DC ELECTRIFICATION SUPPLY SYSTEM DESIGN

Dr Roger D White
Professional Head of Electrification
ATKINS United Kingdom

roger.white@atkinsglobal.com

INTRODUCTION

Railway electrification has in the past been dominated by Positioning of HV Supply Points
overhead contact wire and DC third/ fourth conductor rail
electrification systems. The historical reasons for this The number of feed points to the railway network will
have been the success of the DC traction motor and the depend upon the size of the railway system and the
necessity of a DC supply. Mercury arc rectifiers were capacity required at any particular point. On urban mass
originally used to provide rectification at substations with transit systems EHV supplies may not be available and
the DC power being transmitted to the traction equipment space for substations and feeders are difficult to obtain
by the conductor rail or overhead wire. Success in and expensive. It is sometimes necessary therefore to
producing mercury arc rectifiers capable of being provide the supply from local 33/66kV supplies. This is
operated on board the railway vehicle, enabled railway convenient from the supply authority viewpoint and
AC electrification systems to become a reality in the provides a high degree of supply integrity; however it
1950/60's. does raise two problems, control of the traction voltage
regulation and HV voltage harmonics.
It should be noted that DC is still the most common form
of railway electrification system in the world. Incoming Feeding Arrangement
HIGH VOLTAGE SUPPLY FEEDING
The AC switchboard will have in addition to the
ARRANGEMENT
incoming breakers, local supply breakers and feeder
breakers to other substations. The local supply breakers
The Local Grid Network
provide the supply to traction transformer-rectifier units,
and auxiliary step down transformers, which are required
The HV AC incoming supplies from a National Grid or in the immediate vicinity.
Regional Electricity Companies (REC), or Railway
Generators provide the feed for the DC traction power The incoming supplies from the electrical utility will
substations. The local supplies for stations, tunnel- have its own protection provided by the Supply
cooling fans, auxiliary circuits including batteries, Company. The protection of supply cables require the co-
chargers and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) for operate with the Supply Company to agree on the relay
computers and signalling circuits are also provided by the settings necessary to achieve stability and discrimination.
REC.
Power is supplied into the railway network at several
The electrical supply is fed to the railway at typically points, and it is necessary to ensure that the incoming
132kV, 66kV or 33kV and the electrical power is then feeds are not paralleled. An interlocking scheme enables
(on larger systems) distributed through a separate AC the system to be fed from all power sources but ensures
network at a medium voltage of 33kV, 22kV or 11kV by that an electrical break prevents paralleling taking place.
the railway/metro. This supply is used to provide traction This arrangement gives the most reliable delivery of
power at regular intervals around the railway network. power to the railway even if one supply source fails
With light rail/super tram applications it is usually only completely.
necessary to provide the supply at a couple of points and
is therefore obtained directly from the electricity supply
utility.

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Railway LV Feeding Arrangement and Switchboard particular substation, some of which are motoring,
coasting, braking or regenerating. The worst scenario
A typical LV supply arrangement is given in Fig 1 where occurs when all the trains are accelerating or regenerating
one circuit breaker is connected to each side of the Bus simultaneously. The design of the electrical supply
Coupler Breaker which feeds step down transformers system must be such that it can cope with worst case
(33kV/11kV) and the 11 kV switchboard, these circuit scenario. The limitation of the number of trains in any
breakers are equipped with the protection relays to particular section is the responsibility of the Operation
protect the step down transformer. Control Room.

A typical 11kV distribution network is provided On DC intercity lines, or freight routes, the positioning of
throughout this system where all the passenger stations incoming supply feeders and substations do not pose such
have 11kV switchboards. At each passenger station the a problem. Land is easier to come by and space is not at
11kV would be transformed to 415V 3 phase for a premium. Since each substation only supplies one or
domestic supplies. To give a high level of security of two trains and the acceleration/deceleration is slower, the
these supplies, duplication is provided at each location. positioning of supply points, substations, and the
specification of their capacity is relatively easy.
Providing the supply capacity for mass transit railways is
more complex as there can be up to 10 trains on a

Figure 1 Typical feeding Arrangement for DC Electrification Systems

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 established the working voltage 600V, 750V, 1500V or
DISTRIBUTION OF THE DC TRACTION 3000V the exact position of the substation has to be
SUPPLY decided. This decision is made on the technical
performance of the power system. It is also necessary to
One of the main drawbacks when using DC traction take into account other factors which will determine the
systems is the fact that electrical energy is universally final choice; availability of land, position of junctions
generated by supply authorities in the form of and crossovers, provision of road access up to the main
alternating current. This means that for a DC traction door of the substation building in order to facilitate the
system the railway authority has to provide its own transport of spare items of plant and any necessary
converting plant. Due to the high levels of current that maintenance test equipment.
are drawn in the conductor rail or overhead catenary, the
system voltage can experience severe regulations. To The most economic distance between substations is for
overcome this, substations are spaced at regular 600V DC 3-4km; 750 V DC 5-6km; 1500V DC 8 -
intervals. This normally results in the operation of a 13km and 3000V DC 20 - 30km.
high voltage AC distribution network linking the
lineside substations. Obviously this increases the The distribution voltage for heavy metro and freight is
capital expenditure when the various systems are 1500V, 3000V DC overhead, and therefore requires less
compared. isolation and clearance than for AC electrification. The
mechanical strength of the overhead line conductor
Conductor Rail and Overhead Line becomes the main factor in overhead design, making the
conductor sizes not dissimilar between 1500 V DC and
The conductor rail or overhead power supply is 25 kV AC Where the power requirements exceed the
designed to operate within specified voltage limits and it capability of the overhead catenary it is necessary to
is necessary that the traction unit is capable of handling include parallel feeds along the overhead masts.
the voltage provided. The traction motors and control Connections are made at regular intervals to the
gear are required to be adequately insulated to the catenary to ensure good current sharing.
maximum operating voltage of the supply network.
Traction motors for DC systems are normally wound for The 3000 V system is applied almost entirely to the
600/750 V and connected permanently in parallel for main line in order to maximise substation spacing, with
600/750 V DC supplies, or connected in series parallel 750 V for tram and 1500 V DC supplies predominantly
pairs for 1500 V DC operation. On 3000 V DC supplies chosen for urban mass transit or light rail systems. It
the traction motors are normally wound for 1500V should be noted that London Underground use a fourth
operation and connected two in series on full voltage rail system with -210V and +420V conductor rails.
and as a result they are larger in diameter and more
difficult to install under the low floors of multiple unit Factors Influencing Substation Spacing
stock. The establishment of DC supply voltages have
traditionally been chosen to meet the needs of the DC The substation spacing is determined by the traction
traction motor control. loads and the maximum permissible voltage drop in the
conductor system, i.e. including both outgoing and
In the past the main advantage of the DC supply system return conductors that can be reasonably tolerated
compared to the AC supply system is that a less without too seriously affecting either the system
complex traction control system is required, however efficiency or the train operation. With DC systems a
with the advent of high power GTO (gate turn off voltage drop in the order of 15 to 30% has usually been
thyristor), IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistors) and allowed, although the lower percentage value is to be
the microprocessor, 3 phase drives are becoming more advocated.
common on both AC and DC electrification systems.
With the advent of 3 phase drives the DC voltage is not In considering maximum voltage drop that can be
a design requirement for the traction engineer due to the allowed in the system, the following factors should be
ability of the traction input converter to set the DC link borne in mind so far as running rail return systems are
voltage to the inverter drive, it is likely therefore with used.
new schemes using three phase drives that other system
voltages could be used. The greater the feeding length, the greater will be the
rail potential above earth. This should be limited on
Positions of the Lineside Traction Sub-Stations account of the danger of risk to passengers and railway
personnel. On 660 Vdc third rail systems, rail potentials
A detailed analysis is needed to establish the correct are typically 30V with respect to earth, while on 1500
positions of sub-stations on the railway system, a simple Vdc overhead systems rail potentials are typically 60-
mathematical approach has been included. (Calculation 120V. Voltages in excess of this will be obtained under
of voltage regulation and short circuit situation). Having

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more severe operational and feeding modes. The greater which could be included in the fault resistance
the rail potential the greater the risk of electrolysis. and breaker operation would still take place.

