CHAPTER 7

Linear Actuators

Fluid Power Circuits and Controls,

John S.Cundiff, 2001

Introduction
| Linear actuators are commonly used in modern
manufacturing plants.

z Hydraulic cylinder to tilt a ladle of molten metal,

z A pneumatic cylinder to install a rivet
z Set of cylinders to close a box of frozen chicken.

| Mobile industrial and agricultural machines also use

cylinders to lift, dig, dump and position loads.

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 Introduction

| Concept of Linear actuators:

z Fluid at a given pressure and flow is pumped into cylinder

z Fluid pressure pushes against the piston, causing it to extend.

z Velocity is a function flow rate

z Force is a function pressure.

Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series

| If two independent cylinders in different locations extend at

the same time.

| When cylinders are connected in parallel, the cylinder

having the lowest pressure will extend first.

| Consider two cases

z Cylinder 1
z Cylinder 2

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 Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series

Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series
| Cylinder 1 (Refer Fig 7.1)
z No load extension of cylinder 1 requires 80 psi pressure.
z Back pressure is 20 psi.
z Using force balance to calculate friction force,
PC1AC1 = Ff1 + Pr1Ar1
2 2
z By calculation AC1 = 7.07 in , Ar1 = 5.3 in
Ff1 = 80(7.07) – 20(5.3) = 459.6 lbf

z Total pressure at the cap end to extend the load is

PC1 = (Ff1 + FL1 + Pr1Ar1)/AC1
= 646 psi

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 Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series

Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series
| Cylinder 2 : (Refer Fig 7.1)
z No-load extension of Cylinder 2 requires 65 psi
z Back pressure is 15 psi.
z Using force balance to calculate friction force,
PC2AC2 = Ff2 + Pr2Ar2
2 2
z By calculation Ar2 = 3.68 in and AC2= 4.91 in .
Ff2 = 65(4.91) – 15(3.58)
= 263 lbf
z Total pressure to extend the load is
PC2AC2 = Ff2 + FL2+ Pr2Ar2
= 615 psi

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 Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series
| Consider a fixed displacement
pump, refer figure 7.2

| Relief valve is set at 2000 psi.

| When the DCV is shifted , the pump

builds up pressure to 615 psi.

| Fluid flows to Cylinder 2, causing it

to extend fully.

| When full extension is reached,

pressure builds to 646 psi, Cylinder
1 extends and at full extension
pressure builds to 2000 psi.

Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series
| Parallel circuit supplied by a pressure-
compensated pump. (Refer Figure 7.3)

| The pump is set to maintain 2000 psi;

thus 2000 psi is available when DCV is
shifted.

| Maximum pressure required is 646 psi

for Cylinder 1 and 615 psi for Cylinder
2.

| Both cylinders will start to move;

Pressure will drop to the load pressure.

| Flow will increase to Cylinder 2 and

decrease to Cylinder 1, pressure will
continue to decrease until 615 psi is
achieved.

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 Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series
| Consider two cylinders connected in
series.

| Pressure required to extend Cylinder

2 (615 psi) is the back pressure (rod-
end pressure) on Cylinder 1.

| Total pressure to extend Cylinder 1 is

PC1AC1 = Ff1 + FL1 + Pr1Ar1

PC1 = 459.6 + 4000 + 615(5.3)

7.07

= 1092 psi.

Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series
| When pressure reaches 1092 psi, both the cylinders
move simultaneously.

| Cylinder 2 stops when the Cylinder 1 stops.

| If the cylinders are sized such that Ac2 = Ar1, both the
cylinders will extend the same distance.

| Here we neglect leakage. In actual practice, the

extension will never be exactly equal.

