EROSION/Water-Induced 463

For both sprinkler and surface irrigation, off-site soil Carter DL (1990) Soil erosion on irrigated lands. In: Stewart
loss is often least where combinations of control BA and Nielsen DR (eds) Irrigation of Agricultural Crops,
practices are employed. For surface irrigation, PAM pp. 1143–1171. Agronomy Monograph 30. Madison,
use is not only economical but probably offers the WI: American Society of Agronomy.
Kincaid DC and Lehrsch GA (2001) The WEPP model for
most promise for effective erosion control for most
runoff and erosion prediction under center pivot irriga-
furrow-irrigated production systems.
tion. In: Ascough JC and Flanagan DC (eds) Soil Erosion
Prospects for Future Control Research for the 21st Century, pp. 115–118. St. Joseph,
MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
In the USA, surface irrigation is practiced on about Lehrsch GA and Robbins CW (1996) Cheese whey effects
50% of the irrigated land; worldwide, however, on surface soil hydraulic properties. Soil Use and
more than 95% is surface-irrigated. Wherever surface Management 12: 205–208.
irrigation is practiced, improved irrigation schedul- Lehrsch GA, Sojka RE, and Westermann DT (2001) Furrow
ing and better water control can reduce erosion and irrigation and N management strategies to protect
water quality. Communications in Soil Science and
soil loss while minimizing off-site environmental
Plant Analysis 32: 1029–1050.
damage. In furrow-irrigated areas where labor is
Sojka RE (1998) Understanding and managing irrigation-
available and relatively inexpensive, changing man- induced erosion. In: Pierce FJ and Frye WW (eds)
agement practices to reduce runoff by shortening Advances in Soil and Water Conservation, pp. 21–37.
furrow lengths, reorienting furrows to reduce furrow Chelsea, MI: Ann Arbor Press.
slopes, and/or managing inflows will help reduce on- Sojka RE and Bjorneberg DL (2002) Erosion, controlling
field erosion and off-site soil loss. In more industrial- irrigation-induced. In: Lal R (ed.) Encyclopedia of Soil
ized areas, with established surface water quality Science, pp. 411–414. New York: Marcel Dekker.
standards, pump-back return systems offer the Trout TJ, Sojka RE, and Okafor LI (1990) Soil manage-
most comprehensive control of both runoff and soil ment. In: Hoffman GJ, Howell TA, and Solomon KH
loss. Filter strips and buried drains with standpipes (eds) Management of Farm Irrigation Systems, pp. 872–
896. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural
can minimize future off-site soil loss. Without
Engineers.
doubt, though, the use of PAM in surface irrigation Withers B and Vipond S (1980) Irrigation: Design and
holds the greatest potential for cost-effective erosion Practice, 2nd edn. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
control.
Effective sprinkler erosion-control techniques al-
ready exist and more are on the horizon. Variable-
rate sprinklers on center pivots will probably prove
cost-effective for site-specific soil and water manage- Water-Induced
ment to increase yields, improve water-use efficiency,
J E Gilley, USDA Agricultural Research Service,
and decrease water requirements while simultan-
Lincoln, NE, USA
eously reducing runoff and attendant soil loss. En-
gineering hindrances to PAM use in center pivots ß 2005, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
will probably be overcome, enabling PAM’s erosion-
controlling and infiltration-enhancing benefits to be Introduction
extended to sprinkler-irrigated lands also. PAM’s
other environmental benefits, such as minimizing Water erosion is caused by the detachment and trans-
off-site discharge of sediment, weed seeds, plant dis- port of soil by rainfall, runoff, melting snow or ice,
ease agents, and microbes (including possible human and irrigation. Excessive erosion can threaten the
pathogens), will become more important with stricter production of agricultural and forest products. Ero-
environmental regulations, spurring ever greater sion may also impact water conveyance and storage
PAM use under irrigated conditions. structures, and contribute to pollution from land sur-
faces. Water erosion may occur within rills, interrill
See also: Erosion: Water-Induced; Irrigation: Environ- areas (the regions between rills), gullies, ephemeral
mental Effects; Overland Flow gullies, stream channels, forest areas, and construc-
tion sites. Rainfall characteristics, soil factors, topo-
graphy, climate, and land use are important elements
Further Reading affecting soil erosion. Conservation measures that
Bjorneberg DL, Kincaid DC, Lentz RD, Sojka RE, and have been effectively used to reduce soil erosion on
Trout TJ (2000) Unique aspects of modeling irrigation- agricultural areas include contouring, strip cropping,
induced soil erosion. International Journal of Sediment conservation tillage, terraces, buffer strips, and use
Research 15: 245–252. of polyacrylamide on irrigated areas. Specialized
464 EROSION/Water-Induced

erosion control practices have been developed for use crossed during normal tillage operations. Ephemeral
within stream channels, forest areas, and construc- gullies appear at the same position on the landscape
tion sites. One of the most effective means of reducing each year, but they are small enough to be filled in by
erosion is to maintain a vegetative or residue cover on tillage operations. Stream-channel erosion may take
the soil surface. place within a water-course that usually has continu-
ous flow. Each of the erosion types may occur on
croplands, rangelands and pastures, forest areas,
Impacts of Erosion
and construction sites.
