Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power

Building Projects in Australia

Prepared by

SOLARCH: The Centre for a Sustainable

Built Environment

FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

RENEWABLE ENERGY INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT (REID 7) PROGRAM

Australian Government funding through the Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO) in the Department of
Environment and Heritage supports this project
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The University of New South Wales (UNSW) would like to acknowledge the support of the Australian Greenhouse
Office (AGO) for funding the preparation of these guidelines under the Renewable Energy Industry development
(REID 7) program.

The guideline project was completed by Professor, Dr. Deo Prasad and Dr. Mark Snow from the SOLARCH group,
Centre for a Sustainable Built Environment (CSBE) and Dr. Muriel Watt, Centre for PV Engineering, at the University
of New South Wales.

A dedicated project steering group and numerous stakeholder contributions ably assisted in developing the
guidelines both in structure and content. Particular thanks go to Georgine Duncan (Origin Energy), David Eckstein
(Planning NSW), Peter Lawley (Pacific Solar), Monica Oliphant (Energy Consultant, South Australia) and Haico
Schepers (Ove Arups) for their steering group inputs. The authors are grateful to the Business Council for Sustainable
Energy (BCSE) for their assistance in finalising and promoting this guideline document.

Other inputs were sought through various network and core organisations and include:

PV Roadmap Network
PVPS consortium
BCSE members
Planning NSW
Australian Local Government Association
Building Council of Australia
Property Council of Australia
Sustainable Energy Development Authority of Victoria
NSW Sustainable Energy Development Authority

Disclaimer

These Best Practice Guidelines have been developed in consultation with a broad range of external organizations with
an interest in building integrated photovoltaic (BiPV) applications. The report aims to facilitate the development of
high quality BiPV projects. The guidelines are not intended to replace existing energy, environmental or planning
policies, Australian standards or legislation at local, state and federal government levels.

The guidelines are designed as a guide only for designers, developers, tradesmen, building owners, planners,
financiers and related practitioners. It is recommended that before proceeding with projects, parties should first seek
and obtain their own independent professional support and advice.

Neither the Business Council for Sustainable Energy (BCSE), the project authors, contributors, Commonwealth of
Australia through the Australian Greenhouse office, employees, agents and advisers can accept any liability arising
from any reliance which may be placed upon the information contained in this publication. Similarly, no
responsibility can be accepted arising in any way from any errors or omissions from the guidelines.

ISBN: to be provided
Copyright © 2005

Photocredits: Fig 1: Martin van der Laan; Fig 3: ASRDH; Fig 4: CRES, Australian National University (ANU); Enecolo AG; Unisolar;
Origin Energy; Sustainable Technologies International; Fig 5: Martin van der Laan; Fig 7: BP Solar; Fig 8: Pacific Solar; Fig 9:
Demosite Fig 10: SOLARCH, UNSW; Fig 11 & Fig 12: PV Solar Tiles; Fig 13: Jiro Ohno; Fig 14: Sustainable Technologies
International; Fig 15: John Lewis Marshall; Fig 16: NREL; Fig 17: CRES, Australian National University (ANU); Fig 18: PV
Engineering, UNSW

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is Solar Power Building integrated Photovoltaics (BiPV)?

1.2 Why use solar power on buildings?
1.3 Nature of the Guidelines
1.4 Implementation and dissemination
1.5 Structure of Guidelines
1.6 Stakeholders

2. BiPV RELEVANCE TO DIFFERENT PRACTITIONERS

2.1 Client – Building Owner

2.2 Designer – Architect
2.3 Financier
2.4 Building Constructor - Foreman, Transporter, Tradesman, Roofer, etc
2.5 Electrician
2.6 Electrical Utility Personnel
2.7 Planning Officer, local government

3. STAGE ONE – FEASIBILITY AND EVALUATION

3.1 Site selection
! Orientation
! Solar Resource
! Shading
! Soiling of panels
! Grid infrastructure
! Potential planning constraints

3.2 Holistic building integrated design concepts

! Building design evaluation
! PV as part of a holistic building design outcome
! Structural engineering issues

3.3 Technical Pre-design considerations

! PV cell technology
! Climatic effects – e.g. temperature, ventilation, relative humidity
! Mounting options
! PV system sizing
! PV wiring issues

3.4 Financial and Financing considerations

! Ownership – building, roof, PV, electricity – implications for finance options
! Prices vs building materials
! Other added values to consider

3.5 Early dialogue and consultation

! Project team and stakeholders
! Consultation process
! Tender documentation and assessment

3.6 Contractual considerations

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

4. STAGE TWO – DETAILED DESIGN

4.1 Detailed evaluation of building characteristics

! Building energy performance
! Network interconnection
! Retail contracts

4.2 Design integration options

! PV Roofs
! PV Façades
! Translucent PV
! PV/cogen

4.3 BiPV system detail

! PV product selection
! Encouraging sympathetic operating conditions
! Integration detail
! Electrical configuration design plans

4.4 Planning approval

! Communication with the Planning officer(s)
! Visual attributes (aesthetics)
! Solar access
! Development control plan (DCP) compliance

4.5 Contractual considerations

! Product Supply
! Contractual schedule of works plan
! Contractual amendments from planning approval process

5. STAGE THREE – IMPLEMENTATION

5.1 Project scheduling
! Product Storage and delivery
! Building site schedule of works

5.2 Installation training guidance

! Working with site engineers

! Working with builders
! Working with electricians
! Working with planning officers

5.3 Health and Safety check list – OH & S requirements

5.4 Contractual considerations

6 STAGE FOUR – COMPLIANCE and COMMISSIONING

6.1 Structural compliance

6.2 Electrical safety
6.3 Calibration of BiPV system
6.4 Sign off
6.5 Contractual considerations

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

7 STAGE FIVE – MONITORING and MAINTENANCE

7.1 System monitoring
! Recommended monitoring
! Indicative component lifetimes – PV, inverter, meters, frames, wiring

7.2 Display options

7.3 Recommended maintenance checklist
7.4 Contractual considerations

8 STAGE SIX – DECOMMISSIONING

! Re-use and recycling options / recommendations

APPENDICES

A1 Glossary and abbreviations

A2 BiPV directory and contacts
A3 BiPV relevant subsidies
A4 Added value summary
A5 BiPV codes and standards
A6 Monitoring equipment and parameters
A7 Summary of Australian BiPV case studies
A8 Useful websites
A9 Reference publications

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

1 INTRODUCTION environmentally benign and energy efficient building,

without sacrificing comfort, aesthetics or economy,
1.1 What is Solar Power Building integrated and offers a new and versatile building material.
photovoltaics?
1.3 Nature of the Guidelines
Photovoltaics, PV for short, is what most know as
solar panels and is derived from the words “photons” This publication is a guide that assists in identifying,
of light rays from the sun and “volts”, as in electrical developing and implementing appropriate solar
currents. PV cells are made of a semi-conductor power building projects in Australia. Its nature is
material, often crystalline silicon, that is stimulated by similar to the Australian Wind Energy Association
photons of sunlight to generate an electrical current. (AusWEA) Guidelines for Implementation of Wind
Often solar photovoltaic panels can be confused with Energy Projects and it is supported by the Business
solar hot water panels that harness the sun’s heat Council for Sustainable Energy (BCSE). The
energy to heat water for typically domestic use. PV guidelines are not definitive and projects require
cells generate direct current (DC) power. As depicted evaluation on their individual merits. There is no
in figure 1, thirty-six PV cells are typically joined prescriptive timeframe, schedule or checklist that can
together to make a PV module (or panel). A PV array be universally applied to all BiPV projects equally.
is formed when modules are connected together. The Project proponents need to investigate specific issues
technology is very practical as a building material or that relate to a particular site and address these
integrated as an external building element known as accordingly. The guidelines cover technical, whole
building integrated photovoltaics (BiPV). building design issues and planning considerations.

1.4 Implementation and dissemination

Figure 1 – Indicative PV Cell to Module to Array diagram BCSE intends that proponents of BiPV projects will be
(source: M.ART Martin van der Laan www.laan.demon.nl) able to use these guidelines as a benchmark to help in
determining project viability. Adherence with the
guidelines is voluntary but BCSE urges its members
and responsible practitioners to take them into
account in their activities. BCSE also encourages local
planning authorities to recommend these Best Practice
Guidelines are adhered to by recognising that this will
help foster appropriate and successful BiPV project
outcomes.

The guidelines are to be widely distributed within the

PV industry, building construction groups, design
professionals, building financiers and planning
authorities and can be made freely available to other
organisations and individuals electronically on
request or at cost as a paperback copy. The content
may be reviewed periodically to take into account
1.2 Why solar power on buildings? changing circumstances, and comments on the
Photovoltaic (PV) power systems installed on the content of the guidelines are welcome. The guidelines
surfaces of buildings allow the possibility of can be downloaded from www.bcse.org.au
combining energy production with other functions of
the building envelope including structural support, 1.5 Structure of Guidelines
weatherproofing, shading, insulation or solar thermal The guidelines are structured to allow different
collection. Cost savings through these combined stakeholders to identify information that is relevant to
functions can be substantial. Additionally, no high- them. Section 2 provides a stakeholder checklist that
value land is required, no separate support structure highlights important questions and considerations
is necessary and electricity is generated at the point of that are indexed to the main sections of the guidelines.
use. The latter contributes directly to the building A summary page, “BiPV relevance to different
occupants’ electricity requirements while also practitioners” is provided for building owners and
avoiding transmission and distribution losses and prospective clients; designers/architects;
reducing capital and maintenance costs for utilities. financiers/prospective investors; construction
Integrating the photovoltaic power system into the workers, roofers, tradesmen, foremen, transport
architectural design, however, offers more than cost drivers; electricians and electrical utility personnel;
benefits. It also allows the designer to create and planning officers.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

The guidelines provide step-by-step information on Local Planning Authorities

issues and core considerations for the following Without local planning approval, BiPV projects do not
phases of BiPV projects. These include: progress beyond the drafting board. State Planning
law designates local councils to reconcile urban
PHASE ONE Feasibility and Evaluation landuse options in the interests of the public good.
Protection of cultural amenity by preserving heritage
PHASE TWO Detailed Design
is a key consideration under planning discretion. It is
PHASE THREE Implementation important, therefore, to consider development control
PHASE FOUR Compliance & Commissioning plans (DCPs) during early design conception and
provide the relevant information to planning officers
PHASE FIVE Monitoring and Maintenance on aesthetics, building compliance, electricity grid
PHASE SIX Decommissioning network integration, and importantly, guaranteeing
adequate solar access. Increasingly, local governments
also require new buildings and major renovations to
Within these phases, the guidelines aim to assist the meet energy performance criteria. These may include
reader to: consideration of solar access and use of renewable
energy systems. BiPV systems may be accepted as
• develop a design concept contributors to a building’s energy performance.
• select appropriate sites
• formulate a project team
• produce detailed designs State & Federal Government
• evaluate BiPV options The Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act passed in
• construct and install a BiPV system December 2000 requires electricity retailers and large
• connect and configure a BiPV system consumers to purchase an additional 9500 GWh per
• maintain BiPV system performance and upkeep year of renewable energy by 2010. Energy generated
• retrofit a BiPV system from accredited renewable energy sources such as
• dismantle and dispose/recycle a BiPV system wind, hydro, solar and biomass is tracked through the
allocation of tradeable Renewable Energy Certificates
(RECs) at a rate of one REC per MWh. This is
1.6 Stakeholders regulated by the national Office of the Renewable
As early as project conception, the project developers Energy Regulator (ORER) and new generators are
should have a keen appreciation of the various required to register with ORER (www.orer.gov.au) to
stakeholders that are likely to be consulted or claim their REC entitlements. State and Federal
involved. Stakeholders are likely to include the governments also provide funding support programs
following parties: from time to time that offer incentives and rebates for
PV applications. Of particular relevance at present is
the PV rebate program (PVRP) for residential systems
as described in Appendix A3.
Building/Land Owners
BiPV projects occur only if the person who owns the
building or site is supportive. Building/Land Owners Power Utilities
often need to be convinced of the values BiPV can
bring to a project. For example, in new buildings, it is Power retailers are obligated to purchase renewable
easier to identify the cost benefits when PV is energy under the Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act
considered as an integral part of the overall design. (2000), as described above. Hence, they may be
With retrofit options, PV (particularly when used as a interested in purchasing RECs from BiPV systems. In
shading device) can often avoid upgrading any case, BiPV owners will need to sign an agreement
mechanical cooling systems and generate power when with their electricity retailer, detailing the tariff
the building most needs it. BiPV can also be conditions applying for PV generated electricity.
effectively marketed to prospective building owners Another otion is to onsell your RECs to REC agents.
and its sustainable building credentials used to create
a competitive advantage over other building Most power retailers also offer commercial and
developments. The Building/Land Owner needs a domestic customers the choice of purchasing, at a
clear understanding of the project concept, the design premium, a percentage of renewable energy through
process and associated risks. Green Power Schemes (www.greenpower.com.au).

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Network Service Providers meet high energy performance criteria, on the basis
PV power that is connected to the electricity grid will that the owners will be less exposed to energy price
need to interface with Network Service Providers rises and will have lower energy bills. The lower
(NSP) who own and maintain the distribution interest rate can effectively pay for the BiPV system
network assets. NSPs may be a transmission or well within the mortgage life.
distribution company, an electrical utility or a small
grid owner/operator normally regulated under the From an environmental risk perspective, financing
Electricity Act, as applicable in each state. organisations are beginning to re-position a portion of
their investment capacity towards less carbon
Under the National Electricity Code (NEC), NSPs intensive activities. This, and marketing themselves
must give generators access to the network services through environmentally sensitive activities, provides
provided by the networks forming the national grid. opportunities for prospective BiPV developers to
This is overseen by the National Electricity Market negotiate financial assistance that incorporates PV as
(NEM), Australian Competition and Consumer part of the whole building cost structure.
Commission (ACCC) and National Electricity Code
Administrator (NECA). In those states not connected
to the NEM (ie TAS, WA and NT), access to Community Groups & General Public
transmission networks is controlled by the In many instances, BiPV is one of the easier
state/territory energy utilities. To enter the NEM, a technologies for community groups and the general
generating company must obtain a generator’s license public to embrace. There are certainly positive
by applying to, and registering with, the National advantages in being able to see BiPV installations
Electricity Market Management Company from street level that the local community can identify
(NEMMCO). A pre-requisite for registration is a with and proudly promote to the visiting public.
connection agreement with the NSP. BiPV owners will Often, however, BiPV systems placed on roof surfaces
need to sign an agreement with their local NSP can go unnoticed. This aesthetic invisibility can be
covering connection conditions. warranted if heritage characteristics would result in
visible PV being out of place.
Details on RECs and metering can be found by
downloading Development of a Standard Grid
Connection Agreement for Small Grid-Connected
Renewable Energy Systems, January 2003
www.acre.ee.unsw.edu.au/anzses2002/ANZSES_Std
ConnAgreeUNSW.pdf

Financing Organisations
Whilst BiPV can be cost comparative to expensive
commercial cladding materials, such as polished
marble or high tech glazing products, there is often a
need to source finances externally to fund BiPV
developments. This is in part due to PV not being
considered as a subsidiary cost of the whole building
in terms of $/m2. Similarly, if building costs start to
blow out as modifications and issues emerge during
construction, PV can be the first item to be omitted. In
many cases, the building developer has a build / on-
sell mentality that does not encourage consideration
of the longer-term benefits of PV. Potential BiPV
owners should therefore seek financing organisations,
which have an interest in longer term investments and
sustainable development.

