENSITIVE DC RELAY
The circuit given in Fig. 5-3 provides a DC relay which will
operate only when the applied control voltage has the proper
Fig. 5-1. AF-RF relay.
polarity. In this arrangement a 1N456 silicon -junction diode
TUNED RF RELAY has been forward -connected in series with sensitive DC relay
RY. The diode acts as a polarity -sensitive switch. When a
A simple tuned circuit will enable the diode rectifier-typ positive voltage of the proper value is applied to the top input
relay to be operated from a transmitted radio signal. Fig. 5 - terminal, forward current flows readily through the diode and
shows the circuit. picks up the relay. But when the polarity of the control volt-
Tuned circuit L and C values must be chosen for resonanc age is reversed, the diode becomes reverse -biased and can pass
at the desired signal carrier .frequency. If C is a 365 -mm
variable capacitor, plug-in coils may be used to cover the 1N456

spectrum between the low end of the standard broadcast ban

and 50 mc. Suitable components for the 27.255-mc citizens
control frequency are: D -C INPUT RY

C = 100 mmf midget variable, TO CONTROLLED

CIRCUIT
L = 9 turns of No. 18 enamelled wire
closewound on a 1/2 -inch -diameter form. 1,--f..
Fig. 5-3. Polarity -sensitive DC relay.

66 67
 Cl
only a few thousandths of a microampere-to all practical in- 0.01 mica 1N633
tents and purposes representing an open switch-and the relay RY (Weston Model
813-9908001,
remains dropped out. This circuit has been used as an alarm in 50-0-50- DC ',A)

systems in which monitored voltage is subject to polarity

shifts. 0.01mica 1-70 CONTROLLED
CIRCUIT
A portion of the control voltage is lost across the diode, be- ON -OFF
L
132 -KC, IRON -CORE
cause of the voltage drop due to the forward resistance of the FULL -WAVE IF
TRANSFORMER 11. W. X2
diode. Table 5-2 shows the actual DC voltage required to MILLER NO. 612-M3)
operate sensitive relays of several types in this circuit. The
same principle may be utilized with a higher -current (low - 115v A -C LINE
sensitivity) relay by using a small rectifier in place of the Fig. 5-4. Wired -radio relay.
diode.
responds to a 132-kc CW signal and operates a 50 -microampere,
Table 5-2. Polarity -Sensitive Relay Operating Data 1,000 -ohm DC relay (RY).
Relay Closing Coil DC The tuner (T) is a 132-kc, iron -core, IF transformer that is
Current Resistance Voltage pretuned to resonance with the control signal. The primary
(ohms) winding of this transformer is connected to the AC power
Barber -Colman line through a 0.02-mfd 500 -volt mica blocking capacitor (two
7310-100 110 p.a 3,550 0.97
0.01-mfd units, Cl and C2, connected in parallel). This capaci-
Barber -Colman
0.35
tor prevents short circuit of the line by the transformer but
7303-100 0.54 ma 140
affords relatively easy passage of the control signal, since the
Sigma 5F-5000- reactance of C1 and C2 at 60 cps is 0.133 megohm but only
S/SIL 1 ma 5,000 5.2
60 ohms at 132 kc.
Lafayette F-260 1.2 ma 5,000 6.2 To pretune the receiver to the 132-kc signal on the power
Lafayette F-482 2 ma 100 0.64 line, close switch S and adjust the trimmers of transformer T
Sigma 4F-8000-
to the point at which the relay closes. Interrupt the signal at
S/SIL 2 ma 5,000 10.3 the transmitter and note that the relay opens. The receiver
will require no subsequent tuning unless the control -signal
WIRED -RADIO RECEIVER frequency is changed.
Wired -radio (carrier -current) systems provide an excellent
RELAY CONTACT PROTECTOR
means for remote control of electrical equipment of all kinds
The RF control signal is transmitted °over the power line to th A great many control circuits use two relays-a sensitive
receiver so that under proper operating conditions there is no one which responds to the signal and then closes a more rugged
radiation into space with attendant interference, and no
special wires need be run. +III
RY2
If only a short or medium distance is to be covered, a sensi INPUT
E

tive wired -radio control receiver may be built without tubes,

transistors, or other amplifying components. Fig. 5-4 shows IItY1 X
OUTPUT

a receiver circuit employing two 1N633 high -conductance

germanium diodes in a full -wave rectifier -detector. The circuit Fig. 5-5. Relay contact protector.

68 69
one which, in turn, actuates the controlled equipment. The coil In series with each 1 -ma, 5,000 -ohm relay (RY1, RY2 =
of the second relay constitutes an inductive load on the con- sigma 5F-5000-S/SIL) is connected a 1N456 silicon junction
tacts of the first one, and the back voltage that it generates on diode (X1, X2). When the polarity of the control signal is
turn-off can destroy the contacts of the sensitive relay. such that line A is positive, X1 passes forward current which
To prevent this damage, a diode (X) may be connected across picks up relay RY1. At this time, however, X2 is reverse -biased
the coil of the second relay, as shown in Fig. 5-5, to absorb the and effectively opens the circuit through relay RY2. When the
dangerous transient. This diode is reverse -connected with re control -signal polarity is reversed, line A becomes negative,
spect to the local power supply (E) and therefore does not X1 is reverse -biased and relay RY1 drops out, and X2 passes
pass appreciable current, nor does it short-circuit relay RY2. forward current which picks up relay RY2.
When the contacts of RY1 open, however, the collapsing mag- Thus, a simple DPDT reversing switch (Fig. 5-6B) at the
netic field induces a transient voltage across the coil of RY2, control point will permit individual control of the relays.
and the polarity of this high voltage is such that the anode
of the diode now is positively biased. Consequently, the diode
exhibits low forward resistance which absorbs the transient
and protects the contacts of RY1.
Small selenium diodes are available for this application
under the name contact protector diode; they are offered in a
wide variety of ratings, including relay coil currents up to
2 amp and coil voltages up to 154 volts. For AC operation,
two diodes may be connected back-to-back (single units of this
double -anode construction also are available).
Ao
6VDC LINE
Bo

IN156 W 1N456
X1 X2-

1RY2
11IRY
ro-o. ro-f. CONTROLLED

° 4
TO CONTROLLED
CIRCUIT NO.1
17TO
. CIRCUIT NO. 2

(A) Circuit.
A
TI
6V
dprIt X -TINE (B) Signal source.

Fig. 5-6. Multiple control over two -wire line.

MULTIPLE CONTROL OVER TWO -WIRE LINE

Fig. 5-6A shows a scheme for operating at will either one o
two remotely located relays over a single two -wire line. A
6 -volt DC control signal is used.

70 71
I.
 Instrument Circuits

Long before World War I, the early crystal detector was

first used with a sensitive DC galvanometer to measure the
strength of radio signals ; later, the crystal and meter com-
bination was widely used as a resonance indicator in absorp-
tion wavemeters. Thus did the semiconductor enter electronic
instrumentation. During the 1920's, after invention of the
copper oxide rectifier, the same scheme was used for the first
time to measure low -frequency voltage-with a miniature rec-
tifier driving a DC milliammeter.
The stable, wide -range diodes available after World War II
greatly extended the development of test instruments needing
no local power. In recent years, further extensions have been
afforded by the tunnel diode, varactor, and biased diode which
require a small amount of local power.
Whereas the diode long was important in instrumentation
only as a meter rectifiers, and still is so used to advantage,
its properties as a value, switch, modulator, demodulator,
limiter, capacitor, and nonlinear resistor suit it to many other
applications in electronic instruments. The instrument appli-
cations reported only since 1950 comprise a substantial litera-
ture. All types of diodes have been used and are being con-
stantly investigated.

SENSITIVE DIODE METERS

The copper oxide rectifier has a long record of service as
a meter rectifier, but responds relatively poorly to high fre-
quencies. The response of a good, miniature, copper oxide
meter rectifier at 10 kc, for example, has been observed to
75
drop 10%; and at 100 kc, 30% with respect to its response These circuits are described separately in this chapter in
at 100 cps. This limits a meter employing this type of diode the section on voltmeters, or in the section on current meters.
to the AF spectrum. The miniature selenium diode likewise The semiconductor used in each circuit is the 1N34A general
is restricted to AF meters. Germanium and silicon point - purpose germanium diode; however, point -contact silicon di-
contact diodes, on the other hand, operate over a wide fre- odes also are usable. Each circuit should be calibrated individ-
quency range extending to 200 mc for germanium and to ually since diodes vary in response; the performance curves
several thousand mc for silicon, and so adapt a DC meter for given in the illustrations are derived from measurements made
response at radio, as well as audio, frequencies. with a typical 1N34A.
A rectifier -type meter may be equipped with multiplier re- In each circuit, a calibration control rheostat may be con-
sistors for measurements of voltage in several ranges, or with nected in series with the DC meter (M) for standardization
shunt resistors for measurement of current. However, the basic at full-scale deflection.
instrument itself, consisting of meter and diode (s), is useful The 0.01-mfd capacitor (C in Figs. 6-2 and 6-3) is a good
as a sensitive voltmeter, milliammeter, or microammeter. Be- compromise value for AF and RF operation.
cause of its simplicity and power -free operation, a diode meter
of this type often is included in other test equipment, such as SENSITIVE DIODE VOLTMETERS
signal generators, bridges, and RF meters, for monitoring
a signal. Series -diode type-This is the simplest possible voltmeter,
consisting of a diode and DC meter in series (Fig. 6-1A) . Here,
x
1

0.8 WHIM the diode functions as a simple half -wave rectifier, passing
*0.6 to the meter only positive half -cycles of the input voltage (if
1N34A 20.4 MINIM the diode and meter are reversed, the circuit will respond in-
AC INPUT 0.2