Erosion is a natural process. Topographic features
such as canyons, stream channels, and valleys are Rill Erosion
created by long-term geologic erosion. Geologic ero- As overland flow moves downslope, it concentrates
sion influences soil formation and distribution. Accel- due to surface microtopography. Small channels or
erated erosion results from the removal of natural rills may form as the runoff velocity of overland flow
vegetation by human activities such as farming, increases. Rills often occur between crop rows or
ranching, forestry, and construction. along tillage marks. The hydraulic shear of flowing
The production of agricultural and forest products water and soil properties influence rill erosion.
can be affected by excessive erosion. Erosion causes a Normal tillage operations usually remove rills.
breakdown of soil aggregates and accelerates the re- The soil materials detached within rills and sediment
moval of organic and mineral materials. The loss of delivered from interrill areas are transported by
surface soil is critical because the exposed subsoil rill flow. Once rills have formed, substantial amounts
remaining following excessive erosion usually has of erosion may occur, resulting in a loss of soil
reduced infiltration capacity, water storage, and nu- productivity.
trient characteristics. The exposed subsoil is usually
finer-textured, making seedbed preparation and crop Interrill Erosion
production more difficult. Smaller-size particles are
more easily detached and transported by overland Raindrops impacting the soil surface detach soil par-
flow. Thus, sandy soils are made even coarser by ticles on interrill areas. The detached soil particles
erosion. may then be transported to rills by shallow overland
Sedimentation resulting from erosion may signifi- flow. Soil properties, rainfall intensity, and slope all
cantly reduce the effectiveness of water-conveyance influence interrill erosion. Interrill erosion is often
and storage structures. The capacity and functional most apparent on the light-colored upper portions
life of lakes, reservoirs, and streams can decrease as a of convex slopes where tillage mixes surface soil and
result of sedimentation. The suitability of streams and subsoil.
rivers as a biological habitat and effective water
Gully Erosion
supply can be affected by excessive amounts of sedi-
ment. The existence of sediment can also impair the Deep channels larger than rills that cannot be re-
use of streams and rivers as fish-spawning areas. moved by tillage are classified as gullies. Gullies
Nutrients, pesticides, and pathogens transported usually form near the upper portion of intermittent
by sediment can contribute to pollution of streams streams or where trails, paths, or roads cause runoff
and lakes, thus reducing their suitability for aquatic to concentrate. In tropical areas, gullies may develop
organisms and their use as water supplies. A large following deforestation and cultivation. The runoff-
nutrient concentration in streams and lakes can also generating characteristics of the watershed influence
cause excessive vegetative growth, resulting in sea- gully formation and development. Once they form,
sonal oxygen deficiencies. The type of fertilizer that gullies become a permanent part of the landscape.
is used, application rate, and nutrient content of the Gullies that separate portions of fields or pastures
soil influence nutrient transport. are a nuisance.