Buildings can expect their PV to function for at least

20 years or more. Hence, they will be likely to operate
in a much more price volatile energy market than is
currently the case. This issue should be considered
when arranging finance. Some mortgage suppliers
provide reduced interest rates for buildings which

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

2 BIPV RELEVANCE TO DIFFERENT PRACTITIONERS

2.1 CLIENT – BUILDING OWNER

BiPV relevance for building owner

The Building Owner / Client of a building project makes the final decision on whether PV is to be part of the overall
design, irrespective of the scale of the project. This decision is governed by factors such as cost, paybacks, value
added benefits, in terms of how the PV is applied as part of the overall energy solution, and building aesthetics. A
critical factor often is the owner’s commitment to sustainable building and to its long-term environmental impact. In
such instances, cost may have a lesser role to play in decision making, however, the owner in all cases shows a
commitment to environmental responsibility. Building owners clearly need to be convinced by those advising them
about most aspects of BiPV. The following questions are particularly relevant.

BiPV checklist for building owner

! How do I determine the cost and payback value of BiPV? Page 26

! What subsidies and rebates are available? Page 45
! What are the product options and their physical characteristics such as colour, size,
Page 19
transparency, flexibility etc?
! How durable are the products and what warrantees apply? Page 35
! What performance outputs are possible? Page 16
! How much does my location and my building design matter? Page 16
! Can I remove or add to my PV system in future? Page 18
! Can I use PV to shade the building so it requires less artificial cooling? Page 22
! Is local Council approval necessary? Will the local council cause problems in
Page 31
approving this or will they look at it more favourably?
! Are there any additional risks in having PV on my buildings – is it likely to cause
Page 47
problems in future or affect other appliances I may have?
! Will it delay construction and do I need specialist trades on site to install? Page 32
! What should I consider with monitoring and maintenance? Page 34
! What do I need to know about my metering and PV system upkeep/maintenance? Page 49
! Is my building insurance going to cover any risks and will it impact upon the
Page 25
premium?
! What level of solar access is required for good performance output and is the
Page 17
neighbourhood going to affect this in the short and long term?
! Can unwanted heat be captured and used as part of an integrated design, for
Page 29
example, to pre-heat water or air?
! What should I know when communicating with:
! Architects & Designers
! Planners
Page 36
! Construction& Building companies
! PV installer
! Utility & PV owner
! Local Community

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

2.2 DESIGNER – ARCHITECT

BiPV relevance for architects

Including PV in building projects, to a large extent, depends on the knowledge of the architects and designers about
this technology (as a building material), its aesthetic qualities, construction detailing, weathering, durability, solar
access limitations, performance, products, warranties and cost. The designer is also interested in how PV can be
made part of a holistic design solution in terms of the energy equation as well as the overall building aesthetics.
Architects develop briefs and advise clients about such options and need to be well informed about BiPV economics,
including value-added benefits, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission avoidance, interconnection with the grid or storage,
reliability and risks associated with system failures. Whilst architects need to be aware of all these issues, their
technical information needs may be mininal. A greater emphasis, especially during the early concept stage is more
likely to be on the aesthetic, construction, durability, weathering and solar access limitations.

BiPV checklist for designers - architects

! What are the product options and their physical characteristics such as color, size,
Page 19
transparency, flexibility etc?
! What solar access and mounting requirements dictate its optimal performance? Page 16
! How can the products be detailed for required weather protection when used as
Page 18
external cladding?
! What heat outputs are possible and how can it be used as part of an integrated
Page 29
design?
! How durable are the products and what warrantees apply? Page 35
! What performance outputs are possible and what allowances need to be made for
locating balance of system (BOS) components such as wiring, inverters and Page 30
meters?
! What considerations apply to their design eg. ventilation of spaces, egress when
Page 31
inverters are used etc.
! How do I determine the cost and payback value of BiPV? Page 26
! What subsidies and rebates are available? Page 45
! What are the building compliance requirements for PV? Page 50
! What are the electrical compliance requirements for PV? Page 50
! What should I consider with monitoring and maintenance? Page 34
! How do I make contact with the PV industry? Page 45
! What should I know when communicating with:
! The Developer &/or Client
! Local Council &/or Planners
Page 36
! Construction &/or Building companies
! PV installer
! Utility &/or PV Owner
! Local Community

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

2.3 FINANCIER

BiPV relevance for financial institutions

There is increasing interest from householders and commercial building operators in integrating PV systems into
buildings. Financiers may be called on to provide finance for the entire building or for the addition of a BiPV system
and hence will need to understand the basic principles of BiPV system operation, including their likely impact on
energy bills and on building value. Some financial institutions have already put in place favourable policies for
dealing with energy efficient buildings, on the basis of reduced energy bills, improved occupant well-being and long
term increased property value. BiPV systems can be used as part of the energy efficient features of a building and
hence fit the above criteria. They can also create revenue streams from electricity sales, peak load reduction benefits
and Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs). These guidelines will assist financiers in assessing BiPV proposals and in
developing financing products that appeal to prospective customers and encourage the appropriate installation of
BiPV systems.

BiPV checklist for financiers

! Do you have the relevant information to be able to assess the costs and benefits of
Page 26
the BiPV, including likely reductions in your customer’s energy bills?
! Have you cited evidence that the proposed BiPV fulfills all local development
Page 31
control plans (DCPs)?
! Is your proposed BiPV project likely to meet building and electrical standards? Page 50
! Have you assessed contracts or agreements available or entered into by your client
Page 26
for power purchase or RECs sale?
! Have you assessed system performance and installation warranties? Page 35
! What aesthetic, environmental, lifestyle and economic values are likely to accrue to
Page 46
the building as a result of the BiPV system?
! What strategies are in place to ensure continued solar access so that these benefits
Page 31
are not lost?
! Do you have a range of financing options you can discuss with your customer?
How might your organisation go about developing new options for this Page 23
application?
! What are the maintenance implications? Page 34
! Where do I go for further advice? Page 45
! What should I know when communicating with:
! The Developer &/or Client
! Architect &/or Engineer
Page 36
! Construction &/or Building companies
! PV installer
! Utility &/or PV Owner
! Local Community

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

2.4 BUILDING CONSTRUCTOR

BiPV relevance for a construction worker, roofer, tradesman, foreman, transporter etc

Solar power panel products sometimes seem high risk for building constructors to consider installing, but this does
not need to be the case. Whilst solar PV power systems are not cheap items and need to be handled and installed with
care, they can be just as, if not, less challenging than putting in a lift system, a spa or a high quality glazing product.
There is specialised and accredited know how involved, but once understood, this knowledge can provide
construction companies and construction workers with a skills base and understanding that could potentially provide
them with a competitive edge in the building market.

When installing PV in new buildings, building construction schedules need to work in harmony with the PV
installation. Ensuring roof trusses, flashings, insulation, sarking, support structures, electrical connection points,
waterproofing and other building materials are completed to a satisfactory standard prior to PV module installation
can significantly improve the likelihood that projects will run on time. Efficient co-ordination by the site
manager/foreman is also important. For example, there is a need to think through packing, delivering and unpacking
solar components, particularly for large projects and especially if the available building site area is restrictive. Often
scaffolding and lifting equipment used for completing cladding or roof structures can also be used to install the solar
panels. Teaching tradesmen handling procedures to avoid breakage or damage requires similar attention. Some solar
panels are more flexible and durable than others so it is important to follow the recommended instructions from the
product supplier or PV expert.

BiPV checklist for building constructors

! What should the contract schedule consider between the PV supplier and the
Page 32
construction company?
! How do we find out how best to handle delivery of the PV system to site and on
Page 32
site?
! What are the various phases involved in installing BiPV? Page 16
! When do I need skilled tradesmen and what should I expect from them? Page 32
! How much training is involved? Is accreditation required to complete the works?
Page 32
What does that involve?
! Do roof penetrations and partial shading of the PV modules matter? Page 31
! What should be done if a panel or solar product is damaged, broken or doesn’t
Page 33
work?
! What is involved in commissioning the system and maintaining it prior to building
Page 33
sale?
! What are the building compliance requirements for PV? Page 50
! What are the electrical compliance requirements for PV? Page 50
! How do I make contact with the PV industry and seek further information? Page 45
! What should I know when communicating with:
! The developer/client
! Architects/designers
! Planners Page 36
! Electrician
! PV installer
! Utility/PV owner
! Local community

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

2.5 ELECTRICIAN

BiPV relevance for electricians

Building integrated PV (BiPV) installations must comply with relevant standards for AC and DC wiring and grid
integration. There may also be specific requirements for metering or other aspects required by the local electricity
utility. For correct performance and safe installation of BiPV, an electrician will need a detailed understanding of solar
principles and of the characteristics of PV systems. These guidelines provide both information and contact sources for
electricians, to give them an understanding of the technology and its installation requirements. Electricians, however,
involved with BiPV installations should consider completing the training necessary to become an accredited installer.
Most electricity utilities, as well as government grant agencies, require BiPV systems to be installed by an accredited
installer. See the BCSE website (www.bcse.org.au) for a list of accredited installers and training information.

BiPV checklist for electricians

! Are you familiar with the basic principles of PV system operation, especially their
Page 19
electrical characteristics?
! Are you familiar with both the DC and AC wiring requirements for PV? Page 21
! Are you familiar with the grid connection requirements of AS 4777, as well as any
Page 33
separate electricity utility requirements?
! Have you been told whether or not you are to install the panels, as well as wire
Page 33
them?
! Have you or the installer, if separate, completed an accredited installer’s course? Page 32
! If you are to install the panels, has the architect, building developer or owner
given you clear directions on their placement? If not, are you aware of the key Page 30
requirements to ensure maximum output and solar access?
! Do you know who to contact for further information? Page 45
! If another sub-contractor is to install the panels, have you discussed with them
how you will coordinate your tasks and what arrangements have been made for Page 33
placement of the wiring?
! What should I know when communicating with:
! The Developer &/or Client
! Architect &/or Engineer
! Planners Page 36
! Construction &/or Building companies
! PV installer
! Utility &/or PV Owner
! Local Community

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2.6 ELECTRICAL UTILITY PERSONNEL

BiPV relevance for electricity utility personnel

Interest in integrating solar power in buildings (BiPV) is increasing and electricity utility personnel will be called on
to advise on issues such as appropriate electrical connection requirements, power purchase agreements and metering.
Some of these details, including interconnecting small PV systems to the grid via inverters, are covered in electrical
guidelines or standards; others, such as power purchase agreements with householders, may be included under
existing internal utility policies. For innovative or large systems, however, specific arrangements with the developer
will need to be made. Electrical utilities also have the opportunity of incorporating BiPV systems into their own plans
for green power, Renewable Energy Certificates, distributed generation, network planning and demand management
strategies. Hence, they need an understanding of the PV system’s electrical characteristics, likely performance by time
of day and over a year and, in the longer term, the implications of many BiPV systems in a given area. This document
is aimed at assisting electricity utility personnel in making more informed decisions when considering BiPV and
encouraging their incorporation into sustainable electricity system plans.

BiPV checklist for utility personnel:

! Are your personnel familiar with AS 4777 series of standards concerning grid
Page 33
connection of energy systems via inverters?
! Does the utility have existing standard arrangements concerning PV systems? Do
these include safety requirements, metering, power purchase, RECs and Page 32
inspection? If not, what is the procedure to follow through on these issues?
! Does the proposed system fall within existing guidelines covered above? If not,
Page 32
what are the main differences? What are the procedures for dealing with them?
! Do you have adequate data to assess the energy, green power, RECs and system
Page 22
load values of the BiPV system and any network implications, such as harmonics?
! Who will you contact to find out more? Page 45
! What should I know when communicating with:
! The Developer &/or Client
! Architect &/or Engineer
! Construction &/or Building companies
! Planners Page 36
! Electrician
! PV installer
! Local Community

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2.7 PLANNING OFFICER – LOCAL GOVERNMENT

BiPV relevance for a planning officer

Building developments require approval by local government authorities prior to their commencement. The approval
decision is guided by design guidelines and local development control plans (DCPs). In the majority of local DCPs,
guidance on solar power in buildings (BiPV) is not provided. The planning authority also oversees compliance of
building codes and standards during the construction phase and at completion of the building development. This
document is aimed at assisting planning officers in making more informed decisions when considering BiPV and
encouraging its incorporation into integrated sustainable development planning strategies and guidance notes.

The planning role is particularly important in:

• encouraging the added values PV can bring to a development design, so that they are considered as part of
an integrated sustainable design strategy;
• determining the visual aesthetic impact of a BiPV product against DCP and heritage controls; and
• ensuring land use plans and policies secure and guarantee continuing adequate property market access to
solar radiation.

BiPV checklist for planning officers

! Is BiPV considered within the local development controls plans? If not, what is a
Page 21
good approach?
! Do local planning officers have an adequate understanding of the technology and
Page 19
the added values that BiPV can bring as part of the whole building design?
! What visual aesthetic tolerance is there in terms of product selection and
Page 17
performance output?
! How do I assess what is a practical location for BiPV? Page 16
! What strategies can be used to ensure adequate solar access? Page 31
! What are the building compliance requirements for PV? Page 50
! What are the electrical compliance requirements for PV? Page 50
! Does the current local planning strategy encourage or discourage the use of BiPV? Page 17
! How do I make contact with the PV industry? Page 45
! What should I know when communicating with:
! The Developer &/or Client
! Architect &/or Engineer
! Construction &/or Building companies Page 36
! Electrician
! PV installer
! Utility &/or PV Owner
! Local Community

15
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

3 STAGE ONE – FEASIBILITY AND wide range of tilt and orientation angles will still
EVALUATION result in useful output.

3.1 Site selection

Figure 2 – Chart for latitude 35°S and effect of orientation
From the initial planning stage of a building, it is and tilt on PV output (as a % of the optimum)
important to consider where solar panels might be
sited. This requires an understanding of the climate
conditions at the site, the way in which the sun’s path
travels across the sky during different seasons of the
year (depending on latitude), and the building
surfaces that are likely to receive high levels of solar
exposure without too much interference from shade.
Access to adequate direct sunshine is important if
high power outputs are to be achieved over a year.
But there is flexibility in determining site selection
that can allow the solar photovoltaic panels to work
well for you. The following helps to better understand
these issues.

