CHAPTER 4

A World-Class Research University

on the Periphery: The Pohang
University of Science and
Technology, the Republic of Korea
Byung Shik Rhee

Achieving world-class status requires a university to possess competitive

advantages such as tradition, resources, and a supportive environment.
This circumstance may explain why world-class universities are concen-
trated in developed countries, which possess a relatively long modern-
university history, a nurturing environment of abundant resources, and
entrenched academic freedom. Perhaps it should not be a surprise that
every world-class university outside the United States, with only a few
exceptions, is a public institution. The Republic of Korea is one of the few
developing countries that has succeeded in developing world-renowned
universities—Seoul National University, the Korea Advanced Institute of

Author’s Note: The author thanks Seungpyo Hong for providing invaluable anecdotal infor-
mation on POSTECH and for arranging meetings with university administrators; Sooji Kim,
for her assistance in translating the earlier version of this manuscript; and Yuji Jeong, for
collecting relevant university documents. Special thanks go to Philip G. Altbach, Jamil
Salmi, and our distinguished research group for their helpful comments on the earlier
version of this manuscript.

101
102 The Road to Academic Excellence

Science and Technology, and Pohang University of Science and Technology

(POSTECH), among others. POSTECH deserves special attention.
POSTECH’s uniqueness derives from its position as a private univer-
sity that was able to achieve, over just the past two decades, world-class
status. Significantly, it was able to overcome the serious geographical
disadvantage, expressed in the typical “all roads lead to Seoul” preference
for living in the capital, that normally limits a Korean university’s capabil-
ity of attracting the best scholars and students. This chapter will examine
the way POSTECH achieved its current status over such a short period
of time and the nature of the continuing challenges it faces. Three main
questions will be addressed: First, what drove a private company, Pohang
Iron and Steel Company (POSCO), to found POSTECH? Second, what
characterizes POSTECH as a research university? Finally, what challenges
must the university meet to maintain its position? The chapter concludes
with a brief discussion of the implications for higher education stakehold-
ers in developing countries.
POSTECH was established in 1986 by a private entity,1 POSCO, cur-
rently the world’s second-largest steel enterprise. POSTECH is a 267-
acre (1.08–square kilometer) campus located in Pohang, a midsize coastal
city of more than 500,000 inhabitants. Geographically, Pohang is situated
in the southeast of the Korean peninsula, about 360 kilometers (224
miles) from Seoul, the capital. It is interesting that such a small, remote
city would become the home of POSTECH. In Korea, where social, edu-
cational, and cultural infrastructures have long been centralized in the
capital, the geographical proximity to Seoul has been considered critical
for attracting high-quality academic staff members and students. There is
an old Korean expression, “Send your kids to Seoul and your horses to
Jeju Island.”2 No single university with any hope of becoming a presti-
gious research institution could be found outside Seoul. Nevertheless,
POSTECH successfully settled in the local city, owing to the founder’s
visionary leadership, the unprecedented large-scale financial support
from his company, and creative managerial strategies to attract talented
scientists and students.
As its name suggests, POSTECH’s broad fields of concentration are
science and technology. POSTECH has four departments of science
(Chemistry, Life Science, Mathematics, and Physics), six departments of
engineering (Chemical Engineering, Computer Science and Engineering,
Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Industrial and Management
Engineering, Material Sciences and Engineering, and Mechanical
Engineering), and, for general education, the Division of Humanities and
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 103

Social Sciences. The graduate school programs are similar to the under-
graduate programs, yet also offer interdisciplinary programs in related
academic fields. All instruction is given in English (beginning in 2010),
except for general education, which continues to be taught in Korean.
POSTECH has kept enrollments small since its inception. The current
student enrollment, in 2009 figures, is approximately 3,100, including
1,400 undergraduates and 1,700 graduates (50 percent of whom are PhD
candidates). About 5,000 students have earned bachelor’s degrees, about
6,000 master’s degrees, and about 1,600 doctoral degrees from POSTECH.
Because the university annually admits only about 300 qualified students,
who are all Korean born and of Korean descent, undergraduate programs
are highly competitive. POSTECH, however, has steadily increased the
number of academic staff members and currently has 244 full-time pro-
fessors, maintaining a low student-faculty ratio (6 to 1) comparable to
those of highly regarded universities in developed countries.
POSTECH, moreover, is affluent in its financial resources. The univer-
sity’s endowment consists mostly of POSCO stock and, though fluctuat-
ing with the market, has now reached about US$2 billion.3 The 2009
operating budget was approximately US$220 million; POSTECH’s chief
private competitor, boasting a 10-times larger enrollment, spent only
twice as much in the same year. Thanks to POSTECH’s financial health,
students pay no tuition and live on campus surrounded by impressive
buildings and advanced classroom and laboratory facilities.
POSTECH built its solid national and international reputation in just
over two decades, by strategically focusing on science and technology,
keeping the university small in size, and inviting internationally respected
scientists. Since 1997, the university consistently has been among the top
three on the domestic university rankings list; in 1998, it was judged
Asia’s best “science and technology university” by AsiaWeek (1999); and
in 2010, it was ranked 28th in the World University Rankings by the
Times Higher Education (2010). POSTECH is making a continuous
effort to become a top-20 world university within the next 10 years.

The Korean System of Higher Education

The history of modern higher education in Korea is relatively brief. The
oldest private university, Yonsei University, founded by a group of U.S.
missionaries and medical doctors, celebrated its 125th anniversary in
2009. The national universities are even younger. The first public institu-
tion, Seoul National University, was established only 60 years ago. It was
104 The Road to Academic Excellence