°0
MUM 02 04 06
stead to negative half -cycles) .
0 1 03 05 Response with a 0-1 DC milliammeter is given in Fig. 6-1B,
RMS VOLTS
with a 0-100 DC microammeter in Fig. 6-1C, and with a 0-50
(A) Circuit. (B) 0-1 DC milliammeter. DC microammeter in Fig. 6-1D.
100 50
This circuit suffers from the necessity that the DC return
80 40 path for the diode and meter must be completed by the circuit
>60
2 40
=30
1111111111111MIE
supplying the voltage. The meter reading therefore is affected
20
20
10
inversely by the external resistance (measurements for the
°0 04 08 12 0 1 02 0 04
curves in Fig. 6-1 were made with an AC generator having
02 06 RMS VOLTS an output resistance of 50 ohms). When this resistance is con-
RMS VOLTS
stant, however, as it often is in instruments in which the volt-
(C) 0-100 DC microammeter (D) 0-50 DC microammeter.
meter is installed, this imposes no difficulty. A second hazard,
Fig. 6-1. Series -diode meter. which is not so easily ignored, is the fact that DC from the
Figs. 6-1 to 6-9 show diode meter circuits and their per- circuit under test may damage the diode and meter.
formance. In each instance where practicable, data are given At frequencies under 60 cps, it may be necessary to connect
for the three current meters most apt to be used by equip- a large capacitance in parallel with meter M to prevent vibra-
ment builders and experimenters: 0-1 DC milliammeter (in- tion of the pointer.
ternal resistance 55 ohms), 0-100 DC microammeter (internal Two -diode half -wave type-The addition of a second diode,
resistance 825 ohms), and 0-50 DC microammeter (internal re- X1 (Fig. 6-2A), allows the use of a DC -blocking capacitor (C),
sistance 2,000 ohms). thus overcoming one of the shortcomings of the circuit shown
76 77
in Fig. 6-1A. This second circuit also is a half -wave arrange- 1

ment, diode X2 rectifying the positive half -cycle of input 0.8

voltage. Diode X1 is reverse -connected for the positive half - *0.6

20.4
cycle and so appears as a high resistance. When the input 0.2
polarity reverses, X2 then is reverse -biased while X1 is °0 8
0 20 40 60
forward -biased by the negative half -cycle. X1 accordingly con- RMS VOLTS
ducts readily, protecting X2 from the high peak inverse volt- (A) Circuit. (B) 0-1 DC milliammeter.
age (due to presence of capacitor C) which it otherwise would
be forced to withstand. 100 50
80 40
.60 .30
Cd 40 2 20
20 10
(A) Circuit. 0
.0 04 08 °0 02 04
02 06 0 1 03 05
RMS VOLTS RMS VOLTS

(C) 0-100 DC microammeter. (D) 0-50 DC microammeter.

50
100
40
Fig. 6-4. Full -bridge meter.
80
1 60 1.30
4 It 20 required when this meter is used removes this circuit from the
20
10 sensitive meter category.
2
°O
02
04 08
06
Shunt -diode type-This circuit is popular because it con-
RMS VOLTS RMS VOLTS tains a blocking capacitor, and yet requires only one diode
(B) 0-100 DC microammeter. (C) 0-50 DC microammeter. (Fig. 6-3A) . It is so termed because, unlike the circuit of Fig.
Fig. 6-2. Two diode half -wave meter. 6-1A, the diode shunts the meter and input.
Figs. 6-3B and 6-3C show the response of the circuit using
The response curves given in Figs. 6-2B and 6-2C show this a 0-100 DC microammeter and 0-50 DC microammeter, re-
circuit to be more sensitive than the simple half -wave rectifier spectively. The 0-1 DC milliammeter is not specified here for
described in the preceding discussion. The 0-1 DC milliammeter reasons given earlier. From the response curves, it is seen
is not specified here because of the higher AC input voltage that the shunt -diode meter is less sensitive than the series -
diode and two -diode types previously described.
Full -bridge type-This circuit provides full -wave rectifica-
(A) Circuit.
tion and may be used with a DC -blocking capacitor if neces-
sary (Fig. 6-4A). Because it uses the energy in both half -cycles

z
of the AC input voltage, its DC output (and accordingly the
100 50 sensitivity of the circuit) is greater than with any of the
80 40 Previously described circuits. For highest efficiency, the four
1 60
2 40 =MIME
IMMIMMINE
.30
20
10
diodes should be matched.
Figs. 6-4B, C, and D show the response with each of the
20

00 2 3 4 00 0 5' 1 1 5 2
three DC meters : 0-1 milliammeter, 0-100 microammeter, and
RMS VOLTS RMS VOLTS 0-50 microammeter.
(B) 0-100 DC microammeter. (C) 0-50 DC microammeter. An added merit of this circuit is the fact that the ripple
Fig. 6-3. Shunt diode meter. component in the DC meter current is twice the AC input
78 79
 1 SEE FIGURE 6-3 FOR CIRCUIT
0.8
10.6 100 f, 50
0.4 ce
0_
80 LI 40
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 5 2 25
60
40 7, Fc 20
30

RMS VOLTS 20 10
L'
(A) Circuit. (B) 0-1 DC milliammeter. c' 0
100 200 300
00 100 200 300 400 0
RMS MICROAMPERES
RMS MICROAMPERES
100 50
80
(A) 0-100 DC microammeter. (B) 0-50 DC microammeter.
40
160 30 Fig. 6-7. Current -meter performance (Shunt -diode circuit).
L-; 40 E 20
20 10
current measurements, however, the two circuits with blocking
00 0 5

RMS VOLTS
1.5 o0 02 04
RMS VOLTS
06 capacitors (Figs. 6-2A and 6-3A) may be used only in setups
(C) 0-100 DC microammeter. (D) 0-50 DC microammeter. where insertion of the capacitor is permissible.
Fig. 6-5. Half -bridge meter. Figs. 6-6, 6-7, 6-8, and 6-9 show performance of these cir-
cuits with the same DC meters previously specified.
frequency. This often eliminates the need to bypass meter M
at low audio frequencies. SQUARE -LAW AC METER
Half -bridge type-Where economy is imperative although
full -wave rectification is demanded, two of the diodes of the The full -bridge circuit (Fig. 6-4A) with a 0-50 DC micro -
bridge rectifier may be replaced with resistors. This gives the ammeter may be used as a square -law AF-RF voltmeter. The
half -bridge circuit shown in Fig. 6-5A. response curve (Fig. 6-4D) shows the circuit action to be ap-
As the curves in Figs. 6-5B, C, and D show, the half -bridge proximately square -law (doubling the input voltage quadruples
is less sensitive than the full bridge with either of the DC the output current) over much of its slope.
meters. Close square -law response may be obtained by picking
The half -bridge circuit, like the full bridge, may be used matched diodes for the bridge. Often a carefully picked single
with a DC -blocking capacitor when necessary. ,1
c,0.8

SENSITIVE DIODE CURRENT METERS

(A) 0-1 DC milliammeter.
The meters shown in Figs. 6-2A, 6-3A, 6-4A, and 6-5A may '-' 0
12
0 20 40.608
be used as AF-RF current meters, as well as voltmeters. For RMS MILLIAMPERES

SEE FIGURE 6-2 FOR CIRCUIT

SEE FIGURE 6-4 FOR CIRCUIT
50
T,100

/z
Lf 100 X50
80 40
80 8_, 40
60 30
60 30
40
20
2 20
10
7, c'0 40

L.,
20

00 50 100 150
E,
20
10

0 20 40 60 80
00 100 200 300 X 00 40 80 120 RMS MICROAMPERES
RMS MICROAMPERES
RMS MICROAMPERES RMS M CROAMPERES

(A) 0-100 DC microammeter. (B) 0-50 DC microammeter. (B) 0-100 DC microammeter. (C) 0-50 DC microammeter.
Fig. 6-6. Current -meter performance (Two -diode half -wave circuit). Fig. 6-8. Current -meter performance (Full -bridge circuit).

80 81
 SEE FIGURE6-5 FOR CIRCUIT
QUASI -LOGARITHMIC DC VOLTMETER
NIMIIMMENEM
ZO.8
10.6
MENEM= The scale of a logarithmic voltmeter is spread out in its
=0.4 EINEMIZMIUM
NM/HIM=
11211IIIMMIN
(A) 0-1 DC milliammeter. lower section and compressed in its upper section. The result
is that two or more decades of voltage may be read on the
20 0 04 08 2 16 2
single scale with the same accuracy and convenience which
1

02 06 1.4 18
RMS MILLIAMPERES
would require two voltage ranges on a regular linear volt-
,100
c. 80 EMMEN=
NINMEICHNNIE
'r
40 INIMENNIENIE
MIENE=ENSI
meter. This saves the labor of range switching.
60
- 40 NIEEMNIENEN
20 INERHINIMEE
130
2 20 =WHIM=
=RHENIUM
Logarithmic voltmeters, both AC and DC, usually employ
complex multistage tube or transistor circuits. But quasi -
10
NriONEEEEEE
02 0.4 06 08 00
NIMINEENNEE logarithmic action may be obtained with a biased diode. The
00 100 200 300 400 500
RMS MILLIAMPERES RMS MICROAMPERES circuit (Fig. 6-11A) is essentially a diode limiter biased at
(B) 0-100 DC microammeter. (C) 0-50 DC microammeter. +1 volt DC and a high -resistance DC voltmeter for reading the
Fig. 6-9. Current -meter performance (Half -bridge circuit). limiter output. The voltmeter section is composed of a 0-50
diode will give square -law response in the series -diode circuit DC microammeter (M) and 50K multiplier resistor (R3) . The
(Fig. 6-1A) with the 0-100 DC microammeter. Adjust for exact full-scale deflection of meter M
with accurate 10v signal applied to DC VOLTAGE
INPUT terminals, and R2 set for 1 volt bias

SQUARE -LAW DC METER 3.4 ma

at 10v RI R3/
Fig. 6-10A shows the circuit of a square -law DC meter. This 50K 20 30
circuit utilizes the nonlinear forward conduction of a single DC VOLTAGE
0-50
INPUT ,1N300 DC eA
1N34A general-purpose germanium diode. M
czi. DC MICROAMPERES