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 Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series
| Consider Fig 7.4 specified as follows
z Pump : Flow 8 GPM (at pressure
< 1200 psi, leakage is negligible)
z Cylinder 1: Stroke, x1 = 20 in.
z Cylinder 2: Stroke, x2 = 36 in.

| Rate of extension of Cylinder 1

3 3
Q1 = 8gal/min x 231 in /gal = 30.8 in /s
60 s/min
dx1/dt = Q1 = 30.8 = 4.35 in/s
Ac1 7.07

Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series
| Rate of extension of Cylinder 2
The only flow that reaches Cylinder 2 is the flow out the
rod end of Cylinder 1.
2 3
Q2 = dx1/dt* Ar1 = (4.35 in/s)(5.3 in ) = 23 in /s

dx2 /dt = Q2 = 23 = 4.68 in/s

Ac2 4.91

| Cylinder 2 extends faster than Cylinder 1, because

Ac2 < Ar1. Only when Ac2 = Ar1 are the extension rates
equal.

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 Analysis of Cylinders in
Parallel and Series
| Distance the cylinder extends is a key performance
parameter.

| Total Flow from Cylinder 1 is

3
Q1= Ar1 x1 = 5.3(20) = 106 in

x2 = Q1 = 106 = 21.5 in
Ac2 4.91

| Cylinder 2 has a stroke of 40 in. but never extends

beyond 21.5 in.

Synchronization of Cylinders

| There are instances when a large mass must be

moved, and it is not feasible to move it with just one
cylinder.

| If the load to be moved is several feet in length, two

or more cylinders are used to prevent a moment, or
moments , that might distort and damage the load.

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 Synchronization of Cylinders
| There are three techniques
that can be used to
synchronize two cylinders.

z Orifice-type flow divider

z Gear-type flow divider

z Mechanical coupling

Synchronization of Cylinders
| Orifice-Type Flow Divider
z Adjust the orifice on both sides of
the flow divider so ∆P across the
orifice and the load is equal on both
sides.
z Flow from the pump will divide
equally
z Both cylinders will extend
simultaneously.
z If cylinders have same size, they
extend at same rate.
z When ∆P changes, flow goes to
lower pressure side.
z Cylinders have to be
resynchronized

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 Synchronization of Cylinders
| Gear Type Flow Divider

z Functions like two gear motors with

shafts rigidly attached
z Both motors have same
displacement. Since shafts are
attached, they turn at same speed
z Same flow goes through both sides.
z Excluding leakage, flow is equally
divided and cylinder extends
simultaneously
z Disadvantage – Pressure
Intensification.

Synchronization of Cylinders
| Mechanical Coupling

z Most reliable way to ensure two

cylinders stay synchronized is to
mechanically couple them
together.
z The beam slides in a track on
both sides.
z If Cylinder 1 gets ahead of
Cylinder 2, the beam will bind in
the track on that side
z Pressure requirement on Cylinder
1 increases.
z Bind is relieved when more flow
goes to Cylinder 2; Cylinders
adjust back and forth to stay
synchronized

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 CUSHIONING

| When cylinders reach the end of their stroke,

z the pressure rises quickly

z A Shock wave in hydraulic circuit can occur.

| Cushioning is done to reduce this stock.

| The concept is shown in Fig 7.6

CUSHIONING

| Consider the case of the cylinder

retracting.
| Spear closes off the large
opening where the fluid is exiting
the cap end of cylinder.
| Fluid must not flow out the small
opening past the needle valve.
| Valve adjusts the orifice and sets
the back pressure that develops
in the cap end.
| Resultant force slows the piston
and it “coasts” to a stop.

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 CUSHIONING

| Resultant pressure shock is

significantly reduced.

| Same technique is used to

cushion the cylinder when
its is extending.

| Here, a sleeve is mounted

on the rod to close the main
opening to make the flow go
through the orifice .

Rephasing of Cylinders
| When cylinders are used in series, it is necessary to rephase the
cylinders when they are fully retracted.

| Leakage will cause downstream cylinder to not fully extend.

| An agricultural implement (planter, cultivator, disk harrow) that

must be folded to an 8-ft width for road travel and unfolded to 24-
ft width for field operation, will after several cycles, become out of
phase so that downstream cylinders might not fully extend so
the outer sections will not make proper ground contact.

