Effect of protein and carbohydrate concentrations on the growth and composition of

black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae

J. J. A. Beniers1
1
Msc student Entomology, Harper Adams University, Newport, United Kingdom; julianbeniers@hotmail.com

Abstract
Black soldier flies can be used for a wide application, ranging from anti-microbial properties
to waste management. Although the application of black soldier flies has been widely studied,
the rearing is still in preliminary studies. This study focussed on the composition of black
soldier fly larvae over their life history and the effect of dietary protein and carbohydrates on
the growth and composition (protein and fat) of the black soldier fly larvae. The larvae were
collected every day to test for difference in composition. To test the effect of protein and
carbohydrates, the larvae were fed 25 different concentrations of protein and carbohydrates.
The composition of the larvae changed very little over their life history, the higher
concentration of protein were mostly observed in the earlier instars of the larvae. The pre
pupal stage reduced the fresh and dry weight of the larvae, the ash concentration was very
stable throughout their life history. Both dietary protein and dietary carbohydrates had a
significant effect on the fresh and dry weight of the larvae, but the protein was a stronger
indicator of the fresh and dry weight of the black soldier fly larvae than carbohydrates. The
composition of the larvae was also influenced by the feed, as the heavier larvae would
produce significantly more fat than the lighter ones.

Keywords: dietary requirements, entomophagy, life history

1. Introduction were promoted, or the fed insects had a

Entomophagy might be able to solve issues higher concentration of omega 3 fatty acids
that currently blight our planet. One of (Kroeckel et al. 2012; St-Hilaire, Cranfill,
these problems is the 805 million et al. 2007; Barroso et al. 2017).
undernourished people in the world, as
insects are rich in minerals and vitamins One of the insect species often fed to fish
and they would be able to provide a is the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens),
healthy food source for these people this insect has shown to have a wide
(Gahukar 2011; Nadeau et al. 2015). variety of properties can be beneficial.
Nadeau et al. (2015) suggests that if They have been used for forensic
between 15.586 – 92.976 hectares was entomology, during dry post-decay stages
devoted to insect rearing, it could reduce or in more tropical areas (Lord et al. 1994;
eliminate the problem. Another problem to Pujol-Luz et al. 2008). The black soldier
which entomophagy could offer a solution fly also shows anti-microbial properties,
is overfishing, as populations of fish such such as hexanedioic acid, methanol extract
as the Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) are at and antimicrobial peptides have been
20% of their original population (Eriksson proven to effectively prohibit the
& Andersson 2010). Most of these fish are growth/proliferation of gram positive and
either used for human consumption or to negative bacteria and fungus (Choi & Jiang
feed to the fisheries. Insects could replace 2014; Elhag et al. 2017; Choi et al. 2012;
between 25 and 33% of the fish meal in the Park et al. 2014). Lastly, the black soldier
diet of fish in the fisheries (Kroeckel et al. can also be very well applied to waste
2012; Burtle et al. 2012; Cummins et al. management. Studies have shown that
2017). This inclusion could increase if black soldier fly larvae can reduce between
chitinase activity or chitinolytic bacteria 50 and 78% of the dry matter of manure
(Lalander et al. 2013; Sheppard et al. 1994; Experiment 1: Larvae sampling at various
Zhou et al. 2013). life stages
A preliminary experiment was executed to
The black soldier fly is an increasingly examine if the black soldier fly larvae have
popular subject for many studies, in 2010 a certain ‘cut-off’ point, from which they
there was only 1 study on Sciencedirect will produce mostly fat instead of protein.
matching the search criteria ‘Black Soldier To examine this, 2,500 larvae, with an
Fly OR Hermetia illucens’. This increased average weight of 15mg (commercially
to 27 in 2016 and so far in 2017 has purchased from Swell Reptiles, UK), were
reached 21 (ScienceDirect n.d.). This can placed on a chickenfeed based substrate.
be attributed to the fast development of this Each following day at least 5 grams of
species, and the above mentioned range of larvae were collected from the sample,
features of the black soldier fly compared until 25% of the larvae had reached pre-
to other animals. pupal stage, upon which only pre-pupal
stage larvae were collected and the
However, the majority of studies applied to remaining larvae were discarded. The
the black soldier fly focus on the collected larvae were washed to dispose of
application of the larvae, rather than the any remaining substrate or faecal matter.
rearing. Preliminary studies have been Afterwards, the larvae were euthanized by
executed on abiotic factors, such as placing the larvae in the freezer (-20°C)
temperature and humidity, and dietary until they were needed for chemical
requirements. Studies such as Cammack analysis.
and Tomberlin (2017) and Oonincx et al.
(2015) have indicated that the black soldier Experiment 2: Rearing larvae at varying
fly larvae are a good candidate for waste protein and fat concentrations
management. However, these studies are To determine the influence of dietary
often comparing different feed sources, protein or carbohydrates on the black
such as ‘Fish Renderings’ with ‘Swine soldier fly larvae, the following experiment
Liver’. This different composition most was designed. A total of 12,500 insects
likely has an influence on the growth of the were used in this experiment. Each cup had
larvae. For example, mealworms (Tenebrio a chickenfeed base diet, with 15±3 mL of
molitor) have varying growth rates tap water and additional protein and
depending on the present amino acids in carbohydrates depending on the treatment,
the feed (Davis 2013). each treatment was replicated ten times.
There were five concentrations of added
In this study, the impact of various protein protein or carbohydrates, 0g, 0.7g, 1.4g,
and carbohydrate concentrations on the 2.1g and 2.8g; 0g, 0.97g, 1.94g, 2.91g and
growth of black soldier fly larvae has been 3.88g, respectively (table 1). Each of these
examined. To exclude the above cups included 50 larvae and was placed in
mentioned difference in feed compositions, a climate chamber at 28°C without any
a base diet has been enriched with the two light (the climate chamber was unable to
macronutrients. It is hypothesized that the control the humidity). The larvae were
protein concentration in the diet mainly harvested after eight days in the climate
contributes to the growth of the larvae, and chamber and euthanized by hypothermia
the carbohydrates contribute to the fat afterwards (freezer at -20°C) and stored
production of the larvae. there until they were required for chemical
analysis.