transformed into a comprehensive university by merging the Japanese-

run Gyungsung Imperial College with other two-year public profes-
sional schools spread throughout the capital region. Although Korean
higher learning had been under the influence of China for several cen-
turies until the late 19th century and under the influence of Japan dur-
ing the 1910–1945 colonial period, the contemporary Korean system of
higher education mostly resembles its U.S. counterpart. This resem-
blance began when the U.S. Army military government at the end of
World War II (and, not coincidentally, at the end of Japanese rule) laid
the foundation of Korean education and contributed both financially
and in the form of U.S. scholars who visited Korea to provide consulta-
tion to institutions on setting up curricula and overall institutional sys-
tems. As a result of the close relationship established between the
United States and Korea, today one out of four professors in Korean
universities has a U.S. degree, and such credentials particularly dominate
the elite universities. Although the percentage is moderating, a large por-
tion of Korean graduates still considers U.S. graduate schools their first
choice for advanced study.
Despite its brief history, Korean higher education has substantially
expanded in scope. Currently, 3.5 million undergraduate students are
enrolled in about 400 colleges and universities. Roughly 80 percent of
these students attend private institutions. This high share of private insti-
tutions is a distinctive characteristic of Korean higher education. Although
private colleges and universities enroll more than four-fifths of under-
graduate students, the government has only minimally subsidized these
institutions. The lack of public funds to private institutions leads to a
heavy reliance (about 70 percent, on average) on tuition and fees for
revenue. Students of private universities typically pay two times more
than their counterparts attending public institutions, where the central
government is the main source of revenue (about 60 percent).
Over the past several decades, the types of higher education institu-
tions have become more varied. Although Korea lacks classification
schemes for institutions of higher education (such as that of the Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching in the United States),
Korean universities can be divided roughly into several categories by
primary mission (that is, research and teaching) and coverage of disci-
plines. National universities, including Seoul National University and
regional universities, are research universities that cover a comprehen-
sive array of academic fields. The most prestigious, Seoul National
University, currently has about 17,000 undergraduates and 1,500
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 105

full-time professors in 86 departments and expends approximately

US$300 million every year (Seoul National University 2009). Private
research universities such as Yonsei University and Korea University are
comparable to Seoul National University in those respects. A few highly
regarded but smaller research universities narrowly focus on science and
technology, including the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and
Technology and POSTECH. The former institution enrolls 4,000 under-
graduates, employs about 400 full-time professors in 23 degree pro-
grams, and spends US$100 million yearly (KAIST 2009). The remaining
universities are institutions that have the primary mission of teaching
and that serve regional or vocational needs for higher education. This
group includes colleges and universities of many kinds, such as industrial
universities, universities of education, technical universities, open uni-
versities, and junior colleges.
Another distinctive characteristic of Korean higher education is the
strong control the government traditionally has assumed. Although its
influence has gradually eroded, the government still has a high stake in
higher education even for private universities. As such, the government
continues to lessen its direct intervention in or regulation on institutional
management and instead exerts influence through such indirect measures
as competition grants and performance funding. As a result of this new
approach, high-performing universities have received more subsidies
through various recent projects such as Brain Korea 21 (1999–2012) and
World Class University project (2009–12).4 Private research universities,
including POSTECH, have significantly benefited from these govern-
ment-initiated funding programs (Rhee 2007).

The Background of Building a New University

At the time of POSTECH’s establishment, the education and research
environments of Korean higher education institutions were, in fact, poor;
that is, the idea of a research university in Korea was foreign. Until the late
1980s, academic atmospheres on university campuses were barely devel-
oped, specifically because of students’ political demonstrations for democ-
racy as well as the simple lack of institutional resources for quality
education and research (Han 1983). For instance, even the Engineering
College of Seoul National University, having an exceedingly high student-
faculty ratio, failed to supply a sufficient number of computers essential
for science and engineering education. Moreover, in 1985 the educational
expense per student was as low as US$1,500, which was only about 10 to
106 The Road to Academic Excellence

20 percent of that in Japan (US$17,000) and the United States (US$8,000).

Substantial governmental support for academic research, including the
fields of science and technology, began only in the 1980s, as a result of the
establishment of the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation in 1977
and the Korea Research Foundation in 1981 (Umakoshi 1997). Meanwhile,
domestic private companies began either to buy into existing universities
or to create new ones. For instance, Hyundai founded Ulsan Engineering
College in 1970; in 1977, Woo Joong Kim, then president of Daewoo
Corporation, contributed his assets to the takeover of Ajou Engineering
College, turning it into a university in 1980; and finally, the LG Group
founded the Yonam Institute of Digital Technology in 1981. The early
1970s to 1980s was an era in which private enterprise branched out into
higher education and cultivated human resources in the fields of science
and technology.
POSCO, established in 1973 with the help of a portion of the Japanese
indemnity fund and the compensation for Japanese rule, accomplished an
unexpected success with Japanese technical assistance. Thus, an anxious
Japan avoided further technology transfer to Korea. POSCO, feeling that
its own technology development was indispensable, eventually estab-
lished the Research Institute of Industrial Science and Technology in
1987. POSTECH was established in the same year for the purpose of
managing the research institute, as well as for providing advanced educa-
tion for budding engineers and laying the groundwork for future technol-
ogy development. Then, in 1986, the POSCO’s chief executive officer,
Tae Joon Park, articulated his vision of what POSTECH should pursue in
his inaugural remarks:

I would reiterate that POSTECH’s opening today not only is going to nur-
ture national leaders with a clear national outlook, a creative intelligence, and
a great humanity for the future society, as any traditional university would
do, but also, as a leading institution, is going to pave the way for our nation’s
advancement in science and technology. For industrial advancement and
global competitiveness, it is of the utmost importance to secure advanced
technology. POSCO also is in urgent need of world-class talent and research
capability, in order to further advanced technology development and become
a leading company in the 1990s. To this end, POSCO will continue to
increase investment in Research and Development; and certainly, we estab-
lished this research-oriented university (POSTECH) in the belief that a close
link between industry, an industrial research institute and a university will
make our dream come true. (POSTECH 2007)
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 107

The idea of establishing the new research university met with much
opposition at the time. Stakeholders in the government and in POSCO
were skeptical about whether POSCO could continuously provide suffi-
cient support until the university became financially independent. POSCO
proved itself up to the task of providing POSTECH with sufficient and
reliable financial support, thanks to its successful business operations. Still,
from a financial stability aspect, it was an acute risk. As the plans for the
establishment of POSTECH took shape, the local community proved
resistant, as well, because it expected a comprehensive, large-enrollment
university that could serve its higher education needs. At that time, Pohang,
with a population of 200,000, was the only city in the country without a
four-year university. However, POSTECH declared its aspiration to
become a small-size research university exclusively concentrating on the
science and technology fields. Despite these obstacles, and in keeping with
Tae Joon Park’s persistently strong leadership, POSTECH was established.