A gully continues to develop and move upslope
where there is a water overfall. As water moves
Types of Erosion
through the channel during large runoff events, a
Water erosion can be separated into individual cat- gully may rapidly expand and deepen. Large runoff
egories, each with distinct characteristics. Rills are events may also remove sections of the exposed banks
small channels that form as runoff rate increases. that were previously undercut and had fallen into the
The regions between rills are defined as interrill channel. Gullies are described as active if their walls
areas. Gully erosion occurs when concentrated flow are free of vegetation and as inactive when they are
is large enough to form large channels that cannot be stabilized by vegetation.
 EROSION/Water-Induced 465

Ephemeral Gully Erosion Soil Factors

The topography of many fields causes runoff to col- The susceptibility of soil particles and aggregates to
lect and concentrate in a few natural waterways detachment is influenced by soil characteristics. Soil
before leaving the field. These channels or ephemeral texture, organic matter content, structure, and per-
gullies serve as the primary drainage system for a field meability have been shown to influence soil erodibil-
and form in the same locations each year. However, ity. Because they lack cohesiveness, sand particles are
ephemeral gullies are transitory rather than perma- relatively easy to detach but they are difficult to
nent since they are small enough to be filled in by transport by overland flow because of their large
tillage operations. Ephemeral gully erosion occurs mass. In contrast, clay particles are difficult to detach
when soil particles are detached and transported since they readily bond together but are easily trans-
from the concentrated flow channel. ported once they are separated from the soil mass.
Silty soils are usually well-aggregated, but the ag-
Stream Channel Erosion gregates break down rapidly when wetted, allowing
The removal of soil from the banks or beds of streams nonaggregated soil particles to be easily transported.
results in stream channel erosion. Only relatively Soils containing large stable aggregates are difficult
small areas are affected by stream channel erosion, to detach and transport and usually have greater
but the impacts on highly productive soils can be infiltration rates.
severe. Stream channels erode as water flows over As soil organic matter content increases, individual
the side of the stream bank or scours below the aggregates become more stable, soil structure im-
water surface, especially during severe floods. Stream proves, and infiltration rate becomes greater. Culti-
channel erosion is usually greatest on the outside of vated soils recently removed from native vegetation,
bends. Meandering may also cause erosion along pasture, or meadow usually have excellent structure
stream banks. A reduction in sediment delivery from and stable aggregates. The incorporation of organic
upland areas through control practices or the capture materials into the soil profile helps to increase aggre-
of sediment in water-storage facilities may increase gate stability. Cultivation without the addition of
stream channel erosion. organic materials causes a reduction in aggregate sta-
bility and organic matter content, and an increase in
soil erodibility.
Factors Affecting Erosion More runoff usually occurs from fine-textured than
Erosion is influenced by a variety of elements includ- from sandy soils because of differences in infiltration.
ing rainfall characteristics, soil factors, topography, Maintaining high infiltration rates is one of the most
climate, and land use. Erosion models can be used to effective means of reducing erosion. Soil surface
estimate the interrelated effects of these factors on sealing caused by aggregate destruction and plugging
erosion and to predict the impact of various land of pores with soil particles may substantially reduce
uses on runoff and soil loss. infiltration. High infiltration rates can be maintained
when vegetative material protects the soil surface
Rainfall Characteristics from sealing, when soil structure is preserved, and
soil compaction is minimized.
For erosion to occur, runoff must first be present. Run-
off is defined as that portion of rainfall that does not
Topography
infiltrate nor accumulate on the soil surface but moves
downslope. Rainfall rate and duration both influence Erosion is influenced by slope gradient, length of slope,
runoff and erosion. Runoff occurs only when rainfall and size and shape of the watershed. The velocity of
intensity exceeds soil infiltration rate. Infiltration will flowing water becomes greater as slope gradient in-
decrease with time during the initial stages of a storm. creases. A larger runoff velocity allows flowing water
Thus, no runoff may occur from a storm of short to detach and transport additional soil material. An
duration, while a storm of the same intensity but of increased accumulation of overland flow on longer
longer duration may result in substantial runoff. slopes results in greater rill erosion. Convex slopes
Rainfall intensity influences both the rate and with a larger gradient at the bottom of a hillslope are
volume of runoff. During a high-intensity storm, infil- more erosive than concave land surfaces. On concave
tration capacity is exceeded by a greater margin than surfaces, deposition frequently occurs at the bottom of
during a less intense rainfall event. Thus, even though the slope because of reduced transport capacity of flow.