2. Material & Methods

 Table 1: the concentration of protein (g) and carbohydrates (g) in the base chickenfeed and the
additional protein and carbohydrates in the enriched treatments. The numbers are presented as
Protein; Carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates (C)
Protein (P) 1 2 3 4 5
1 2.63; 6.55 2.70; 7.31 2.77; 8.07 2.84; 8.82 2.91; 9.58
2 3.13; 6.59 3.20; 7.35 3.27; 8.11 3.34; 8.87 3.41; 9.62
3 3.63; 6.63 3.70; 7.39 3.77; 8.15 3.84; 8.91 3.91; 9.67
4 4.13; 6.67 4.20; 7.43 4.27; 8.19 4.34; 8.95 4.41; 9.71
5 4.63; 6.71 4.70; 7.47 4.77; 8.23 4.84; 8.99 4.91; 9.75
differences between the fresh weight, dry
Chemical analysis weight, survival, protein percentage and fat
All larvae had been subjected to drying, by percentage. Furthermore, a bivariate
being placed in a 80°C oven for 2-3 days. correlation matrix was applied to examine
Afterwards all the larvae of experiment 1 the effect of the variables. Lastly, a Tps
were ground, whereas only half of the function was applied in R studio to
larvae from experiment 2. Three chemical illustrate the effect of protein and
analysis protocols were applied, the leco, carbohydrates on the fresh and dry weight
soxhlet and ashing. The leco allows for of the larvae.
protein analysis by combusting the sample
and measuring the concentration of 3. Results
nitrogen that can be converted to a Experiment 1: Larval composition
percentage of protein. However, often a Several observations can be made from the
6.25 factor is used to determine the protein sampling data, displayed in table 2. Firstly,
concentration. As insects have protein no obvious ‘cut-off’ point for the fat
stored in their chitin, this would production could be observed, or this
overestimate the amount of protein in the might be even earlier in the development
insects, therefore Janssen et al. (2017) of the larvae. Secondly, the percentage
suggested a 4.76 factor to account for the dry-weight of the larvae increased from
nitrogen stored in the chitin (Feng et al. 18.1% to 38.7% over the course of 11
2009). The soxhlet was used to analyse the days. The protein and fat concentration
fat concentration in the sample; by running appears to be negatively correlated as the
petroleum ether through the sample the fat increase of fat leads to a decrease of
can be collected and weighed. Lastly, the protein, however, without statistical testing
ashing was only executed on Experiment 1 it cannot be proven. Lastly, the ash
(the sampling experiment); by burning all percentage remained stable until the pre
organic matter the concentration of pupal stage, however, more data will be
inorganic matter can be measured. Most needed of the earlier days to validate this
chemical analyses were done in either speculation.
duplicate or triplicate, however during the
sampling experiment some of the earlier Experiment 2: Effect of Protein and
samples did not have enough dry weight to Carbohydrates on the growth of black
allow this. soldier fly larvae
As some of the treatment were exposed to
Statistical analysis previously unknown air circulation, they
Only Experiment 2 (protein-carbohydrate will be split from the original data as the
experiment) could be subjected to the drier conditions would have impacted on
statistical analysis. The one-way ANOVA the results.
was executed to determine significant
Table 2: an overview of the fresh weight, dry weight, protein, fat and ash concentrations over
the lifetime of the black soldier fly larvae. The * indicates that for the chemical analysis has only
been done once, as not enough sample was collected for a duplicates.
Fresh Dry Percentage
weight weight Dry Protein Protein:
Time (mg) (mg) weight (%) Fat (%) Ash (%) Fat Ratio
0 15.4 2.8 18.1 47.0 12.4* 0.26
24 19.8 5.0 25.1 33.3 22.6* 0.68
48 54.1 13.8 25.6 36.6 28.5 0.78
72 96.5 25.3 26.2 35.0 27.4 0.78
96 123.7 38.3 31.0 31.8 35.2 1.11
117 151.0 49.6 32.8 31.4 34.7 1.10
141 141.0 43.3 30.7 32.0 35.1 9.3 1.10
166 180.2 61.2 33.9 30.2 38.0 9.1 1.25
192 199.6 67.6 33.8 29.6 39.4 9.1 1.33
216 220.6 76.2 34.5 29.8 38.8 9.0 1.30
240 225.3 80.5 35.7 29.0 38.9 9.1 1.34
264 162.7 63.0 38.7 32.7 36.9 11.0 1.13