Early Development of POSTECH

From the time of its inception and foundation, POSTECH—as Tae Joon
Park, the founder and chief executive officer intended—aimed to become
a research university nurturing human resource competencies in the
fields of science and technology, using the California Institute of
Technology as its model. Park visited that university on his business trip
to Los Angeles in the spring of 1985 when the establishment plan of
POSTECH was being formulated, meeting the university’s administrators
to obtain advice. The visit to the California Institute of Technology appar-
ently helped Park to specify and make concrete his ideas about POSTECH.
He envisioned that the university should pursue the goal of becoming not
a comprehensive university, but rather a small institution devoted to
advanced research in science and technology. His specific requests to the
university founding team reflect mostly the characteristics of a typical
contemporary research university: a low student-faculty ratio, a greater
proportion of graduate students to undergraduates, a low net education
cost, student on-campus housing, and a high-quality campus environ-
ment. These features, as contained in the new university plan, represented
a drastic departure from the Korean universities of the 1980s.
The leadership role that Tae Joon Park played at this stage was impor-
tant but not sufficient for the establishment of a research university. The
following innovative approaches undertaken by university administrators
at various stages help explain the university’s early success.
108 The Road to Academic Excellence

First, POSTECH filled all full-time faculty positions with PhD recipi-
ents, 60 to 70 percent of whom were renowned Korean scientists living
abroad—PhD recipients in the science and engineering fields were rare in
Korea at that time. These scientists voluntarily returned to Korea because
they were dedicated to the cause of national development. Nevertheless,
the university’s offer certainly was enticing: an excellent research envi-
ronment, a teaching load of only two or three courses per year, a sabbati-
cal year every six years, a competitive salary that was among the highest
within Korea, and faculty apartments near the campus. The unique two-
step process of hiring professors in the early years of POSTECH is inter-
esting: First, as mentioned, the university hired a small number of
experienced Korean scientists living overseas who had established their
international reputations; second, the university asked all of them to initi-
ate a search for promising young scholars in their disciplines. Every year
since then, the backbone professoriate has successfully attracted a large
number of talented young scholars.
Regarding students at POSTECH, the undergraduate freshmen of the
opening year were in the top 2 percent of their high school classes. The
university had instituted a highly competitive admissions requirement,5
and as extra enticement, all entering students were promised free tuition
and provision of dormitory housing. Along with media promotions, the
university reached out to the top high school students nationwide through
a brochure, the hosting of a science camp on campus, and admissions
conferences in major cities. Historically, such promotional activities simply
were not practiced by universities, least of all by elite institutions—
especially in the 1980s, when higher education was a supplier’s market.
After POSTECH’s unexpected success in recruiting high-honors students
in the first years, graduate students from prestigious universities consid-
ered it for their advanced research and academic careers. Graduate stu-
dents were attracted not only because their tuition fees were waived and
they were able to live free in well-appointed apartments on campus, but
also because they had access to laboratories with the finest facilities and
high-end computer systems, which no other universities had at that time.
At its inception, POSTECH did not adopt administrative procedures
from other benchmarked universities, instead importing POSCO’s own
management techniques and systems, albeit selectively. Those advanced
techniques and systems enabled efficient management of the university.
POSTECH’s overall administrative system and staff proved very support-
ive, unlike those of other national and private institutions that saddled
faculty with bureaucratic red tape and decision-making procrastination.
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 109

The study of failure models also contributed to POSTECH’s initial suc-

cess. Officials from Seoul National University and Ajou University gener-
ously suggested approaches on founding a university—in fact, cautionary
tales based on their experiences of failure. They emphasized that the aca-
demic plan must be formulated ahead of the facility plan. In fact, faculty
recruitment strategies were formulated to avoid the less-than-positive
results achieved by Ulsan University (located in Ulsan, an industrial city
about 65 kilometers [40 miles] south of Pohang). Ulsan University’s
College of Engineering, founded by the Hyundai Group in 1970, had dif-
ficulties attracting science and engineering professors with doctorates and
had to fill positions with those holding master degrees. In addition, it failed
to attract a sufficient number of qualified students, which resulted in the
admission of less-qualified students from the local community. Almost
inevitably, and thus unintentionally, Ulsan University grew into a four-year
comprehensive university, which was far from an institute of science and
technology. POSTECH therefore ensured that all faculty positions were
filled with doctoral-degree recipients, and it raised the admissions standard
for first-year students to a higher level than that of Yonsei University
and Korea University, which were and remain the top private universities
in Korea.

Governance and Leadership

The University Corporation,6 established by POSCO, holds final execu-
tive authority and is responsible for decisions on major academic, finan-
cial, and policy matters. Specifically, POSTECH’s board of trustees within
the corporation is similar to that typical of U.S. private universities; they
both have a number of external figures deliberating and making decisions
for the university. However, POSTECH’s board is much smaller—for
example, one-fifth the members of the California Institute of Technology’s
board of trustees—although the two universities are comparable in size
of enrollment. For this reason, the chairman of the board happens to be
relatively more influential than other members in the general manage-
ment of the university. However, since the beginning, autonomous
management of the university has been guaranteed. Thus, the chairperson
entrusts management authority—such as the power to appoint faculty—
to the president. This is unusual in Korean private universities, where the
chairperson, who typically is the owner of the university or a member of
the owner’s family, is actively involved in institutional management.
In many cases, as well, family members functioning as trustees or chief
110 The Road to Academic Excellence

administrators intervene in decision making on important university

affairs—such as faculty hiring and institutional financial management.
Actions that sometimes amount to meddling for the purposes or benefits
of these family members or the family overall have often led to disputes
over faculty hiring or, even worse, financial corruption (for example,
embezzlement of university funds). POSTECH, notwithstanding the
chairman’s powerful influence, has never reported any such incidents.