3.1.1 Orientation
3.1.2 Australian Solar resources
In Australia, and in southern hemisphere locations,
Australia has an abundance of solar irradiation, so
building surfaces that have a northerly aspect or
much so that the average solar energy falling on the
orientation will be exposed to good solar irradiation.
country in just one day provides more than 25 times
As a rule of thumb, the optimum solar panel angle is
the energy used in one year. Figure 3 shows isorads
one that is orientated true north and tilted at the
(contours) of the annual average daily solar energy
latitude angle of its location. For example, Sydney’s
available in megaJoules per square metre per day
latitude is 34° South of the Equator so a solar panel
(MJ/m2/day) for a fixed solar collector facing north
orientated true north and tilted 34° from the
and tilted to the latitude angle for near optimum year
horizontal would be desirable to achieve maximum
round performance.
annual solar exposure. Detailed latitude angles are
provided in table 1 for the major cities of Australia Figure 3 – Solar energy availability in Australia (after
and highlight the difference between Darwin (12.4°) 'Australian Solar Radiation Data Handbook', 1995, ERDC).
and Hobart (42.8°), but show only a 6 degrees range
between Perth, Sydney, Adelaide, Canberra and
Melbourne.

Figure 1 – Latitude angles of major Australian cities [see

references for a latitude website search engine]
CITY Darwin Brisbane Perth Sydney
Latitude 12.4°S 27.5°S 31.9°S 33.8°S
CITY Adelaide Canberra Melbourne Hobart
Latitude 34.9°S 35.2°S 37.8°S 42.8°S

Solar panels do not have to be optimally orientated to

gain adequate outputs. Invariably, compromises with
building design features, such as roof angle will be
required. For instance, the internal comfort demands
of the building and time of use tariffs may favour
systems that shade north-westerly exposed surfaces
and generate power in the afternoon to reduce the
need for artificial air-conditioning and peak load More than 24MJ/m2/day
power purchases. This is particularly relevant in Less than 24 but more than 23 MJ/m2/day
commercial buildings. Further discussions on this are Less than 23 but more than 22 MJ/m2/day
provided in section 4.1. Similarly, figure 3,
Less than 22 but more than 20 MJ/m2/day
representing a band from south of Sydney through
Less than 20 but more than 18 MJ/m2/day
Canberra and Adelaide at 35°S latitude, shows the
Less than 18 but more than 16 MJ/m2/day
effect of orientation and elevation on solar panel
Less than 16 MJ/m2/day
power output, expressed as a percentage of the
maximum possible output. Note that a reasonably
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

As an example, the solar energy available in Western uncommon for PV performance to improve slightly
Victoria on an average day (18.1 MJ/m2/day) would the next clear day after rain. Not surprisingly, panels
provide about 1 kWh (kilowatt hour) of electricity that are tilted less than 20 degrees from the horizontal
from two square metres of solar panel with an overall (such as in Northern Australia) are less likely to self-
efficiency of just 10%. This is ample to light 4 rooms clean and may require an occasional clean.
for 10 hours each using fluorescent lighting. One Consultation with the PV supplier is often a prudent
kilowatt hour equals 3.6 megaJoules (1.0 kWh = approach to ensure the owner knows what might be
3.6 MJ). involved in reducing the build-up of PV module
soiling. Various products, such as PV Guard, can be
3.1.3 PV module shading used to prevent birds sitting on the panels and keep
Good PV power performance requires access to them in a more pristine condition.
adequate direct solar irradiation. Some PV module
technologies (see section 3.3.1) such as amorphous 3.1.5 Grid infrastructure
silicon can cope more effectively with shading of PV For Building integrated PV (BiPV), the general
modules. However, commonsense suggests that sites approach is to be connected to an electricity
should avoid unnecessary obstructions that reduce distribution network, where possible. This grid tied
sun exposure both from the building itself and approach avoids the need for on site storage. In
surrounding objects. It is also important to consider essence, the grid is used as a battery storage device
the potential for shading from trees that grow over exporting excess building power to the grid network
time, new building developments and general during solar power generation and at other times
infrastructure provision such as utility cabling, importing power conventionally. The availability or
chimneys and street pylons. Further discussion on under capacity of grid infrastructure can present
solar access issues is provided in section 3.1.6. Partial added value for BiPV projects. Either at the periphery
shading of just a small portion of a photovoltaic of grid networks or in high capacity areas, PV can be
surface can have a disruptive effect on its electrical situated to offer a strategic distributed generation role
power output, especially if the photovoltaic modules and reduce the stress on the existing grid
are wired in series to increase the system voltage. This infrastructure. In any grid tied BiPV project, it is
means that the current in individual strings travels important to understand the grid infrastructure
through each module. In this ‘chain’ of modules, the characteristics and the service providers that you will
current is only as high as the current produced by the come in direct contact with when connecting your
weakest module. A single shaded module will limit system. Site location can be a useful bargaining tool in
the current produced by the unshaded modules. this instance.
Section 4.3.2 explains how the impact of shading can
be minimised through smart electrical PV system Of course, where grid is not available, BiPV can
configurations. provide the building’s electricity or can connect into
an alternative power source. An electricity storage
3.1.4 Soiling of panels facility would normally be required for such
Soiling of PV modules can threaten power independent operation.
performance output but sensible site selection can
normally avoid any noticeable losses. There are some 3.1.6 Potential planning constraints
instances that require forethought. Notably, in All significant building projects require sign off
Australia, the sap from gum trees and falling tree approval from the local planning authority whose
debris can be a nuisance and care should be taken to decision is guided by planning legislation, building
avoid these eventualities or have in place a prescribed standards and local development control plans
means of cleaning the panels. Normal dust build-up is (DCPs). In many cases, local authorities do not have
cleaned up by rain, however, the build up of soiling either a working knowledge of solar power products
from bird faeces and dirt or contaminants from nor guidance provisions that developers and project
construction dust, natural dust storms and sulphuric proponents can follow. The guidelines below identify
fumes from building exhausts can pose problems, key issues that planning officers should consider.
especially on horizontal PV modules. Acidic and
sulphuric fumes create a dirt layer, which reportedly Potential planning constraints can impact on
is very difficult to remove. Other instances have been prospective site locations for various reasons. The
reported including a PV system installed on a German following bullet points are indicative of issues that
railway station that was being contaminated by dust might arise when developing a design and seeking
pollution from breaking trains (Haeberlin and Graf, planning approval.
1998).
! Existing built form, especially if of historical
Invariably, the rough grain of the front glass cover of significance, can be protected by heritage
PVs encourages self-cleaning during rainfall. It is not planning controls. These controls can influence

17
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

the visible (aesthetic) constraints of the BiPV The second level of evaluation is much more
project, including visibility from the street; qualitative. Architects evaluate the architectural
! The planning officers may have a lack of quality of a project, including BiPV aesthetics. A good
understanding of the product, in terms of BiPV project enhances the architectural quality of a
texture, aesthetics and building and electrical building.
standards. This can delay approval;
! An adequate level of solar access needs to be
secured for the longer term so that the 3.2.2 PV as part of a holistic building design outcome
generation capacity of the PV is not unduly The architectural character of a building is very
compromised; and important to all parties from local government
! In this respect, approving a PV system location through to the community at large, including
predicates the future heights of surrounding owner/occupiers. It is prudent to carefully consider
buildings and may conflict with local both the architectural integration (the manner in
development control plans (DCPs). which the PV adds to or detracts from the
architectural quality of the building) as well as the
way that PV has been integrated into the building.
3.2 Holistic building integrated design Whereas the former deals with issues of design
concepts quality, the latter deals with construction. A number
In achieving a sustainable built environment, an of “good design” characteristics have been developed
integrated/holistic approach to design, construction, by IEA (IEA Task 7, 2002) and are summarised in
operation and deconstruction is required. This Table 2 below. These criteria are not mutually
implies that all parties involved in the process are exclusive but provide a basis for questioning and
engaged at the pre-design stage of the building and comparing architectural quality of BiPV projects.
thereafter work to optimise performance and
outcomes. The builders, owner, architects, design Table 2 – Key design issues for architects and associated
practitioners (Criteria developed by IEA Task 7 participants).
consultants (including engineers) and tenant
representatives should all contribute to the optimizing Naturally Integrated
the process from the earliest stage. The PV system is a natural part of the building. Without
PV, the building would be lacking; the PV system
completes the building.
The design process should address social, cultural,
economic and environmental impacts. Technologies Architecturally Pleasing
Based on good design, does the PV system add eye-
such as photovoltaics should be considered part of a
catching features to the design?
sustainable building solution rather than an after-
Well Composed
thought, both in terms of performance and
The colour and texture of the PV system should be in
architectural design. In terms of performance, good harmony with the other materials. In addition, a specific
solar efficient design creates opportunities for design of the PV system, such as frameless modules, can be
minimizing energy demand. Photovoltaics needs to integrated to blend into the building fabric.
be matched against residual energy demand, Dimension, Harmony and Composition
opportunities for peak demand lopping and avoiding
greenhouse gas emissions on a whole building and The sizing of the PV system matches the sizing and
whole of life basis. dimension of the building.
Well Contextualised
PV can also be integrated into existing buildings as The total image of the building should be in harmony with
part of a retrofit program or just as an add-on. In all the PV system. On an historic building, tiles or slates will
probably fit better than large glass modules.
cases, performance and anticipated outcomes should
be considered as well as architectural aspects. Well Engineered
This does not concern the water tightness of the PV roof,
but rather the elegance of design details. Have details been
well conceived? Have the amount of materials been
3.2.1 Building design evaluation minimised? Are details convincing?
As already mentioned, there are two levels of design Innovative New Design
evaluation for buildings. Firstly, building PV is an innovative technology, which can inspire
performance is evaluated against targets (standards or innovative creative thinking by architects. New ideas can
codes or even client imposed goals). At both the enhance the PV market and add value to buildings.
design and post occupancy stages, evaluations are
normally conducted to determine such performance.
Owners, are advised to expect this in the brief. A
number of assessment tools are used for this purpose.
These tools should be selected as part of the targets
(measures and methods of measurement).

18
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

3.2.3 Structural engineering issues. resulting in slightly higher costs than other
In designing a BiPV system one should also carefully technologies.
consider the structural loading due to ‘dead load’
(consequence of system weight) and ‘live load’ Different manufacturing methods are used,
(consequence of factors such as wind). A structural depending largely upon the Czochralski method of
engineer should be consulted if a system is designed growing, or pulling a perfect crystal that has a solid,
from components. If a supply and install contract is cylindrical shape. EFG – Edge-defined Film-fed
entered into with a manufacturer, structural Growth has become popular, where the cells are cut
warrantees from the installer should be required. from an octagon, so as to allow higher packing
Waterproofing, if poorly installed, can also lead to densities in modules. Another approach deposits
other problems. grown films of crystalline silicon onto a low cost
substrate. The cost of silicon ingot sawing is
3.3 Technical pre-design considerations eliminated and the quantity of silicon per PV module
can be reduced significantly. A third approach is a
PV technology is evolving and maturing rapidly as string ribbon technique, where two high temperature
PV demand grows. Since the mid 1990s, the world PV strings are pulled vertically through a shallow silicon
market has grown by an unprecedented 30% each melt and the molten silicon expands and freezes
year, driven by large government BiPV programs, between the strings.
especially in Europe and Japan. In 2002, grid
connected PV, mostly installed on buildings, A major cost component of a conventional
comprised over 60% of the PV market growth for that photovoltaic module is the processing of the silicon
year. With this, there are numerous products and PV wafers, electrical interconnection and encapsulation.
technologies that are commercially available. The There are many methods under development to try to
International Energy Agency (IEA) publishes data on reduce these costs. A new Sliver CellTM, developed by
national PV progress and can be sourced from the Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems at the
www.iea-pvps.com. The IEA task 7 program (PV in Australian National University and under production
the Built Environment) has published a range of BiPV by Origin Energy, is produced using special micro-
design concepts available through the above website machining techniques, requiring the equivalent of two
and also maintains a database with over 400 products (rather than sixty) silicon wafers to convert sunlight to
and projects from around the globe. This is found at 140 Watts of power. The thin slivers are bi-facial and
www.pv.database.com and provides an excellent can be spaced out as required within a glass
reference for design concepts and pre-design encapsulant to alter its translucent properties.
considerations.
Figure 4 - Different PV cell types
The following section provides a summary of the key
PV cell technologies and their performance attributes. Mono-Crystalline Silicon
The information is given in simplistic terms but covers Conventional PV module, typically a very dark
some of the important issues that need to be blue, indicating high light absorption
considered when thinking about selecting a PV
technology selection. Poly Crystalline Silicon
Typically a variegated bright blue, but also
3.3.1 PV cell technology available in a range and combination of colours
such as grey, magenta and cyan
There are numerous PV technology options for
different climatic and locational circumstances, Amorphous Silicon
including a range of colour, textural and malleable PV Reddish-black appearance, very flexible and
cells. Solar cells can be separated into four categories, durable
according to their crystalline structure. A short
description and some features of the PV types
typically used for building applications follows, with Titanium Dioxide
the different types illustrated in figure 4. Often known as the Grätzel cell and can be used
as a clever window product
Mono-crystalline silicon cells
These cells are made from very pure mono-crystalline Sliver CellTM
silicon. The silicon has a single and continuous crystal These are strips of mono-crystalline cells that
lattice structure with almost no defects or impurities. require 90% less silicon for the same power
The principal advantage of mono-crystalline cells is output
their high efficiency, typically around 15 per cent or
higher, although the manufacturing process required
to produce mono-crystalline silicon is complicated,