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 Rephasing of Cylinders
| In one technique,

| Cylinder is designed with small

passageway for oil to flow from
the cap end to the rod end when
the piston reaches full extension.

| Passageway is small since it is

not expected to pass a large flow.

| It passes the flow required to

make up leakage from the cap
end of the cylinder immediately
downstream so this cylinder will
then extend completely.

PRESSES

| Presses are used for

z molding,

z shaping,

z shearing and other operations.

| Some manufacturing plants have

lines of presses connected in
parallel

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 PRESSES

| Assume that the press cylinder has a 30-in. bore and

10-in stroke.

| It needs to close in 30 s to achieve the desired cycle

time.
Q = Acx
t
2
= π(30) (10)
4(30)
3
= 236 in = 61 GPM
s

PRESSES
| Flow rate required to close an individual press is 61 GPM; a high capacity line
is required.

| Presses along the line are closed simultaneously.

| Flow dynamics in the main supply and return lines are complex.

| When two or more presses close simultaneously, flow takes the path of least
resistance.

| Flow goes to the press with smallest pressure drop first.

| After the first press is closed, other presses are closed in a similar manner.

| Disadvantage of parallel circuit design – Volume of fluid that must be moved

from the reservoir to the individual presses require high pump capacity and
high energy input.

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 PRESSES
| Design shown in Fig 7.10 avoids the pumping
of fluid back and forth from the reservoir

| Typically press is controlled by solenoid-

actuated DCV.

| Main press cylinder is the large cylinder.

| Two outer cylinders will be referred to as side

cylinders or kicker cylinders.

| Primary function – Raise and lower the platen.

| Main press cylinder supplies most of the force

needed once platen contacts the whole piece.

PRESSES
| When operator shifts the DCV, flow
extends the two side cylinders.
| Flow does not go to the press
cylinder because sequence-valve
remains closed.
| When the platen contacts the work
piece, the pressure builds and
sequence valve opens.
| System pressure is applied to the
press cylinder (side cylinders +
press cylinder) and full force is
applied to the work piece.

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 PRESSES

| When DCV is shifted for retraction, the line to the

sequence valve is connected to the reservoir.

| No pressure to hold the sequence valve open;

consequently , it closes.

| Flow from the press cylinder cannot go back through the

sequence valve; it must go through the pilot operated
check valve into the reservoir.

PRESSES

| Pilot-Operated Check
Valve

| For flow in the forward

direction, this valve
operates just like a
normal check valve.

| Pilot line pressure holds

the valve open for flow in
the reverse direction.

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 PRESSES
Load-Locking Circuit

| Cylinder is prevented from moving

in either direction until pressure is
applied from the pump.
| Pump supplies pilot line pressure
to open the check valve.
| Load force (FL) in either direction
will not cause the cylinder to move,
except for some small leakage
past the piston seals.

Load Analysis

| Two general classification for loads

z Resistive Load (opposite to the direction of motion)

z Overrunning Load (in the same direction as the

motion)

| Both types of load can be applied to the circuit in

one cylinder cycle.

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 Load Analysis
| A cylinder is lifting a weight during
retraction and lowering this weight
during extension.
| The extension load is overrunning,
and the retraction load is resistive.
| The DCV opening can be
continuously adjusted to create the
pressure needed to dump a
variable amount of fluid across the
relief valve.
| Cylinder speed is controlleed by
varying the position of the DCV
handle.

Load Analysis

| The force versus time function required to move a load

can be divided into several categories.

z Breakaway: If load is resting on a surface, the cylinder

must develop the force required to overcome the static
friction.

z Inertial: Force must be developed to accelerate the load.

z Constant velocity: If the load slides along a surface, the

cylinder must supply the force required to overcome the
dynamic friction.

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 Load Analysis
| Analysis of Acceleration of a
load using a Cylinder

| The cylinder has a 3-in. bore,

1.5-in. rod diameter and 24-in.
stroke.

| The fixed displacement pump

has a theoretical output of 12
GPM and relief valve is set on
1500 psi.

| Load is 4,000 lbf.