Firstly the data from the original dataset Fresh Weight per Larvae (mg)

are displayed in Figure 1 and Table 3.

190
These data indicate that protein is more
8.5

190
influential on the growth of the black
8.0

180

190
soldier fly larvae than carbohydrates. This
Carbohydrates (g)

was further evidenced by the correlation

7.5

170
150
matrix that indicated that the concentration
7.0

of protein has a highly significant positive 160

effect on the fresh and dry weight of the

6.5

150
larvae (Pearson Correlation of: 0.638,
0
18
6.0

170
160

0.675, respectively). Whereas the effect of 140

15
0

carbohydrates although significant was not 2.5 3.0 3.5

a big influence on the fresh and dry weight
Protein (g)
of the larvae (Pearson Correlation of: Dry Weight per Larvae (mg)
0.183, 0.194, respectively). The survival of
the larvae was another good indicator of
8.5

the weight, as the survival was highly

60
significantly negatively correlated with the
8.0
Carbohydrates (g)

fresh and dry weight (Pearson Correlation

7.5

of: -0.673, -0.554, respectively). The 55

protein concentration in the feed had

7.0

another strong correlation with the 50

6.5

percentage and concentration of protein 45

and fat in the larvae (Pearson Correlation

6.0

45
60
55
50

of: -0.470, 0.654, 0.697 and 0.740,

2.5 3.0 3.5
respectively), carbohydrates in the feed
only had a small significant effect on the Protein (g)