Factors affecting the Length of the DC Feeding iv. Inter- tripping

With both substations feeding into a track
i. System Loading section, then inter-tripping of feeder breakers is
The system loading can be obtained from commonly used. If a fault occurs within a section
analysis of train operating schedules or from the of overhead line then the breaker nearest to the
output of a multi train simulator. This will enable fault would trip first and by means of pilot wires
the optimum number of rectifier substations to be the corresponding section breaker in the
selected; also the substation plant capacity. substation at the end of the section remote from
the fault could be made to trip. This would have
ii. Conductor Section the benefit of allowing longer feeding sections.
The greater the cross section area of the
conductor system the less the electrical resistance
and hence the greater the distance for a given DC FEEDING ARRANGEMENTS
voltage drop with a specified load. The capital
cost of the conductor system however increases The normal feeding arrangement is with the substations
directly as the conductor cross section area; all connected in parallel. There is a DC circuit breaker
furthermore the greater the cross section area, the at each end of the feeding section to provide protection
greater the weight and resultant load on the under fault conditions. Each substation feeds from a
supporting structures in overhead systems. With common DC busbar through DC circuit breakers in both
ground collection systems the conductor rail directions. The feed is separated by a bypass isolator;
cross section is usually approximately equal to this is normally open and closed only when it is
that of a running rail, though in certain busy necessary to bypass the substation.
sections of the line, at junctions, a larger cross
section is employed. With DC overhead systems Normal Feeding Arrangement
the limiting factor for the cross section area is the
load on each supporting insulator, hence the This is where all of the feeder DC circuit breakers are
conductor cross section is usually determined by closed, providing double end feeding of the section of
mechanical considerations though its electrical traction supply. The isolator at each substation is
conductivity in DC systems is the governing normally open, providing an isolated feeding section of
characteristic. Where the line current exceeds the traction supply, and ease of protection of the feeding
current rating of the overhead catenary separate section. Where regeneration is applied, the isolator at
feeder cables have to be provided on the each S/S is normally closed.
supporting structures.
Tee Feeding Arrangement
iii. Circuit Breaker Tripping Current
The length of section fed by one substation must
be such that it’s electrical resistance, including This is implemented at a substation when a DC feeder
both outgoing and return conductors, does not circuit breaker at one end of the feeding section is open.
exceed the minimum system voltage divided by The ‘tee’ feeding arrangement is achieved by closing
the circuit breaker tripping current. With a 1500 the bypass isolator, allowing the remaining DC circuit
V DC overhead system, the loop resistance is in breaker at the substation to feed the traction supply in
the order of 0.0375 ohm per km. Assuming a both directions.
10% volt drop at the far end and a breaker setting
of 4000 amps, then loop resistance must not Single End Feeding Arrangement
exceed:
Single end feeding arrangement on double end fed
90% x 1500 = 0.3375 ohms sections is a temporary feeding arrangement following
4000 the loss of the feed from a track feeder DC circuit
(which is equivalent to approximately 9 km of breaker. This mode of feeding is normally only
track.) temporary and if the feed cannot be restored within a
Normally the substations are situated at reasonable period of time, the traction supply would
approximately 8 km intervals so that the loop normally revert to ‘tee’ feeding.
resistance for a fault at the end of the section with
one substation out of service would be 0.3 ohms; Bypass Feeding Arrangement
this gives a margin of 0.3375 - 0.3 = .0375 ohms,

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This occurs when there is a loss of supply at the
substation or failure of the feeder DC circuit breakers in The use of capsule/disc construction permits a wide
both directions. Under this condition the associated range of the mean forward current and allows a
isolator is closed. The traction supply is provided from minimum number of devices to be connected in parallel
the feeder DC circuit breakers at the adjacent in each arm.
substations. In the case of single end fed sections, it is
necessary to close only the appropriate by pass isolator. The voltage level of the supply system and the
transformer rectifier arrangement will give the
Loss of Supply from Transformer Rectifier Units: characteristic DC voltage. The DC system voltage
should be such that it complies with the train operating
The supply system is designed with more than one requirements whether 650V/1500V or 3000V DC
transformer rectifier unit at a location. The traction
supply is normally designed to operate with one Rectifier Protection
transformer rectifier unit out of service at any location.
If the complete substation is lost, the substation should Short Circuit Protection
operate as a track paralleling hut. The rectifiers are protected against short circuit and
overloading by a thermal relay and over current time
relay. These relays will trip the rectifier AC supply,
TRACKSIDE DC SUBSTATION removing the system driving force.

Internal Short Circuits

Most silicon rectifiers on traction systems use a three Internal short circuit of the rectifier will occur due to the
phase 50 Hz national or railway supply intake. Three failure of one of the rectifier arms. This will produce a
phase rectification arrangement is used to reduce two-phase transformer fault current and reverse current
harmonic distortion at the point of common coupling flowing in the faulted rectifier arm. The fault is
and to reduce harmonic content in the DC supply. interrupted by the diode fuse on the line side which
Where the mercury arc rectifier have been replaced by a isolates the faulted diode, a micro switch on the diode
silicon rectifier the double star transformer with inter fuse indicates that the fuse has ruptured.
phase transformer is employed. The advance of the
silicon rectifier makes more simple arrangements of Where the diode is of sufficient rating it is sometimes
design. considered suitable not to include a separate fuse.

The advent of ‘high reverse repetitive peak voltage’ Over voltages

withstand of the diodes in excess of 4500V makes the Over voltages originating from the AC supply or the
series connection of diodes in rectifier design traction DC supply are normally attributed to switching
unnecessary, for three phase bridges and for traction or interruption of the power system. These over voltage
line voltage of up to 1800V. Where higher system are attenuated with a resistor capacitor network
voltage of 3000V DC is required, two three phase provided on the DC side of the rectifier.
bridges can be connected in series. A low ripple on the
DC system voltage can be achieved with the connection Commutation Protection
of one bridge in star and the other in delta. Commutation ‘hole storage’ protection circuits are
applied to each diode. These protect the devices from
Rectifier Design high voltages that are generated during the commutation
of the diode.
The function of the rectifier is to convert the three-phase
current into direct current. In the past, mercury arc The use of these over voltage devices can be dispensed
rectifiers have been used, however it is now normal to with as the reverse voltage ratings of the devices is
install naturally ventilated silicon rectifiers. This has increased.
become possible with the increase in area of the silicon
wafer and has created what is practically a short circuit Mechanical Construction Rectifier
proof rectifier.
The semiconductor diodes are mounted on aluminum
Natural ventilation of the rectifier means that there are extruded heat sinks. These are required to ensure that
no moving parts and therefore an increase in reliability, the device does not operate outside its normal junction
economic benefits and minimum maintenance. Silicon operating temperature. The diodes are normally
diode rectifiers are very robust, efficient (low on state connected in parallel in a bridge and are hermetically
losses) and able to sustain large fluctuations in sealed against the ingression of dust and moisture etc.
temperature, high over current and over voltage rating The diode fuses and micro switches are mounted
(reverse). adjacent to the diodes, the diode units are then mounted

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so that the heat sink fins can circulate air freely. The AC characteristic, with a specified maximum and minimum
and DC busbars are arranged at either the top or bottom values of supply voltage over the operating range
of the cubicle. The rectifier arm can then be connected
to provide any arrangement that is required. 2 Transformer and Rectifier Circuit
Arrangement
Substation Performance
Ref. Figure 4 on Page 9 Ref. Figure 2 and 3
The pulse characteristic of the supply system is
The detailed electrical performance of the substation has primarily defined by the transformer winding and
to be designed into the electrification system at the converter arrangement. A number of simple
outset The performance is dependent upon the traction arrangements of the transformer windings may be
load specified by the operating business, and the level of chosen with a 3 phase AC supply system to provide 6,
supply redundancy required. Provision for future 12, 18, and 24 pulse DC output voltage. Other ripple
extension of the system, the increase in train loads, and frequencies may be achieved using two converters and
the change of type of vehicles to be operated must also windings, which are phase displaced or wound in an
be considered. alternative star/delta configuration.