The response curve (Fig. 6-10B) shows operation to be 1 l/2V

exactly square -law at DC input voltages between 0.1 and 0.2
volt. Resistance of the DC source should not exceed 100 ohms. (A) Circuit. (B) Meter scale.
Careful picking of a diode from an ample supply will insure Fig. 6-11. Quasi -logarithmic DC voltmeter.
close square -law response.
This circuit may be employed also as a square -law detector bias is set to exactly 1 volt by adjustment of rheostat R2. Be-
or squaring circuit for computers by substituting a 2,000 -ohm cause of the extremely high reverse resistance of the 1N300
resistor for the microammeter. Output -voltage changes meas- silicon junction diode (several thousand megohms) , the bias
ured across this resistor then will be proportional to the square cannot deflect the microammeter.
of input -voltage changes. Up to 1 volt DC input, the diode cannot pass current, because
of its positive bias. Response of the circuit (Fig. 6-11B) there-
50 fore is closely linear up to 1 volt. Beyond 1 volt, however, the
40
diode passes forward current and compresses the upper half
130
0-50 'a' 20
of the meter scale. This action affords a scale on which may be
DC pA 10 clearly read 0.1-1-10 volts. A second, 10-100-1,000 volt range,
00 0 2 04 may be obtained by means of a suitable voltage divider con-
01 03 05
DC V nected ahead of the circuit. High input resistance may be ob-
(A) Circuit. (B) Response. tained with a transistor- or tube -type DC amplifier ahead of
Fig. 6-10. Square -law DC meter. the circuit.
83
 TRANSFORMER -COUPLED LINEAR AF MILLIAMMETER
30, and 100 ma positions, applying input current of
10, 30, and 100 ma, respectively, and adjusting rheostats
Fig. 6-12 shows the circuit of a transformer -coupled AF R2, R3, and R4, respectively.
milliammeter. A special feature of this instrument is its low
insertion loss; the impedance of the primary winding of trans- Frequency response of the instrument depends upon the
former T is so low that insertion of the instrument into a test characteristics of transformer T; the better the grade of the
circuit introduces very little voltage drop. Current ranges are transformer, the wider the frequency response.
0-3, 0-10, 0-30, and 0-100 ma rms. The indicating instrument
is a 0-50 DC microammeter (M), and response of the circuit ZENER DIODE METER PROTECTOR
is linear.
The sharp "breakdown" of a zener diode from its previous
RI
high -resistance state may be utilized to protect a DC meter
from burnout. Fig. 6-13 shows the circuit of a 50 -volt, 20,000
ohms -per -volt voltmeter protected by a 1N714 10 -volt zener
diode (X).
RI R2

Fig. 6-13. Zener diode DC INPUT

meter protector. 10-50V) 0-50
DC pA

0-50
DC NA

Fig. 6-12. Transformer -coupled linear AF milliammeter. Here, the indicating meter (M) is a 0-50 DC microammeter,
the scale of which reads 0-50 volts without mental addition of
Rectification is provided by a full bridge (X1 to X4). The ciphers. R2 is the principal voltmeter multiplier resistor. Po-
diodes in this bridge may be four general-purpose germanium tentiometer R1 is set so that, with 51 volts applied to the DC
diodes, such as Type 1N34A, or a miniature bridge -type copper INPUT terminals, the diode begins to conduct in its zener
oxide meter rectifier (such as Conant B-160) may be used in region. After this adjustment, the diode acts as an extremely
place of the four separate diodes. The circuit was tested with high resistance as long as the input voltage is between zero
both. Transformer T is a midget universal audio output unit and 50 volts; no voltage drop due to diode current is produced
with connections to the 16 -ohm primary and 7,000 -ohm sec- across R1, and the meter accuracy is not affected. As soon as
ondary taps. the input exceeds 50 volts, however, the diode conducts and
Calibration rheostats R1 to R4 are miniature 1-megohm the resulting voltage drop across R1 prevents overswing of
units. Only the full-scale deflection in each current range the meter.
need be calibrated, since the response is linear. This is a fast -acting system which will protect any sensitive
meter in a similar circuit.
1. Set RANGE switch S to its 3 ma position.
2. Feed an accurate 3 ma rms current into the AC INPUT ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE STANDARDS
terminals.
3. Adjust R1 for exact full-scale deflection of meter M. The regulating characteristic of a zener diode biased to its
4. Repeat this procedure, setting S successively to its 10, breakdown region may be used as a source of accurate voltage.

84 85
A single diode operated from a battery or well -filtered DC R

Prod
power supply will deliver a standard DC voltage, and a double -
anode diode (or two single -anode units connected back-to-back)
SHIELDED CABLE
operated from the low -voltage secondary of a transformer will ITO DC V1VM)

provide a standard, squared AC voltage. These applications

are described in Chapter 4.
Ground Clip
Additionally, a DC voltage standard having exceptional sta- Fig. 6-15. RF probe.
bility is shown in Fig. 6-14. This circuit combines the long-
term voltage stability of the mercury battery and the reg- resistor. If R is made 4.14 megohms (one 3.9-megohm and one
ulating property of the 65105 zener diode. It is much less ex- 0.24-megohm resistor in series) , the voltage division with the
pensive than a standard cell, in lieu of which it may be used 10 megohms contained in the VTVM will cause the meter to
in the low -budget laboratory. read rms volts instead of peak volts, if this is desired. With
the 1N55AS, the probe will handle up to 50 volts rms.
RI R2
10K WW
With the diode polarized as shown, the circuit responds to
1600
1W
the positive peak of the RF signal. For negative -peak meas-
14V 5mai Fig. 6-14. Zener diode urements, reverse the diode and the DC input to the VTVM.
MERCURY
(Mallory RM411)
X
5V DC OUTPUT voltage standard.
65105

PEAK -TO -PEAK PROBE

Fig. 6-16 is the circuit of a voltage doubler -type probe which
In this circuit, rheostat R2 is set for a diode current slightly will adapt a DC VTVM for measurement of peak -to -peak AC
in excess of 5 ma. (This current level may be checked by read- voltages. This iS essentially two 1N55AS shunt -diode rectifier
ing the voltage drop across R1 with a DC VTVM. The deflec- circuits (of the type previously shown in Fig. 6-15) connected
tion should be 8 volts.) R1 is a current -limiting resistor which in parallel. X1 rectifies the positive peak of the AC input, and
protects diode X from current overload when R2 is set to its X2 the negative peak.
extreme low -resistance point. A standard voltage output of The DC voltage across each load resistor is equal to the
5 volts is provided by this circuit. peak value of the corresponding half -cycle of AC input volt-
age ; the positive peak voltage across R2 and the negative peak
RF PROBE voltage across R3. Since R2 and R3 are in series and their
voltages are of opposite polarity, the voltage at their outside
Fig. 6-15 shows the circuit of an RF probe for DC VT volt- ends is the sum of these two separate voltages, and thus is
meters. The small size of the 1N55AS miniature germanium
diode (X), 0.02-mfd ceramic capacitor 'C, and 1-megohm Cl RI

V2 -watt resistor R permits enclosure of these components in PROD

R2
Imeg
4.7meg
a slender test -probe shell.
DC output voltage of the circuit is equal to the peak value 1N55AS

of the RF input voltage (that is, Ed. = 1.414 E.) and it is GROUND CLIP SHIELDED CABLE
(TO DC VNMI
this value that is indicated directly by the DC scales of the 1N55AS
R3

VTVM. Most DC VTVMs have an input resistance of 11 meg-

ohms, 1 megohm of which is in the DC probe. Resistor R takes 0.02
the place of this probe resistor. It also serves as an isolation Fig. 6-16. Peak -to -peak probe.

86 87
equal to the peak -to -peak value of the AC input voltage. It is PICKUP ANTENNA

this total DC voltage that is applied to the DC VTVM. Maxi-

mum signal input should not exceed 100 volts peak -to -peak.
Resistor R1 takes the place of the 1-megohm isolating re- SENSITIVITY
sistor which is in the DC probe of the VTVM. Omission of CONTROL
10K WW
this resistance would impair the accuracy of the voltage DC MI CROAMMETER
PLUG-IN
readings. COIL
OR M I LLIAMMETER
ISEE TEXTI

DEMODULATOR PROBE = CHASSIS

In order to examine the envelope waveform of an AM signal Fig. 6-18. Field -strength meter.
with an oscilloscope, the signal first must be demodulated. plug-in coil data.) The manufactured coils specified in Table
After the complex TV video wave is demodulated, for example, 6-1 cover the tuning range 260 kc to 100 mc in five bands.
the video modulation and sync pulses are visible.
Fig. 6-17 is the circuit of a low -capacitance demodulator These are miniature, ceramic, slug -tuned coils which may be
set exactly to frequency during the calibration of the instru-
probe for operating into the vertical channel of an oscilloscope.
ment. For plug-in purposes, these coils may be mounted inside
R2
1" -diameter 4 -prong coil forms, such as Millen Type 45004.
PROD For narrower -band tuning than is afforded by this coil assort-
SHIELDED CABLE
ment (example : amateur or citizens' bands) , a lower capaci-
tance (for example, 50 or 100 mmf ) should be used for C1.
The signal rectifier is a high -conductance 1N56A germanium
diode (X) . DC output of this diode drives current meter M.
GROUND CLIP
The meter may be a 0-1 DC milliammeter or a 0-50 or 0-100
Fig. 6-17. Demodulator probe. DC microammeter. The microammeters provide highest sensi-
This is a shunt detector with a DC -blocking capacitor (C). tivity. The sensitivity control rheostat (R) allows reduction
The 1N55AS is a miniature 150 -volt germanium diode. This of the DC to the full-scale deflection of the meter on strong
RF signals. The pickup antenna may be any convenient ver-
voltage rating allows safe handling of 50 volts peak signal
amplitude.
tical wire, rod, or whip.
The input impedance of the probe is high enough that use
of this accessory will not upset operation of most TV circuits. Table 6-1. Field Strength Meter Coil Data
Inductance Frequency
Coil (pH) Range (mc) Coil Type*
FIELD STRENGTH METER
A 1000 0.26 - 1 40A000CB1
A tunable diode detector with indicating meter makes a B 110 0.8 - 3 40A104CB1
simple field strength meter and absorption wavemeter. The
tuning dial may be calibrated with an RF signal generator. C 16 2-8 40A155CB1
Fig. 6-18 shows the circuit of an instrument of this type. D 1.3 7 - 28 40A156CB1
The tuner consists of coil L and 365-mmf variable capacitor E 0.1 26 -100 40A107CB1
C1. (If wide -band operation is desired, a series of plug-in
coils may be used to cover the frequency range. Table 6-1 gives * Catalogue Numbers of J. W. Miller Co.