percentage of protein (Pearson Correlation

of: -0.254). Lastly, the birthweight of the Figure 1: the effect of protein and
larvae only had a significant effect on the carbohydrates on the fresh and dry weight
dry weight (Pearson Correlation of: 0.204) of the black soldier fly larvae.
Table 3: The effect of various treatments, a different number in the column indicates a
significant differences. The treatments are based on the information given in table 1.
Fresh Weight Dry Weight Protein (%)
Treatment (mg) (mg) Survival (%) (F 4.76) Fat (%)
P1C1 154.8 cd 47.3 fg 89.0 abc 36.4 bc 24.1 e
P1C2 150.3 de 49.0 ef 82.4 cd 36.3 bc 25.4 e
P1C3 151.0 de 47.4 f 94.8 ab 35.9 cde 26.5 cde
P1C4 155.0 cd 49.0 ef 95.0 ab 35.8 cde 26.1 de
P1C5 148.2 de 46.6 fg 99.6 a 34.9 def 24.5 e
P2C1 145.7 de 46.4 fg 87.8 bc 37.7 a 25.5 e
P2C2 133.9 e 42.0 g 99.0 ab 38.0 a 23.9 e
P2C3 154.7 dcd 33.5 h 90.8 abc 37.6 ab 23.9 e
P3C3 165.2 bcd 54.4 de 98.0 ab 36.0 cd 29.2 bcd
P3C4 169.1 bc 56.4 cd 96.8 ab 36.1 cd 30.5 ab
P3C5 171.4 bc 54.4 de 94.2 ab 36.3 bc 29.6 abc
P4C1 194.7 a 62.4 ab 55.6 f 34.2 g 32.5 a
P4C2 176.5 a 59.0 bcd 74.6 de 34.4 g 30.6 ab
P4C3 199.6 a 65.6 a 70.4 e 34.6 efg 31.1 ab
P4C4 184.8 ab 61.3 abc 80.2 cde 34.7 efg 30.1 ab
P4C5 195.5 a 63.9 ab 78.6 cde 34.2 fg 31.7 ab
Fresh Weight per Larvae (mg)

Secondly, the data from the drier

140
treatments is displayed in Figure 2 and
8.5

110

Table 4. Both the table and the graph

13
0
8.0

130
indicate that the highest fresh and dry
Carbohydrates (g)

12
0

weight was gained by the highest

7.5

120
concentrations of both carbohydrates and 100
7.0

proteins. The correlation matrix indicated

110
that although the correlations were not as
6.5

110

strong as with the original data, they were

6.0

100
significant. Both protein and carbohydrates
had a positive effect on the fresh and dry 3.0 3.5 4.0

weight of the larvae (0.302, 0.259; 0.315, Protein (g)

0.32, respectively). The effect of survival Dry Weight per Larvae (mg)

continued to have a negative significant

effect on the fresh and dry weight (-0.293,
8.5

45

-0.266). The protein concentration in the 35

45
8.0

feed had significant effect on the

Carbohydrates (g)

40

composition of the larvae as the protein

7.5

40
was significantly correlated with the
7.0

percentage and concentration of fat and

protein (-0.468, 0.288; 0.395, 0.418,
6.5

35
35
respectively). Carbohydrates in the feed
6.0

also influenced the composition as it had

significant correlations with the percentage 3.0 3.5 4.0

of protein and the concentration of fat (- Protein (g)

0.426, 0.322, respectively). The Figure 2: the effect of protein and

birthweight did not have a significant carbohydrates on the fresh and dry weight
of black soldier fly larvae. These treatments
effect on this treatment.
had a drier environment.
Table 4: the effect of various treatments, a different number in the column indicates a significant
difference. The treatments are based on the information given in table 1. These treatments were
subjected to a drier environment.
Fresh
Weight Dry Weight Survival Protein (%)
Treatment (mg) (mg) (%) (4.76) Fat (%)
P2C3 110.1 cd 44.4 ab 98.8 a 37.9 a 26.2 abc
P2C4 116.8 c 36.6 cd 99.4 a 36.9 abc 24.3 cd
P2C5 113.6 c 36.3 cd 99.4 a 36.9 abc 24.6 cd
P3C1 105.6 cd 34.8 cde 99.2 a 37.7 a 24.0 cd
P3C2 112.6 c 35.8 cd 99.2 a 37.8 a 25.4 bcd
P3C3 88.8 d 28.5 e 97.5 a 38.2 a 23.1 d
P5C1 121.8 bc 39.7 bc 82.8 b 36.9 abc 25.4 bcd
P5C2 105.8 cd 33.6 de 78.2 c 37.4 ab 26.2 abc
P5C3 110.0 cd 34.6 cde 85.4 b 36.4 bcd 25.1 cd
P5C4 135.9 ab 44.5 ab 83.8 b 35.5 d 27.8 ab
P5C5 142.0 a 49.3 ab 82.4 b 35.8 cd 28.4 a