the precipitation amount may be similar for two Crops growing in productive areas at the bottom of a
events, a high-intensity storm will produce a greater hillslope may be covered with water and sediment
volume of runoff. during extreme precipitation events.
466 EROSION/Water-Induced

Climate row crops are planted in rotation with grasses and

legumes may substantially reduce erosion potential.
The total amount and intensity of rainfall influence
On areas that receive sufficient precipitation, inter-
the quantity of erosion within a region. The dense
seeding row crops with a legume can be an effective
vegetation found on areas that receive substantial
conservation measure. The legume provides a pro-
rainfall reduces erosion potential. Significant erosion
tective cover during the critical planting period.
may occur in regions with low rainfall and limited
Following the cropping season, the legume may also
vegetation when high-intensity rainstorms do occur.
serve as a supplemental nitrogen source.
Maintaining high infiltration rates not only reduces
runoff and erosion, but also helps to maintain soil Irrigation is used on some agricultural areas. Both
irrigation and natural precipitation events may result
water supplies needed by vegetation.
in erosion. Because of the increased quantities of
Runoff from melted snow and ice moving over a
water introduced through irrigation, the potential
thin layer of freshly thawed soil can cause substantial
for runoff may be greater on irrigated areas.
erosion. In colder climates, more erosion may result
from snowmelt than from rainfall events. Frozen soil
Rangelands and pastures In humid areas, the dense
is not subject to erosion during several months of the
sod found in pastures reduces erosion. When adequate
year. However, significant runoff may result from
the rapid melting that occurs when air temperatures surface cover is maintained on rangelands and pas-
tures, erosion is usually minimal. In regions with
rapidly rise or rain falls upon a snow-covered surface.
limited rainfall, severe erosion may still occur from
Land Use the exposed areas between bunches of grasses during
intense storms in regions with limited rainfall. Bare
Land use is the only factor affecting erosion that can
soils lack a protective surface cover and root mass and
be modified to reduce soil loss potential. Erosion
are subject to physical abrasion from livestock
results from different land-use conditions on crop-
hooves. The reduction in vegetative cover caused by
land areas, rangelands and pastures, and forest areas.
excessive grazing may increase the potential for both
water and wind erosion.
Cropland areas Soil erosion potential can substan-
As soils erode, they become less resistant to further
tially increase as natural forest or rangeland is con-
degradation. Soil aggregation, water infiltration, and
verted to cropland. Cropland areas least susceptible
water retention are diminished as surface soil is
to erosion have a complete ground cover throughout
eroded and subjected to trampling. The proportion
the year. The amount of surface cover maintained on
of grazing-resistant species that have shorter and shal-
a particular site is influenced by cropping and man-
lower roots often increases on eroded sites. Grazing
agement conditions. The greatest erosion potential on
management systems should be selected to provide a
croplands exists after planting when residue cover productive balance of plant species that maintain root
is usually at a minimum and high-intensity rains
mass.
frequently occur.
The areas adjacent to stream banks often contain
Cultivated land left fallow with no vegetative cover is
productive soils and have greater amounts of soil
particularly vulnerable to runoff and erosion (Table 1).
water because they receive runoff from upland
Areas with steep slopes on which row crops such as
regions. Because of the relatively large amounts of
corn and cotton are grown continuously may also be
vegetation on these areas, they are prime sites for
of concern. The dense surface cover resulting when
grazing. Preventing cattle from grazing next to stream
banks has been found to result in a substantial reduc-
tion in stream-bank erosion and sediment delivery to
Table 1 Mean annual runoff and erosion under different land streams.
uses with mean annual rainfall of 1400 mm Gravel and cobble materials are found throughout
Runoff Soil loss
the soil profile on some rangeland areas. Since shal-
Land use (mm) (mg ha 1) low overland flow cannot easily transport gravel and
cobble materials, they often remain on the surface
Rotation; coastal Bermuda grass and 70 5
of eroded soils. Thus, a surface armoring process is
crimson clover after corn
Corn grown continuously 180 27 established that reduces further soil loss from the
Cotton grown continuously 250 49 eroded rangeland sites.