89
88
 The instrument may be calibrated by loosely coupling coil The instrument is set by adjusting rheostat R1 so that M1
L to an RF signal generator, tuning -in generator signals at reads exactly 1 ma when the circuit is excited by the trans-
selected frequencies by adjusting C1 for peak deflection of mitter. The deflection of this meter does not change during
meter M, and graduating the C1 dial accordingly. modulation unless carrier shift is present in the signal. Next,
with the transmitter modulated 100%, as determined by meas-
urements with an oscilloscope, rheostat R2 is set for exact
PERCENT MODULATION METER
full-scale deflection of M2. This is the 100% modulation point,
Fig. 6-19 is the circuit of a direct -reading percent modula- the 0-100 scale of M2 being read direct in percent modulation.
tion meter for checking AM transmitters. It also serves as a M2 does not deflect unless the signal is modulated ; the copper
carrier shift meter and aural phone monitor. Its use of sepa- oxide does not respond to RF which could arrive only in small
rate carrier and modulation meters eliminates the error and amounts through transformer T and through stray pickup.
accidents caused when a single meter is shifted between these Rheostat R2 needs no readjustment except during subsequent
two functions. periodic check of calibration. R1, however, must be adjusted
each time the instrument is used, to set M1 to full scale.
XI
CARRIER METER Transformer T (Thordarson TR-37) has a 1:1 turns ratio.
RFC 0-1 DC MA
The closed-circuit jack (J) is provided for headphones for
SHIELDED CABLE
CARRIER ADJUST
1K
aural monitoring of the signal. Either magnetic or crystal
PICKUP
COIL headphones may be used.
HEADPHONE
JACK

SWR METER
Thordarson
CHASSIS X2
TR 37
Fig. 6-20 shows the circuit of a conventional, bridge -type
R2 instrument for checking standing wave ratio of antennas,
1meg transmission lines, and RF components at frequencies up to
approximately 100 mc. Here, the RF bridge circuit consists
of R4 and R5 in one leg, and R3 and the external device con-
nected to coaxial jack J2 in the other leg. The RF signal is
0-100 DC Ai A
PERCENT MODULATION R4
METER ISEE TEXT)

Fig. 6-19. Modulation meter. 5

510
1W
X21 J2
X1
The AM signal is picked up with a small coupling coil, L RF INPUT
1 N58AS
C3 I N58 AS
RF OUTPUT
(2 or 3 turns of insulated hookup wire 2{1 in diameter), placed 0.01
mica 1.0K
near the transmitter tank. This signal is demodulated by the 10K
R6
51n R7 1W

1N68A germanium diode (X1). The diode output contains a 1W

R2 A B R3
1W

DC component which is proportional to the average carrier 0.01mica 400K

1W
S
200K
1W
voltage and is indicated by milliammeter Ml. The diode output M 0-50 C4-- 0.01
also contains an AF component which is proportional to the DC pA
mica

modulation percentage, and which is indicated, after rectifica-

tion by the transformer -coupled B-160 copper oxide bridge CHASSIS

(X), by microammeter M2. Fig. 6-20. SWR meter.

90 91
fed into the circuit via coaxial jack J1. Meter M reads this ing deflections of the meter, or prepare a direct -reading
input signal when switch S is thrown to its position A, and SWR scale for meter M.
the bridge output signal when S is thrown to B.
All resistors must be 1 -watt, 1 %, noninductive units. The To use the instruments ;
resistance of R4 must equal exactly the impedance of the 1. Connect RF source (such as transmitter) to J1.
transmission line, antenna, or component connected to jack J2 2. Connect load (such as transmission line) to J2.
for test, otherwise the bridge will not null. Common imped- 3. Place switch S in position A and adjust RF for full-scale
ance values met in practice are 52, 75, 300, and 600 ohms. deflection.
When R4, R5, and R6 have the exact specified values, the 4. Throw switch S to position B and read meter.
bridge will null at the selected "J2 impedance." That is, meter 5. Determine SWR from data obtained in step 9 in the
M will read zero when S is at position B and the bridge is preceding procedure.
excited by RF input. The layout of the instrument must be
carefully planned to minimize stray capacitance, inductance, DIODE IN MICROWAVE SWR MEASUREMENTS
and coupling, and fully shielded to prevent RF pickup from the
fields always present when this type of measurement is made. Whereas the instrument shown in Fig. 6-20 is adequate for
After checking the completed instrument for clean null SWR measurements at frequencies up to 100 me or more, a
(with the highest -frequency signal to be used injected at J1, different technique must be employed at microwave frequen-
switch S set to B, and a noninductive dummy resistor equal to cies. In the latter spectrum, a slotted line is used for SWR
R4 connected to J2) and -making any adjustments to the in-
ternal resistors needed to reduce null to zero, make an SWR TUNING STUB

calibration in the following manner; COAXIAL

CABLE
M
DC NA
1. Apply a 2-mc signal to J1. SLIDING CARRIAGE
WITH DIODE
I-' SLOT
2. Plug dummy resistor into J2. COAXIAL

V
COAXIAL CABLE
3. Throw switch S to position A and adjust signal amplitude FROM MICROWAVE
TO LOAD

for full-scale deflection of M. SIGNAL SOURCE

DI POINTER D2
rrrrrrrrrrrrrrvrrrrrrrrrrvvrrrrrrrrvrrrrrrrrrrrri
4. Transfer switch S to position B ; M should read zero. CENTIMETER SCALE

5. Connect a higher -resistance dummy resistor to J2. (A) CW method.

6. Throw switch S to position A and reset signal amplitude
for full-scale deflection of M. CI

7. Throw switch S to position B, note deflection of M, and TUN AG RI

record as El. STUB
COAXIAL
8. Repeat steps 5, 6, and 7, using dummy resistors of vari- CABLE R2

ous values and recording the corresponding meter read- SLIDING CARRIAGE
ings as E2, E3, E4, etc. WITH DIODE XI

9. Using these resistance values, calculate the values of COAXIAL

standing wave ratio: SWR = R1/R2 or R2/R1. Here, R1 FROM MICROWAVE
TO LOAD

is the normal dummy equal to R4 in the circuit, and R2 is SIGNAL SOURCE

the resistance of the test dummy. Use the fraction in CENTIMETER SCALE

which the higher resistance is in the numerator. Draw a (B) AM method.

curve plotting these SWR values against the correspond - Fig. 6-21. Microwave SWR setups.

92 93
measurement. The rectifier or demodulator employed in these D1 and D2, measured in centimeters between adjacent peak
measurements is a silicon point -contact microwave diode which points or adjacent dip points using the formula :
must be selected to operate at the highest test frequency.
There are two methods. Fig. 6-21A may be used with an f (in mc) = 15,000
(D1 -D2)
unmodulated (CW) signal; Fig. 6-21B requires an amplitude -
modulated signal. In each method, the slotted line is essentially RF WATTMETERS
a segment of air -dielectric coaxial line, or wave guide, in
which a lengthwise slot has been cut in the outer conductor. The SWR meters just described may be used to measure
A snug -fitting "carriage" slides over this slot and dips the RF power when the meter is inserted between the signal
metal tip of a microwave diode into the interior. This tip, act- source and the normal load, the slotted line being terminated
ing as an antenna, samples the standing wave field within the in its characteristic impedance. Power (P in watts) is calcu-
tube, and the resulting DC output of the diode deflects DC lated in terms of current points (in amperes) using the setup
microammeter M. A pointer attached to the carrier moves in Fig. 6-21A, or voltage points (in rms volts) using the
along a centimeter scale to indicate the position of the probe. setup in Fig. 6-21B: P = K VI1-12 where K is a constant sup-
As the probe passes through a high -intensity point, M peaks plied by the manufacturer of the slotted line, or P = (El x
in deflection (I1) and when it passes through a low -intensity E2)/Z where Z is the slotted line characteristic impedance.
point, M dips (I2). The corresponding points (D1, D2, respec-
tively) read on the centimeter scale may be used to calculate
the frequency. The standing wave ratio is calculated from the
maximum and minimum current readings using the formula: RF INPUT
DIODE
LOAD
VOLTMETER
SWR = 11/12 RESISTOR