In the design of a traction substation it is necessary to A 12 pulse rectifier therefore can be obtained by
take into consideration the following aspects:- connecting two separately fed phase displaced, 6 pulse
systems in series or parallel. The arrangement will
i. Traction sub station rating provide the necessary 30o displacement of the supply to
ii. Traction supply and converter arrangements provide a twelve pulse ripple when the respective
bridges are connected in series or parallel.
iii. DC Traction supply voltage
iv. The regulation of the DC traction voltage The arrangement of the windings during the design and
v. The characteristic DC short circuit fault current construction of the transformer determine the short
vi. The power factor of the traction rectifier unit circuit reactance, commutating reactance and the
vii. The production of harmonics in the input AC operating load loss due to winding resistance. These
supply current, and the distortion to the input design parameters are responsible for dominating the
supply voltage. DC short circuit fault current level, the operating DC
voltage regulation level, transformer efficiency,
1 Typical Traction Substation Rating: Design transformer and converter power factor and the level of
specification for Greenwich Traction Substation harmonics produced in the supply side.
(Jubilee Line Extension)

i Rated capacity 2400kW

i Rated DC traction voltage 600VDC
i Rated DC traction current 4000A
i Short circuit protection 40 kA 0.25 sec
i Transformer 22kV/415V
i Rated Capacity 2½ MVA
i Short circuit protection 40 kA 0.25 Sec

A typical design specification for a 750V supply

system:-

i Rated capacity 3000 kW

i Rated DC traction voltage 750 V DC
i Rated DC traction current 4000 A
i Overload capabilities 150% 300% 450% of the
rated load current for permitted overload
periods.
150% 6000 A for 1 hr
300% 12000 A for 1 min
450% 18000 A for 10 secs

Typically the voltage regulation will vary by up to 6%

at full load current over the linear portion of the

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Figure 2 12-Pulse Parallel Bridge Converter

Figure 3 12-Pulse Series Bridge Converter

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 Calculation of Voltage Drop in the Feeding Network
3 DC Traction Supply Voltage For accurate calculation of remote DC faults computer
European regulation EN 50163 (Supply Voltage of modelling is necessary utilising the following data:
Traction Systems)
i substation is modelled as a transformer of known
Table 1 DC Traction System Voltages impedance,
i a rectifier whose characteristics include overlap;
Definition of 600 750 150 300 i power rail and return conductor being
operating DC * 0 0 represented by a resistance and inductance both
System Voltages of which may vary with the frequencies of the
load current.
lowest non permanent
voltage duration The following calculations are simplified to show the
10min, principles involved. The supply is assumed to be a
lowest permanent 400 500 100 200 constant voltage supply with zero source impedance and
voltage duration 0 0 the power rail and return conductor purely resistive.
indefinitely,
nominal voltage 600 750 150 300 One train in a double track section without
designed system value, 0 0 track-sectioning equipment (Ref Figure 5 on page
highest permanent 720 900 180 360 10)
voltage duration 0 0 Let the distance between the substations be L metres,
indefinitely the resistance of the conductor be Rc :/m and the
highest non permanent 770 950 195 390 resistance of each rail be Rt :/m. If both substations
voltage duration 5 + ^ 0 0 have the same voltage at their busbars then the
min. maximum voltage drop will occur when the train is at
the mid section.
*Future DC traction systems for tramways and local
The maximum voltage drop
railways should conform with system nominal voltage of
Vdmax = Rc ½L ½I + Rt½L ¼I (V)
750, 1500, 3000V
or Vdmax = ¼I L(Rc + ½Rt) (V)
+In case of regenerative braking a voltage of 800 may be
admissible
assumptions:-
^In case of regenerative braking a voltage of 1000
may be admissible i where L is the distance in metres between
substations;
4 The Regulation of DC Traction Voltage i where I is the maximum current taken per train;
i one running rail is available for traction return
Regulation of the substation is a vital characteristic of
circuit;
the DC electrification system. If the regulation is too
i IR - current per rail;
steep then the train will not have sufficient volts to
i IR -¼I (if one rail available per track).
maintain train timetables. Raising the voltage at the
substation will provide a higher voltage on the load but i IR -I/8 (if two rails available per track).
may produce excessive voltages under no load
conditions. A lower regulation is achieved by reducing One train in a double track section with
the impedance of the supply transformer. This however track-sectioning equipment (Ref Figure 6 on page
will increase the short circuit fault current which will 10)
require a higher rating for the circuit breakers and Again the maximum volt drop occurs when the train is
converters. The optimum design is therefore a at the midsection. However, the track section cabin
compromise between regulation of the substation and provides a means of paralleling the conductors, hence
the level of short circuit fault current.
Voltage Drop = Rc ½L ¼I + Rt ½L ¼I (V)
Advanced transformer designs using coupled secondary
allow low regulation over the normal load range and yet = (IRc + IRt)L /8 (V)
limit the short circuit current. This is achieved by using
secondary windings which are coupled to achieve the Assume one running rail is available for traction return
correct short circuit to regulation relationship. current.
.

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 Figure 4 Traction Substation Transformer and Rectifier Performance Characteristic

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.

Figure 5 Voltage Regulation of Train in Double Track Section without Track Sectioning Equipment

Figure 6 Voltage Regulation of Train in Double Track Section with Track Sectioning Equipment

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5 Characteristic DC Short Circuit fault Current operation of the schedules. When calculating fault
The DC short circuit level is an important design currents precise details of the track bonding and
characteristic of the power supply system. The fault conductor supply arrangements are necessary.
level must be such that it does not interfere with normal
train operation. The level must be also be such that the
short circuit rating of the rectifier devices is not
exceeded. The short circuit rating of the rectifier
devices is specified by the surge rating of the device
under a fault condition. It is also necessary to ensure
that the transformer windings are adequately braced
against stress brought about by short circuit forces.
Finally, the DC track circuit breakers must be capable
of successfully interrupting any short circuit.