19
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Poly- or multi-crystalline silicon cells These are known as tandem or stacked cells.
Poly-crystalline (also called multi-crystalline) cells are
produced using ingots of multi-crystalline silicon. In Dye-sensitised solar cell (DSC)
the manufacturing process, molten silicon is cast into Dye-sensitised solar cell (DSC) technology is best
square or rectangular ingots, which are allowed to considered as artificial photosynthesis. It performs
cool so as to form large crystals. These ingots are then well under indirect radiation, cloudy conditions and
cut into very thin wafers and assembled into complete partial shade. DSC technology has been dominated by
cells. New manufacturing methods also use the the Grätzel titanium dioxide (TiO2) cell.
approach of grown films of poly-crystalline silicon on
a low cost substrate. Such substrates have included a Particles of titanium dioxide are coated with a
metallurgical grade silicon sheet, stainless steel, photosensitive dye and suspended between two
ceramics and quartz glass, using a variety of growth electrodes in a solution containing iodine ions. When
techniques to deposit silicon films onto these this dye is exposed to light energy, some of its
substrates. Poly-crystalline cells are cheaper to electrons jump on to the titanium dioxide particles,
produce than mono-crystalline ones, due to the which are then attracted to one of the electrodes. At
simpler manufacturing process. They tend to be the same time, the iodine ions transport electrons back
slightly less efficient however, with average from the other electrode to replenish the dye particles.
efficiencies of around 12-13 per cent, although new This creates a flow of electrons around the circuit.
processes are attaining higher efficiencies. Efficiencies over time are still to be established, but
technically could reach around 10 per cent or more.
Amorphous silicon cells The cells are very effective over a wide range of
Amorphous silicon cells are composed of silicon sunlight conditions.
atoms in a thin homogenous layer, rather than a
crystal structure. Amorphous silicon is produced by Table 3 - Summary of the performance characteristics of the
deposition onto a substrate (rather than wafer sawing) most notable PV technologies (IEA PVPS Programme, 2003).
so the cells can be thinner. For this reason, amorphous Market
silicon is also known as a ‘thin film’ PV technology. Share Surface
Maximum
Amorphous silicon can be deposited on a wide range of PV area for
Typical efficiency
Module a 1kWp
of substrates, both rigid and flexible, which makes it PV efficiency recorded
Product system
ideal for curved surfaces and ‘fold-away’ modules. technology outdoors
-ion (m2)
Amorphous cells are, however, less efficient than type
(%)
crystalline based cells, with typical efficiencies of Mono-
22.7%
around six per cent., However, they require less crystalline 55% 8 13 - 17%
± 0.6
material and are therefore cheaper to produce. Their (m-Si)
low cost makes them ideally suited for many Poly-
15.3%
applications where high efficiency is not required and crystalline 33% 10 11 - 14%
± 0.4
(p-Si)
low cost is important. For instance, their early market
Amorphous
has been in appliances such as calculators and 10.4%
silicon 4% 17 6 - 8%
watches. ± 0.5
(a-Si)
Cadmium
Other thin films 10.7%
telluride 2% 14 7 - 10%
± 0.5
A number of other promising materials such as (CdTe)
copper indium diselenide (CIS) and cadmium Copper
telluride (CdTe) are now being used for PV modules. indium 13%
3% 11 8 - 12%
The attraction of these technologies, compared to diselenide ± 0.6
silicon technologies, is that they can be manufactured (CIS)
Gallium
using relatively inexpensive industrial processes. 25.1%
arsenide 1% 5 20%
They also typically offer higher module efficiencies ± 0.8
(GaAs)
than amorphous silicon. Some of the raw materials Titanium
required, are less abundant than silicon and there are 2% 20 5% 10%
dioxide (TiO2)
lingering concerns over the environmental toxicity of
some of the elements used. However, it is possible Over 85% of the PV sold internationally is based on
that these issues can be overcome with careful crystalline silicon wafers. The photovoltaics industry
manufacturing, recycling and disposal processes. is one of the most rapidly growing industries
worldwide, with an annual growth rate exceeding
Some of the new thin film technologies being released 30% for most of the past decade. Annual sales now
use layers of different cell types, in order to capture a stand at around 500 MW, are valued at over US$1
wider range of solar radiation and hence increase billion and are expected to more than double by 2010.
efficiencies. PV module costs have fallen from around US$60 per

20
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Watt in 1975 to around US$2-3 per Watt and are Solar cells are laminated to protect them from the
expected to fall below US$2 per Watt by 2010. external environment. On the front, a tempered, low
Photovoltaic power systems are already cost iron-content glass is usually used. This type of glass is
competitive against diesel and other options for many relatively cheap, strong and stable. Furthermore, it
off-grid applications and are expected to be has a high transparency, good self-cleaning properties
competitive against main grid power in many and prevents the penetration of water, water vapour
countries by 2015. Table 3 above compares the typical and gases. On the rear side, a thin polymer sheet is
efficiencies of PV technologies on the market today usually used. The sheet should also prevent the
and looks into the future, by seeing what can be penetration of undesirable vapours and gases. For bi-
achieved in the laboratory. The first column indicates facial modules, which can generate electricity from
the percentage market share of PV module production front and rear, or when extra strength or semi-
by PV cell type. transparency is required, glass is used at the rear. To
provide adhesion between the different components
of the module, the cells are sandwiched between thin
3.3.2 PV cell and module manufacturing sheets of ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA). The encapsulant
The solar cell is the basic unit in a PV system. An should be stable at elevated temperatures and under
individual solar cell can vary in size from about 1 cm UV exposure. The stability of the encapsulant is one of
(½ inch) to about 15 cm (6 inches) across and typically the major contributors to the expected lifetime of the
produces between 1 and 2 Watts. This is hardly module. To improve the strength and rigidity of the
enough power for the great majority of applications. module, it can be framed using aluminium, although
The power is increased by connecting cells together to this is usually not necessary for BiPV applications.
form larger units called modules. Some of the crystalline silicon PV module
manufacturers now guarantee a lifetime of 20 years
The cells are welded in series to form a string of for their modules.
several solar cells. Standard modules use around 36
solar cells and have a peak rating (Wp) of around 60 Typical power module sizes are 0.5 x 1 metres and
Watts, although the trend is to higher ratings. For 0.33 x 1.33 metres. However, modules for building
large modules (150 Wp), two cell strings are employed applications tend to be larger and, for special projects,
and can be connected at the back to electrical junction modules of any desired size can be produced.
boxes. Thin-film materials such as amorphous silicon, Amorphous silicon can be deposited directly onto
CIS and cadmium telluride can be made directly into building components, e.g. window glass, metal sheets,
modules. The cell material is sputtered onto a plastics and roof tiles. Standard rectangular modules
substrate, either glass, polyamide or stainless steel, can be delivered with or without frame. Frameless
and interconnected to a module by laser. modules, or laminates, can essentially be processed as
normal glass panes. The thickness of glass-Tedlar
A PV module is composed of interconnected cells that laminates is generally 8 mm. Glass-glass laminates are
are encapsulated between a transparent cover and typically at least 10 mm thick. Tedlar is used to
weatherproof backing as shown in figure 5. The provide back reflection and a high transmissivity
modules are typically framed in aluminium for toughened glass acts as a superstrate.
mounting, although frames may not be required for
building applications. The PV module is the basic 3.3.3 Climatic effects – temperature, ventilation,
building block of any PV power system. The term relative humidity etc
‘solar panel’ is often used to refer to a PV module. The
With each of these discrete technologies comes
same expression, however, is also used in reference to
different responses to climatic effects. For most PV
solar water heating systems, so to avoid confusion,
technologies, except amorphous silicon, the hotter the
‘photovoltaic’ or ‘PV’ module is preferred.
air temperature the lower the efficiency. PV modules
work very well during high sun but relatively low
Figure 5 - PV module layered structure.
ambient temperatures (eg. below 25ºC). Most PV cell
technologies also generate less power during overcast
(diffuse) climate conditions.

PV modules generate direct current (DC) electricity

and this power is rated by the manufacturer against
Standard Test Conditions (STC). STC measures panel
performance in artificial conditions. It replicates
ambient air temperature of 25ºC, solar irradiation
intensity of 1000 Watts per square metre (W/m2) and
Source: Martin Van Der Laan (M. ART). half times the thicknesses of the earth’s atmosphere at
the equator. This is comparable to a clear noon day at

21
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

approximately 40º latitude. Modules may be rated as range from 5 to 20% depending on conditions,
100 Watts under STC and fall within actual the length of wiring and the technology used.
performance of +/-5%. Given that Australia
experiences a higher number of air temperature days The following example illustrates some considerations
above 25ºC, there is likely to be more frequent involved in sizing a system:
temperature derating of power output, especially
during the height of summer. In addition, when A residential house in Canberra has 32 m2 of roof
operating on a roof or flat surface, PV modules can space facing true north at an optimum tilt angle of
reach an internal temperature of between 50-75ºC, 35° from the horizontal (note that many houses
causing further derating. have a roof angle of only 25°). There is good solar
access, clear from trees, street poles and the
Consequently, it is important to consider the climatic chimneystack to avoid shading. A covenant may be
influence on different PV types and where they are necessary from the local Government to avoid
likely to be sited. Natural ventilation can be used future multi-story houses shading the north face.
through good design to cool the PV module to a more With mono-crystalline silicon cells, there is
desirable operating temperature. This is particularly sufficient space for 4kWp to be installed. Given
true of PV walls. The building can be designed to system losses, the inverter is 3.6kVA representing
draw hot air through and out of the top of the 90% of peak rated power. A larger inverter would
building, thus providing a cooler environment in be more costly and would result in the inverter
which the BiPV system can operate. Amorphous working at sub-optimum conditions for longer
silicon modules may be preferred in high temperature periods of time. Given Canberra’s high irradiation
applications, despite their lower overall efficiency, intensity, the AC power output over the year
since their performance is not as sensitive to would total 6,400 kWh, providing net surplus
temperature. energy generation, especially if it is an energy
efficient home.
Other climatic effects such as relative humidity and
the salt air conditions of coastal regions can encourage 3.3.5 Mounting options
moisture build up and corrosion. This is especially The mounting options for BiPV are numerous and
true for PV modules that are poorly sealed, an depend on surface constraints. These include surface
unusual occurrence today. The wires feed into a tilt angle, the bearing capacity of roof joists, PV’s role
panel, called a junction box. This device should be in weatherproofing and the influence of natural
either watertight or allow accumulated moisture from occurrences such as wind loads, snow, ice and hail
condensation to drain. and lateral loads in earthquake prone areas. Many of
the mounting approaches ensure overly secure
3.3.4 PV system sizing fixtures and support frames as required by building
As with selecting the power and torque of a car to pull codes.
a speedboat and trailer, there are some key
considerations when determining PV system size: Other options can allow the PV to be mounted to
shade the building so it requires less artificial cooling.
! System size is firstly influenced by the This can be via conventional or specially designed sun
available PV surfaces, orientation and access to shades. Similarly, the building design can help to
useful solar energy; dispel hot air away from the panels to improve their
operating environment. An air gap of between
! Power output is, in turn, relative to the solar
5-10 cm behind the PV module can encourage natural
resource of the site, climatic characteristics and
ventilation and cooling, thus improving PV power
the technology used;
performance. BiPV products can be designed for use
! The selection and wiring of adjoining modules as skylights or windows, with the level of
and resultant power output will be impacted transparency set by appropriate cell spacing or by the
by shading conditions; use of translucent thin film products.
! The DC power generated from the system will
work at a lower-than-rated power output when
3.3.6 PV wiring issues
air temperatures are high, irradiation intensity
is lower than expected, or when dirt and While good orientation and clear solar access are
contaminants cover the modules; and desirable, thought needs to be given to the wiring that
links the PV power generator to an electrical load or
! When the DC power is passed along wires to distribution network. PV modules generate DC
the inverter and converted to alternating electricity. Electrical standards require DC wiring to
current (AC) there is a power loss that can be heavily insulated and both cables and switches are
more expensive than conventional AC wiring. Thus

22
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

most installations limit the DC wiring run to the will automatically want to purchase electricity
inverters to maximise the use of AC wiring. Often generated, or that they will allow net metering.
sections of PV wiring are exposed to the natural
elements, thus requiring waterproofing and UV 3.4.2 Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs)
resistance in line with electrical standards. Wiring Electricity retailers need to purchase RECs each year,
should also be uncluttered and easily accessible to and may be interested in buying them from the PV
simplify maintenance. Placement of the wiring during owner. RECs can also be traded privately. Current
roof and wall construction makes final installation RECs prices typically range from $25-$35 per MWh
and interconnection simpler. for PV and can be claimed for a five year period. For a
1 kilowatt PV system in Sydney, RECs may be worth a
total of around $170-240. PV companies may offer
3.4 Financial and financing considerations higher RECs rates to purchasers of their systems.

3.4.1 PV system costs and energy values 3.4.3 Ownership – building, roof, PV, electricity –
implications for finance options
When assessing cost effectiveness and arranging
finance, the initial capital cost of the PV is of primary Photovoltaic systems have low running costs but
importance. Cost estimates should include relatively high initial capital costs. The PV owner,
installation, displacement building costs, and the therefore, must consider the best options for capital
value of generated electricity. There may also be cost repayments. For BiPV systems on new residential
grants, Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) or other buildings, it would normally make sense to consider
incentives available, which will reduce costs or the PV cost as part of the building cost and include it
increase revenue. Increased building value or rental in the mortgage. Building retrofits can also do this.
income may also be applicable. Including PV in a mortgage, however, may require
the bank or financing institution to know about PV
Prices for electricity generated will depend on your and is willing to agree to its inclusion. Insurance
retail contract. Some retailers offer net metering, issues will also need to be considered. There are an
whereby the electricity retailer agrees to charge only increasing number of financial institutions and
for the amount of electricity used above that insurance companies, which are supportive of
generated over a given period. Your PV electricity is renewable energy initiatives and offer attractive
thus valued at a retail tariff rate. If your PV system mortgage rates. It may, therefore, be worthwhile
generates more than you use, you will be offered a shopping around for finance.
buy-back rate. For residential systems, this is typically
equivalent to the retail tariff. For commercial or The building owner may not always be the PV system
industrial systems, it may be equivalent to the bulk owner. In some cases it may make better financial
supply tariff (which is lower than the retail tariff) or sense for the PV to be owned by the electricity retailer
something in between. However, net metering is not or by a third party. The building element into which
always offered. You may instead be paid at one rate the PV is placed (ie the roof) may therefore be fully
for all electricity generated and charged at another owned or leased by a third party, with suitable access
rate for electricity used by the building. arrangements with the building occupants. A third
option is for the PV system to be financed by a third
Electricity distributors are increasingly concerned party and a lease arrangement made with the building
about the rapid rise in summer peak loads. This places owner. This will enable so that the system to be paid
a strain on the network and can lead to substantial back over time. For non-residential buildings in
upgrade and peak supply costs in some areas. particular, it may be worthwhile exploring a range of
Electricity distributors do not currently provide possible options to achieve the best financial return.
general incentives for summer peak load reduction.
BiPV systems, however, have the potential to reduce 3.4.4 Prices vs building materials
network load or supply peak power and can therefore Some BiPV products can take the place of a standard
be valuable both to the distributor, and the retailer. building component, such as a roof, wall, skylight or
This issue should be raised when approval is being window element. When calculating costs, the BiPV
sought for grid interconnection. As the problems cost should therefore be offset against savings in
escalate, these network and peak supply values may conventional material requirements and installation.
be given credit. When used as a façade element, BiPV costs may be no
more than marble, sandstone or other feature
In all cases, appropriate arrangements must be made materials. Standard roof and wall materials, however,
with the electricity network provider and an tend to be cheaper and may be in the range $20 - $200
electricity retailer before installation goes ahead. PV per m2. This compares with window and curtain wall
installers should not assume that electricity retailers materials that can range from $200 - $500 per m2.
These costs compare with current PV costs of $600 -

