Intertextuality

French intertextualité, from inter-+ textuel textual+- ité -ity.

Intertextuality is the the relationship between texts, especially literary ones (1); the way that

similar or related texts influence, reflect, or differ from each other (2)

History

The term intertextuality originated from the work of French literary-critic Julia Kristeva

in the 1960’s. It is additionally important to “cite the Russian literary theorist M.M. Bakhtin as

the originator, if not of the term ‘intertextuality’, then at least of the specific view of language

which helped others articulate theories of intertextuality (3, p. 10)”. The theory emerged during

a period of transition from structuralism to poststructuralism (3, p. 15). The term has been

criticized and questioned throughout the years in an attempt to define it.

“Intertextuality, in its broadest sense, is a poststructuralist, deconstructionist and

postmodernist theory that changed the concept of text, recognizing it as an intertext owing to the

interrelations between texts and texts’ absorptions of other texts (4)”. Poststructuralist and

postmodern disciplines claim that no work is original. The term intertextuality “refers to the

impossibility of singularity and unity (3)”. All works have been influenced by other texts and

there is no one fixed meaning in a text because meaning is subjective and based on the

presuppositions of the reader within their society (4).

Theorists of the Postmodern era argue that as society moves to become more

technological, the reproduction of texts becomes more prominent than in the past (3). We can see

evidence of this in the way many films are adapted from plays or literary texts. The theory
simply claims that all texts are related in one way or another and the meaning and interpretations

of all texts are based on the reader.

Types of Intertextuality

Intertextuality encompasses many different types of textual references and

interactions.There are two main types of references the author or composer uses when referring

to another text through ideas, symbols or style (5).

- The first is an implicit reference where the author or composer “alludes to another work

through ideas, symbols, genre or style (5)”.

- The second one is an explicit reference where the author or composer directly mentions

another work (5).

Intertextuality is a broad continuum that also heavily relies on the prior knowledge and

culture of the reader. There are few different forms of intertextuality, the following are most

common forms:

1. Allusion- A subtle or implicit reference that can be either historical, mythological,

literary, or religious (5).

2. Parody- A parody imitates another text or work for satirical purposes (5).

3. Quotation- When an author uses a direct quote from another text or work it is considered

an explicit reference since the author is directly quoting and often crediting (5).

4. Appropriation- An appropriation is a “rework[ed] or re-imagin[ed]” work that is changed

in order to “extend its meaning (5)”.

5. Adaptation- An adaptation strictly refers to a “film, television drama, or stage play that is

based on a written work (5)”.

Intertextuality is very broad and subjective. There are many ways of analyzing and identifying

the interrelationship between texts and “despite its confident utilization by many theorists and

critics, cannot be evoked in an uncomplicated manner (3, p.2)”.

Application to Literature

Eras of Literature

Intertextuality in literature has dated back to the origins of recorded human society.

Although the term was coined by Julia Kristeva in the 1960’s, intertextuality can date all the way

back to Ancient Greece. To properly understand intertextuality requires that “we understand

texts not as self-contained systems but as differential and historical, as

traces of and tracings of otherness, since they are shaped by the repetition

and transformation of other textual structures.” (6, p. 268) Ancient Greek

philosopher Aristotle has a theory of how “we learn through imitating

others and that our instinct to enjoy works of imitation is an inborn

instinct” (6, p. 269) Aristotle and Plato both saw imitation in literature,

with intertextuality as a force that linked different texts together. The

essence of intertextuality ties to the idea of new ideas that stem back to Greek Philosopher Aristotle is
credited with helping define
old ones. The literary works today have connections to earlier works intertextuality before it became an

that date back hundreds of years.

The contemporary ideas of intertextuality help account for the unexpected connections

and alterations of the past. “In this sense, the contemporary preoccupation with intertextuality

tends to question the usefulness of previous critical narratives of unified progression, in order to
suggest, instead, a view of literary works as crowded with layered images of multiple reflections

and unexpected relationships.” (6, p. 271)

Symbols in Literature

The various genres of literature apply intertextuality in different ways to continue

weaving a web of ideas taken from the past. Umberto Eco gives his own take on intertextuality,

saying “Now I realized that not infrequently books speak of books: it is as if they spoke among

themselves. (8, p.184) Texts draw on each other constantly, and in the case of children’s

literature, symbols have a recurring role. Professor Anne Lundin teaches a course in children’s

literature, and a centerpiece of her course requires her students to read different versions of

Cinderella.

Insights from this fairytale form much of our discussion throughout the course: themes

and motifs of alienation, growth, and transformation; textual changes, and reader

response. "Cinderella" figures keep appearing in the most unlikely texts. The examination

of alternative versions suggests the way stories are altered as cultural devices, the need to

know a wide variety of versions for multicultural storytelling and collection-building, and

the sheer universality of certain stories across spacious continents. (9, p. 211)

Lundin’s course continues with more literary works that connect back to the Cinderella figures,

such as Alice in Wonderland, Little Women, and Anne of Green Gables. These works utilize

intertextuality to connect back to the “Cinderella” figure. The important thing to take away is

that intertextuality views literature as cultural devices instead of singular characters.