Institutional Management
Since its establishment, POSTECH has continually devised university devel-
opment plans; most recently, a new vision and set of strategies—VISION
2020 for a World-Class University—was inaugurated. POSTECH’s plan,
accordingly, is to become a top-20 world-class research university by
2020. To achieve this goal, POSTECH has selected 11 performance indi-
cators in five areas, the progress of these indicators is monitored, and the
results are publicized annually on the Web. These ambitious performance
goals clearly show not only POSTECH’s aspiration, but also the perfor-
mance gap that remains between it and top-class U.S. universities. POSTECH
endeavors to reduce that gap using three main strategies: selectivity and
focus of approach, research collaboration, and internationalization.
Because POSTECH, a small university, cannot easily secure professors for
every academic field, it strategically selects high-impact research areas
and also encourages faculty members to work together through team-
based projects with potential synergy. To strengthen research collabora-
tion, POSTECH has implemented the split-appointment system, a joint
faculty appointment by two or more departments, and actively encour-
ages interdisciplinary research. The university also recognizes that inter-
nationalization is a must, if world-class status is to prove an attainable
goal, and makes a tremendous effort to attract distinguished scholars
from abroad.
Another distinctive characteristic of POSTECH’s management is the
president’s authority to empower department chairs. In most Korean
universities, department chairs are appointed by the pertinent individ-
ual departments and have only nominal authority to carry out routine
departmental affairs for two years in rotation. However, at POSTECH,
department chairs do not have a fixed term and also face the primary
responsibility of hiring new faculty and assessing faculty performance
in their own units. This is a very interesting development in institu-
tional management because it goes against the Korean trend, which is
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 111

centralization. By empowering the engaged middle level of management,

POSTECH has been quite successful in recruiting and retaining qualified
scientists.

Research and the University-Industry Link

Since its inception, POSTECH has endowed itself with highly competent
scientists and has provided them with possibly the best research environ-
ment for generating high-impact research. Undoubtedly, even with its
small faculty, POSTECH has been producing excellent research results.
In 2008, POSTECH faculty members published 1,464 papers, both
nationally and internationally, or an average of about six papers per fac-
ulty member—the highest level among Korean universities and a level
comparable to that of major U.S. universities. In addition to the respect-
able number of published papers—and in view of its small enrollment
and quality of papers—POSTECH appears in the world’s top-20 univer-
sities per faculty citation index.
Among POSTECH’s excellent research departments, the integrated
Department of Chemistry and Life Science and the Department of
Materials and Devices are particularly outstanding. In the former depart-
ment, there are a number of best scientist award and science award
recipients among the faculty members, in addition to those topping the
field in Brain Korea 21 projects. Also, recently the Department of Life
Science was selected for financial support from a government-funded
program offering assistance to universities in their progress toward world-
class university status. In the Department of Materials and Devices, which
would require first-rate facilities in any university, POSTECH maintains
a premier research environment that includes the establishment of a par-
ticle accelerator and the National Center for Nanomaterials Technology.
To continuously produce high-impact research outcomes, POSTECH
has been reinforcing strategic resource allocation, collaborative research,
and international research partnerships, as mentioned earlier. POSTECH
has chosen to emphasize research fields in which faculty members can
enjoy collaborative research synergy and also has invited international
scholars to participate. The future appears bright regarding active inter-
national collaborative research. Notably, beginning in 2009 and continu-
ing until 2014, POSTECH has conducted and will conduct additional
high-end research in collaboration with 23 internationally distinguished
scholars invited under the auspices of the World Class University project.
Additionally, the university plans to strengthen international collaboration
112 The Road to Academic Excellence

through cooperation with the Max Planck Institute in Germany and

RIKEN, a natural sciences research institute running SPring-8 (a synchro-
tron radiation facility), in Japan.
As mentioned earlier, POSTECH’s founding company, POSCO, con-
sidered industrial collaboration to be one of the university’s main func-
tions and, hence, established the Research Institute of Industrial Science
and Technology (RIST) next to the main buildings on campus. Some risks
are created by industry affiliation—the most significant of which is the
compromising of research integrity because of a conflict of interest
between faculty and a sponsoring company. Likewise, research potential
could be curtailed by a perceived gap between requested research and
research that faculty members would rather undertake. Indeed, some
POSTECH faculty members working at RIST as adjunct researchers have
been frustrated by this special conflict, which typically involves applied
versus basic research. This situation is understandable, considering that
POSCO in the 1980s needed applied science research to serve company-
specific agendas and issues, while most faculty members had been
trained—typically at U.S. research universities and research centers—for
basic research.
This tension was notably acute during the university’s first 10 years,
when all newly hired faculty members were required to have a joint RIST
and academic appointment. However, the conflict has eased steadily for
two reasons. First, POSCO dropped the dual appointment policy and
began to provide research funds directly to individual faculty members.
Second, as POSCO’s need for advanced technology and frontier knowl-
edge to sustain its competitive advantage over global competitors grew, it
began to perceive the greater benefits accruing from the POSTECH fac-
ulty’s basic, not applied, research. However, this tension might still exist,
but in a new form. Although the growth of public funding of research has
provided POSTECH faculty members with more freedom to select
research topics consonant with their interests, the sponsoring government
agencies have put more emphasis on national strategic areas as well as
research outputs that can be readily commercialized. Statistics show that,
universitywide, applied research accounts for about 75 percent of the
total public funding of university research and development (MEST
2009). This is almost precisely the proportion of POSTECH’s public
funding to its overall research funding. The university recently took in
approximately US$98 million from public funding and about US$33 mil-
lion from private sources (POSTECH 2009). As such, applied research is
still a dominant form.
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 113

Whereas impartiality and communality have long characterized the

international scientific community, a recent study shows that the major-
ity of scientists in Korean universities appear to have a favorable atti-
tude toward commercialization of research (Bak 2006). A nationalist
perspective that considers such commercialization a legitimate means
of promoting national interests might account for that view. The Korean
government’s continuous support of the commercial application of sci-
entific research has encouraged Korean universities’ active participation
in the process. POSTECH, with the support of POSCO and govern-
ment agencies, has long sought to boost the commercial value of its
research, particularly by creating an administrative support system and
running a business incubation center along with a venture capital
operation.
The advanced system POSTECH developed in 2006, the Technology
Utilization System, manages the interplay of research, patents, and
knowledge transfer. Currently, 11 enterprises are under development in
the POSTECH Venture Business Incubation Center. POSTECH has
invested US$6.3 million in its venture companies. Moreover, during the
past 20 years, 26 faculty members have started new businesses relating to
the commercialization of their research. The estimated value of knowl-
edge transfer for 2009 is about US$2 million, which is equivalent to
about 3 percent per faculty member, the highest level in Korea.