23
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

$1200 per m2. These prices continue to fall in real ambience; where marketing opportunities can be
terms and can also be lower for large orders. captured; or where greenhouse gas reduction
requirements or energy performance ratings are
3.4.5 Other values to consider. necessary due to internal or external policies.
Other added values include:
Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions from grid-
! enhancing the building’s value by the connected wafer silicon-based PV systems are around
presence of BiPV elements; 100kg CO2 equivalent per MWh. This compares with
! synergies with other forms of energy, such as emissions of around 900kg per MWh from black coal
heating and cooling, where the BiPV element fired power. Hence, the PV system cited above would
adds to insulation value, space heating or to displace approximately 23t of CO2 emissions over its
shading; lifetime. Thin film PV technologies have even lower
! prestige and marketing opportunities; emissions.
! architectural merits and aesthetics;
! consumer satisfaction for those that desire
for environmentally sound products; 3.5 Early dialogue and consultation
! customer satisfaction for those that desire for Early dialogue is essential, right from the building
increased energy autonomy; and design concept stage. All too often, PV can be
! contribution to triple bottome line. processed as an afterthought. This can isolate PV from
the building design and leads to the solar component
Customers will place different values on the above. A being dismissed when difficulties arise and costs go
building developer, however, will be aware of the beyond the budget set down for the project. The
client’s interests and may find that some of these following provides a brief guide to the consultation
values are highly rated. Often they may make up for process.
the added cost of BiPV installation.
3.5.1 Project team and stakeholders
The amortised cost of electricity from PV systems
With new building projects, the developer works to
depends firstly on the eventual net system cost. This
deliver building projects on budget and time in
takes account of displaced building components such
accordance with building standards and planning
as grants and financing. Energy buy-back rates can
laws. The project design is typically crafted by an
then be negotiated.
architect or building design specialist in close
consultation with the client (land/building owner).
For instance, for a 1 kilowatt peak (kWp) PV system
The developer may also be the owner wishing to
costing $12,600 installed and producing an average of
on-sell the building once completed. Through this
4 kilowatt hours (kWhs) per day for 20 years, the
arrangement, the fundamental relationship is that
electricity cost would be around
between the architect/designer and the developer/
50c/kWh if maintenance and discount rates over the
building construction company. Conceptualisation of
20 years are included. With the grants and RECs
the design and financing is the very first step. It is at
currently available, the capital cost can be reduced to
this very early stage that a PV expert should be
around $8,000, so that the electricity cost would be
engaged to work with the building client and architect
around 30c/kWh. If building materials and costs are
to advise on integration possibilities. From a technical
displaced, the net capital cost could be further
and financial perspective, the PV expert can provide
reduced.
various BiPV product and design scenarios.
How cost effective this is for you will depend on the
Discussions with the local planning authority is also
alternative cost of electricity, including your
vital at the concept stage. This ensure that, when the
assessment of how this might change with time. For
final building design is submitted for approval, PV is
instance, PV system outputs, and increasingly
not a surprise component that presents new
electricity tariffs, will be higher in summer. In some
evaluation skills that could slow a planning officer’s
cases (i.e. for retirees), the customer may be happier to
assessment of the building.
expend capital now, so as to reduce future energy
bills.
As PV involves an electrical element, the relationship
between the building and the electricity service
The other values listed above will improve cost
provider is imperative. Potential barriers and
effectiveness for the client, but may be more difficult
difficulties should be identified through consultation
to include in monetary analyses. It may be possible,
with the network service provider with a view to
however, to do so for specific buildings or customers,
developing a contractual agreement. Bargaining may
for example where a value can be placed on the
include reducing the building’s total energy demand
building’s reduced overall energy needs or improved
through prudent design and selecting energy efficient

24
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

appliances. Together with the PV system, this may

reduce the capital outlay of the network service
provider in supplying electricity to the site. Gains of Figure 6 – Schematic of an indicative consultation structure
this sort could help in brokering deals on metering
Client/Building
Client/ building Owner
owner
costs for the PV system and a buy back arrangement
that increases the value of the PV’s output against
electricity retail costs. Private
Private Finance
finance Subsidies/Rebates
Subsidies/ rebates

Once a building design concept that includes BiPV is

defined, it is prudent to draft a schedule of works and Architect/design
Architect/ design
identify where training and expert assistance will be BiPV expertise
specialist
specialist
required. It is also advisable to determine how the PV
installation timing will coordinate with electricians or
other services required on site. New BiPV design Planning
Planning
officer
officer/
projects can often be unique, with the developer Community
communityapproval
approval
having no working knowledge or experience of the
technology. This can create undue uncertainty and is Construction company Utility
why schedule planning is so important. Consultation
should be carried out with the architect, an
independent PV expert, the PV system tenderer and
the developer/ building construction team. PV supplier/ installer

The approval of design and construction rests with

the planning, survey and building inspection officers, The construction company, the network service
who monitor the building’s development on behalf of provider (utility) and the PV supplier and installer are
the community as a whole. Once planning approval co-ordinated by the project architect assisted by the
has been given, structural, mechanical and electrical PV expert’s advice.
engineering service companies should be closely co-
ordinated with the numerous building trades to 3.5.3 Tender documentation and assessment.
ensure the building is completed efficiently, on
Particularly for large projects, the client, architect,
schedule and within a prescribed cost.
builder and planning authority are often brought
together to establish a BiPV project consortia.
The above description could give the impression that
Independent PV expert advice is often a prudent
BiPV is a complex and costly addition to a building
investment at this early stage to evaluate the design
project. This need not be the case, since for small
options, draw up tender specifications and assess the
residential systems, approvals are standardised and
PV tender documentation. In essence, the key aim is
straightforward while installation can be completed in
to secure the services of a PV related company or
half a day. If appropriately co-ordinated, larger,
companies to, for example:
individually designed systems can be readily
accommodated with little change to the building
! Design or follow a design plan
schedule.
! Ensure supply of the BiPV products
! Train on-site tradespeople involved in
3.5.2 Consultation structure
installing or arranging expert installers
The following schematic (figure 6) provides an ! Make suitable arrangements for grid
indicative structure for consultation. Note again that interconnection
for standard small residential systems, PV suppliers ! Supervise installation and complete
or installers will provide the necessary expertise.-, certification and commissioning
They may also handle all intermediate negotiations ! Set up a PV monitoring process and display,
and might offer independent financing. where required
! Advise on, or conduct, routine maintenance.
The client/building owner may not pursue a BiPV
project without access to private finance and/or
public subsidies and rebates. Again, early consultation
between the architect/design professional, a BiPV
expert and the client is critical for developing options
from the early concept phase. Details of a preferred
project plan can then be submitted in conjunction with
community and planning consultation as part of a
Building or Development Application.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

4 STAGE TWO – DETAILED DESIGN 4.2.1 PV Roofs

Flat roof systems use the roof space in a similar way
4.1 Detailed evaluation of building to ground based remote area power systems (RAPS).
characteristics PV modules are discrete from the building, yet take
advantage of unused roof area. Mounted PV module
systems do not provide an essential building material
4.1.1 Building energy performance;
function but impose additional weight to the roofing
At an advanced design stage of a building, a series of structure. They are, however, very easy to install on a
comprehensive performance evaluations/simulations range of roof types, can add insulation value and
are conducted for the whole building. This includes protect the roof area that it covers.
heating, cooling, lighting and other such energy
needs. At this stage, much more information is Figure 7 represents a roof PV integration system
available on building design, structure and services. retrofit on top of the historic Queen Victoria Markets
It is therefore appropriate to conduct a more in Melbourne.
advanced performance evaluation of the PV system to
tie in with the performance of the building. Figure 7 – Queen Victoria Markets, Melbourne
Environmental/service engineers working on the
design are able to conduct this as long as the design
brief allows for this to occur. Often a comprehensive
building assessment including material use,
biodiversity impacts, water, waste and other
indicators is possible. Hence the life cycle role of PV
can be assessed. Moreover, a ‘carbon neutral’
requirement is often built into a building brief to
demonstrate that over the life of a building the PV
inputs contribute to this requirement.
From an engineering perspective, the fixed wind
resistant mounted panels on the roof require
4.1.2 Network interconnection; additional load to be considered. It is also necessary to
Network interconnection is a key benefit of BiPV ensure that the watertightness, drainage and
which uses the distribution grid to export power. insulation properties of the building’s roof membrane
Early consultation with the network provider and are not compromised. In addition, there is a need to
electricity retail supplier is highly recommended. consider wind generated uplift forces, and as a
Further information on network requirements can be consequence, this may restrict suitable available roof
obtained from A5 BiPV codes and standards. Details area. For a standard system, these aspects will have
on network interconnection can be found by been taken care of by the PV supplier and will be
downloading Development of a Standard Grid understood by accredited installers.
Connection Agreement for Small Grid-Connected
Renewable Energy Systems, January 2003 Figure 8 – Swiss Electric Plug & PowerTM system on a
www.acre.ee.unsw.edu.au/anzses2002/ANZSES_Std residential roof in Sydney previously marketed by Pacific
Solar.
ConnAgreeUNSW.pdf

4.2 Design integration options

Photovoltaics can be placed in the building envelope
with varying levels of physical integration. A very
useful database of products and projects from IEA
participating countries, of which Australia is one, can
be found at www.pvdatabase.com. Custom and
proprietary systems can be categorised into three
main architectural applications:
! Roofs, including skylights;
! Façades and walls; and
! Sunshade or rain-screen elements.
Sloped roof systems, commensurate with residential
Various integration approaches are possible within buildings, offer optimised tilting of PVs. The products
these broad categories. Notable examples and concept from PV Solar Tiles (figure 11 and 12) and EPV, Shell,
characteristics are provided below. MSK, Electrowatt, Solrif, Uni-solar and Photowatt,
shown in figure 9 from DEMOSITE in Lausanne,

26
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Switzerland, are module integrated mounting profiles fully integrated into the building, replacing the
where the roof accommodates the pre-existing original roof material and becoming a part of the roof.
module dimensions.
Recent solar tiles consist of a toughened glass solar
Figure 9 – Mounting products displayed at DEMOSITE in laminate. The edges of the glass are protected and
Lausanne, Switzerland (www.demosite.ch) sealed by a long life gasket, and surrounded by a
durable frame. During installation, the tiles are joined
side by side on the roof by a coverstrip that is screwed
to the roof battens, fastening each tile in up to eight
locations. The solar tiles are supported by specially
ventilated steel battens spanning the rear surface of
the tile, This allows the tiles to be walked on, just like
the rest of the roof surface. Airholes in the batten
allow air to move more easily through the roof behind
the PV tiles. This provides a cooler environment in
which to operate and allows warm air to be collected
for space heating.

Figure 11 – Solar tile system, Sydney Olympic Village

PV shingles, however, are complimentary roof tile

materials, as evident with products from Braas,
Sunslates and Sunnytile (see figure 9). These are less
visually intrusive and conform to conventional
roofing materials, despite a trade off in efficiency
output.

Other examples characterise the versatility of PVs to

blend into the existing cultural building context and
remain aesthetically unobtrusive. Figure 10 shows a
Figure 12 – Customised solar tiles used in keeping with the
166 kWp BiPV system at the Kogarah Town Square
original character of a late 19th Century Paddington terrace
Development in Sydney. In this instance, Unisolar
amorphous PV roof sheets are industrially glued to a
conventional spandek roofing system.

Figure 10 – Unisolar amorphous PV at Kogarah Town

Square, Sydney

4.2.2 PV Façades
Energy yields are typically lower for wall and façade
applications. This is due to sub-optimal orientation
and shading influences from surrounding buildings.
Nevertheless, PV applications on façades can optimise
the available surface area and displace conventional
façade cladding materials. Ventilation strategies
within the building can be optimised to dispel hot air
around the PV system, especially in summer periods.
From an Australian BiPV product base, Peter Erling’s
PV Solar Tiles are the first, and so far the only solar Opaque PV modules installed as PV window awnings
tiles to be designed and made in Australia. The and louvres provide shielding from direct sunlight
unique design of PV Solar Tiles allows them to be while allowing diffuse light to penetrate the interior
spaces of the building. This utilises both the wall and

27
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

window areas of a building’s façade. It has been The system shown in figure 15 harnesses the
demonstrated that west orientated applications, translucent properties that PV provides, creating
although sub-optimal for annual PV output, curved or dynamic surfaces as a fundamental
effectively reduce the demand for air-conditioning, construct of the building. Architecturally, this
particularly on summer afternoons. Various presents new design options for working with a
integration strategies can be employed to maximise variety of support structure materials and
PV façade applications. Figure 13 is a southwest complimentary building textures, as shown in figure
oriented PV louvre system in Tokyo, Japan (northern 15 below. Here wood and steel are combined to
hemisphere) which helps to shield the building’s achieve an attractive and functional building design.
façade from intense summer afternoon sun while Importantly, the architect can control and experiment
providing diffuse natural light into office spaces. This with a building’s natural light to transform the colour
is also very architecturally appealing and innovative. and feel of its internal spaces as the sun’s position
alters during daylight hours.
Figure 13 – Louvre system at a Steel Headquarters SBIC
Building in Tokyo, Japan Figure 15 – ECN, The Netherlands

4.2.3 Translucent PV
PV atrium designs are more progressive
architecturally in that it balances passive and active
solar outcomes with possibilities for harnessing 4.2.4 PV/ Thermal (PV/ T)
translucent PV/glass technologies Depending on the technology used, PV cells convert
(figures 14 and 15). They are one of the most cost approximately 6-18 percent of incoming irradiance
effective applications for PV, especially for into electrical energy. The rest is reflected, re-radiated,
commercial or light industrial buildings that are used or lost as low temperature heat. The build-up of heat
predominantly during the day. Their dual function provides an impetus to remove unwanted heat from
also places them under the PV/ cogen category, as behind the PV modules by using a fluid flow to utilize
discussed in Section 4.2.4. thermal energy. There has been considerable interest
in this concept, which is known as combined PV /
Figure 14 – Melbourne University translucent façade Thermal (PV/T) systems or PV cogeneration (PV
cogen). In any BiPV cogeneration system, the
usefulness and timing of the thermal energy produced
is crucial. The thermal energy can be:

• transferred via a heat exchanger to hot water

systems;
• used in conjunction with air source heat
pumps;
• used to heat thermal mass;
• stored in underground pebble beds or phase
change materials; and,
• used to preheat incoming air in cold seasons
for buildings with high ventilation
requirements.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

The heat produced from BiPV cogeneration system is crystalline silicon solar cells at about 35 times the
low temperature. While this can be used directly for normal solar intensity.
the processes above, it is not useful for generating
electricity or in any high temperature industrial Figure 17 – CHAPS system
process applications. There is a large variation
between system types and the climatic conditions in
which they run. Within these large variations, ratios of
thermal output to electrical power production are in
the order of 1 – 3:1.

PV/T systems in buildings can span a wide range of

technologies as discussed below.