P =E2/R
The more sensitive method is illustrated by Fig. 6-21B. Here,
Fig. 6-22. RF wattmeter.
an amplitude -modulated signal is fed into the slotted line.
The diode in the sliding carriage demodulates the signal, de- RF power may be measured also with a direct -reading RF
livering AF output to an amplifier sharply tuned to the mod- wattmeter based on a diode voltmeter and load resistor. This
ulation frequency. The amplifier output is rectified by an arrangement is shown in Fig. 6-22.
audio -frequency half -bridge (X2 -X3 -R1 -R2) and deflects The RF power is developed across noninductive load resis-
microammeter or milliammeter M. Adjustments are the same tor R which must have a resistance equal to the output imped-
as in the preceding example. Usually, however, the meter is ance of the RF source and a power rating equal to twice the
direct -reading in volts (El = maximum, E2 = minimum) , and expected power. RMS voltage E is developed across this re-
SWR = E1/E2. sistor, and P (in watts) = E2/R. From this equation, it is seen
In each of the two systems, the meter scale may be made that the scale of voltmeter M may be made direct -reading in
direct -reading in SWR units, with the lowest value at full watts only for a particular value of R. This is convenient, how-
scale. The RF signal amplitude then is first set for full-scale ever, in cases where power measurements are always made
deflection when the carriage is at a peak point. When the car- with a single load resistance, such as 50 or 72 ohms.
riage then is moved to the adjacent minimum, the meter will
indicate SWR directly. Thus, if peak deflection is set at 100 ANTENNA IMPEDANCE BRIDGE
microamperes, and dip falls at 89 pa in the method shown in
Fig. 6-21A, SWR = 100/89 = 1.12. With each of the two sys- Fig. 6-23 shows the circuit of an RF impedance bridge suit-
tems, frequency may be measured in terms of the positions of able for measuring the impedance of amateur and citizens'
94 95
band antennas, transmission lines, and other components be-
tween 20 and 600 ohms at frequencies up to 50 mc. After the Use of the instrument is equally simple ;
instrument is calibrated, the impedance in ohms may be read
directly from the dial of variable capacitor C2 which is the 1. Inject the RF test signal via J1.
bridge balance control. The null indicator is a diode RF volt- 2. Connect the antenna, transmission line, or other unknown
meter consisting of a miniature 1N55AS germanium diode impedance to J2.
(X) , resistors R2 and R3, RF choke RFC, and bypass capaci- 3. Adjust C2 for null, adjusting R3 for maximum sensitivity
tor C3. as null is approached.
4. At null, read the unknown impedance from the dial of C2.
RF 100 0
4.7K
I NPUT*- 1W
R4 1W AMPLITUDE MODULATOR
50mmf NONINDUCTIVE
CI SILVERED MICA
Fig. 6-24 shows a circuit for amplitude modulation of a
2
10K
1N5 AS radio -frequency carrier with an AF voltage. A modulator of
C2 1 1W
50K this type may be built into an oscillator or signal generator
R3
12-300mmf lmh
I Bud 18601
RFC J2 LOAD
or may be used externally. The circuit utilizes the ability of
0-100
the diode, as a nonlinear resistance, to generate modulation
T C3T0.01
DC p A
products of two signals presented to it simultaneously.
Fig. 6-23. RF impedance bridge.
AF INPUT
One leg of the bridge is composed of C1 and C2, the other
of R4 and the unknown impedance (Z) connected to coaxial
jack J2. The RF input signal is injected via coaxial jack J1. Cl
At the balance (null) setting of Cl, meter M reads zero, and
the unknown impedance Z = (C2R4) /C1. Rheostat R3 is a vari-
able voltmeter multiplier which acts as a sensitivity control, UNMODULATED
RF INPUT
MODULATED
permitting meter M to be set for best sensitivity with a given RF OUTPUT

input -signal amplitude. Since M is used only as a null indi-

cator, the actual reading of this meter is unimportant.
The simplest way to calibrate the instrument is to adjust
the bridge for null separately with as many noninductive re- Fig. 6-24. Amplitude modulator.
sistors as obtainable connected successively to J2 with short
leads, and to inscribe the C2 dial with these resistance values. The unmodulated RF is coupled into the circuit through
Thus; Cl and R1 (that portion of R2 in the circuit is RF-bypassed
by C3) . The AF is introduced through miniature transformer
1. With the RF signal injected via J1, connect a 20 -ohm T the secondary of which is RF-bypassed by C2. Modulated RF
resistor to J2. is developed across R3 and coupled to the output through C4.
2. Adjust C2 for null, setting R3 for maximum sensitivity The diode is forward -biased into its most favorable con-
as null is approached. duction region by means of DC from battery B and potentiom-
3. At null, mark the C2 dial 20. eter R2. This adjustment is made by setting R2 while observing
4. Repeat with other resistance values at J2, marking the the output AM signal with an oscilloscope connected to the
C2 dial accordingly. MODULATED RF OUTPUT terminals. Set R2 for best lin-
earity of modulation, and the AF input amplitude for desired
96
97
modulation percentage. The bias voltage may also be obtained capacitance, stray capacitance, and diode recovery time com-
bine to distort the square wave.
from a well -filtered DC power supply.
TIMING -MARKER (SPIKE) GENERATOR
AM PHONE MONITOR
Modulation quality of an AM transmitter may be aurally Fig. 6-26 shows the circuit of a simple adaptor for obtain-
appraised with a simple linear diode detector. It is not neces- ing sharply spiked pulses from a square -wave input signal.
Such spikes may be used as timing markers on an oscilloscope
sary to tune the circuit to the carrier frequency. screen, for synchronizing control and counting circuits and
time -base generators, and for special-purpose modulation. Un-
like RF circuits which also form pulses from a square wave,
TWISTED PAIR OR this circuit is not frequency -sensitive.
SHIELDED CABLE MAGNETIC
HEADPHONES
(2000 n OR
Operation of the circuit is based upon the slow reverse
2 OR 3 TURNS OF HIGHER) recovery time of the 1N91 germanium diode (X1) . The output
INSULATED HOOKUP
WIRE, 2" IN DIAMETER
of X1 is shown by pattern B. Note from this pattern that X1
passes the positive half -cycles of square -wave input voltage
Fig. 6-25. AM phone monitor.
but does not immediately shut off when the negative half -
Fig. 6-25 shows the circuit of this type of monitor. The cycle appears. Instead, the few current carriers left at the
modulated signal is picked up by coupling coil L which is X1 junction after the forward conduction give this diode a
placed near the transmitter tank. Except with very -low - momentary low back resistance, resulting in the initial high -
powered transmitters, the signal amplitude will be high enough amplitude negative spike current. This current in turn sets
to operate the 1N34A germanium diode (X) in its linear up a voltage across R2 which has the same spiked shape. The
region, so that little distortion will be generated by the circuit. 1N63S germanium diode then rectifies this voltage, stripping
High -resistance magnetic headphones must be used. If off the square positive half -cycles and passing only the spikes,
crystal headphones are used, connect a 2,000-ohm 1/2 -watt re- as shown by Pattern C. This current develops a voltage drop
sistor in parallel with them. having the same spiked shape across output resistor R3. Out-
put -spike amplitude may be varied by adjustment of the out-
put of the square -wave generator.
SQUARE -WAVE ADAPTOR Resistor R1 is required only if the output circuit of the
A 2 -diode limiter or clipper circuit may be used to convert square -wave generator provides no low -resistance DC return
sine waves into clipped waves which are essentially square. path for Xl.
Such a circuit is shown in Fig. 3-1, Chapter 3. The higher the C

amplitude of the sine -wave input voltage, the steeper will be

the sides of the output wave. YY
A similar adaptor which requires no DC bias is the double -
anode zener diode regulator shown in Fig. 4-3B, Chapter 4.
Because of the relatively high zener current of 12 ma, this
adaptor requires more driving power than the one mentioned SQUARE -WAVE
INPUT
RI< 100 r)
5> 1W
2K
IW
SPIKE OUTPUT

in the preceding paragraph.

Simple adaptors of the limiter -clipper type operate satis-
factorily up to 50 or 100 kc. At higher frequencies, diode Fig. 6-26. Timing marker (spike) generator.

99
98
 I
HARMONIC INTENSIFIER FOR FREQUENCY STANDARDS RI
OUTPUT CONTROL
ON -OFF
The higher harmonics from a secondary frequency standard 50K WW

such as a 100-kc tube or transistor oscillator often are too x

weak for use. A harmonic amplifier stage sometimes is added B --- 6V

1 N2 I B

to accentuate these harmonics. R2

300 0
Where use of such an amplifier is inconvenient, a good 0.001 1W
NOISE OUTPUT

amount of harmonic intensification may be obtained by dis- SILVERED

MICA
torting the output waveform of the frequency standard with
Fig. 6-28. Noise generator.
semiconductor diodes. Fig. 6-27 shows one type of intensifier
circuit. Here, two 1N34AS miniature germanium diodes (X1, flows through 300 -ohm output resistor R2 and sets up the
output noise voltage drop across this resistor. Note that ger-
XI
manium diodes are unsatisfactory for this application.
The noise output voltage is maximum at high current; that
is, when R1 is set to zero (or minimum) resistance. This rheo-
0.101 stat thus functions as a noise -voltage amplitude control.
RF INPUT
(FROM FREQUENCY STANDARD/
100 0 RF OUTPUT This simple generator is useful in testing equipment through-
1W
out the frequency spectrum from audio up to several thousand
megacycles.
Fig. 6-27. Harmonic intensifier.
TV ANTENNA COMPASS
X2) are connected back-to-back to handle the entire RF wave. Fig. 6-29 gives the circuit of a small -sized instrument which
(X1 passes forward current during the positive half -cycle, may be used as asignal strength indicator during the orienta-
and X2 during the negative half -cycle.) The distorted current tion of a TV receiving antenna. Meter M reads maximum
pulses set up an output -signal voltage drop across 100 -ohm when the antenna is correctly positioned with respect to the
resistor R. transmitting station. This "compass" is operated directly from
For best results, the signal applied to the circuit should the TV receiver.
have a minimum amplitude of 0.1 volt rms, and for safety The instrument is divided into two parts ; a probe which
to the diodes the signal should not exceed 4 volts rms. is connected to the receiver, and a meter box which is taken
to the roof. These two units are connected together by means
NOISE GENERATOR of a plug-in extension cord. The probe is connected to receiver
ground and either the grid or cathode of the picture tube
The broad -band noise signal is increasingly in demand for
testing receivers, amplifiers, and other electronic equipment. TO GRI D OR
R2
An inexpensive noise generator can make use of the noise fac- CATHODE OF -4-1-1
PICTURE TUEE
270
tor of a reverse -biased silicon point -contact diode.
Fig. 6-28 shows the circuit of a diode noise generatr of TO
EXTENSION LINE