Curriculum, Teaching and Learning, and Student Life

Extremely talented students constituting the top 1 percent of the Korean
high school student body choose POSTECH. POSTECH students enjoy
the challenges in their academic life, devoting exceptionally long hours to
study during semesters. Reciprocally, they demand the university’s sup-
port in achieving a ranking of the top 0.1 percent of Korean university
graduates. POSTECH makes every effort to nurture the high science and
technology competencies of its students. In the regular curriculum, the
chief characteristics of POSTECH’s undergraduate education are the
high prevalence of small classes, the cross-curriculum expansion of
English lectures, and the intensification of its math courses. As for the
undergraduate program, small-size classes (those with enrollments of
20 students or fewer) constitute more than 60 percent of the total, and
the low student-professor ratio provides students with abundant oppor-
tunities to interact with their professors and enhance their higher-order
intellectual skills.
114 The Road to Academic Excellence

POSTECH also plans to intensify English education and to conduct all

courses in English to mentor its students as global leaders. To those ends,
POSTECH requires its students in their first two years to take intensive
English courses conducted by native English-speaking instructors. Upon
entering the university, freshmen must take a placement test for English.
According to the results, they are required to register for a maximum of
nine levels of English courses (the majority of students take six to seven
courses). For acceptance into the final course, they must be able to write
a paper in English. Students who successfully complete all the courses
receive the POSTECH Certificate of English. Significantly, the university
announced that beginning in 2010, all courses except for general educa-
tion will be taught exclusively in English.
At the same time, mathematics education has been given greater
emphasis. All freshmen are required to register for advanced mathematics
courses. The intensification of math education reportedly is more closely
related to POSTECH’s philosophy of education rather than to the trend
of lesser preparedness among high school graduates. In fact, according to
the administrator in charge of academic affairs, the stress on math is
intended to reinforce the basic education required for undergraduate engi-
neering students and to contribute to an overall deeper level of graduate
education. Such intensive math education in any case reflects the fierce
competition among elite institutions, as POSTECH attempts to gain a
head start in maintaining its hard-won reputation for excellence in educa-
tion. Like the majority of research universities, however, POSTECH must
confront the issue of faculty members’ diminishing interest in under-
graduate education. Although no easy solution to this particular problem
exists (Bok 2006; Lewis 2006), POSTECH is attempting a typical “carrot
and stick” approach. For example, financial incentives are extended to
faculty members willing to develop a program to enhance students’ active
learning or creativity. The university also has introduced student course
evaluations and made the results accessible to students. POSTECH fac-
ulty members’ generally less-than-ardent interest in teaching does not
necessarily mean poor education. Quite to the contrary, despite profes-
sors’ lack of enthusiasm for teaching, a recent survey of both current
undergraduate students and graduates showed that they were quite satis-
fied with the instructional quality in general at the university. However,
they complained most about the lack of interaction with their professors
outside the classroom. This situation is regrettable, because interaction
with faculty members is known to be an important ingredient in students’
university development (Pascarella and Terenzini 2005).
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 115

The Academic Profession

Although POSTECH has not had a Nobel Prize winner among its full-
time faculty, 16 national scientist award recipients, 115 international
academic award or medal recipients, and hundreds of domestic award
recipients are testament to its excellence. Such a success in faculty hiring
should be attributed to the pivotal role that individual departments play
in hiring faculty. Now common at research universities in Korea, this
practice was rarely attempted at the time POSTECH first adopted it.
Although the department makes the hiring plan and initiates the process,
several steps were set in place to prevent anyone from exerting undue or
illegitimate influence on the hiring decision. A typical hiring process
works as follows: (a) a search committee consisting of three to five ten-
ured professors in a department, plus one external reviewer, reviews
applicants’ documents and recommends a sufficient number of candidates,
typically five or more, for open talks and an interview; (b) the selected
competing candidates are interviewed, followed by a departmental per-
sonnel committee’s recommendation of the most-qualified candidate to
a university personnel committee composed of eight tenured, cross-
departmental professors plus the director of academic affairs; and (c) the
university personnel committee members, all appointed by the president,
conduct a final review.
Once hired as an assistant or associate professor, the successful candi-
date must meet the minimum requirements for promotion, which vary
by department. In general, the minimum requirements for promotion to
associate professor include teaching three or more courses with satisfac-
tory student course evaluations, publishing at least four research articles
(eight articles for promotion to full professor) in high-impact interna-
tional journals, and conducting adequate professional activities within
and outside of the university. Despite the high standards, most candidates
have been able to pass the promotion review. Between 1997 and 2007,
five assistant professors and one associate professor left the university
because they could not meet the requirements. Moreover, as the require-
ments for promotion have been further tightened, professors have had to
publish additional articles at higher-impact journals to stay at POSTECH
and, indeed, to be internationally recognized. Lately, the university has
made requirements even tougher, such as requiring all assistant professors
to apply for and pass their tenure review7 within seven years of their
initial appointment. Those who fail their tenure review will have only a
one-year grace period. It remains to be seen whether such stringent
116 The Road to Academic Excellence

standards succeed in attracting young high-potential scholars or, in fact,

discourage them from choosing POSTECH.
POSTECH, a fast-changing institution, has attempted a variety of its
own self-imposed transformations over the past 20 years. One remark-
able change relating to the academic profession is the introduction of a
performance-based compensation system in 2000. With the new system,
faculty salary is determined not by seniority but by a faculty member’s
accomplishments over the preceding three years in teaching, research,
and public service. The university further refined the salary system so
that the president could allocate incentives, according to six graded
levels, to only two-thirds of eligible professors in consideration of their
annual contributions to the university, the industry, and the national
economy. POSTECH was one of the first champions of a
performance-based salary system that is now widely instituted among
private Korean universities, mainly to intensify competition among fac-
ulty members.

Internationalization
Internationalization has been the backbone of POSTECH’s aspiration to
become a world-class research university since its foundation. POSTECH
envisaged itself as a university offering excellence in education and
research to Korean students who, thus, would have no need to study
abroad. To reach its goal, POSTECH developed a research network with
top-class universities worldwide. In the early days, this approach was
made possible by taking advantage of its faculty’s personal connections
with such universities as the University of California, Berkeley, and
Carnegie Mellon University in the United States, Imperial College
London and the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom,
Aachen University in Germany, and Université de Technologie de
Compiègne in France. Since then, POSTECH has continued to strengthen
international collaborative research with foreign partners in France,
Germany, Japan, and the United States. In 1996, POSTECH established
the Association of East Asian Research Universities with leading univer-
sities such as the University of Tokyo and Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology, along with 14 other universities in East Asian
countries. More recently, the headquarters of the Asia Pacific Center for
Theoretical Physics, an international research center in the field of basic
science, moved to the POSTECH campus in 2001, and POSTECH is
promoting the establishment of a Korean research branch of the Max
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 117