PV/ T modules
In this configuration, PV cells are generally pasted on
to a typical flat plate solar thermal collector and act as
the absorber. The heat transfer mechanisms utilized The solar cells cover 7.5 m2 and convert around 15% of
by these modules either use air or heat transfer the sunlight into electricity that is delivered to the
liquids. building and the local electricity network through a
40kVA grid-connected inverter. The balance of the
Figure 16 – PV/ T product cross-section solar energy creates heat that, rather than being
wasted, is collected as hot water in 13m3 thermal
storage tanks. It provides about 80% of the hot water
needs of the residential campus building bathrooms,
kitchens and laundry, and about 30% of the winter
heating requirement via a hydronic floor heating
system.

PV/ Daylighting Systems

In this category, pinholes are made in the PV cells
using lasers (in the case of thin film applications).
Alternatively, cells are simply spaced apart in order to
achieve a desired light transmission. This is described
in section 4.2.3. Since larger amounts of incoming
radiation penetrate these systems, they act as
combined electricity and daylighting systems.
Concentrator technologies
Small arrays of PV cells are placed at the focal point of BiPV/ Thermal applications
mirrored parabolas or troughs and are hence exposed These have generally been placed in vertical façade
to high sun concentrations. They can therefore installations where the PV array acts as a second skin
produce high electricity outputs, but require active to the building façade. Forced or natural convective
cooling due to the high temperatures generated. airflows can be used in the cavity that is formed.
Although typically used for power systems rather
than building applications, some concentrator systems There are various BiPV façade buildings that utilise
that are currently being developed use fresnel lenses the airflow in the cavity behind the PV modules. This
to achieve a concentrator effect with a flat product can help to increase the stack effect in a commercial
surface. These have been used for roof tiles and building or alternatively, thermal energy can be
related building products. captured and used as ventilation air preheating or for
direct space heating. Two excellent examples of this
A combined heat and power system, type of system are in place on the European
(CHAPS),developed at the Australian National Laboratory for Structural Assessment (ELSA) building
University (ANU) Centre for Sustainable Energy façade in Ispra, Italy, and in the Doxford solar
Systems, combines hot water and electricity building in northern England.
generation into a single unit, maximising the energy
available from the roof space (figure 17). A CHAPS Both these buildings used holistic design to
system has been installed on a new campus incorporate the benefits of PV façades for
residential block. It comprises 8 rows of 24 m long cogeneration. Incoming thermal energy can be vented
parabolic mirrors that track the sun on a single axis to the outside, captured as a fluid or captured in the
and reflect light onto strips of high efficiency mono- mass of the building structure. These types of systems
have also been experimentally used in smaller

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

commercial and residential roofs. The decreased following information is also typically available for
installation angles serve to decrease the velocity of the most BiPV products.
natural convection found behind the modules.,
However in most latitudes, increased insulation on PV module or panel characteristics
the tilted surfaces can serve to offset this deficiency in Standard testing conditions (STC) are conducted on
energy production. each commercial PV module and international testing
is performed to certify the rating and legitimacy of the
4.2.5 Non Building Structures PV. Below is a table providing characteristics for a
Whilst BiPV is relevant to building applications, there Seimens 50W p module.
has been substantial growth integrating PV on non-
building structures within the built environment. MODEL SM-50
Larger scale examples include PV noise barrier Typical Peak Power 50 W
applications, lighting systems such as the Olympic Guaranteed Min. Peak Power 47.5 W
Boulevard (figure 18), car parking, bus shelters, petrol Voltage at Peak Power 17.1 V
stations and railway station applications. Current at Peak Power 2.92 A
Current at Operating Voltage 3.12 A
Figure 18 – Sydney Olympic Solar Boulevard
Operating Voltage 15 V
Weight 6.3 kg

Typically the module will include the following:

Materials: Polycrystalline silicon cell

Tempered high transmission glass
Anodised aluminium frame
Silicon sealing
Encapsulant: Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)
Back: White coloured Tedlar
Junction Box: for external screw terminal
connections

Balance of systems (BOS) is the term to describe parts

This increases prospective urban applicability of of the photovoltaic system other than the PV array
integrated PV systems such as shade structures and including switches, controls, meters, inverters, the
distributed generation, and provides architectural supporting structure for the array and storage
design opportunities for innovative city streetscapes. components, if any.

A summary of Australian BiPV and related PV A rough system sizing calculation Excel spreadsheet is
projects are provided in Appendix 7. available for purchase fromfrom BCSE and is a useful
reference point.
4.3 BiPV system detail
4.3.2 BiPV location specifics
Architects, PV installers, engineers, planners and
Encouraging sympathetic operating conditions can
construction workers all requirehigh quality and
dramatically help performance output and ease
detailed guidance on the chosen BiPV design.
maintenance. This includes PV designs that assist
Detailed profiles, specific building locations, product
natural ventilation and cell cooling. Similarly the
dimensions, assembly and electrical configuration
balance of system components such as wiring,
should be clearly represented in architectural
inverters and meters need to be both accessible and
drawings and complimented with step-by-step
protected from rain and sun exposure. The specific
procedural instructions.
electrical configuration and building plan layout can
significantly impact on the required wiring runs, DC
The following is a brief summary of BiPV system
to the inverter and AC to the load. Clumsy layout and
detail. BiPV system detail stems from the pre-
wiring installations can create major headaches if
planning and pre-design/feasibility stages described
there is an ensuing fault in the system. It is prudent to
in section 3, once a particular integration design
carefully think through the electrical system layout
(section 4.2) has been selected.
when preparing a building plan. For example, it is
important to locate and install accessible inverter
4.3.1 BiPV product information
systems, key wiring junctions and monitoring
Appendix A2 provides a list of BiPV suppliers and
equipment so that they can be replaced or maintained
service companies in Australia and overseas. The
safely and efficiently.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

4.4 Planning approval

For small-scale BiPV systems on existing buildings
where the structural integrity of the building is 4.4.2 Visual attributes (aesthetics);
unchanged, planning approval is unlikely to be Councils often argue against BiPV on the grounds that
necessary. Council approval and inspection will be it diminishes architectural character. However,
necessary, however, for new buildings or where the increasingly, Councils are recognising that a well
BiPV is to replace existing building elements. An designed BiPV adds to the architectural quality of a
increasing number of councils have sustainable building. With the development of new and
energy strategies or development controls. Council innovative PV materials and the wide variety of non-
planners, nevertheless, may not be familiar with PV. reflective coatings now available, BiPV integrated
They may require evidence from the builder and buildings can enhance the quality of both urban
electricity utility that the PV system is structurally planning and building design.
sound.
For heritage precincts, particular care needs to be
Where there are no council planning codes for taken to conserve and retain the existing character of
sustainable development or PV, a more detailed case the buildings.The architect may need to demonstrate
may need to be made. that BiPV can be sensitively integrated into such
buildings. There are many historical buildings
Of particular concern is the need to ensure that future around the world where BiPV has been successfully
development will not shade the PV. This may require integrated, and these could serve as useful examples
covenants over the land, or preferably, solar access when approaching Councils for approval.
guidelines. This report, and the contact lists, may be
useful references for councils that wish to develop
4.4.3 Solar access;
solar access development codes, and gain an
understanding of the issues relevant to BiPV. Most Development Control Plans (DCP) require
adequate solar access (and daylighting) to primary
living areas for health reasons. Solar power systems
In addition, BiPV design should allow for appropriate
typically require minimum solar access between 9am
placement and wiring of the inverter. The aim of the
and 4pm.. DCPs require that new building
design should be to minimise DC wiring while
ensuring that the inverter is located in a secure and developments do not overshadow neighbouring
houses or reduce the amenity of neighbouring
sheltered spot, as close as possible to an electricity
properties.
meter board. The inverter should not be unduly
exposed to the weather or to direct sun. Key questions
Geometric models and computer tools are often used
include:
to analyse shadows and determine adequate levels of
solar access. Consideration of existing and prospective
! What visual aesthetic tolerance is there in terms
shadow effects, including natural objects such as fast
of product selection and performance output?
growing trees, is important if solar access is to be
assured. Partial shading can have a dramatic effect on
! How do I assess the most practical location of
BiPV? output performance if standard electrical
configuration of, for example, crystalline silicon
panels is used. Roof penetrations should have been
! What strategies can be used to ensure adequate
planned and clearly identified from the outset.
solar access?
Unnecessary shading and reduction in available
! Does the current local planning strategy surface area can occur if sighing of, for example
whirlybirds and skylights, is done retrospectively.
encourage or discourage the use of BiPV?
Local authorities are guided by DCPs and may not
4.4.1 Communication with the Planning officer(s) provide adequate consideration of PV systems.
The level of knowledge and understanding of BiPV Consultation with PV experts is encouraged if there is
differs among Councils and Planning Officers. This a likelihood solar access is being threatened.
guideline explains the BiPV product, design and
4.4.4 Development control plan (DCP) compliance.
performance. It may be appropriate to include a
detailed specification as part of the design drawings. It is important to demonstrate that the proposed BiPV
fulfills all local development control plans (DCPs) and
A ‘Statement of Environmental Effects’ will also
electrical standards. Early consultation with the local
explain the requirements of most Development
authority will assist lines of communication and help
Control Plans. A Shading/Overshadowing analysis
planners assess the project concept from a more
normally addresses any adverse implications based
on the type of application. informed viewpoint.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

4.5 Contractual considerations and could compromise warranties of products with a

Contractual arrangements between the construction shelf life where the expiry date is breached.
company/building developer and the PV product and
service provider are of paramount importance. Other 5.1.2 Building site schedule of works;
contractual arrangements need to be secured between BiPV systems should be installed by skilled and
the owner of the PV system, owner of the building qualified tradesmen to ensure that all building and
and the electricity company that will negotiate safety regulations are complied with and expensive
network interconnection, metering and purchase of breakages and accidents kept to a minimum. A skilled
exported power. The building owner can often be the tradesman should hold an accreditation that is
same person, but in the case of a unit apartment, it is recognised by both BCSE and the product
the body corporate. manufacturer. To reduce costs, briefing sessions and
tradesman’s instructions should be well-organised
Further contractual arrangements are associated with and other building works distractions do not interrupt
liability and insurance of the building during training sessions.
construction. Insurance companies are unlikely to
have a working knowledge of PV systems and may The degree of difficulty in co-odinating roofers,
individually assess the risk associated with electricians and BiPV specialists depends on the
installation, theft and component replacement due to complexity of the building and PV project detailing.
damage from natural events. Given its electrical Often, a BiPV specialist will be consulted on site
characteristics, PV can be negatively perceived as a scheduling and preferred conditions for installing a
fire hazard, and this can unduly affect building PV system. Works can also be dovetailed to co-incide
structure insurance premiums. There is no seamlessly with overall building construction.
overarching guidance or insurance industry protocol However, careful forward planning and good
for considering this at present. What is important is communication is needed to avoid unnecessary
that all building code certifications are passed on. delays.
These might include compliance with, for example,
building and electrical standards for fire, structural 5.2 Installation training guidance
load and weatherproofing. For small systems, many The degree of guidance required again depends on
insurance companies already include PV in their list the project complexity and the expertise of the
of allowed building components. They may also offer installer. In many instances, products are
the standard insurance cover, as long as installation accompanied by instructions, but these can often be
standards are met and the systems are suitably incomplete and may not conform to Australian
attached or become an integral part of the building. building standards. It is often worthwhile to schedule
training sessions to inform both building tradesmen
The owner of the PV system’s output will also need to and electricians of BiPV requirements. The BiPV
register with the Office of the Renewable Energy installer should have a clear understanding of the
Regulator (ORER) if they wish to claim RECs. This building process and have an up-to-date knowledge
process can be simplified if the PV supplier, electricity of the latest developments in BiPV installation. It is
utility or grant-funding agency has procedures recommended that BCSE accredited installers are
already in place. used.

5.2.1 Personal Safety Precautions

5 STAGE THREE – IMPLEMENTATION Installers should wear suitable personal protective
clothing and employ safe work practices and
5.1 Project scheduling equipment. Before starting work, the construction
team should review safety procedures and inspect all
There are a number of identifiable phases in installing
equipment and building materials.
BiPV. The following provides a summary of indicative
issues and stages:
In particular, workers must be physically fit for the
task, employ appropriate safety practices and ensure
5.1.1 Product Storage and delivery;
weather conditions are appropriate. The condition of
Delivery and storage of products and appliances is a
all safety equipment should be checked in advance.
costly item in building construction. This can often
stretch budget planning where the building works lag
5.2.2 Safety requirements for work on roofs
behind product delivery. Delays can occur through
As required by law, approved guarding or safety
inclement weather, underestimating construction
lifeline systems must be used when working at a
completion phases and set backs from product
height of 1.8 metres or more.·Always check for
defects, breakage and re-ordering replacements.
overhead wires and observe adequate clearances.
Delays in completing roof trusses and building
Precautions must also be taken to prevent tools and
inspections will also result in additional storage costs

32
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

materials from falling off the roof. They should be 5.3 Health and Safety check list – OH & S
fixed by ropes or put in bags to prevent them from requirements
falling. . Care should be taken to avoid stepping on
Accredited installers should be conversant with
fixed PV Modules. Never run or jump on laminates.
Occupation, Health and Safety (OH&S) requirements
and these should compliment known building OH&S
5.2.3 Handling precautions
standards. PV systems are electrical components and,
! Do not touch electrical wiring or the junction box
hence, require careful handling. On delivery, ensure
as PV modules generate electricity when exposed
that the product is unpacked and carefully inspected
to the sun. While single modules do not generate
for breakages. Ensure that suitable equipment and
dangerous levels of electrical current by
clothing and that products are handled under
themselves when connected in series with other
accredited supervision. Site access, scaffolding and
modules, dangerous voltages can be reached.
safety harnesses should all follow compliance
! Do not step or walk on modules. This may cause requirements.
premature failure;
! Do not scratch the PV module surface;
6 STAGE FOUR – COMPLIANCE AND
! Do not drop tools and or any other materials onto COMMISSIONING
module. Try to keep module surfaces from
coming into contact with any other materials or Installation involves both fixing the PV unit to the
elements; building and connecting the electrical components.
BiPV systems must meet standards for both aspects.
! Do not install when raining or when the module
surface is wet;
Once installed and exposed to light, the PV system
! Do not lift or carry a PV module by hooking a will generate electricity and must be treated with care.
wire rope around the Junction Box. It is not There should be no need to specifically maintain the
strong enough to hold the weight of a module; system after commissioning.
! Do not touch PV module frames in direct sunlight
as they can become extremely hot to touch; 6.1 Structural compliance
BiPV systems must comply with both the standard
building codes and specific electrical standards. For
5.2.4 Electrical Safety instructions
standard PV systems, the PV supplier will require
! Do not open the Junction Box on the back or front
information on the type of building, where the BiPV is
of modules as this will expose the electrical
to be installed (e.g. on a tiled roof of 25 degree pitch),
connections. Only appropriately trained
and whether the site is cyclone prone. The PV kit will
electricians should access the junction box as the
be delivered with detailed installation instructions
long-term reliability of the unit could be
and the appropriate fasteners and cabling. Warranties
compromised.
may be voided if installation is not carried out in
accordance with these instructions. This is because
! Do not disconnect. As PV modules produce
PV systems have been developed to meet
electricity when illuminated the module could be
specifications for structural integrity and wind
damaged or cause electric shocks.
loading.
! Do not insert any metal pieces such as hairpins
For purpose-built BiPV systems the building designer
into connectors. This can cause electric shock
will need to work with the PV supplier to ensure that
installation meets all building codes.
! Do not break or cut DC cables. Ensure all cable
ends are insulated.
6.2 Electrical safety
! All cable connections must be completed. Correctly installed PV systems pose no increased risk
to the builder or owner. PV modules are stringently
5.2.5 Electrical Testing tested to meet a range of adverse weather conditions
Prior to installation, the site electrician should check such as rain, hail, ice and temperature fluctuations.
the occasional module. Factory tests are carried out on Interconnecting wires and plugs are well insulated.
each individual module and test results are recorded
for future reference. Installation codes cover wind loadings and can be
specified for cyclone prone conditions. Electrical
codes cover safety aspects including automatic
disconnection from the grid in the event of PV system
or grid failure. However the building’s wiring