this type. In this arrangement, a 1N21B silicon point -contact RECEIVER

GROUND
TO ROOF

diode (X), is reverse -biased to a maximum of 6 volts by bat- PROBE

tery B through 50,000 -ohm rheostat R1. The reverse current METER BOX
Fig. 6-29. TV antenna compass.
100
(whichever receives the video channel output), and the re- 5 to 40 mc, and 35 to 300 mc. This circuit is derived from the
ceiver is tuned to the station of interest. The 1N70A ger- original design by D. H. Carpenter.
manium diode (X) rectifies the video signal, and the resulting Table 6-2 gives winding instructions for the plug-in coils
direct current deflects the remote 0-50 DC microammeter (M) . (L). All coils are wound on %"-diameter plug-in plastic forms
Rheostat R2 serves as a sensitivity control, and blocking ca- (Amphenol 24-6H).
pacitor C1 protects the diode and meter from DC voltages To use the adaptor, plug-in the appropriate coil, L, and
present in the receiver. The operating procedure is straight- connect the adaptor to an RF signal generator, either modu-
forward; orient the antenna for maximum swing of meter M, lated or unmodulated. Set the generator output for full-scale
adjusting R2 as required. deflection of meter M. Then couple L to the circuit under test,
CAUTION : When this instrument is connected to ground and tune the generator for dip in deflection of M. At this
(B -minus) of a transformerless receiver, one lead of the ex- point, read the resonant frequency from the generator dial.
tension line and the meter box unit may be at power -line
potential. This is a serious shock hazard. For maximum safety,
operate the TV receiver from an isolating transformer. TUNNEL DIODE DIP -METER
The simplicity of a tunnel diode oscillator circuit and the
PLUG-IN COIL
small size of the components (including a 1" -diameter DC
X meter) greatly reduce the size and weight of a grid -dip oscil-
1 N56A
lator. Fig. 6-31 shows the circuit of a tunnel diode dip -meter
operated from a single 1.5 volt flashlight cell. This instrument
RF INPUT
(FROM SIGNAL GENERATOR)
C
0.005
M 0-100
DC .A
covers the frequency range 1.1 mc to 150 mc in four plug-in
coil ranges : 1.1-3.8 mc, 3.7-12.5 mc, 12-39 mc, and 37-150 mc.
Table 6-3 gives winding data for plug-in coils (L) .

The series -type negative -resistance oscillator uses a 1N3720

Fig. 6-30. Grid -dip adaptor. tunnel diode (X1). DC bias is furnished by the single 1.5 volt,
Size -D flashlight cell (B) . Tuning is by means of a 140-mmf
GRID -DIP ADAPTOR midget variable capacitor (C2) and plug-in coil (L). A por-
tion of the RF voltage developed across the LC2 tank is
The adaptor circuit shown in Fig. 6-30 permits use of an coupled by C3 to the indicator composed of 1N34 germanium
RF signal generator as a grid -dip oscillator. Tuning is done diode X2 and 0-100 DC microammeter M.
entirely with the signal generator, and the resonant frequency
is read from its dial. The adaptor covers the frequency range R1
M.A.,100 WW
100 kc to 300 mc in three plug-in coil bands ; 100 to 7,000 ke, ON -OFF 0-100
DC MA
20 0 C3
2
1W
XI
Table 6-2. Grid -dip Adaptor Coil Data
1 1/2V
Coil Frequency Range Winding Data
A 100 kc-7 mc 145 turns No. 32 enamelled wire R3

B 5-40 mc 17 turns No. 22 enamelled wire PLUG-IN COIL

C 35-300 mc 3 turns No. 22 enamelled wire

__.
All coils are closewound on %"-diameter plug-in forms (Amphenol 24- Fig. 6-31. Tunnel diode dip -meter.

102
103
 Table 6-3. Tunnel Diode Dip -meter Coil Data
Coil Frequency Range Winding Data
A 1.1-3.8 mc 72 turns No. 32 enamelled
wire closewound
B 3.7-12.5 mc 21 turns No. 22 enamelled
wire closewound
C 12-39 mc 6 turns No. 22 enamelled wire.
Space to winding length of 7/16
inch.
D 37-150 mc Hairpin loop of No. 14 bare 111110%~
copper wire, 2 inches long from
end to end. 1/2" spacing between
straight sides of hairpin.
CMP
C18 C U
Coils A, B, and C wound on outside of 1" -diameter 4 -pin plug-in forms
(National XR-1). Coil D mounted inside same type of form.

To operate the instrument, plug-in a coil and close switch S.

Adjust rheostat R1 for strongest oscillation, as indicated by
maximum deflection of meter M, then couple L to the circuit
under test and use the instrument in the usual manner of a
grid -dip oscillator.

.;*-411111

104
 Computer Circuits
In digital computers the semiconductor diode has effected
dramatic reductions in size, power consumption, failure rate,
and temperature rise. In a machine containing 1,500 diodes,
for example, the filaments of diode tubes would require a total
of 225 watts. The extent of the size reduction may be grasped
from the fact that a modern microminiature computer diode
takes 1/18,000 or less of the space occupied by a miniature
diode tube.
Considerable effort has been exerted to improve diodes for
computer use. Some of their electrical parameters which have
been refined include switching time, front -to -back resistance
ratio, internal capacitance, forward conductance, and maxi-
mum operating voltage. This chapter describes several of the
principal applications of diodes in digital computers.

REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPUTER DIODES

The signals in a digital computer are fast pulses which do
the counting. Semiconductor diodes used in these machines
must have certain closely -held characteristics, otherwise pulses
will be lost or extra ones generator-both of which will lead
to inaccuracies in computation. Principal among these char-
acteristics are low forward resistance, high back resistance,
low self -capacitance, low self-inductance, short reverse re-
covery time, and extended high -frequency response.
Satisfaction of these requirements has led to the computer
diode, a component manufactured especially for digital appli-
107
 cations. Computer diodes are available in both germanium forward -biases the diode, and the resulting pulse current de-
and silicon varieties over a wide range of electrical ratings. velops a pulse voltage drop across R5.
Their reliability ratings are superior. The resistance of input resistors R1 -R4 and output resistor
Aside from stringent electrical requirements, size also is an R5 will depend on the diode characteristics, output resistance
important consideration in the computer diode. The reason of pulse source, and input resistance of the circuit to be driven
for this is that a digital computer uses only a very few basic by the OR circuit.
circuits, but these are repeated great numbers of times in the
machine. Therefore, components used in these iterative cir-
cuits must be as small as practicable if the machine is to be AND CIRCUIT
kept reasonable in size. Fig. 7-2 shows a second type of logic circuit-the AND cir-
cuit. Unlike the previous circuit, this one delivers an output
OR CIRCUIT pulse only if input 1 and input 2 and input 3 and input 4 are
The OR circuit is the simplest diode logic circuit employed
in the digital computer. Fig. 7-1 shows this type of circuit RI
INPUT I

XI I El
-17

fl_ R2
INPUT 2

1
E2
-r; it
OUTPUT

Fig. 7-1. OR circuit. Fig. 7-2. AND circuit.

with four inputs against a single output. But the arrangement all energized simultaneously. Although four inputs are shown,
is not limited to four-the scheme may be repeated endlessly the scheme may be repeated as required by adding one diode,
by adding one diode and one resistor for each new input. one resistor, and one DC source for each input, provided the
The circuit has the property that it will produce a positive total current can be safely handled by diode X5.
output pulse, across common -load resistor R5, if there is a In this circuit, current flows from each DC bias source and
positive pulse at any one of the inputs ; that is, if 1 or 2 or 3 the common bias (E5) through the corresponding input re-
or 4 is energized. The reason for this is that the input pulse sistor and R5 (thus, in section 1, from El and E5 in series
108 109
appears at terminal 3. Table 7-1 shows the inputs which must
be simultaneously energized to produce an output pulse at the 150V

terminal shown.
For low -voltage circuitry, such as that employed with
transistors, R1 -R8 each may be 20,000 ohms, R9 -R14 each 500 TRIGGER INPUT

ohms, all diodes Type 1N800 silicon computer units, supply I

voltage +9 volt, and pulse -signal voltage +1 volt peak. If the
minimum load connected to any of the output terminals is V2 12AU7
OUTPUT
5,000 ohms, the output signal amplitude will be 1 volt peak.
1
Table 7-1. Diode Matrix Switching Data.
Output Line Energized Inputs
1 1, 3, 5
2
(A) Tube circuit.
2, 3, 5
3 1, 4, 5
4 2, 4, 5
5 1, 3, 6
6 2, 3, 6 Cl

I
7 1, 4, 8 47mmf OUTPUT

8 TRIGGER INPUT
2, 4, 8 220
I mmf

One use of a diode matrix is to sense the On and Off con-

dition of tubes or transistors in the flip-flops of a counter.
The output pulses activate neon lamp circuitry which indicates
the count. In this way, the convenient ten counts of the decimal
system may be obtained from a cascade of four flip-flops which
are by nature binary (base -2) counters.
(B) Transistor circuit.
COUPLING DIODES IN FLIP-FLOPS Fig. 7-4. Coupling diodes in flip-flop.

Fig. 7-4 shows the use of coupling diodes in flip-flops. Func- applied, it passes readily through diode X2 to the plate of V2
tion and action of these diodes is the same in each circuit. Fig. and switches that tube on.
7-4A shows a tube circuit, and Fig. 7-4B an equivalent tran- In Fig. 7-4B, action is the same except for the use of NPN
sistor circuit. transistors. For PNP transistors, reverse the polarity of all
Coupling diodes serve to transmit the triggering pulse auto- diodes and the DC supply.
matically to the tube which is cut off, rather than applying it Since the diodes are connected between two plates (or two
simultaneously to both tubes and possibly causing missed collectors), their reverse resistance must be high in order to
switching. When V1 is On, its plate voltage is reduced by plate prevent an extraneous DC path between the tubes or transis-
current flow through Rl. V2 is nonconducting at this time, and tors. Silicon diodes possess a natural high reverse resistance.
its plate voltage is high. When the negative trigger pulse is High -back -voltage germanium computer diodes, such as those
112 113
shown in Fig. 7-4, also have sufficiently high back resistance
when rated at three to four times the plate or collector voltage.