Fallow; cultivated with no vegetative 470 135
cover Forest areas The vegetative cover continuously
After Carreker JR, Wilkinson SR, Barnett AP, and Box JE (1978) Soil and maintained on the surface of undisturbed forests
Water Systems for Sloping Lands. USDA, ARS-S-160. substantially reduces soil loss. On an undisturbed
 EROSION/Water-Induced 467

forest soil, most erosion occurs from channel banks from overtopping ridges, a small slope gradient along
and adjacent steep slopes. Road construction, timber the row is desirable. Field boundaries should be located
harvesting, or fires may substantially increase erosion on the contour or moved to eliminate odd-shaped fields
rates. The potential for erosion may be severe on with short rows.
forest areas when a fire destroys plant material and
the litter layer. A condition called hydrophobicity Strip cropping Under strip-cropping conditions, al-
occurs when soils repel water due to the intense heat ternate parcels of different crops are grown on
from a fire. Erosion potential is influenced by the the same field. The strips with the greatest surface
intensity of the fire and the extent of the burned vegetative cover capture soil eroded from upslope
area within a watershed. areas. Strip widths are dictated by farm implement
requirements. To improve erosion control, the strips
Construction sites Improper construction practices are usually planted on the contour in a rotation that
can accelerate soil erosion. On-site damage in urban shifts crops annually from one strip to the next. The
areas may result from the loss of topsoil by heavy most effective strip-cropping rotations include peren-
equipment during construction activities or by ero- nial grasses and legumes that alternate with grain and
sion. If disturbed sites are not properly protected, row crops. In arid and semiarid regions, strips may be
runoff and erosion can adversely affect the surround- placed perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction
ing environment. Although the area that is disturbed for wind erosion control.
may be relatively small, the amount of soil eroded
from construction sites can be substantial. Preventing Conservation tillage On cropland areas, erosion
sediment from leaving a construction site can reduce potential is substantially reduced when residue
serious off-site impacts. mulch from the previous crop is left on the soil surface
(Figure 1). Residue mulch serves to protect the soil
Erosion Control Measures surface by adsorbing and dissipating raindrop energy.
The percentage of residue cover maintained on the
A variety of measures are available for controlling soil surface influences soil loss potential. Substantial
erosion on agricultural areas including contouring, reductions in erosion can result from small amounts
strip cropping, conservation tillage, terraces, buffer of residue cover. Any tillage or planting system that
strips, grassed waterways, and the use of polyacryl- leaves at least 30% of the soil surface covered with
amide on irrigated areas. Specialized control measures residue after planting has been defined as conserva-
are also available for reducing erosion from forest tion tillage. It can be seen from Figure 1 that a 30%
areas, construction sites, and stream channels. De- cover of wheat or corn residue can reduce soil loss
pending upon the severity of the problem, it may be by approximately 62% and 97%, respectively. The
necessary to use a combination of control measures to type of residue material influences the amount of
reduce erosion to reasonable limits. erosion protection provided for a given surface cover.