Load Analysis

| During no-load extension, pressure drop between the

relief valve and cap end of the cylinder was 40 psi.

| The rod end pressure was 15 psi.

| A force balance was done and the friction force was

found to be Ff = 330 lbf.

19
 Load Analysis

| Pressure during extension

Pc = (Ff + FL + PrAr) / Ac
= 330 + 4000 + 15(5.3)
7.07
= 624 psi.

Prve = pressure at relief valve during

extension
= Pc + 40 = 624 + 40 = 664 psi

Load Analysis

| Cylinder velocity during extension (assuming volumetric

efficiency is 92%)

dxa = Q = 12(0.92)(231)/60 = 6.0 in/s

dt Ac 7.07

| Velocity of the load was carefully measured and it was

determined that it took 0.0628 s from the time the DCV
was activated for the load to reach a constant velocity
of 6.0 in/s.

20
 Load Analysis
| Maximum force that can be exerted is the force when the
pressure equals the relief valve setting.

Pc max = 1500 – 40 = 1460 psi

Fmax = Pc maxAc – Ff – PrAr

= 1460(7.07) – 330 – 15(5.3)
= 9912 lbf

| Theoretical acceleration of the load is given by

dx2/dt2 = Fmax / m
2
where m = mass = 124.2 lbf-s /ft

Load Analysis
| Theoretical acceleration
2
dx2/dt2 = 9912 / 124.2 = 79.8 ft/s
2
= 957.6 in/s

| Using the measured ∆t, the actual acceleration is

dx2/dt2 = ∆x• a = 6.0 – 0 = 95.5 in/s2
∆t 0.0628

2
| Expected acceleration was 957.6 in/s and the
2
achieved acceleration was 95.5 in/s , or 10% of
expected.

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 Load Analysis
| Factors that influence the acceleration of a mass with fluid power
circuit.
z Time for valve to open .

z Compressibility of oil.

z Compliance of lines (volume change due to pressure increase)

z Characteristics of relief valve.

z Characteristics of pump.

z Leakage in DCV.

z Leakage in cylinder.

Load Analysis

| Further discussion of these interactions are

given in the text.

| The study of the complexities of hydraulic circuit

analysis has been the topic of studies in flow
dynamics, and control systems modeling.

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 Types of Cylinders
| The types of cylinders are :

z Double-acting

z Single-acting

z Double-rod

z Tandem

z Telescoping

Types of Cylinders
| The double-rod cylinder has the same annular area on
both sides, so it develops the same maximum force in
both directions for a given relief valve pressure.

| The tandem cylinder provides a means for increasing

the force that can be generated with a given pressure.
For extension, the total force is
F = (Ac + Ar) P

| Telescoping cylinders are used when a long stroke is

needed and the space available to mount cylinder is
limited.

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 Types of Cylinders

Cylinder Selection

| Cylinder manufacturers typically classify their products as

heavy duty, medium-duty and light-duty.

| Pressure ratings up to 6000 psi are available.

| Some manufacturers build agricultural-grade cylinders.

These are satisfactory where annual use are limited.

Types of Cylinders
Cylinder mounting methods

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 Types of Cylinders

Cylinder mounting

| Designers use one of the mounting methods shown on precious slide

to prevent binding.

| Guides are provided to ensure that the load follows the prescribed
pathway, and minimizes side loading.

| Plan for a disturbance from an atypical direction, particularly for

cylinders mounted on mobile machines.

| It is generally less expensive to protect from a side load than to

replace a damaged cylinder.

Cylinder Construction

| The seals are a key feature, as is the rod wiper.

| Dirt from the environment settles on the rod and will ingress into the
hydraulic system if it is not removed.

| Some small particles escape the wiper and these must be removed
by the filtration system.

| Industrial cylinders typically have multiple o-ring seals, because they

are designed for a large number of cycles during their design life.

| They also have a rod bearing to support the rod when the load is not
a pure axial load.

25
Cylinder Construction

END OF CHAPTER 7

THANK YOU

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