4. Discussion waste, whereas the larvae used in this

The sampling experiment (Experiment 1) experiment were fed with chickenfeed. The
did not find a ‘cut-off’ point, when the control substrate from Tschirner and
larvae start to accumulate more fat than Simon (2015) containing a wide spectrum
protein, the data indicates that the larvae of cereal leftovers, such as broken pellets,
consistently grow both fat and protein. The spilled grains and grinding dust, would be
numbers of the later stage larvae are most comparable to the chickenfeed diet
supported by similar data found in the fed to the larvae during this study. The
literature, as these have found protein study from Tschirner and Simon (2015)
concentrations such as 30.46-33.32% in the found these larvae to be around 37.2%
black soldier fly larvae (original numbers which is comparable to the dry weight of
were converted with protein factor 4.76 the larvae in this study.
instead of 6.25). The fat percentage was
also comparable with these studies, as As mentioned above the data from the
these ranged from 30- 35% (Sheppard et protein- carbohydrate experiment was split,
al. 1994; Nyakeri et al. 2017; Newton et al. due to the cups being exposed to drier
2005; St-Hilaire, Sheppard, et al. 2007). conditions and the larvae therefore not
Interestingly the ash concentration growing as well. Studies such as Cammack
throughout the sampling period was very and Tomberlin (2017) and Holmes et al.
stable around 9.2% and increased to 11% (2012) have shown that a relative humidity
at the pre-pupal stage. This concentration of 60-75% and higher moisture
is lower than in other studies, which find concentrations in the feed would be
15-16.6% of ash found by Newton et al. optimal for the larvae, as it results in
(2005); Nyakeri et al. (2017) and St-Hilaire heavier larvae.
et al. (2007). This might be due to the
difference in feeding substrate of the black This study indicates that carbohydrates
soldier fly larvae, as the larvae from both only have a small contribution to the
Newton et al. (2005) and St-Hilaire et al. growth of the larvae, especially compared
(2007) used manure to rear black soldier to protein. However, a study by Cammack
fly larvae, and Nyakeri et al. (2017) and Tomberlin (2017) suggests that larvae
determined the ash concentration of the should be reared on a balanced diet of 21%
larvae that were fed fruit and vegetable protein and 21% carbohydrates. However,
during this study a chickenfeed base diet 5. Conclusion
was enriched with Promax whose protein To conclude, the composition of black
is made of whey protein, whereas, the soldier fly larvae does not greatly change
study by Cammack and Tomberlin (2017) over their life history, with the exception
used various sources of feed, such as of freshly hatched larvae and the pre pupal
‘swine liver’, ‘fruit and vegetables’, and stage. The younger larvae showed higher
‘fish renderings’. These feed sources percentage of protein compared to the
would have different amino acid older larvae. The pre pupal stage larvae
compositions, which would influence the lost weight compared larvae from the day
growth of the larvae, as was the case with beforehand, as well as exhibiting a higher
mealworms in the study executed by Davis percentage of ash and dry weight.
(2013). A number of studies suggest that The hypothesis regarding the influence of
the black soldier fly larvae do not grow as protein will be accepted, as the protein
well on animal based protein as they would concentration in the feed of black soldier
on plant based protein (Nyakeri et al. 2017; flies had a strong correlation with the
Gobbi et al. 2013; Cammack & Tomberlin fresh- and dry weight. The hypothesis with
2017; Nguyen et al. 2015; Nguyen et al. regard to the influence of the
2013). However, this is still an under- carbohydrates will be rejected as the
studied area as the whey protein would carbohydrate concentration did not have a
qualify as an animal protein and not all significant effect on either the fat
plant based feeds provide enough protein. percentage or fat concentration in the black
A study by Mohd-Noor et al. (2017) had soldier fly larvae.
the coconut endosperm as feed for black For future studies, it can be recommended
soldier flies, and the low protein to examine higher concentrations of
concentration (3-4%) in the coconut sperm protein to find the maximum concentration
most likely prohibit the growth of the of protein, as well as examining the effect
larvae. Another example would be the of other nutrients and minerals on the
Dried sugar beet pulp from the study of growth and composition of black soldier
Tschirner and Simon (2015), this feeding fly larvae. Lastly, a similar experiment to
substrate only had 8.5% protein and Davis (2013) would allow for more
produced the lightest larvae of the accurate understanding of the protein
experiment. requirement of the black soldier fly.

According to the correlation matrix the Acknowledgement

concentration of protein in the feed was I would like to thank Robert Graham, for
negative correlated with the percentage of guiding and supervising the project. As
protein in the larvae, as the heavier larvae well as Harper Adams for allowing this
would produce more fat than the lighter project to happen and provide the
ones and decrease the percentage of necessary tools and lab equipment.
protein. The negative correlation of the
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