During runoff events, small impoundments may form
Erosion Control Measures on Agricultural Areas
above residue elements. The impoundments found
Contouring Performing tillage and planting crops above the larger-diameter residue elements such as
along the contour of the land can be an effective corn have greater volumes and are therefore more
conservation measure. Rill development is reduced effective in trapping sediment and reducing soil loss.
when surface runoff is impounded in small depres- Excessive tillage can destroy soil structure, resulting
sions. Contour farming not only minimizes erosion in surface sealing and decreased infiltration. With the
but also reduces runoff by storing rainfall behind increased availability of herbicides, the use of tillage
ridges. The storage capacity of furrows is significantly for weed control has diminished. When tillage is
increased with ridge tillage systems. Row crops are performed, existing crop residues are maintained by
planted on top of the same furrow each year to using special implements that cause only minimal
maintain furrow storage capacity. disturbance to the soil surface. To maintain sufficient
The effectiveness of ridges in trapping runoff and residue cover to control erosion, no-tillage is used
reducing soil loss decreases as slope gradient becomes before planting for some row crops such as soybeans.
greater. When contouring is performed on steep slopes,
furrow storage capacity may be exceeded during high- Terraces On steep land, terraces or broad channels
intensity rainfall events. Water previously stored in are built perpendicular to the slope to reduce rill
the furrow is then released. As the volume of water erosion by decreasing overland flow length. Sediment
increases with each succeeding row, small gullies may settles from overland flow as runoff travels at re-
form. To prevent runoff from large precipitation events latively low velocities along the gentle grades used
468 EROSION/Water-Induced

Figure 1 Ratio of soil loss for a given residue cover to soil loss with no cover. After Colvin TS and Gilley JE (1987) Crop residue–soil
erosion combatant. Crops and Soils 39(7): 7–9, with permission.

in terraces. Therefore, the quality of surface water along the upslope portion of the grass strip. Contour
leaving terraced fields is improved. Gully formation buffer strips are much less expensive to establish than
is prevented since the terraces usually empty on to terraces.
grassed waterways or into underground pipes. Since Filter strips provide increased infiltration and
terraces retain runoff they also increase the amount of remove sediment from overland flow. However, they
soil water available for crop production. do not interfere significantly with normal farming
Important considerations in terrace design include operations since they are located at the edge of fields
soil characteristics, cropping and management prac- or adjacent to streams, ponds, or wetlands. Areas
tices, and climatic conditions. Contouring is included with gentle slopes where rilling is not a problem are
as a conservation practice on terraced fields since the the best locations for filter strips.
crop rows are usually planted parallel to the terrace
channel. Since they are expensive to construct, cause Grassed waterways Runoff from terraces or other
some inconvenience to the farming operation, and concentrated flow areas can be conveyed using
require periodic maintenance, terraces should only grassed waterways, thus preventing channel erosion
be used when other erosion-control measures do not and gully formation. Costly downstream sedimen-
provide adequate protection. tation is reduced because the sediment transpor-
ted by overland flow is deposited in the grassed
Buffer strips Buffer strips are designed to intercept waterways. A stable outlet located below the grassed
runoff using permanent vegetation. Other erosion- waterway serves to disperse the flow before it enters a
control practices are usually employed in association vegetative filter.
with buffer strips. As an integral part of a planned Grassed waterways reduce peak runoff rates and
conservation system, buffer strips may be located at a provide a stable channel that can easily handle the
variety of locations within a landscape. To maintain flow that remains. Channel stabilization is provided
buffer-strip performance, periodic maintenance is re- by modifying the cross-section and slope of the water-
quired. Contour buffer strips, filter strips, and grassed way to limit flow velocity and by establishing vegeta-
waterways are frequently used types of buffer strips. tive protection. The types of vegetation used in the
Perennial grasses are usually planted along steep channel are dictated by local soil and climatic condi-
slopes within contour buffer strips. Sediment is re- tions. In addition to grassed waterways, permanent
moved as overland flow approaches and enters the gully control structures may be needed on areas with
grass strips. Site-specific conditions dictate the types relatively large runoff volumes or steep slopes.
of vegetation and spacing of contour buffer strips. As To prevent failure, the waterway should not be
a result of sedimentation, a narrow terrace may form used as a road, stock trail, or pasture, especially
 EROSION/Water-Induced 469

during wet conditions. Care should also be taken Erosion Control Measures in Stream Channels
when farm machinery crosses the waterway. The
Stream channel erosion can be reduced by the
waterway should be managed to stimulate new
use of vegetation, mechanical, or a combination of
growth and control weeds, and an annual application
vegetation and mechanical means. Grading of the
of fertilizer is recommended.