A short circuit at the output of the rectifier terminals

applies a balanced three phase short circuit to the AC (a) Single unit substation without track-sectioning
system. Normal circuit theory can be applied to equipment (figure 7)
establish the fault current which flows. The secondary
circuit of the transformer and rectifier can be The circuit breaker, shown open, immediately trips, but
represented as a source e.m.f., supply reactance and current can still flow to the fault from the next
supply resistance per phase. This produces a DC fault substation as shown. The short circuit current Isc is
current that rises to 40-80kA in 10-20mS. The di/dt of approximated to the current flow from substation B,
the fault current is dependant on the inductance of the this is to a first approximation only:
supply system and the inductance of the overhead line
the return current system. Isc = V (A)
L (Rc + ½Rt)
Ȟ(t) = Vm sin (Zt + ɮ) source emf
where V is the voltage at the substation busbars and
the AC current which flows can be calculated as only one running rail is available for traction return
current.
ª  r˜ t º
« L »
« Z˜ L ˜ E˜ e » ª If there are two tracks and all the running rails are
ShortCircuit  « »  «§¨
E ·¸ ˜ ¨§ sin §¨ Z˜ t  atan §¨ Z˜ L ¸·  ) ·¸ ·¸»º
ac
« § R2  Z2˜ L 2 · » «¨ R2  Z2˜ L 2. ¸ © © © R ¹ ¹ ¹» bonded together at each substation for connection to the
¬© ¹ ¼ ¬© ¹ ¼ negative busbar, then the resistance of the return
conductors is halved increasing the current to:
L = supply and line inductance Isc = V (A)
R = supply and line resistance L (Rc + ¼Rt)
Z= angular velocity of the supply rad/sec
(b) Single-unit substation with track-sectioning
equipment (figure 8)
The analysis can be used to establish the instantaneous
fault current obtained from faults remote from the This is most easily solved by applying Kirchhoff's
substation itself, provided that a value of line second law, i.e. in a closed loop the sum of the applied
inductance and resistance can be established. e.m.f.s is equal to the sum of the products of current
and resistance. Hence :
The value of the DC fault current can be achieved by
adding each of the secondary line currents point by VA = IaRc ½L + (Ia + Ib)Rc ½L (V)
point during the DC short circuit. With a 6-pulse
system this will include the inverse of the line currents VB = ½Ib Rc ½L + (Ia + Ib)Rc ½L + ½I Rt (V)
shown. The DC fault current obtained will be the
typical fault current. Alternatively the current can be Assuming the voltage at the substations remains
approximated to constant, these two equations can be solved for IA and
IB, and one running rail is available for traction return
Idc = Im (1- e -(R/L)t ) current.
If there are four running rails able to return fault current
Calculations of Short Circuit Currents The circuit is as shown:
breaker setting must be low enough to enable the
circuit breaker to trip when a short circuit occurs, yet VA = IARc ½L + (IA + IB)Rc ½L (V)
the setting must be sufficiently high to cover the VB = ½IB Rc½L + (IA + IB)Rc ½L + ¼IB Rt(V)
maximum current likely to result from normal

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.
Figure 7 Short Circuit Fault Current Double Track Section without Track Sectioning Equipment

Figure 8 Short Circuit Fault Current Double Track Section with Track Sectioning Equipment

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 of distorting the AC supply waveform at the point of
6 Power Factor of the Transformer Rectifier Unit common coupling.
The overall power factor of the rectifier unit and the
traction supply transformer are normally specified to be The input current to the rectifier produces line current
better than 0.9 pu (including distortion factor). with a stepped waveform due to the switching strategy of
the rectifier converter.
Power Factor = Irms (fundamental) x cos ș
Irms (total) Harmonic distortion levels are specified by the Electricity
Council recommendation G5/4. This lays down the limits
cos ș (phase angle of fundamental) of harmonic current which may be generated back in the
supply network. As a result of design predictions it is
The distortion factor needs to be included within the possible to decide whether 6, 12 or 24 pulse will meet the
power factor equation to take into consideration the supply authorities regulations. In urban areas with
effect of the line current harmonics. systems supplied at 33/66/132 kV it is normal to use 12 or
24 pulse rectifiers to ensure compliance with G5/4 AC
Distortion factor = Irms (fundamental) Side Harmonics.
Irms (total)
Characteristic harmonics: the DC output voltage
waveform produces a ripple that is related to the pulse
7 The production of harmonics in the DC and number of the converter. This will produce harmonics in
input AC supply current. the load current waveform that are typically related to
300Hz, 600Hz, 900Hz etc. depending on the rectifier
Any complex wave can be resolved into its Fourier pulse number. The characteristic DC side harmonics are
Series; that is a series of sinusoidal waves of specific therefore related to the pulse number.
amplitude, frequency, and phase. Complex waveforms
are therefore, the summation of a specific set of even AC side harmonics can be characterised by the Fourier
and odd harmonics as indicated below. Analysis of the quasi square waveform. This produces
harmonics that are related to Vhn = n pulse ± 1.
Ȟ(t) = 0.5Ȟ0+ Ȟ1sin(Ȧ1t-ij1) + Ȟ2sin(Ȧ2t+ij2) + ….
Pulse DC side AC Side
The rectifier circuit is a major source of harmonics in Number
the AC supply and the DC traction supply. This effect is p np np ± 1
due to a number of system parameters including: 6 0,6,12,18,2 1,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,
4… 25
Š Rectifier pulse number 12 0, 12, 1, 11,13,
Š Balance of the firing circuits 24 23,25
Š Supply voltage symmetry
Š Transformer tolerances The harmonics are responsible for undesirable effects
including
The rectifier switches the load current from one phase to Š Overheating capacitors
the next; this is necessary to keep the polarity of the DC Š Overheating generators and induction motors
voltage positive. This process is called 'commutation'. Š Instability in converter control systems
Š Interference with control systems
The line current cannot switch instantaneously due to Š Noise on telephone lines
the effect of the leakage reactance; this process is called Š Interference with signaling systems
'overlap'. During the overlap period all devices are
conducting in the outgoing and incoming arms of the The main mechanism of reducing harmonics on DC
rectifier. This produces a short circuit on the input and electrification systems
the output to the rectifier. Š Increase of the converter pulse number
Š Installation of filters
The input supply voltage waveform and the output DC
waveform will therefore be interrupted, producing a Uncharacteristic harmonics
notch and oscillation due to the RLC characteristic of The uncharacteristic harmonics are produced by :
the voltage waveform supply system. This has the effect Š unbalance in three phase systems positive,
negative and zero phase sequence

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 Š voltage waveform distortion ii. For individual harmonics which have the summated
Š unbalance in phase impedances magnitude and hence the greatest THD, the
Š inaccuracy in the converter delay angles measured and calculated values of distortion are
Š supply frequency variation assumed to peak at the same time and to be in phase.

The harmonics of low uncharacteristic orders are Vhp = Vhm + Vhc

normally much smaller than those of adjacent (Total = Measured + Calculated)
characteristic harmonics in the converter itself, however
on the ac side the uncharacteristic harmonic may be of For other harmonics an average phase difference of 90o is
about the same magnitude as those of the characteristic assumed at the time of maximum THD
harmonics that are produced. _______
Vhp = ¥Vhm +Vhc
Under normal conditions the frequency of the National
Grid transmission system is required to be within 1% of Total = Measured + Calculated
the nominal frequency i.e. from 49.5- 50.5 Hz. The
design of a user’s plant and apparatus must enable The THD is then given by
operation within this range within this range also
complying with. 50
2
Š 47.5 - 52.5 Hz continuous THD  ¦ Vhp 
Š 47 - 47.5 Hz operation for a period of at least h 2
20s is required whenever the frequency falls
below 47.5 Hz. Planning and Compatibility Levels
Planning Levels are the levels for public supply system
Permitted Harmonics and the Engineering harmonics and are specified in the IEC Basic Standards
recommendation G5/4 IEC 61000-3-3, these levels are used in the design study
Stage 3 assessment is applicable to connection of non to ensure that any increase in load on the system does not
linear equipment with supply systems having a Point of cause adverse reduction of performance.
Common Coupling (PCC) at 33kV and higher voltages.
Compatibility Levels for public supply system harmonics
Requirements of the Railway Company are specified in the IEC Basic Standards 61000-2-2 and
i. The railway system is required to provide the 61000-2-12. The immunity test levels for equipment are
characteristics of the load to be installed, when this higher levels based on the specified compatibility levels.
is a non linear equipment, If the network distortion exceeds the relevant
ii. Prediction of the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) compatibility level, experience has shown that there will
is required to assess all harmonics up to and be a sudden increase in equipment failure and customer
including the 50th harmonic. complaints.