CLAMPING DIODES IN FLIP-FLOPS

As in other circuits, clamping diodes are used in flip-flops TRIGGER -PULSE INPUT OUTPUT
to limit the swing of a voltage (in the flip-flop, usually the
output -signal voltage). Fig. 7-5 shows the use of clamping
B. B- Fig. 7-6. Tunnel diode flip-flop.
1
peak positive trigger pulse will switch the circuit to its second
state, and approximately 250 my will appear at the output.
E2
A subsequent 1.5 -volt peak negative pulse will switch the cir-
X3
cuit back to its first (low -output -voltage) state.
X2 X4
DIODE -CAPACITOR MEMORY CELL
I
OUTPUT 1 OUTPUT 2
(0f1 volts) RESET PULSE SET -PULSE
-E2 volts) At slow counting speeds, a charged high -quality capacitor
INPUT INPUT I may be used as a memory cell in a computer in which only a
few storage elements are required. A silicon diode prevents
I capacitor discharge back through the writing source.
Fig. 7-7 shows the circuit. A positive Write pulse applied
Fig. 7-5. Clamping diodes in flip-flop. to the Input terminals charges the 0.1-mfd capacitor (C)
through the low forward resistance of the 1N3728 silicon di-
diode pairs (X1 -X2 and X3 -X4) to limit the excursion of the ode (X). The charged voltage of the capacitor will be equal to
two outputs of a tube -type flip-flop. The same arrangement the peak pulse amplitude less the small forward voltage drop
would be used with a transistor circuit. across the diode. This capacitor must have low leakage. When
The swing is limited to the voltage established by El for the pulse ceases, the capacitor holds the charge, since it can-
output 1 and E2 for output 2 (Fig. 1-12, Chapter 1). not discharge back into the pulse source, because of the ex-
tremely high reverse resistance of the diode. This charged
TUNNEL DIODE FLIP-FLOP voltage may be detected (read) at the Output terminals as
the stored information. The Read circuit should have low re-
Fig. 7-6 shows a simple bistable (flip-flop) circuit employing sistance, in order to discharge the capacitor.
one 1N3712 tunnel diode (X). This circuit operates with a DC
supply of 3 volts at 1.1 ma.
The tunnel diode has two stable states in this circuit; low - WRITE PULSE
110728
voltage high -current, and high -voltage low -current. These cor- A
respond respectively to about 55 my at 0.9 ma, and 250 my at INPUT OUTPUT

0.5 ma.
Initially, the circuit is quiescent in its first state, and ap-
proximately 55 my appear at the output terminals. A 1.5 -volt Fig. 7-7. Diode -capacitor memory cell.
114 115
 TUNNEL -DIODE MEMORY CELL
The bistable tunnel -diode circuit shown in Fig. 7-6 may be
used as a nondestructive memory cell, in addition to its in-
tended function as a flip-flop.
The positive input pulse is the Write signal, and it switches
the output to its high -voltage stable state. This state, represent-
ing storage in the memory cell, may then be read repeatedly
with a high -resistance circuit (1,000 ohms or more) without
destroying the storage. A subsequent negative input pulse
acts as an Erase signal, "emptying" the cell by switching the
circuit to its low -voltage stable state.
CATHODE
S

Fig. 7-8. Photodiode card or tope reader.

PHOTODIODE TAPE OR PUNCHED CARD READER

Fig. 7-8 shows a fast -acting photoelectric circuit which
may be used for reading punched cards or punched tape. The
light-sensitive element is a 1N77B germanium photodiode (X).
This is a tiny unit (0.006 -inch in diameter) with a built-in
lens in one end.
The diode is connected in a bridge circuit for balancing
out its dark current (about 10 microampeies). Adjustment is
simple; close switch S, darken the cell, and set potentiometer
R2 for zero DC, as read with a DC VTVM connected to the
OUTPUT terminals. After the circuit has been zeroed, light
intensity of 70 foot-candles will produce an output of 6 volts
across a 1-megohm load. The output may be applied to a suit-
able DC amplifier for boosting in power.
Maximum current drain from the 9 -volt supply (B) is 200
microamperes.
116
 Experimenters' Circuits
Diode experimenting goes on constantly. As might well be
expected, the electrical characteristics of this simple com-
ponent stimulate thinking about new applications. Many of
the new circuits which result from this activity, however, are
laboratory curiosities only (a sizeable number were left out of
this book because of their marginal operation). But others
give promise of reliable operation after a reasonable amount
of improvement.
The circuits presented in this chapter will be of interest to
the experimenter. Often, it is hoped, the published circuit will
point the way to some other application when it is not itself
directly usable by the reader.

VARACTOR DIODE TUNED CIRCUIT

Small, inexpensive varactors, such as the Varicap, are con-
venient for tuning an RF circuit by means of an adjustable
DC voltage. The tuning voltage reverse -biases the varactor.
Fig. 8-lA shows a typical circuit. The capacitance of the
V56 Varicap is varied from 32 to 145 mmf by varying the
bias from zero to 15 volts. The bias is applied in series with
a 1-megohm resistor (R) which acts both as an isolator and
RF choke. Since the V56 draws virtually no current for its
operation, no voltage is lost across the resistor. The 0.01-mfd
DC -blocking capacitor (C) prevents coil L from short-circuit-
ing the DC bias. The reactance of this capacitor is so low that
the varactor is the tuning element.
119
 audio oscillator using a 1N2940 germanium tunnel diode (X).
1 meg. 0.01
mica The tune -determining tuned circuit is comprised of capacitor C
10 turns No.18 and the inductance of the earphone. The frequency is approxi-
DC INPUT
+
enamelled wire
closLivound on
mately 2,000 cps when C is 1 mfd. This may be lowered by de-
V56
VARICAP
1/2" diameter form creasing C, and vice versa.
To prevent upsetting the negative resistance of the diode,
the earphone must have low DC resistance and low impedance.
(A) Circuit.
Thus, a 6 -ohm earplug type unit is shown. A pair of low -
30 impedance headphones also might be used.
RESONANT
To place into operation, close the key and adjust R1 for
/'--
FREQUENCY
20
IMO
strongest oscillation. Operate key slowly several times to in-
10 sure that oscillator starts readily, readjusting R1 if starting
0 2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 14

DC VOLTS
is sluggish.
(B) Response. DIODE AS SOLAR CELL REGULATOR
Fig. 8-1. Varactor tuned circuit.
Silicon solar cells are practical for light -powering transis-
The coil specified here covers the range 12 to 25 me as the torized equipment and short -distance telephones, but the DC
DC is varied from zero to -14 volts. Fig. 8-1B shows this re- output of these cells varies widely under differing conditions
sponse. Other inductance values will tune over other ranges. of illumination.
RF energy may be coupled into the tuned circuit by means A 1N34A germanium diode, forward -connected across a sili-
of a small link coil, or through a 100-mmf capacitor connected con cell, will reduce the swing during bright illumination, tend-
to the junction of C and L. The peak amplitude of the RF ing to stabilize the DC output (Fig. 8-3) . The underlying
voltage across D should not exceed 0.1 volt, otherwise it will mechanism is the voltage -dependent forward resistance of the
vary the varactor capacitance. diode. This resistance decreases as the photocell output voltage
increases, thus loading the cell more heavily at the high volt-
ages and pulling the voltage down.
TUNNEL DIODE CODE -PRACTICE OSCILLATOR A 1N34A diode holds the output of an International Rectifier
The code -practice oscillator shown schematically in Fig. 8-2 Corp. Type S1M cell at approximately 0.25 volt, 10 ma under
can be built as small as a shirt -pocket hearing aid. It is a keyed widely varying bright -light conditions.

DC TRANSFORMER
The circuit shown in Fig. 8-4 accepts a DC input of 0-1.5
volts and delivers a DC output of 0-30 volts into a high -resist-
ance load. It is called a DC transformer because it seemingly
steps up the DC input signal through transformer T2. From
its operation, this circuit may be considered a DC voltage am-
plifier; but it provides no current amplification or power am-
plification, so it is effective only when operating into a high -
Fig. 8-2. Tunnel diode code -practice oscillator.
resistance device, such as a DC VTVM or DC oscilloscope.
Providing, as it does, a step-up ratio of 20, it is often used to
120
121
 Red 3. Close switch S.
+
4. With no connection to the D INPUT terminals, adjust
Black
DC OUTPUT
R1 for null. If zero cannot be reached as a null, the diodes
x X 1N34 A should be more closely matched.
5. Apply a signal of 1.5 volts in the polarity shown to the
SIM SILICON
SOLAR CELL
DC INPUT terminals. The VTVM should deflect to 30
Fig. 8-3. Diode as solar cell regulator.
volts.

amplify small DC voltages for reading on the 0 -1.5 -volt scale

of a VTVM.
The circuit is a balanced modulator, nulled by adjustment
of potentiometer Rl. The excitation is 6.3 volts AC supplied
by the filament transformer, T1. The modulator diodes (X1,
X2) are the units of a 1N35S matched -diode assembly. When
the circuit is completely nulled, no AC voltage appears at the
DC INPUT terminals and no voltage appears at the DC OUT-
PUT terminals. When a voltage is applied to the DC INPUT
terminals, forward current flowing through X1 unbalances the
circuit proportional to the applied DC voltage, and AC passes
through the primary of transformer T2. This voltage is stepped
up by the transformer and rectified by the" D1607 high -
conductance gold -bonded diode (X3). Output capacitor C is
charged to the peak value of this voltage. The load connected
to the DC OUTPUT terminals must be 1 megohm or higher.
To adjust the device;
1. Plug into AC power line.
2. Connect a DC VTVM to the DC OUTPUT terminals.
Ti

ON
OFF

DC OUTPUT
117 VAC
0-30V
+ DC INPUT -
0 -1.5V
10-400 pa)
Fig. 8-4. DC transformer.

122 123
 Appendix
DIODE SYMBOLS USED IN THIS BOOK

Anode Cathode

CONVENTIONAL DIODE

Anode . Cathode

ZENER DI ODE

Anode Cathode

TUNNEL DIODE

Anode

Cathode

VARACTOR (VAR [CAP)

The anode is that electrode which is connected to the positive 1+)

terminal of the DC supply for forward current flow.

ALWAYS CONNECT THE DI ODE EXACTLY AS SHOWN IN CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.