stream bank to a less severe slope may be necessary,
depending upon the size of the upstream drainage
Polyacrylamide Erosion on irrigated areas has been
area. Grasses, shrubs, and trees can be successfully
reduced by the use of polyacrylamide. Polyacrylamide
used to stabilize stream channels. Fast-flowing water
is a long-chain synthetic polymer that serves as a can be diverted away from stream banks by dikes
strengthening agent to bind soil particles together.
made of loose stone or rock piles placed within the
Larger, heavier particles are more difficult to detach
stream channel. Materials such as a mechanical cover
and transport. Polyacrylamide is added to the irrigation
of stone or rocks may also serve as a protective cover.
flow at rates dictated by the irrigation system, soil type,
A mechanical cover can be employed to protect areas
and water source. Increased infiltration and reduced
with the greatest erosion hazard such as the bottom of
transport of pollutants have also been reported for soils
a stream, while vegetation is usually used to stabilize
on which polyacrylamide has been applied.
the upper portion of the stream banks.
Erosion Control Measures on Forest Areas
See also: Erosion: Irrigation-Induced; Wind-Induced
Proper road and drainage design, and effective slope
stabilization can reduce erosion potential during road
construction on forest areas. Detailed planning of the Further Reading
timber-harvesting operation can minimize runoff and
Carreker JR, Wilkinson SR, Barnett AP, and Box JE (1978)
soil loss. Compaction of the soil surface occurs when
Soil and Water Systems for Sloping Lands. USDA,
logs are moved across the land surface by tractors or ARS-S-160.
skidders. Approximately 25–35% of the harvested Haan CT, Barfield BJ, and Hayes JC (1994) Design Hydrol-
area is disturbed during the tractor-logging operation. ogy and Sedimentology for Small Catchments. San
In comparison, the highlead system where the ends of Diego, CA: Academic Press.
the logs are raised off the ground by a cable system, Hudson N (1995) Soil Conservation. Ames, IA: Iowa State
and the skyline system where the disturbed logs are University Press.
entirely lifted off the ground reduce the disturbed Laflen JM, Tian J, and Huang C (2000) Soil Erosion and
harvested area to approximately 15% and 12%, re- Dryland Farming. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
spectively. The risk of erosion is reduced when dam- Lal R (1999) Soil Quality and Soil Erosion. Boca Raton, FL:
aged trees are felled to reduce the velocity of overland CRC Press.
Lal R, Blum WH, Valentine C, and Stewart BA (1998)
flow. Check dams can be established in drainages
Methods for Assessment of Soil Erosion. Boca Raton,
using straw bales. Straw can also be spread on burned FL: CRC Press.
areas to protect the soil and stabilize reseeded areas. Napier TL, Napier SM, and Turdon J (2000) Soil and Water
Erosion Control Measures on Construction Sites Conservation Policies and Programs: Successes and Fail-
ures. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
The construction project should be conducted in Pierce FJ and Frye WW (1998) Advances in Soil and Water
phases so that only those sites under active develop- Conservation. Chelsa: Sleeping Bear Press.
ment are exposed and those areas should be kept as Schwab GO, Fangmeier DD, Elliot WJ, and Frevert RK
small as possible. Management practices should be (1993) Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, 4th
implemented to reduce the volume and velocity of edn. Singapore: John Wiley.
runoff, and to retain sediment within the construction Toy TJ, Foster GR, and Renard KG (2002) Soil Erosion:
Processes, Prediction, Measurement and Control. New
site. Small sediment basins, perimeter sediment fences,
York: John Wiley.
and straw bale or fabric check dams can be used to Troeh FR, Hobbs JA, and Donahue RL (1999) Soil and
reduce off-site sediment transport. Runoff from Water Conservation: Productivity and Environ-
adjacent areas should not be allowed to enter the mental Protection, 3rd edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
disturbed site. Finally, a vegetative cover should be Prentice-Hall.
established as soon as possible to provide permanent Ward AD and Elliot WJ (1995) Environmental Hydrology.
protection for the construction site. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.