Planck Institute. Moreover, POSTECH has established a strategic part-

nership with RIKEN—as mentioned earlier—a natural sciences research
institute in Japan running SPring-8 (a synchrotron radiation facility),
thereby further solidifying its basis for high-impact research.
POSTECH has also steadily expanded international student-exchange
programs. Currently, the university has 71 sisterhood universities in 19
countries, about 387 POSTECH students have studied abroad short term
(a semester or two), and 295 foreign students have come to POSTECH
for short-term study. Since 2004, POSTECH has sent abroad an average
of 90 students per year through the summer session program, which
allows students to take summer school courses at top-class foreign uni-
versities. In addition, through the Association of East Asian Research
Universities Student Camp and Cross Straits Symposium, an academic
exchange program (involving POSTECH and Pusan National University
in Korea and Kyushu University in Japan) is being offered to PhD candi-
dates studying environment, energy, and materials. A total of 1,500 stu-
dents, in 10 exchanges from 1999 to 2008, have participated in this
program. Despite its active collaboration with foreign institutions, how-
ever, POSTECH has a disappointingly negligible number of full-time
international students and scholars. As of 2009, the university had about
10 percent foreign professors, about 4 percent international students at
the graduate level, and no students at the undergraduate level. These
surprisingly low proportions of international scholars and students may
be attributable to the university’s location in a local city that lacks an
international dimension.
Nonetheless, a series of recent public announcements clearly indicates
that POSTECH takes internationalization seriously. In February 2010,
the university told the media that it would invite 10 Nobel laureates or
Fields medalists as full-time professors that year. Each invited scholar
would be given US$1 million for salary and an additional US$4 million
for research and living costs during a three-year stay at POSTECH. The
total amount to be paid would be five times more than that paid to par-
ticipating international scholars through the government-funded World
Class University project. POSTECH is also collaborating with Pohang
city to open a new international K–12 (kindergarten–12th grade) school
near the campus. Additionally, POSTECH will soon declare itself a bilin-
gual campus where both English and Korean are used as formal languages.
In this plan, all undergraduate (except general education) and graduate
courses will be taught exclusively in English. All academic seminars and
meetings at which an international person is present will use English as
118 The Road to Academic Excellence

the primary language. Moreover, every official document to be circulated

throughout the university will be written in both Korean and English.

Finance
POSTECH’s budget was increased from US$15 million, the level at the
time of its foundation in 1987, to US$170 million in 2009. During the
first five years, POSTECH’s financial dependence on the University
Corporation was 80 percent on average, but this amount was gradually
reduced to about 30 percent in recent years. The reduced contribution
from the corporation to POSTECH’s revenue was made up in large part
through increased research income, which rose to 40 percent during the
same period. Despite these changes in the revenue composition, the uni-
versity has kept the proportion of tuition and fees to total revenue below
10 percent. It is interesting to note, however, that for reasons such as the
lack of a culture of philanthropy in Korean society and the relatively very
small number of POSTECH alumni, donations account for less than
5 percent of the total revenue.
POSTECH has expanded research collaboration with companies other
than POSCO and, at the same time, has actively participated in
government-funded projects. Nevertheless, POSCO’s research fund still
accounts for the largest portion of research revenue, about 50 percent.
The university’s close tie with and financial intakes from POSCO, para-
doxically, restrict the university’s collaborations with other companies
and, thereby, its ability to secure donations from other sources. For this
reason, fund-raising campaigns thus far have not been successful. The
university has barely raised US$4.3 million since 1995. Nevertheless, in
terms of endowment, POSTECH might be the richest private institution
in Korea, with US$2 billion worth of stocks as of 2009. The university has
no domestic competitors in expenditure on instruction per student, about
US$70,000, a level about five times higher than that of typical universi-
ties in Korea (MEST and KEDI 2009, 116).
Notwithstanding the government’s significant controls, private univer-
sities in Korea have been only minimally subsidized. POSTECH is no
exception. Until the mid-1990s, public funding channeled into the univer-
sity hardly reached 3 percent of total revenue. Over the past decade
(2000–10), however, POSTECH witnessed a significant expansion of
public funding of research, student scholarships, and even operating bud-
gets. In 2008, about 30 percent of research funds came from public
sources, mainly through the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 119

The government also provided full scholarships to all enrolled students

until graduation, on the condition that they maintain their grade point
average above 3.3 (out of 4.3). This sudden largesse can be attributed
mainly to a shift in the government’s funding policies. Competitive fund-
ing programs—such as Brain Korea 21 (1999–2012) and World-Class
University (2008–2012)—have played an important role in expanding
public funding of private universities with excellent research capabilities.
Performance-based funding, introduced in 2008 and still in effect, has
allocated public funds to selected public and private higher education
institutions based on a small number of government-selected performance
indicators. In 2010, POSTECH received US$2 million of this money.
Whereas the increased public funding has helped POSTECH keep pace
with international competitors, it is not wholeheartedly welcomed by
many faculty members, who fear that such subsidies are likely to lead to
significant public sector intrusiveness (see the following section).

Government Support and Control

Whereas POSCO’s role in the development of POSTECH is unparal-
leled, the Korean government also has played a significant role, both as a
supporter and as a regulator. This situation is not unique to POSTECH.
Government funds always come with strings attached to further a higher
education policy agenda. Also, it has been common for the government
to control private universities through policy, regulation, and various
administrative tools.8 During the past 20 years, POSTECH has increased
its reliance on the government’s financial support, which ominously has
resulted in numerous changes in POSTECH’s academic programs,
research environment, and institutional management.
First, POSTECH’s participation in Brain Korea 21 and the World Class
University projects changed academic programs at the graduate level. The
government required universities to consolidate graduate programs into
larger interdisciplinary divisions (hakbu) to join the new projects. In com-
pliance, POSTECH reorganized its six graduate school departments into
three divisions, the Division of Molecular and Life Science, the Division
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and the Division of Mechanical
and Industrial Engineering, as well as one school—the School of Systems
Biosciences and Bioengineering. More recently, to participate in the
World Class University project, POSTECH established new graduate-
level interdisciplinary programs, including Integrative Biosciences and
Biotechnology, the Division of Advanced Materials Science, and the
120 The Road to Academic Excellence