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

diagram should specify DC wiring placement, since 7 STAGE FIVE – MONITORING AND
DC electricity has different characteristics to AC MAINTENANCE
electricity. This will be of particular benefit to
emergency services personnel and future renovators. 7.1 System monitoring
The installation of monitoring systems will depend on
Key Questions:
the interests of the owner. Most inverters provide a
display of system output and maintain a history for
! Are there any additional risks with PV systems?
some period of time, such as a month. This
information can usually be downloaded to a computer
! Are you familiar with the basic principles of PV
if the appropriate hardware and software is installed.
system operation, especially their electrical
In addition, the electricity utility may also maintain a
characteristics? Are you familiar with both the
record of system performance, depending on the
DC and AC wiring requirements for PV?
metering used.
! Are you familiar with the use of Uninterrupted
For large systems, some form of monitoring is
Power Supply (UPS) systems, battery banks or
recommended, so that the system owner can ensure it
hybrid diesel emergency generator systems to
is operating to specification and any problems can be
maintain essential electrical supply during power
quickly identified. It may also be useful to maintain a
outages?
history of performance in case of future tariff
negotiations.
! Are you familiar with grid connection
requirements for AS 4777, or any other separate
electricity utility requirements?
7.2 Recommended monitoring
The PV installer will be required to submit a wiring Guidance on monitoring specifications are detailed in
diagram to the local electricity utility (local utility) Appendix A6. Ensuring regular data logging and
and to provide evidence that all components meet alerts for system outages are very important.
Australian standards. Once the system is installed, Similarly, public display of PV system generation and
details must be confirmed with the local utility before commensurate greenhouse savings can add
interconnection can be made. Special signs indicating community value to a project especially if
that a generator is connected to the grid must be compliments by a clear description of the building
placed on all meter boxes. This will alert maintenance
personnel and emergency workers. 7.3 Indicative component lifetimes – PV,
inverter, meters, frames, wiring
6.3 Calibration of BiPV system PV modules are typically covered by 20-year
The PV installer will check that expected system warranties, or longer. Where installed in frames
output is met, but will not connect the system to the supplied by the PV manufacturer, the frames may also
grid without the necessary local utility approvals. In be covered by this warranty. Under normal
some cases, the utility will allow the installer to conditions, however, a PV system owner can expect
connect the PV into existing meters. In other cases, the PV modules to operate for 20 or 30 years, with
the utility itself will install a separate meter and perhaps only a small reduction in performance with
commission the system by connecting it to the meter. time.

6.4 Sign off Inverters contain electronic components and are more
The builder or customer may be wise to seek and susceptible to heat, dust and operating wear and tear.
retain a signed statement that the installation was Typical lifetime is around ten years, but this is
carried out by a certified installer and that the work increasing with newer technology. Wiring lifetimes
has been completed as per specification. The PV are similar to standard household wiring, but should
supplier will typically provide a checklist of items for be checked if any system problems arise or if the
commissioning, including the appropriate position of inverter is replaced. Meters usually remain the
switches, switch testing, current tests, display property of the electricity utility and will be replaced
operation, component integrity checks, safety notices as necessary, although they are usually expected to
and availability of wiring diagrams. last several decades.

The PV system owner will also be required to sign 7.4 Display options
appropriate contracts for interconnecting to the grid Many PV system owners will be interested in their
and selling any surplus electricity. In addition, system’s output and would like to have a handy
evidence that building insurance extends to the PV display of current and historical performance. While
system will need to be provided to the local utility.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

this is usually available on the inverter and the modules no longer work, recycling of frames and
electricity meter, a display inside the building can glass is possible and should be pursued. The PV
have more immediate impact, both on PV acceptance module also contains silicon wafers and a range of
and on awareness of energy generally. In corporate metals. These can be valuable and may be recycled,
buildings, where the PV is being used for promotional but may require PV manufacturers to have
and other reasons, highly visible public displays can established dedicated facilities.
be used. This will require wiring from the inverter.
Even with cadmium telluride PV modules, known to
7.5 Recommended maintenance checklist be the most sensitive of PV semi-conductor materials,
the environmental risk from landfill leaching is
The PV system installer, through the supplier,should
minimal (Fthenakis, 2004). The estimated atmospheric
provide the owner with a checklist for routine
emissions of 0.02g of Cd per GWh of electricity
maintenance, with contact numbers and receipts kept
produced during all the phases of the modules’ life,
in case of system failure.
are extremely low, and recycling the modules at the
end of their useful life completely resolves any
The maintenance schedule will include a description
environmental concerns.
of standard inverter display conditions, such as green
lights and conditions that indicate problems – e.g.
yellow or red lights. Australian Standards require that
the system is automatically disconnected from the
grid in the event of failure. Reconnection may need to
be manually carried out. System circuit breakers
should be routinely inspected, in case they have
tripped.

The PV modules may need occasional visual

inspection for signs of damage, dirt build-up or
encroaching shade. Rain will often help clean the PV
modules.Panels can be hosed down to remove dust, or
cleaned with soapy water and sponge if necessary. For
the latter, care must be taken that cleaning is not
undertaken if panels are cracked and that appropriate
safety measures are followed for working on roofs or
other exposed areas.

It can often be beneficial to periodically inspect

fixtures such as screws, as well as checks for
corrosion. The system supplier/installer should have
provided a detailed checklist for such inspections. In
the event of system failure or under performance, a
certified inspector, preferably the installer or PV
supplier, should be called on to check the system.

8 STAGE SIX – DECOMMISSIONING

8.1 Re-use and recycling options /

recommendations
There is currently no formal procedure for re-use or
recycling of PV products. However, there is a market
in used PV modules and in future recycling may also
be established. PV modules are typically covered by
20 to 25 year warranties, but can last longer than this.
Hence, if a system is being dismantled, opportunities
for re-sale or re-use of the PV component should be
actively sought.

Both PV manufacturers and PV system distributors

may be useful initial points of contact. If the PV

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

KEY QUESTIONS

DEVELOPER/CLIENT

! What should I know as a DEVELOPER/CLIENT when communicating with:

Architect/engineer Construction or building company Financier

! What is their PV expertise?
! Will their design plans encourage ! Have they worked with PV before? ! Have they an understanding of
energy and resource efficiency? ! Do they have appropriate accreditation if the technology?
they are installing the PV? ! Do they have an appropriate
! Is PV part of the holistic design?
! If the PV was taken away from ! How strong is the electrical team? way for determining the
the building would it be missing ! Is there a willingness to be up skilled in financial risk?
something? learning about BiPV? ! Is there an understanding that
! Are they able to complete the PV ! Do they have the flexibility and track the PV is a part of a holistic
system design or will a special record in scheduling and completing building design and thus cost?
designer be needed? quality innovative building projects at ! Is there a willingness for the
cost and on time? financier to promote
sustainable building projects?

Planning officer/
PV installer/ Electrician Utility/PV owner
Community
! Are they BCSE accredited or ! Has the utility dealt with grid connected ! Is the community aware of
equivalent? BiPV before? what PV is and what it looks
! Can the PV supplier/ installer ! Is PV as a distributed generator going to like?
guarantee price if the project is add value to the existing distribution ! Do they know the difference
delayed? network? between a solar hot water
! Is the product sourced from ! Can a low energy building design be system and a solar PV power
overseas and are the cost used to leverage a positive connection system?
influenced by foreign currency agreement with the network service ! Is there a perceived fear that
exchange rates? operator/utility? the PV system might adversely
! How long does the warranty of ! Is the electricity company trying to affect the cultural heritage of
each product last? overcharge for metering equipment for the community?
! Who is responsible for breakage the PV ? ! Is there a chance that solar
and damage to site, on-site and ! Have you negotiated a good buy back access and future development
once the building is rate for the PV and secured the RECs? might be compromised in the
commissioned? completion of the project?
! How long would it take to install? ! Is there a positive feeling for
! How strong is the electrical team? the use of PV?
! Is there a willingness to be up ! Can PV be used to promote a
skilled in learning about BiPV? positive message when
! Do they have the flexibility and submitting the building g
track record in scheduling and project design to the
completing quality innovative ! How doe the PV project
building projects at cost and on comply with DCP and
time? planning controls?

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

ARCHITECT/ENGINEER

! What should I know as an ARCHITECT/ENGINEER when communicating with:

Developer/Client Construction or building company Financier

! What is their PV expertise? And ! Have they worked with PV before? ! Have they an understanding of
knowledge ! Do they have appropriate accreditation if the technology?
! Are they aware of and committed they are installing the PV? ! Do they have an appropriate
to delivering sustainable ! How strong is the electrical team? way for determining the
buildings ! Is there a willingness to be up skilled in financial risk?
! Is PV part of the cost plan? learning about BiPV? ! Is there an understanding that
! Do they know that there are ! Do they have the flexibility and track the PV is a part of a holistic
rebates and subsidies for record in scheduling and completing building design and thus cost?
incorporating technologies such quality innovative building projects at ! Is there willingness for the
as PV? cost and on time? financier to promote
! Do they know of all the costs and sustainable building projects?
benefits including value-added
opportunities for BiPV?

Planning officer/
PV installer/ Electrician Utility
Community
! Are they BCSE accredited or ! Has the utility dealt with grid connected ! Is the community aware of
equivalent? BiPV before? what PV is and what it looks
! Can the PV supplier/ installer ! Is PV as a distributed generator going to like?
guarantee price if the project is add value to the existing distribution ! Do they know the difference
delayed? network? between a solar hot water
! Is the product sourced from ! Can a low energy building design be system and a solar PV power
overseas and are the cost used to leverage a positive connection system?
influenced by foreign currency agreement with the network service ! Is there a perceived fear that
exchange rates? operator/utility? the PV system might adversely
! How long does the warranty of ! Is the electricity company trying to affect the cultural heritage of
each product last? overcharge for metering equipment for the community?
! Who is responsible for breakage the PV ? ! Is there a chance that solar
and damage to site, on-site and ! Have you negotiated a good buy back access and future development
once the building is rate for the PV and secured the RECs? might be compromised in the
commissioned? completion of the project?
! How long would it take to install? ! Is there a positive feeling for
! How strong is the electrical team? the use of PV?
! Is there a willingness to be up ! Can PV be used to promote a
skilled in learning about BiPV? positive message when
! Do they have the flexibility and submitting the building g
track record in scheduling and project design to the
completing quality innovative ! How doe the PV project
building projects at cost and on comply with DCP and
time? planning controls?

37
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

CONSTRUCTION OR BUILDING COMPANY

! What should I know as a CONSTRUCTION OR BUILDING COMPANY when

communicating with:

Developer/Client Architect/engineer Financier

! What is their PV expertise? And ! What is their PV expertise? ! Have they an understanding of
knowledge ! Will their design plans encourage energy the technology?
! Are they aware of and committed and resource efficiency? ! Do they have an appropriate
to delivering sustainable ! Is PV part of the holistic design? way fo determining the
buildings ! If the PV was taken away from the financial risk?
! Is PV part of the cost plan? building would it be missing something? ! Is there an understanding that
! Do they know that there are ! Are they able to complete the PV system the PV is a part of a holistic
rebates and subsidies for design or will a special designer be building design and thus cost?
incorporating technologies such needed? ! Is there a willingness for the
as PV? financier to promote
! Do they know of all the costs and sustainable building projects?
benefits including value-added
opportunities for BiPV?
PV installer/ Electrician Utility Planning officer/
Community
! Are they BCSE accredited or ! Has the utility dealt with grid connected ! Is the community aware of
equivalent? BiPV before? what PV is and what it looks
! Can the PV supplier/ installer ! Is PV as a distributed generator going to like?
guarantee price if the project is add value to the existing distribution ! Do they know the difference
delayed? network? between a solar hot water
! Is the product sourced from ! Can a low energy building design be system and a solar PV power
overseas and are the cost used to leverage a positive connection system?
influenced by foreign currency agreement with the network service ! Is there a perceived fear that
exchange rates? operator/utility? the PV system might adversely
! How long does the warranty of ! Is the electricity company trying to affect the cultural heritage of
each product last? overcharge for metering equipment for the community?
! Who is responsible for breakage the PV ? ! Is there a chance that solar
and damage to site, on-site and ! Have you negotiated a good buy back access and future development
once the building is rate for the PV and secured the RECs? might be compromised in the
commissioned? completion of the project?
! How long would it take to install? ! Is there a positive feeling for
! How strong is the electrical team? the use of PV?
! Is there a willingness to be up ! Can PV be used to promote a
skilled in learning about BiPV? positive message when
! Do they have the flexibility and submitting the building project
track record in scheduling and design to the local authority?
completing quality innovative ! How doe the PV project
building projects at cost and on comply with DCP and
time? planning controls?