Requirements of the NOC (Network Operating System Planning Levels Compatibility

Company) (IEC 61000-3- Levels
6)
iii. NOC is required to provide the system harmonic 400V 5% 8% (IEC 61000-
impedance values at the PCC which will enable the 2-2)
customer to evaluate his system harmonic 6.6, 11, 4% 8% (IEC 61000-
performance. 22 kV 2-12)
iv. The existing distortion that already exists on the >20kV 3% 5% (UK)
system is required to be measured. and
v. The prediction of the total harmonic levels by the <145kV
addition of the results of existing and new 275 and 3% 3.5% (UK)
harmonics. 400kV

Calculations Stage 3 Limits

i. For unbalanced harmonic conditions, the phase The values of Vhp for all harmonic orders and the THD
with the highest THD should be used. which have been assessed at the PCC should not exceed

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the individual and the THD harmonic voltage planning Where existing harmonic voltage levels are more than the
levels for the relevant supply network. planning levels, the risk of disturbance to other customers
is increased.

Compatibility levels for 66,132,275 and 400kV systems

have not been specified internationally. The margins for
the THD in the UK are 4% for 6.6, 11 kV, 5% 22,33kV,
2% 66 and 132 kV and 0.5% for 275 and 400kV.

Note The planning and compatibility levels quoted in

G5/4 are the required limits at the point of common
coupling.
Supplies that are derived from traction supplies cannot be
expected to comply with these

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 Figure 9 Transformer Primary and Secondary Voltage

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 Hazards Associated with Rail Potentials
TRACTION RETURN CURRENT SYSTEMS The track is insulated from ground to minimise leakage.
Introducing insulation means that voltages between the
There are typically four earthing strategies for DC
railways and these are detailed below:

Fourth Rail Systems: rails and ground will occur. These voltages are a
Š problem relating to leakage currents is potential hazard to passengers and railway staff when
overcome by the insulation of the fourth rail coming into contact with rail or anything connected to it
(London Underground UK) and the ground. Reduction of rail touch voltages can be
achieved by clamping the rail to ground if a dangerous
Running Rails as the return conductor: voltage is reached and resetting as soon as possible
Š Rail Nominally Insulated (Network Rail UK) afterwards. It is necessary to have quick detection of the
high voltage and then activate a "clamp", by a thyristor
Š Diode Earthed (Hong Kong MTRC, Sheffield
device, GTO device or contactor, to short out the
Super Tram)
voltage.
Š Floating Negative Earth with Rail Potential
Control Devices ( Singapore MRT, Hong Diode Earthed System (Figure 10)
Kong LRT)

Rail Insulation This arrangement includes a diode at the traction

substation which is connected to the substation local
earth. The inclusion of the diode will cause the rail
The railway normally uses the train wheels and running potentials to be either at zero (diode is conducting) or
rails as the traction current return path to the DC above zero if the diode is reverse biased.
substation, (except fourth rail systems). Where the rails
are not insulated from the sleepers, the earth return is Characteristics of the diode earth system:
considerably more complex since the current may flow
Š Stray current is minimal where there is no rail
out of the rails and return at some other point (stray
leakage
current). Most modern rail systems use high insulated
rails to prevent the current from leaving the rails and Š Where there is rail leakage the diode returns
corroding metallic structures this to the substation
Š The diode acts as a unidirectional connection
A very important aim when designing a DC electrified to remote earth
railway is to control return DC traction current and
Š Diode conducts with negative rail potentials
avoid passing these currents through the reinforcement
( typically at substations and regenerating
of concrete structures, and in particular highly stressed
trains)
concrete structures to avoid causing damage to the
reinforcement through electrolytic corrosion.
There are particular difficulties in operating a diode
The Running Rail is normally insulated from the sleeper earthed system in conjunction with regenerative trains,
/ concrete pad by the use of insulation pads placed under which may produce negative rail potentials and hence
the rails with an insulation value in line with the encourage diode conduction.
European Standard EN 50122-2. (Table 1 Page 6; No
added rail insulation 0.5 S/km for open formation and Floating Negative Return Current System (figure
2.5 S/km for closed formation). This level can be 11)
improved with the application of track insulation
mounting pads or polymeric insulation. This value of In this arrangement there is no intentional connection
insulation however will reduce over time, due to between the traction substation negative and the
degradation of the track insulation. For closed substation earth. The effect is to produce a system that
formation, improved levels of insulation can be floats about the remote earth potentials.
achieved where the rail is to be embedded in the road.
The level of insulation is determined not only by the
installation but the maintenance of the track bed. Every
effort should be made to minimise the risk of ballast
coming into contact with the rails, since ballast,
especially when wet will reduce the insulation value of
the rails to earth.

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Figure 10 Typical Rail Potentials in Diode Earthing System
Traction Current
Catenary

Substation Rectifier
DC System Voltage

Traction Return Current

Main Earth bar

Vrail Vrail Vrail

Diode Earth

Vrail

Figure 11 Typical Earth Currents and Rail Potentials in DC Negative Floating Return System

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 Š G59/1 Electricity Association Engineering
System configuration and generation of High Rail Recommendation
Potentials
High traction load can cause high rail potentials which LU Standards
subsequently cause spurious trips of the Over Voltage Š MR-S-PO-0009-Part 1Earthing Code of
Detection Circuits. Practice
Š MR-S-PO-0008 Earthing management
High Rail potentials may occur under the following: Š 1-106 Earthing and Bonding of LU Electrical
Networks
Š Multiple train loads Š E7720 A3 Engineering Standard 25kV 50Hz
Š Substation outage immunisation
Š Single end feeding Š SSL-SE-0858-A1 Earthing Practice 1985-
Š Long feeding section; i.e. during substation Signal Engineering.
outage
Š Remote Regenerative Train Network Rail
Š NR/SP/ELP/21085 Network Rail Earthing and
The likelihood of all these circumstances occurring bonding Standard
simultaneously is rare; however the concurrence of Š RT/E/21032 Network Rail Earthing Systems
some circumstances will happen on a regular basis.

Rail Potentials under Fault Conditions

The magnitude of the fault impedance is dependant

on a number of factors
Š Fault Impedance
Š Substation impedance
Š Impedance of the OLE rails and bonds
Š Feeding length i.e. emergency feeding
Earth Fault Path dependant on:
Š Traction return rails
Š Earth wire or fault current return wire
Š Remote earth
The magnitude of the rail potentials dependant on:
Š Magnitude of the fault current
Š Feeding length i.e. emergency feeding
Š Path of the fault back to the substation

Earthing Management Plan

Statutory documents
Š ISBN 0105437743 Health and Safety at Work
Act 1974
Š SI 1989 No. 635 Electricity at Work
Regulations1989.

Relevant Standards
UK and European
Š European Standard EN 50122 Part 1 electrical
safety and earthing
Š European Standard EN 50122 Part 2 provision
against stray currents
Š BS 7430 Code of Practice for Earthing
Š BS7671 17th Edition of the IEE Wiring
Regulations

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 Figure 12 Earthing and Bonding on DC Electrified Railways

Earth Wire

Telecoms PSU

Telecoms.
Cable
REC
Supply

DC
Voltage Track circuit

NGC Sign all ing PSU

Substation

Local Track Structures

RECS
Station
Apparatus

Tunnel
Structure © R D White 2004
Rebars

Copper
Earth Mat Station
Metallic
Structures

Figure 13 Earthing and Bonding on DC Electrified Railways (LUL)

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14 Typical Cross Section of Cables found in a DC Mass Transit Railway

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 iv. Reduction of maintenance in tunnels.
REGENERATIVE TRACTION UNITS AND v. Improved efficiency of the Railway
SUPPLY POINTS Network and reduction in energy costs.