Division of IT Convergence Engineering. The government will subsidize

the university for a total of US$83 million until 2012, if the participating
programs perform as expected.
POSTECH’s partnership with the government has also greatly
enhanced its research environment. For instance, the third Pohang Light
Source, completed in 1994, is an exemplary US$150 million research
facility built near the POSTECH campus. The government contributed
about US$60 million for its construction, and it has been run and man-
aged by the Pohang Accelerator Laboratory (POSTECH’s annex research
center) as a national user facility (the operating budget of US$20.5 million
is being met by the government). Recently, POSTECH made a request
to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology for a feasibility
study regarding the establishment of a fourth Pohang Light Source.
Approximately US$400 million has been earmarked, and a full opera-
tional plan is forthcoming in the near future. There is also the National
Center for Nanomaterials Technology, a research facility founded under
POSTECH’s own supervision, which has been under construction on
campus since 2004. The Ministry of Knowledge Economy has been
providing financial support up to US$90 million for five years. In addition,
the Pohang Institute of Intelligent Robotics (established in early 2000),
the National Core Research Center, the Information Technology Research
Center, the National Research Laboratory, and the National Defense
Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Research Center are all
being run with assistance from the government’s budget.
More penetrating governmental effects on POSTECH can be found in
institutional management, the area in which the university traditionally
has been least likely to experience external intrusion. Over the past
10 years, the government has been increasing the university operating
budget subsidy, as well as the research funding for private universities, to
achieve its higher education policy goals. For instance, it is funding public
and private universities subject to institutional performance indicators
relating to postgraduate student employment, quality of education, finan-
cial aid, and educational expenditure per student. Through this funding
scheme, POSTECH received about US$350,000 in 2008. The govern-
ment also is funding universities that have instituted the admissions
officer system, a new admissions process promoted by the current admin-
istration in which applicants are judged not only on academic achieve-
ments in college entrance exams and high school, but also, and more
important, on their socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds and
academic potentials. After receiving the pertinent financial support—in
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 121

this case, about US$300,000—POSTECH duly selected all students for

2010 using this new admissions process and is expected to continue to do
so while the inflow of financial support continues. Clearly, new funding
programs such as these, which force POSTECH to accept government
impositions regarding its goals and methods of student selection, might
not be suitable or helpful for a private university to embrace.
In some respects, the government’s financial support can be validated
as a contributor to the growth of POSTECH into a research university.
However, it is impossible to disregard the negative aspects of the govern-
ment’s contribution, which have restricted the university’s autonomy by
inducing participation in the government’s chosen strategic fields of study
or by interfering in university management. Whether these lasting changes,
as corollaries of governmental interventions, will benefit POSTECH
remains unclear. If the government relies overly on a regulatory role, the
changes could well hold back the university’s potential growth.

Changing Environment and Emerging Challenges

POSTECH’s current strengths are the result of quality faculty members,
talented and hardworking students, and an exceptional research environ-
ment. To achieve world-class status, the university, like other world-class
universities, must invite even more talented scholars and students, regard-
less of their nation of origin, to provide top-rated support for research and
teaching. POSTECH, however, may experience difficulties in many
aspects because of intensifying competition among universities, a location
that lacks an international dimension, a weak collaborative culture, inse-
cure finances, and shortsighted internal management.
POSTECH is experiencing deepened competition not only because of
the force of globalization, but also because of new research universities,
competition among research universities, and the increased bargaining
power of students in Korea (Peterson and Dill 1997). New public uni-
versities of science and technology recently were established in nearby
cities, and domestically competing universities are rapidly growing and
moving aggressively to hire faculty members, increasing the trend of
faculty relocation to Seoul or other major cities. This battle for talent
among the research universities is attributable, in part, to the increase in
the government’s competitive research grants such as Brain Korea 21 and
the World Class University projects in Korea. Furthermore, if several U.S.
universities with strong engineering programs enter Incheon City near
Seoul as planned, the competition could be even greater. Although
122 The Road to Academic Excellence

government support for higher education has not yet decreased in Korea,
the increasing quantity of outstanding science and technology universi-
ties might cause dispersion of that support. This situation could create a
new threat to POSTECH, which is located in a vulnerable city where
social and cultural infrastructures and educational conditions are weak.
Such circumstances will especially bring more challenging problems to
POSTECH as it attempts to fortify and improve its position as a world-
class university by attracting and hiring more foreign professors, students,
and researchers.
To compete globally, POSTECH must produce high-impact research.
As mentioned earlier, such research will be made feasible with the finding
of new research fields of competitive advantage and the conducting of
collaborative, synergy-rich research. POSTECH’s advancement in research
may be hampered by both its vulnerability to the influence of the govern-
ment’s power to set research agendas and its weak culture of collabora-
tion among professors. Although the government has attempted to help
POSTECH carry out international collaborative research, the scale of
support is not sufficiently large, and the support tends in any case to
center on the government’s strategic fields of science and technology that
characterize the relatively short-term perspective of applied research. As
such, this support can possibly interfere with or even retard development
of the field of basic science research at POSTECH. For many reasons,
however, research collaboration among faculty members across disci-
plines is not taking place as desired. POSTECH hopes to establish a
separate research space, similar to the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology’s media lab, where such collaborative research can occur.
Over the past few years at POSTECH, where only a few full-time
international students and professors have been present at any one time,
English has gained sufficient popularity to be adopted formally as the
language of instruction. Although this is not uncommon in contemporary
Korean universities, it shows a clear increasing trend in science and engi-
neering education. For example, at Yonsei University, a private research
university, one out of every two undergraduate courses, on average, is
taught in English, whereas more than seven out of 10 courses offered in
engineering programs are so conducted. In leading this trend, in 2010
POSTECH began teaching all courses, except general education courses,
exclusively in English. An underlying rationale for increasing the number
of courses taught in English is the idea that such a measure will attract
more international students and scholars. This is doubtful. Students learn
outside of class as well as in class. Students also learn from both their
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 123