Plagiarism vs. Allusion

Allusions in literature can range from Romeo from Romeo and Juliet to Captain Ahab

from Moby Dick. Since intertextuality revolves around past texts and ideas, plagiarism can at

times be an uninvited aspect of intertextuality in literature. There is a clear distinction between

allusions and plagiarism. “ Many of the hints which poets and other writers drop take the form of

allusions, and the reader is expected to catch them as he reads. Full understanding of what one

reads is impossible if allusions are ignored or misinterpreted. The reader, however, must check

the allusions in order to appreciate and to understand fully the author's meaning.” (10, p. 161)

It’s clear that allusions are subtle references to other works and are created by writers to provide

a comparison or example. Plagiarism is defined as “to commit literary theft : present as new and

original an idea or product derived from an existing source” (11) Allusions clearly reference

literary works and characters while plagiarism would take those references and instead pass them

off as their own.

Application to Poetry

Poetry’s unique style and the culture that surrounds it as a literary form has presented

singular opportunities for the advancement of intertextuality as a tool for writers. Celebrated poet

T.S. Eliot’s assessment of intertextuality helps to focus in on poetry’s distinctive implementation

of the technique,

No poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone. His significance, his

appreciation is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists. You cannot

value him alone; you must set him, for contrast and comparison, among the dead […]
 what happens when a new work of art is created is something that happens

simultaneously to all the works of art which preceded it. (3, p. 303)

Poetry develops as a form at a quicker rate than other styles such as prose and plays due

to the relatively short writing process and the compactness of content. Thus, poets are not only

able to intertextually reference fellow writers and artists from the past, but also their peers. This

frequently leads to rapid dialogues between poets and their texts. A famous example of this can

be found in the pair of poems “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” (1599) by Christopher

Marlowe and “The Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd” (1600) by Sir Walter Raleigh. The pair of

poems follow the same poetic form (six stanzas, each comprised of a quatrain) and act as a

dialogue between both the poem’s characters as well as their poets. Raleigh seizes upon the

narrative opportunity to respond to the shepherd, creating a character who questions the idealism

of Marlowe’s shepherd’s idea of love. In this way, poets have a unique opportunity to weave

their narratives together through intertextuality while also developing their philosophical ideas

and continuing cultural discourse.

Additionally, the formatting of poetry offers the basis for development of presentation of

language. “Poets, aware of the malleability of literary language, have created new visions by

inverting (and subverting) prior literary schemes. (12, p. 1)” As time passes, certain poetic styles

such as sonnets, ballads, limericks, rondeaus, and free verse will rise and fall in popularity due to

poet’s frequently mimicking the style of their peers and intertextually commenting on one

another. The reemergence of a prior form allows for the possibility of subversion of style,

fostering further intertextual development of poetry’s many techniques.

Application to Plays

Intertextuality is a literary device that can be used with any form of literature, from

novels, poems, and plays. Plays are a type of literature that seems to be overlooked because of

the way it is presented to its audience. It can be both read and acted, so it provides a vast variety

of interpretations, and it can also provide the audience with a better understanding of

intertextuality. Being that the audience would be able to visually see it and read it

simultaneously.

“The concept of the literary source has undergone in recent years an almost infinite

expansion to include virtually all expressions of language in a culture.”(12). Plays have allowed

an open avenue for literary sources to be adapted to performance pieces, allowing these sources

to reach all parts of the world. Plays connect the audience with many perspectives that they once

would not have seen if it was not for the use of other literary sources. Plays allowed their

audience to have an open mind when it came to interpreting the playwright's work and the acting

involved. The focus of the play was not only to entertain the audience but to teach them of

literary worlds not yet widely understood.

William Shakespeare and Intertextuality

William Shakespeare for example has revealed to us how

intertextuality was his important tool when writing his plays. It provided

him another way of communicating to his audience about what he was

portraying on that stage. “ Shakespeare borrows selectively and artfully

from his sources, but also reacts against his sources-- often developing and

expanding upon contrary suggestions already present in his sources.”(13).

The way that Shakespeare used this literary tool was not only to go beyond the source he used,

but to put his own unique touch to it. Shakespeare also knew that using intertextuality would

have allowed his audience to get the message he was sending. It has been seen throughout his

Richard Ⅱ plays, he kept some of his old characters because the Queen at the time told him to.

Listening to the Queen, he also sent a slight message about the wars that were going on, and how

the wheel of fortune was his greatest symbol. The wheel of fortune was a symbol that was seen

in Boethius(523 A.D.).He allowed the source to be a stepping stone to go further into his work

and use intertextuality to either back up his claims or to critique the source he is using. “ He

chose or accepted particular texts to rewrite and refashion for the stage.” (13). Shakespeare

knew that during his era certain texts would resonate with his audience and would send to them a

clearer message of the play. “The intertextual approach insists on the uniqueness of every act of

reading that places the text in a new web of relationships with other texts.”(14, p. 210). In plays

specifically we have noticed how Shakespeare’s work has been interpreted in a variety of ways

because of the knowledge behind the sources he chose to put into his work.

Citations

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Axioms and the Originators.” Pamukkale University Journal of Social Sciences Institute /

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8. Eco, Umberto. The Name of the Rose. Penguin Random House, 2016.

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https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/plagiarize. Accessed 22 Feb. 2020.

12. Debicki, Andrew P. (1993) "Intertextuality and Subversion: Poems by Ana Rossetti and

Amparo Amorós," Studies in 20th Century Literature: Vol. 17: Iss. 2, Article 2.

https://doi.org/10.4148/2334-4415.1320

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