3- Phase Traction Drives Disadvantages of Regenerative Systems

i. More capital investment in traction and supply
The development of 3 phase induction drives has
equipment.
introduced higher power drives and the ability of
regenerative braking energy back into the supply ii. More harmonics in the medium voltage supply.
system. Three phase induction motors are attractive due iii. Intelligent protection system is required on the
to the elimination of the DC commutator. This reduces supply and traction equipment enabling it to
the chance of mechanical breakdown and eliminates the discriminate with regenerating units.
need for maintenance. The induction motor is able to iv. Adverse effects on stray current management
develop more torque due to the control system, the
motor design and the fact that there is increased space Regenerative vehicles on a DC Electrified Railway.
on the rotor. Size for size the induction motor is more
powerful than the equivalent DC motor; consequently it The following are system performance issues that need
has a higher power to weight and power to volume ratio. to be addressed by the traction and the electrification
The capital cost of introducing inverter drives on engineers to achieve compatibility and are required
traction equipment is close to DC drives, therefore AC where appropriate to be written into the software code
drives are financially viable and also able to produce a for the train and the Supply Protection System.
superior performance. Careful analysis must therefore
be undertaken if 3 phase drives are to be introduced to Variation in System Voltage.
ensure that the supply network will operate The system voltage limits will determine the operation
satisfactorily. of the regenerate vehicle. As the system voltage drops
the following process is necessary for regenerative load
The development of traction inverters and choppers has and should reduce commensurate with falling voltage.
made the recovering of kinetic energy of the train and
returning it to the supply common place. The i. Power is reduced
introduction of microprocessor control for traction drive
enables reliable control of the traction drive and reduces
ii. Don’t initiate regeneration
the likelihood of any interference with the low iii. Stop Regeneration
frequency signalling circuits. iv. Open traction unit circuit breaker

Other traction equipment can use energy that is A local short circuit of the system will cause the
regenerated back into the DC electrification network. If collapse of the voltage. Under a remote short circuit the
there is no traction unit available to use the regenerative system voltage will not collapse as easily, therefore
energy, the system voltage will rise. It is vital the supply there is a greater chance of the train operating into the
voltage does not exceed that specified for the DC short circuit.
electrification network (reference section 3.4 Table 1).
It is necessary at times to cease regeneration or dissipate Interference between the train and the electrification
the energy in dynamic brake resistors. The inclusion of system
inverters at the substation along with the normal diode i. A train runs into an electrification system which is
rectifier equipment, enables the power to be returned isolated and earthed?
back to the supply system when other trains in the i Train System must detect that there is no voltage
feeding section cannot absorb it. and not initiate regeneration
i Train System should detect step change and
Currently there are a number of applications where convert to rheostatic brake or friction brake.
energy is being regenerated by traction units, with the
energy (allowing for receptivity) being returned to the ii. A train runs into an electrification system which is
DC electrification network. This energy is then utilised isolated and not earthed? and with no load for the
by other trains on the same network. regenerative energy:
i System must detect that there is no system
Technical Merits of Regenerative System voltage and not initiate regeneration
i. Reduction of heat produced in underground i Train System should detect step change and
metro systems. convert to rheostatic brake or friction brake.
ii. Elimination of brake resistors.
iii. Reduction of brake dust in tunnels.

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iii. The train protection system should be designed CABLES AND CONDUCTORS
to trip with a short circuit and subsequently allow
the main track feeder breakers to also clear the Applications ( ref. Figure 14)
fault. Cabling and Conductors (copper, aluminum or steel) are
used extensively in the rail electrification system and
iv. The Electrification System opens the Supply are used in:
Circuit Breakers for whatever reason with a
regenerative train in section? The train may or i 33kV & 11kV Distribution network, substation
may not continue to regenerate. feed
i D.C, traction return cables
v. On the reapplication of the Electrification Feeder i DC feeder cables.
Circuit Breaker? i Track bonding
i Auto-reclose may not be considered i Lineside cables
appropriate in case a regenerative train is i Overhead line conductors
operating within the system.
i Closure of the circuit breaker onto a National Regulations
regenerating train will produce a transient Cable design is subject to stringent standards and
effect on the train and the electrification requirements for safety, safe installation and
system. serviceability. This is particularly so in the case of
i Before the system can close the supply tunnels where cable must comply with ‘low smoke no
circuit breaker should detect that there is no halogen’ specification. Also it is especially important
existing voltage due to a regenerative where the power supplies are subject to high
vehicle. temperatures whether influenced by the environment or
i Alternatively the system could be locked out internally by the current carrying capacity and load
for a set period to ensure that all regenerative demands.
trains have come to a standstill.
Cables are manufactured to a range of specifications
MAGNETIC FIELDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE including: BS 6853, BM/RT2120 and LUL/RSE/STD.
OVERHEAD LINE
Cable Specification
DC Magnetic Field ( ref. Figure 14)
Track Application
The dc magnetic field created by the dc traction current For the majority of track applications a combination of
in the overhead line or third rail is significant within copper and aluminum, concentric solid core and
and beyond the environment of the railway. The DC stranded cables is used.
field causes interference due to the change in load on
the system or under large di/dt during a short circuit. For solid core the insulation in many cases is PVC
applied to the cores when hot, then cooled and shrunk
The magnetic field will vary in magnitude due to the onto the cores. Older cables use oil impregnated
passage of trains typically between 1-100A/m. The insulated paper tapes. The outer core of the cable may
limits for interference into electrical equipment are not be protected by steel tape, or galvanized wire
detailed for DC or power frequency harmonics in EN armouring. This provides protection against abrasion
50082-2 Generic Immunity Standard Industrial and BS and gives strength and protection where the wire is
EN 50121. required to be drawn through cable ducts and laid on the
track.
The DC magnetic field during a short circuit will
typically be up to 600 A/m. HV Supply and Distribution

Harmonic Magnetic Fields DC electrification uses solid, gas or oil-filled cables. In

ratings in excess 33kV. 33kV fluid filled and XLPE are
Harmonic fields attributed to the power frequency will used for substation applications feeds. The most
be significant within the environment of the railway. common application of insulation for power cable feeds
There may be an effect on equipment within the now use XLPE (cross linked polyethylene) Polyethylene
environment at these frequencies. The induction into is a good insulator, the main benefits of this being
lineside cables of harmonic content of the power system greater stability at higher operating temperatures during
should also be considered. normal operation, degraded mode and short circuit.

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DISTURBANCE EFFECTS INTO Existing equipment may be specified in the UK to 430
TELECOMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS volts rms.

( ref. Figure 14) Interference into telecoms equipment Transverse

Voltage
Safety of Personnel, maintainers etc
Psophometrically weighted traction line current:
The integrity for a railway network is dependent upon Psophometric current is defined as the r.m.s addition of
the correct operation of the low voltage signalling all the harmonic currents in the traction units primary
circuits. The circuits use the running rails as well as current wave-shape, each harmonic first being
cables which run parallel to the track and to the attenuated in accordance with the appropriate CCITT
overhead traction conductor, therefore it is possible for weighting curve. The psophometric current therefore is
the traction current to interfere with the low power an indication of the level of interference that will be
signalling circuits due to electromagnetic or conductive produced at that point in time for the traction unit. The
mechanisms. It is necessary that the magnitude of this interference mechanism is by electromagnetic induction
interference must be reduced to levels which will not from the traction high power into the low power
threaten the safe operation of trains, nor the safety of telecommunications networks. Conventional
any personnel who are likely to come in contact with a telecommunications networks only are affected.
part of the signalling system. Digitised and optical links are inherently immune from
such interference.
The levels adopted are those specified in the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative I pso = ¦ — (I2n p2n)
Committee (CCITT) directives concerning the
protection of telecommunication lines against harmful where n= harmonic number
effects of power lines. p= psophometric weighting factor of the
nth harmonic
With regard to signalling circuits, the longitudinally
induced emf’s should not exceed the following levels: Immunity Concerns

i Under normal conditions: 60 volts rms. In The immunity concerns are related to high-energy surge
situations where there is no exposure to other on the overhead line, due to connection to the high
than technical staff to any direct contact with voltage power system. The relative slow response of the
signalling lines circuits, the limitation of 60V is diodes will provide a good immunity to fast transient
normally raised to 110V, as this voltage is a effects including the effects of lightning strikes to the
common supply voltage for signalling systems. overhead line.

i Maximum induced voltage occurring on lineside Immunity to RF fields will be high where diode
cable conductors will be 430V, the fault duration rectification is used, extra consideration will be required
not exceeding 200mS. where thyristor or other controlled devices are used.