teachers and their peers. In this sense, then, the current emphasis on the
use of a certain language for instruction is insufficient justification for
international students to choose POSTECH and may also negatively affect
Korean students’ learning, in that few of them have the language skills
necessary for participation in courses taught in English.
Securing adequate and reliable finances is another key element in
POSTECH’s quest to become a world-class university. The two main
sources of POSTECH’s current revenue—the founding company (POSCO)
and the government—are insecure in the long term. The endowment itself
consists of nothing but POSCO stock, which fluctuates with economic
circumstances. For the first 10 years after POSTECH’s founding, POSCO’s
tremendous support contributed to POSTECH’s growth, but that support
has decreased substantially since then. Although governmental support
grew somewhat substantially in scale over the past decade, it cannot be
regarded as stable for the long term, as the experience of other developed
countries shows. For example, the U.S. government’s support for higher
education is largely influenced by economic circumstances and tends
gradually to decrease (Gladieux, King, and Corrigan 2005). The recent
promotion of incorporation of public universities in Korea can be seen as
the government’s effort to lessen its financial share in the support of higher
education (Rhee 2007). Notwithstanding these circumstances, as men-
tioned earlier, the fact that POSTECH has an actual patron (POSCO)
makes it more difficult to reach out to other potential sponsors and donors
for institutional development assistance. Furthermore, a short, 20-year his-
tory and a small class of 300 undergraduates militate against the universi-
ty’s raising significant donations from alumni.
POSTECH’s current share of revenue from student tuition (10 percent
or less) along with its low tuition (about 50 percent of that of private
competitors) may provide it with more than enough justification for a
tuition increase. Nonetheless, raising tuition fees is not a good alternative,
for multiple reasons. First, government policy discourages it.9 Second, the
university corporation, which is responsible for institutional finance, has a
long-standing internal policy of keeping tuition fees below 10 percent of
total revenue. Third, public competitors—Seoul National University and
Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology—maintain their
tuition at about 50 percent of the level of private institutions. Fourth,
since its inception POSTECH has been well known and admired for its
provision of full scholarships to its students, which is one of the compel-
ling reasons why so many gifted high school students from low- and
middle-income families select POSTECH as their first choice of university.
124 The Road to Academic Excellence

Finally, a tuition increase to the level of private competitors will bring in

an additional US$6 million per year—only about 3 percent of total annual
revenue. The costs would well exceed the financial gains of any such hike.
Nevertheless, in the long run, a tuition increase must be seriously consid-
ered, for at least two reasons. First, national universities will soon be seen
as incorporated. If so, tuition fees, if international experience is any indica-
tion, likely will rise significantly. Second, because POSTECH’s student
body is filled with an increasing number of students from wealthy families,
POSTECH could adopt a policy similar to that of U.S. Ivy League univer-
sities, which provide significant financial assistance to students from low-
income families while asking other students to pay more.
For POSTECH’s first eight years, it was helmed by the visionary leader
Dr. Hogil Kim, a world-renowned nuclear physicist. POSTECH’s founder,
Tae Joon Park, had endorsed Dr. Kim wholeheartedly and let him take full
charge of university management. Under President Kim’s leadership, a
solid foundation was laid for POSTECH as a research university.10 Since
President Kim’s passing, which was a great loss to POSTECH, the univer-
sity unfortunately has experienced leadership difficulties. No new leaders
selected since then have presided in office longer than four years, and
vice-presidents and executive directors of administrative units have
served for even shorter periods (two years, in general). Certainly, there is
concern involving this short-term charge of executive and administrative
affairs by internal faculty members who lack administrative experience
and leadership skills, presenting potentially large obstacles in the path of
the university’s transformation into a world-class institution.

Conclusion
POSTECH is one of the few non-U.S. private universities that may attain
top status. The university continues to aspire to move up in world rankings.
Indeed, the university hopes to fill, with a bust of one of its own faculty
members, a designated space at the center of campus for honoring the first
Korean Nobel laureate in science. This case study attempts to analyze how
a relatively new, small, private university in a non-English-speaking coun-
try could achieve world-class status amid the challenges that emerged in
the course of its evolution. From the findings of this analysis, it is hoped
that higher education stakeholders in developing countries may gain
insights into the creation of world-class universities in their own nation.
These findings show that top status is achieved through visionary leader-
ship, the empowering of subordinates, a superior supporting environment,
 A World-Class Research University: The Pohang University 125

and partnership with the government. In addition, POSTECH must con-

tinue to deal with various kinds of emerging challenges for which there are
no easy solutions.
To leap to a higher status, the enterprising POSTECH is about to
experiment with the controversial but bold idea of using a nonnative
language—English—as the primary tool for teaching science and engi-
neering students. Whether this audacious attempt will succeed or fail,
many lessons undoubtedly will be learned.

Notes
1. POSCO began as a public corporation and was privatized in 2000.
2. Jeju Island is an exotic vacation island off the southern coast of Korea.
3. For simplicity, current values and a flat exchange rate (1,000 to 1) between
Korean won and U.S. dollars are used throughout this manuscript.
4. Brain Korea 21 began in 1999 and will last until 2012, providing financial
support to graduate students in research projects. In the first stage, which
ended in 2007, the government transferred US$1.3 billion to 564 research
teams nationwide. The second stage, which began in 2008, has US$2 billion
set aside to support 568 research teams from 74 universities. The World Class
University project, which was initiated in 2008, is a higher education subsidy
program of the Korean government that aims to create new academic pro-
grams in new growth-generating fields and to enhance international research
and teaching collaboration by inviting distinguished scholars from around the
world. The government will have invested US$825 million in the program
between 2008 and 2012 (MEST 2008).
5. POSTECH recognized the significance to the success of any research univer-
sity of attracting eminent faculty members and students. However, some
individuals at the university were concerned that undergraduate applicant
qualifications were set too high. President Hogil Kim, in an entertaining
expression of his determination, replied: “Even if there is only one applicant,
it is of no matter because then, the faculty can focus only on doing research”
(POSTECH 2007, 98).
6. According to Korean law, a university is founded either by the government or
by a university corporation. So, a private citizen or private entity must create
a university corporation beforehand, and then a private university can be
funded through the corporation.
7. The tenure system was introduced at POSTECH in 1998.
8. Although there is ongoing debate about whether Korean higher education
policies reflect neoliberalism, it is fair to say that Korea is in transition from a
126 The Road to Academic Excellence

regulating nation to a consumer advocacy or steering nation in which the

market shapes university behaviors (Reeves-Bracco et al. 1999; Rhee 2008).
9. According to the Higher Education Act as amended in early 2010, college
tuition should be increased by no more than 1.5 times the recent three-year
average consumer price inflation rate. The institutions that fail to abide by this
guideline face administration or financial penalties, or both, imposed by the
minister of education, science and technology.
10. Dr. Kim made it possible to design and construct the Pohang Light Source
near the campus.

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