125
 Digital computer, 107
Diode I
as cathode resistor, 46
as solar cell regulator, 121 IF, frequency, 22
biased detector, 26 Impedance, dynamic, 47
computer, 107 Inductive load, 70
Index contact protector, 70
in microwave SWR measurements, 93
in transistor bias network, 60
matrix, 110
Intermediate frequency, 22

L
tuned circuit, varactor, 119
Diode -capacitor memory cell, 115 Level clipper, 41
Circuits-cont'd Diode current meters, 80 Limiter, noise, 13
A doubler, 53 Diode meters, 75 Load, inductive, 70
flip-flop, 112-115 Diode voltmeters, 77 Low-level DC power supplies, 51
Adaptor, grid -dip, 102 frequency full -bridge, 79 bridge, 53
AF amplifier, tunnel diode, 46 converter half -bridge, 80 doubler, 53
AFC circuit, varactor, 24 conventional diode, 22 series -diode, 77 half -wave, 53
AFC, horizontal, 20 tunnel diode, 23 shunt -diode, 79 tripler, 53
AF-RF relay, 65 multiplier, 31 two -diode half -wave, 77 quadruples, 53
AGC, voltage, 16 limiter Dip -meter, tunnel diode, 103
AMC rectifier, 42 FM, 21 Discriminator, FM, 15
AM phone monitor, 98 noise, 13 Doubler, 53 M
Amplifier matrix, 111 Dynamic limiter, FM, 21
AF, tunnel diode, 46 memory cell, 115 Dynamic impedance, 47 Magamp rectifier, 43
magnetic, 43 modulator Magnetic, 9
Amplitude modulator, 97 amplitude, 36 amplifier, 43
varactor, 36 balanced, 32 E field, 70
AND circuit, 109 frequency, 38 Matrix, diode, 110
Antenna coupler, 36 neutralization indicator, 34 Erase signal, 116 Memory cell
Antenna current meter, 29 OR, 108 diode -capacitor, 116
Antenna impedance bridge, 95 phone transmitter, 35 tunnel -diode, 116
Automatic modulation control, 42 power supply, 52 F Meter
read, 115 AF milliammeter, 84
regulator Field strength meter, 88 calibrate, 30
B conventional diode, 54 Filter, bandpass, 11 current, antenna, 29
zener diode, 55 Flip-flop rectifier -type, 76
Bandpass, 11 squelch, 14 tunnel diode, 114 sensitive diode, 75
crystal receiver, 11 sync separator, 20 using clamping diode in, 114 current, 80
Bandpass, filter, 11 Clamping circuits, 18 using coupling diode in, 112 volt, 77-82
Back voltage, 20 Clamping diodes in flip-flops, 114 FM square -law AC, 81
Balanced modulator circuit, 32 Clipper, peak, 21 discriminator, 16 square -law DC, 82
Bias Code -practice oscillator, tunnel diode, 120 dynamic limiter, 21 SWR, 91
forward, 18, 26 Coherer, 9 ratio detector, 15 Meter protector, zener diode, 85
reverse, 68, 71 Component, DC, 17 Formula, SWR, 94 Microwave SWR measurements, 93
Biased diode detector, 26 Computer Forward Modulator
Bistable, 116 diode, 107 bias, 18, 26 amplitude, 97
Breakdown, 85 digital, 107 resistance, 68 varactor, 36
Bridge. 53 Coil, peaking Free -power supply, 58 balanced, 32
antenna impedance, 95 series, 17 Frequency converter frequency
shunt. 17 conventional -diode, 22 tunnel diode, 35
Conductance, 54 tunnel diode, 23 varactor, 37
C Contact protector Frequency, IF, 22 Modulation, percent, 90
diode, 70 Frequency modulator, varactor, 37 Monitor, AM phone, 98
Calibration, SWR, 92 relay, 69 Frequency multiplier, conventional -diode, Multiple control, 70
Carrier failure alarm, 30 Conventional -diode 81
Cathode resistor, diode as, 46 frequency converter, 22 Frequency standards
Clipper, peak, 21 frequency multiplier, 81 harmonic intensifier for, 100 N
Circuits voltage regulator, 54 secondary, 100
AFC, 24 Coupling diodes in flip-flops, 112 Front-end, 22 Negative resistance, 35
AF-RF relay, 65 Coupler, antenna. 36 Full -bridge diode voltmeter. 79 Neutralization indicator, 33
amplifier, AF Crystal Noise generator, 100
magamp, 44 receiver, 9 Noise limiter, 13
tunnel diode, 46 bandpass, 11 Null, 33
AND, 109 CW transmitter, tunnel diode, 34 G
carrier failure alarm, 30
clamping, 19 Gate threshold, 14 0
code -practice oscillator, 120 D Generator
clipper, level, 41 noise, 100 OR circuit, 108
crystal receiver. 11, 12 Damper, 17 timing marker, 99 Oscillator, 22
damper, 18 Damping resistor, 17 Grid -dip adaptor, 102 code -practice, tunnel diode, 120
DC DC
bias supply, 58 component, 17
restorer, 17 protector for transistor circuits, 59 H P
transformer, 122 restorer, 17, 18
detector transformer, 121 Half -bridge diode voltmeter, 80 Peak clipper, 21
ratio, 16 Demodulator probe, 88 Half -wave, 53 Peaking coil
second, 12 Detector Harmonics, 42 series, 17
video, 16 coherer, 9 Harmonic intensifier for frequency stand- shunt, 17
diode detector, biased, 26 crystal, 9 ards, 100 Peak -to -peak probe, 87
discriminator, 15 magnetic, 9 Horizontal, AFC, 20 Percent modulation, 90
Horizontal phase detector, 20 Phase detector, horizontal, 20
126 127
Phone monitor, AM, 98 Square -law DC meter, 82
Phone transmitter, tunnel diode, 35 Squelch circuit, 14
Photodiode reader, 116 Supply, free -power, 58
Pocket receiver, 11 SWR
Point -contact, 23 calibration, 92
Polarity -sensitive formula, 94
DC relay, 67 meter, 91
switch, 67 Sync separator (sync clipper), 20
Power supply, low-level DC, 51
bridge, 53
doubler, 53 T
half -wave, 53
tripler, 63 Threshold, gate, 14
quadrupler, 53 Timing -marker generator, 99
Probe Transformer, DC, 121
demodulator. 88 Transformer -coupled linear AF milliam-
peak -to -peak, 87 meter, 84
RF, 86 Transient, 70
Protector for transistor circuits, DC, 59 Transistor bias network, diode in, 60
Tripler, 53
Tuned RF relay, 66
Q Tuning of receiver, varactor, 26
Tunnel diode, 23
Quad, 44 AF amplifier, 46
Quadrupler, 53 code -practice oscillator, 120
Quasi -logarithmic DC voltmeter, 83 CW transmitter, 34
dip -meter, 103
flip-flop, 114
R frequency converter, 23
memory cell, 116
Ratio detector, FM, 15 phone transmitter, 35
Read circuit, 115 Turn-off, 70
Reader, photodiode, 116 TV
Receiver, 9 antenna compass, 101
crystal, 9 video detector, 16
pocket, 11 Two -diode half -'wave voltmeter, 77
Rectifier
AMC, 42
bridge, 53 V
half -wave, 53
magamp, 43 Varactor, 24
relay, 61 AFC circuit, 24
Rectifier -type meter, 76 amplitude modulator, 36
Reference element, zener diode as, 56 diode tuned circuit, 119
Regulator circuits frequency modulator, 37
conventional -diode, 54 tuning of receiver, 25
zener-diode, 55 Varicap, 119
Relay, 31 Varistor, 44
AF-RF, 65 Voice -controlled relay, 45
contact protector, 69 Voltage
rectifier, 61 AGC, 16
voice -controlled. 45 back, 70
Requirements for computer diodes, 107 regulator
Resistance conventional -diode, 64
forward, 68 zener diode, 55
negative, 35
Resistor, damping, 17
Restorer, DC, 17, 18
standard, zener diode as, 57, 85
Voltmeter
AF-RF, 81
1
Reverse -bias, 68, 71 quasi -logarithmic DC, 83
RF sensitive diode
probe, 86 full -bridge, 79
wattmeter, 95 half -bridge, 80
Rheostat, 61 series -diode, 79
shunt-digcle half -wave, 77
square -law DC, 84
S

Saturation, 44
Second detector in AM superhet, 12
Secondary frequency standard, 100
Series -diode voltmeter, 77
Wattmeters, RF, 95
w

Wired -radio receiver, 68

t
Series peaking coil. 17 Write signal, 116
Shunt -diode voltmeter, 79
Shunt peaking coil. 17
Signal
erase, 116
write, 116 Zener diode
Single-sideband, 32 as reference element, 66
Solar cell regulator, diode as, 121 as voltage standard, 57, 85
Square -law AC meter, 81 meter protector, 85
Square -wave adaptor. 98 regulator circuits, 55

128
 Did you ever marvel at the simple ingenuity of some of
the diode circuits you see in technical books or jour-
nals? They appear obvious when you see them-so
obvious that you wonder why you didn't think of them.
And you could, if you really understood diodes. Many
of these circuits take advantage of some peculiarity
of a particular type of diode-i.e., frequency response,
recovery time, etc. If you knew these differences, your
understanding of diode application would be greatly
enhanced, and the vast range of diode circuitry would
be at your command.
Diode Circuit Handbook will end any confusion you
may have regarding diodes. Using nearly 100 ex-
amples to show the proper application of diodes, it
CIRCUITS explains the principles of operation of each type of
diode circuit. The circuits shown are in current use in
radio and television receivers and transmitters; audio
HANDBOOK amplfiers and power supplies; and control devices,
test instruments, and computers.
by RUFUS P. TURNER Also included is a chapter on experimenter's circuits,
showing how to utilize the theory contained in the
earlier chapters.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Rufus Turner is no stranger to readers of technical literature. A
prolific writer, he has some 2,500 magazine articles and a dozen
books to his credit. Having earned his BA degree from Los Angeles
State College and his MA degree from U.S.C., Mr. Turner is now a
candidate for a Ph.D. from U.S.C. and is currently a registered
professional engineer in both California and Massachusetts. These
achievements accent his ability as a writer of clear, concise, easy -
to -understand material.

HOWARD W. SAMS & CO., INC.

$2.50
THE BOBBS -MERRILL COMPANY, INC.
DIT-1