Safety for humans Telecommunications Equipment Factors for Consideration with Induction
(Longitudinal Voltage) Calculations

This is a disturbance resulting in degradation of useful Traction Power Disturbances

signals and merely hampers the exchange of i Change of traction load or fault current ( time
communications. The rating of individual varying)
manufacturer’s equipment will vary but should i DC Ripple (rectifier supply)
nominally be about rated to about 1000V. (new i Coupling increases with harmonics (j2.ʌ.f.M)
equipment) i Fast transients ( power supply)
i Normal load Current Typically < 500A
The limit defined in the European Standard states that i Fault current typically < 10kA
equipment should be able to withstand as specified for a
50Hz Railway EN 50121 - 4: Factors for DC System Design
i 150V 50Hz for traction current
i Geometry of the line conductors
i 650V rms 50Hz for short circuit
i Inductance of the DC overhead line
i 100A/m Power frequency magnetic field
i Proximity of control system cables

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Factors necessary for the Calculation of Induced train at that point, as the lower impedance path will be
Voltage via the earth wire and support gantry. However, the
i Traction unit psophometrically weighted current surge current will then find a similar path to earth as
i Power system cables HV 50 Hz ac power cables, before but with different current surge values.
DC traction power cables A nearby strike to ground will cause induced surge
i Receptor cables telecoms cables Signalling voltages of up to several 100kV to appear on the earth
cables wire and the lines. No flashovers are likely to occur as
i Parallelism of cables most overhead wires will reach similar voltage levels.
i mutual impedance as a function frequency However, the strike current will flow into the ground
i screening factors of the earthed conductors and cause a local rise in ground potential (known as
earth potential rise – EPR - or rise of earth potential -
Calculations required by Railway Company ROEP). This may cause disturbance to electrical
equipment or signal cables on the railway.
i induced touch potentials
i equipment potentials A strike to ground from further away will not cause
i induced psophometric transverse voltage damagingly high induced surge voltages but may still
cause problems due to ROEP.
Cable Management Systems Adequate surge protection is required to be included in
Extensive cabling for services for power, signalling, the system to protect lightning surges reaching the DC
communications, fire systems etc need to be routed switchboards. Surge protection must be fitted on the
throughout the railway. Multi-compartment cable incoming circuit of each DC track feeder circuit breaker,
management systems (cms) is used which allow for in addition to surge protection of the OHL
ease of installation whilst providing mechanical
protection for cabling. Cms can run for very long Lightning Protection on Railway Lines
distances in underground stations and may place
Specific designs for railways are not provided within
sensitive telecoms and communications cabling in close
EN 50122-1; therefore guidance has been obtained from
proximity to noisy power cabling. These power cables
BS 7354 Code of Practice for design of high- voltage
may feed a variety of switching loads with associated
open –terminal stations.
harmonics. The disturbance current induces a
longitudinal voltage in parallel signal/communications BS 7354 : 1990 Code of Practice "Design of high-
cables which may present a touch voltage or accessible voltage open-terminal stations". Section 7.3 Earthing
voltage hazard. In addition, the longitudinal voltage will see clause 7.3.9 states:
result in a transverse voltage in the victim cable which
"An earth electrode, which may be part of the grid,
may cause interference to the victim circuit in question.
should be provided as near as practicable to each set of
A typical cms will have many cables in each of its multi
surge arresters. The connections thereto should be as
compartments.
direct as possible. Earth connections to surge arresters
should not pass through iron pipes which would
LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION increase the surge impedance of the connections. The
earth connections of the arresters should be
Lightning strikes on or near railway equipment can interconnected with the main earthing system since, to
generate large voltage surges that can disturb or damage be effective in protecting the station equipment, a
railway operations. The various ways in which a definite connection of low impedance between the
lightning strike can affect railways are: equipment and the arresters is essential".
i. Direct strike to the overhead lines In terms of the railway, there is no copper earth mat as
ii. Direct strike to the aerial earth wire or gantries exits in HV substations; there is however an earthed rail
iii. Nearby strike to ground induced voltages returns system.
iv. Strike to ground further away rise of local A copper bond (ideally flat in cross section) of the
ground potential) shortest possible route shall be used. Ideally a
A direct strike to the lines can generate an overvoltage segregated earth for the lightning arrestors should be
surge of several million volts. This will cause a used;
flashover across the support insulators to the gantry. Where the lightning arrestor is also bonded to rail earth,
The surge current will then find various routes to earth signalling, telecommunications and LV earth
depending on their surge impedance values. This will connections should not be bonded to the rail within
also generate an overhead line earth fault. close proximity of the connection from the surge
arrestor.
A direct strike to the earth wire is unlikely to cause a
flashover across the support insulator, unless there is a

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DISTURBANCE EFFECTS OF DC v. excessive voltage stress across insulators
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS vi. disturbances on the overhead line
Characteristic System Behaviour: DC Traction Systems RFI from the Traction Unit
produce significant amount of ripple, which is present
within the DC supply, the ripple is related to the pulse i. transients due to raising the traction unit pantograph
number of the rectifier. within the transformer rectifier ii. interaction of power system contacts earthing,
unit. (Figure 9) wheel rail, rail to rail
iii. operation of multiple pantographs
Resonant frequency iv. switching of thyristors and semiconductors.
Resonance is related to the system characteristics of the RFI from the Track Circuits
power supply, rectification, dc electrification v. track circuit current producing arcing poor wheel to
distribution and traction loads. The frequencies can rail,
occur from the resonant frequency of the input traction
filter to MHz. System parameters that are responsible
vi. high voltage impulse track circuit.
include: capacitance of the overhead line; leakage
inductance of the overhead line; rectifier switching;
inductance of supply transformer; traction input filters;

AC LV and HV Systems
i. AC side harmonics in 3 phase supply
ii. AC voltage distortion
iii. Power Factor
iv. 50Hz Disturbance to users on the

Railway LV/HV system

i. Power Harmonic to users on the railway LV/HV
system

DC and Power System Harmonics

i. DC Side Harmonics
ii. Resonant, overlap effect, system capacitance
iii. Traction line filter resonance
iv. Magnetic and Electric Fields

Inductive and Radiated Effects

i. High frequency radiated emissions
ii. Traction load traction to regeneration.
iii. Power arcs on the ramp end of the rails
iv. Disturbance changes supply & traction
v. Switching of the DC power (di/dt)
vi. Longitudinal Transverse voltages

Return Circuit and Stray Current

i. Stray DC current
ii. Magnetic field traction/electrification
iii. Harmonics in the return circuits
RFI from the Distribution System
i. current collection mechanism.
ii. operation with multiple contact wires.
iii. HV switching of the power system
iv. resonance of the power system at MHz

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Relevant UK and European Standards xxi. Recommendation K-27, Bonding configuration
and earthing inside a telecommunication building,
i. IEC 60479-1 2005 Effects of current on human ITU-T, 1996.
beings and livestock. xxii. IEC 60364-1, Low Voltage electrical installations
ii. BS EN 50122-1, Railway applications - fixed - Part 1: Fundamental principles, assessment of
installations, Part 1: Protective provisions relating general characteristics, definition, IEC, 2005.
to electrical safety and earthing,
iii. BS EN 50122-2, Railway applications - Fixed Group Standards
installations - Electrical safety, earthing and the
return circuit - Part 2: Provisions against the i. GE/RT8016 Verification of Electrification
effects of stray currents caused by d.c. Systems and Interactions with Other Systems
iv. traction systems ii. GE/RT8023 Compatibility between Electric
v. BS EN 50122-3 Railway applications - Fixed Trains and Electrification Systems
installations - Electrical safety, earthing and the iii. GL/RT1253 Mitigation of DC Stray Current
return circuit - Part 3: Mutual Interaction of a.c. Effects
and d.c. traction systems iv. GE/RT8270 Assessment of Compatibility of
vi. BS EN 62305, Protection against Lightning, 2006. Rolling Stock and Infrastructure
vii. BS EN50388:2005 Railway applications — Power v. GL/RT1254 Electrified Lines Traction Bonding
supply and rolling stock — Technical criteria for
the coordination between power Network Rail Standards
supply(substation) and rolling stock to achieve
interoperability i. AC Traction Supplies to British Rail ER P24
viii. BS EN50119 Railway applications -Fixed [1984] Electricity Association recommendation.
installations -Electric traction overhead contact ii. NR/GN/ELP/00015, Signalling Power Supply
lines. Design
ix. BS 7671, Requirements for Electrical Installations. iii. NR/L2/TEL/30034, Radio Mast Lightning
IEE Wiring Regulations Seventeenth Edition, BSI, Protection and Earthing System, Network Rail,
2008. issue 02.
x. BS 6651, Code of Practice for Protection of iv. NR/SP/ELP/21106 25 kV a.c. System Protection
Structures against Lightning, 1992. Calculations
xi. Guidelines for the Design Installation Testing and v. NR/SP/ELP/21085 Specification for the design of
Maintenance of Main Earthing Systems EATS 41- earthing and bonding systems for 25kV a.c.
24 1992. electrified lines
xii. BS 7430, Code of Practice for Earthing, BSI, vi. NR/SP/ELP/21036 Specification for 25kV Booster
1998. Transformers for a.c. electrified lines
xiii. Electricity Council Engineering S 5/1. vii. NR/SP/ELP/21078 Specification of design of the
xiv. BS EN 32605 Protection against lightning. Return Conductor Systems for AC Electrified
xv. Engineering Recommendation P24 AC Traction Lines
Supplies to British Rail 1984. viii. NR/SP/ELP/21074 Overhead Line Equipment
xvi. BS EN 50162:2004 Protection against corrosion Allocation design
by stray current from direct current systems
applications. London Underground

LV Networks i. MR-S-PO-0009-Part 1Earthing Code of Practice

ii. MR-S-PO-0008 Earthing management
xvii. BS EN 50310, Application of equipotential iii. 1-106 Earthing and Bonding of LU Electrical
bonding and earthing in buildings with Networks;
information technology equipment, BSI, 2006. iv. 1-222 London Underground Cat 1 Standard
xviii.BS EN 50310, Application of equipotential Electromagnetic Compatibility
bonding and earthing in buildings with v. G-222 London Underground Manual of EMC Best
information technology equipment, BSI, 2006. Practice
xix. Technical Specification 41–24. Guidelines for the vi. 1-193 London Underground Electromagnetic
design, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of Compatibility (EMC) with LU Signalling Assets
Main Earthing Systems in Substations, Energy
Networks Association, 1992.
xx. HD637, Power Installations Exceeding 1kV a.c., International Standards
CENELEC, 1999.
i. Technical Specification 41–24. Guidelines for the
design, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of

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 Main Earthing Systems in Substations, Energy 10. Symposium on Research and Development in
Networks Association, 1992. Railway Engineering Asia Pacific; IEE and IEEE
ii. HD637, Power Installations Exceeding 1kV a.c., Hong Kong, Hong Kong March 2005.
CENELEC, 1999. 11. Seminar Proceedings ‘Traction Power Supplies’
iii. Recommendation K-27, Bonding configuration IMechE Birdcage Walk London January 2004.
and earthing inside a telecommunication building, 12. IEE Railway Industry Group Seminar DC
ITU-T, 1996. Traction Stray Current Control 21.10.99.
iv. IEC 60364-1, Low Voltage electrical installations - 13. International conference on developments in
Part 1: Fundamental principles, assessment of Mass Transit Systems
general characteristics, definition, IEC, 2005. IEE PEP04530, 322pp., 53 papers,
ISBN 0-85296-703-9 & 978-0-85296-703-4.
14. Colloquium on ‘Systems Engineering on Large
Technical Specifications for Interoperability (TSIs) Railway Projects’ IEE Railway Industry Group
May 1997.
i. High speed TSI ENERGY
ii. Conventional TSI ENERGY (in drafting 2006) 15. Colloquium on EMC in Electric Traction and
iii. High speed TSI RST Signalling IEE Savoy Place, Nov 1995.
iv. Conventional TSI RST (in drafting 2006) 16. International conference on electric railways in a
v. Rules of the Route: Rules of the Route (by area / United Europe
territory). Defines operational access, blockages, IEE PEP04050, 210pp., 39 papers,
engineering access ISBN 0-85296-631-8 & 978-0-85296-631-0,
vi. Rules of the Plan: Rules of the Plan (by area / 1995.
territory). Defines operating rules and allowances 17. IEE Conference on 'Main Line Railway
for operational access Electrification' Publication 312 York University
vii. Working Timetable: Working Timetable (by 1989; ISBN 85296384. X.
route). Defines existing and planned service 18. IEE Conference on 'Electric Railway Systems
patterns for a New Century'. Publication 279; ISBN
viii. Rolling Stock Diagrams: Rolling Stock Diagrams. 085296351-3.
Defines existing and planned utilisation of paths 19. GEC Traction Symposium Main Line AC
and thereby traction demand Electrification.
20. Protective Relays For Rail Transport System
GEC ALSTHOM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 21. Kimbark E.W 1971. “Direct Current
Transmission” J Wiley and son.
22. Arrillaga, J et al, “ Power Systems Harmonics”
1. 11th ETS and 13th RSCS IET Professional John Wiley & Sons 1985.
Development Course Notes 2010. 23. J E Buttery, D N Ebenezer and B P McCormick.
2. Systems’ IRSE Seminar Railway Interfaces; IEE "Electromechanical and electronic falling
Savoy 18 November 2004. voltage track impedance devices for fault
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0105437743. Bourne Ltd, UK.
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No. 635. Reactance on the Design of DC Power Supply
5. Construction Design and Management Converters”, GEC ALSTHOM Publication.
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6. The Electricity Council Chief Engineers’ potential and stray currents in DC transit
Conference, “Limits for Harmonics in the United railways” CEGELEC Projects Ltd UK.
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Austin Court Birmingham 28th September 2006. Birmingham “Computer Analysis of touch and
8. Proceedings of ASPECT 2006 IRSE ‘Quality of step voltages for DC Railways. Proc. of the third
service through Signalling and Communications International Conference on Computer Aided
‘Queen Elizabeth II Conference Centre Design, Manufacture and Operation in the
Westminster London 16-17th March 2006. Railway and other Advanced Mass Transit
9. IRSE ASPECT 2003; Signs of the Times for System Washington 1992 .
Train Control; Queen Elizabeth Conference 28. Stray Current Design Parameters for DC
Centre London UK Railways Proc of the ASME/IEEE Joint Railroad
Conference pp 19-28 1992.

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29. Protective Relays For Rail Transport System
Protection and Control GEC ALSTHOM.
30. ORR Web Site: Design standards Stray current
Management Nov 2008
http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/upload/pdf/TTGN3.pdf
31. ORR Web Site: Guidance of Tramways
Sept 2007
http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/upload/pdf/rspg-2g-trmwys.pdf

File IEE REIS DC 2011

Author Dr R D White April 2011,
Professional Head of Electrification Atkins (UK)
roger.white@atkinsglobal.com

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