38
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

PLANNING OFFICER

! What should I know as a PLANNING OFFICER when communicating with:

Developer/Client Architect/engineer Financier

! What is their PV expertise? And ! What is their PV expertise? ! Have they an understanding of
knowledge ! Will their design plans encourage energy the technology?
! Are they aware of and committed and resource efficiency? ! Do they have an appropriate
to delivering sustainable ! Is PV part of the holistic design? way fo determining the
buildings ! If the PV was taken away from the financial risk?
! Is PV part of the cost plan? building would it be missing something? ! Is there an understanding that
! Do they know that there are ! Are they able to complete the PV system the PV is a part of a holistic
rebates and subsidies for design or will a special designer be building design and thus cost?
incorporating technologies such needed? ! Is there a willingness for the
as PV? financier to promote
! Do they know of all the costs and sustainable building projects?
benefits including value-added
opportunities for BiPV?
PV installer/ Electrician Utility Construction or Building
Company
! Are they BCSE accredited or ! Has the utility dealt with grid connected ! Have they worked with PV
equivalent? BiPV before? before?
! Can the PV supplier/ installer ! Is PV as a distributed generator going to ! Do they have appropriate
guarantee price if the project is add value to the existing distribution accreditation if they are
delayed? network? installing the PV?
! Is the product sourced from ! Can a low energy building design be ! How strong is the electrical
overseas and are the cost used to leverage a positive connection team?
influenced by foreign curreny agreement with the network service ! Is there a willingness to be up
exchange rates? operator/utility? skilled in learning about BiPV?
! How long does the warranty of ! Is the electricity company trying to ! Do they have the flexibility and
each product last? overcharge for metering equipment for track record in scheduling and
! Who is responsible for breakage the PV ? completing quality innovative
and damage to site, on-site and ! Have you negotiated a good buy back building projects at cost and on
once the building is rate for the PV and secured the RECs? time?
commissioned?
! How long would it take to install?
! How strong is the electrical team?
! Is there a willingness to be up
skilled in learning about BiPV?
! Do they have the flexibility and
track record in scheduling and
completing quality innovative
building projects at cost and on
time?

39
 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

FINANCIER

! What should I know as a FINANCIER when communicating with:

Construction or building
Developer/Client Architect/engineer
company
! What is their PV expertise? And ! What is their PV expertise? ! Have they worked with PV
knowledge ! Will their design plans encourage energy before?
! Are they aware of and committed and resource efficiency? ! Do they have appropriate
to delivering sustainable ! Is PV part of the holistic design? accreditation if they are
buildings ! If the PV was taken away from the installing the PV?
! Is PV part of the cost plan? building would it be missing something? ! How strong is the electrical
! Do they know that there are ! Are they able to complete the PV system team?
rebates and subsidies for design or will a special designer be ! Is there a willingness to be up
incorporating technologies such needed? skilled in learning about BiPV?
as PV? ! Do they have the flexibility and
! Do they know of all the costs and track record in scheduling and
benefits including value-added completing quality innovative
opportunities for BiPV? building projects at cost and on
time?
PV installer/ Electrician Utility Planning officer/
Community
! Are they BCSE accredited or ! Has the utility dealt with grid connected ! Is the community aware of
equivalent? BiPV before? what PV is and what it looks
! Can the PV supplier/ installer ! Is PV as a distributed generator going to like?
guarantee price if the project is add value to the existing distribution ! Do they know the difference
delayed? network? between a solar hot water
! Is the product sourced from ! Can a low energy building design be system and a solar PV power
overseas and are the cost used to leverage a positive connection system?
influenced by foreign curreny agreement with the network service ! Is there a perceived fear that
exchange rates? operator/utility? the PV system might adversely
! How long does the warranty of ! Is the electricity company trying to affect the cultural heritage of
each product last? overcharge for metering equipment for the community?
! Who is responsible for breakage the PV ? ! Is there a chance that solar
and damage to site, on-site and ! Have you negotiated a good buy back access and future development
once the building is rate for the PV and secured the RECs? might be compromised in the
commissioned? completion of the project?
! How long would it take to install? ! Is there a positive feeling for
! How strong is the electrical team? the use of PV?
! Is there a willingness to be up ! Can PV be used to promote a
skilled in learning about BiPV? positive message when
! Do they have the flexibility and submitting the building project
track record in scheduling and design to the local authority?
completing quality innovative ! How doe the PV project
building projects at cost and on comply with DCP and
time? planning controls?

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

PV INSTALLER/ELECTRICIAN

! What should I know as a PV INSTALLER when communicating with:

Construction or building
Developer/Client Architect/engineer
company
! What is their PV expertise? And ! What is their PV expertise? ! Have they worked with PV
knowledge ! Will their design plans encourage energy before?
! Are they aware of and committed and resource efficiency? ! Do they have appropriate
to delivering sustainable ! Is PV part of the holistic design? accreditation if they are
buildings ! If the PV was taken away from the installing the PV?
! Is PV part of the cost plan? building would it be missing something? ! How strong is the electrical
! Do they know that there are ! Are they able to complete the PV system team?
rebates and subsidies for design or will a special designer be ! Is there a willingness to be up
incorporating technologies such needed? skilled in learning about BiPV?
as PV? ! Do they have the flexibility and
! Do they know of all the costs and track record in scheduling and
benefits including value-added completing quality innovative
opportunities for BiPV? building projects at cost and on
time?
Financier Utility Planning officer/
Community
! Have they an understanding of ! Has the utility dealt with grid connected ! Is the community aware of
the technology? BiPV before? what PV is and what it looks
! Do they have an appropriate way ! Is PV as a distributed generator going to like?
for determining the financial risk? add value to the existing distribution ! Do they know the difference
! Is there an understanding that the network? between a solar hot water
PV is a part of a holistic building ! Can a low energy building design be system and a solar PV power
design and thus cost? used to leverage a positive connection system?
! Is there willingness for the agreement with the network service ! Is there a perceived fear that
financier to promote sustainable operator/utility? the PV system might adversely
building projects? ! Is the electricity company trying to affect the cultural heritage of
overcharge for metering equipment for the community?
the PV ? ! Is there a chance that solar
! Have you negotiated a good buy back access and future development
rate for the PV and secured the RECs? might be compromised in the
completion of the project?
! Is there a positive feeling for
the use of PV?
! Can PV be used to promote a
positive message when
submitting the building project
design to the local authority?
! How doe the PV project
comply with DCP and
planning controls?

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

UTILITY

! What should I know as a UTILITY when communicating with:

Construction or building
Developer/Client Architect/engineer
company
! What is their PV expertise? And ! What is their PV expertise? ! Have they worked with PV
knowledge ! Will their design plans encourage energy before?
! Are they aware of and committed and resource efficiency? ! Do they have appropriate
to delivering sustainable ! Is PV part of the holistic design? accreditation if they are
buildings ! If the PV was taken away from the installing the PV?
! Is PV part of the cost plan? building would it be missing something? ! How strong is the electrical
! Do they know that there are ! Are they able to complete the PV system team?
rebates and subsidies for design or will a special designer be ! Is there a willingness to be up
incorporating technologies such needed? skilled in learning about BiPV?
as PV? ! Do they have the flexibility and
! Do they know of all the costs and track record in scheduling and
benefits including value-added completing quality innovative
opportunities for BiPV? building projects at cost and on
time?
Financier PV installer/ Electrician Planning officer/
Community
! Have they an understanding of ! Are they BCSE accredited or equivalent? ! Is the community aware of
the technology? ! Can the PV supplier/ installer guarantee what PV is and what it looks
! Do they have an appropriate way price if the project is delayed? like?
for determining the financial risk? ! Is the product sourced from overseas and ! Do they know the difference
! Is there an understanding that the are the cost influenced by foreign between a solar hot water
PV is a part of a holistic building currency exchange rates? system and a solar PV power
design and thus cost? ! How long does the warranty of each system?
! Is there willingness for the product last? ! Is there a perceived fear that
financier to promote sustainable ! Who is responsible for breakage and the PV system might adversely
building projects? damage to site, on-site and once the affect the cultural heritage of
building is commissioned? the community?
! How long would it take to install? ! Is there a chance that solar
! How strong is the electrical team? access and future development
! Is there a willingness to be up skilled in might be compromised in the
learning about BiPV? completion of the project?
! Do they have the flexibility and track ! Is there a positive feeling for
record in scheduling and completing the use of PV?
quality innovative building projects at ! Can PV be used to promote a
cost and on time? positive message when
submitting the building project
design to the local authority?
! How doe the PV project
comply with DCP and
planning controls?

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

APPENDICES

A1 Glossary and abbreviations

Alternating current (AC): Electric current in which the direction of the flow is reversed at frequent intervals. In
Europe and Australia, this occurs 100 times per second (50 cycles per second, i.e. 50 Hertz (Hz)) and 120 times
per second in the USA. This is the opposite of direct current (DC).
Ancillary services: Resources used to maintain power supply quality such as reliability, voltage and frequency
stability and waveform purity.
Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO): Australian government office responsible for greenhouse gas matters within
the Department of Environment and Heritage.
Balance of systems (BOS): The parts of the photovoltaic system other than the PV array including switches, controls,
meters, power-conditioning equipment, the supporting structure for the array and storage components, if any.
BCSE: Business Council for Sustainable Energy is a lobby group and business network for sustainable energy
businesses in Australia
Building integrated photovoltaics (BiPV): The harnessing of solar power technologies as a part of, or attached to, the
external building skin.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Intended to help industrialized countries achieve their Kyoto Protocol
emissions reduction targets while helping developing countries achieve their sustainable development goals.
Emission reductions resulting from CDM projects will be available, at least partially, to the project funders.
Cogeneration: The simultaneous production of electricity and heat, usually for commercial or industrial use.
DCP: Development Control Plan produced by Local Planning Authorities/Councils
Direct current (DC): Electric current in which electrons are flowing in one direction only. This is the opposite of
alternating current (AC).
Distributed resources: Small-scale generating, storage or demand management plant, sometimes referred to as
micropower and typically connected into the electricity distribution, rather than transmission, network. These
can include photovoltaic power systems, wind generators, batteries or other storage devices and appliances,
such as solar water heaters, which reduce electrical load on the distribution network.
Emissions trading: A mechanism to control the increase in greenhouse gas emissions by setting emission limits,
allocating permits and allowing emitters to trade permits amongst themselves as a means of achieving the
lowest cost emission reductions overall.
Energy payback time: The time required for any energy producing system or device to produce as much useful
energy as was consumed in its manufacture and construction. For PV the energy payback time is
approximately 2 to 4 years.
Final annual yield: Total photovoltaic energy delivered to the load during one year per kilowatt of power installed.
Unit: kWh per annum per kW installed.
Fossil fuels: Energy sources derived from ancient plant and animal matter trapped on the earth’s surface over
geological time. These include coal, oil and natural gas, all of which are non-renewable over any human
timeframe.
Greenhouse gas emissions: Emissions of gases which collect in the atmosphere and contribute to the Earth’s
“greenhouse” effect. Increasing concentrations of gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are
currently producing an enhanced greenhouse effect because they are accumulating at a rate faster than they
can be dispersed. The combustion of fossil fuels is considered to be a major cause of this enhanced effect,
which in turn is expected to contribute to higher average global temperatures over the next century.
Grid-connected distributed photovoltaic power system: System installed on consumers' premises, usually on the
demand side of the electricity meter. This includes grid-connected domestic photovoltaic power systems and
other grid-connected PV power systems on commercial buildings, motorway sound barriers, etc. These may be
used for support of a utility’s distribution grid.
Installed power: Power delivered by a photovoltaic module or a photovoltaic array, under standard test conditions
(STC). See below for an explanation of STC. Also called STC output power. Unit: Watts peak (Wp).

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Inverter: Device that converts direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC).
I-V curve: A graphical presentation of the current (I) versus the voltage (V) from a photovoltaic cell as the load is
increased from the short circuit (no load) condition to the open circuit (maximum voltage) condition. The
shape of the curve characterizes cell performance.
kWh: Symbol of kilowatt-hour, unit of energy (power expressed in kW multiplied by time expressed in hours).
Load: The amount of electric power that is being consumed at any given moment. Also, in an electrical circuit, any
device or appliance that is using power. The load for a utility company varies greatly with time of day and to
some extent with season.
Off-grid domestic photovoltaic power system: System installed in households and villages that are not connected to
a utility’s distribution network (grid). Usually a means to store generated electricity is used which is most
commonly lead-acid batteries. Also referred to as stand-alone photovoltaic power systems (PV-SPS) or remote
area power supplies (RAPS).
Peak power: PV modules are rated by their peak power output. The peak power (or nominal power) is the amount of
power output a PV module produces at standard test conditions (STC). Unit: Watt peak (Wp).
Performance ratio: Ratio of the final yield to the reference yield calculated on the annual or monthly or daily
performance. The reference yield is the theoretically available energy on an annual, monthly or daily basis per
kilowatt of installed power.
Photovoltaic effect: The process of photons of light exciting a semiconductor material to produce an electric current
of volts, thus producing electricity from sunlight.
Photovoltaic power system: A system including photovoltaic modules, inverters, batteries (if applicable), and all
associated installation and control components, for the purpose of producing solar photovoltaic electricity.
Also commonly referred to as PV or photovoltaics.
PV: Abbreviation of photovoltaics and depending on the context, can refer to cells, modules or systems.
PVRP: Photovoltaic Rebate Program run by the Australian Greenhouse Office providing financial incentive for small
scale BiPV projects in Australia.
RECP: Renewable Energy Commercialisation Program run by the Australian Greenhouse Office providing financial
support for the commerncialisation and showcasing of renewable energy technologies in Australia.
Renewable energy: Energy sources recently derived directly or indirectly from the energy of the sun, the earth’s core,
or from lunar and solar gravitational forces that are renewable over short timeframes. These include solar,
wind, biomass, tidal, wave, hydro and geothermal energy.
Sequestration: Removal and storage of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere through the growth of vegetation or
through technological means such as injection of the gases underground.
Standard test conditions (STC): The testing conditions used to measure photovoltaic cells’ or modules’ nominal
output power where the irradiance level is 1000 W/m², with the reference air mass 1.5 times the solar spectral
irradiance distribution and a cell or module junction temperature of 25°C.
Vertically integrated utilities: Where generation, transmission, distribution and retailing of electricity are combined
in a single organization. A vertically integrated utility could also consist of generation, electricity transport
(transmission and distribution) with no retail functions, or of only electricity transport.
Watt (W): SI unit of power. Symbol is W. One Watt is equal to one Joule per second, with 1kWh equaling 3.6 MJ.
Multiples like kW (1000 W) or MW (1000 kW) are also used. In this publication, it is understood to be power
output under standard test conditions (STC). Also written Wp (peak Watt) by PV professionals to mean peak
power at STC.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

A2 BiPV directory

There are two main locations to find out how to contact your local PV industry. The Business Council for Sustainable
Energy (BCSE) is the representative sustainable energy industry body and hosts PV accreditation. Accredited PV
installers can be found at:
www.bcse.org.au under the installing renewables section.

The Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO) hosts a Renewable Energy Industry Database of over 500 entries
www.greenhouse.gov.au/renewable/reis/reid/index.html

A3 BiPV relevant subsidies and rebates

Under the National Greenhouse Strategy, all Australian States and Territories support the increased use of renewable
energy. The Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO) has responsibility for delivering a number of renewable energy
programs, including this site. The AGO has policy responsibility for the mandatory target for an additional 9,500GWh
of electricity to be produced from renewable sources by the year 2010, and a number of financial incentives for the
production and use of renewable energy.

To implement the mandatory target for renewable energy the Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 was passed by
Parliament. Under the Act a Regulator has been appointed and the Office of the Renewable Energy Regulator
established. Roles of the Regulator include accrediting renewable energy generators and determining baselines for
existing generators; ensuring that renewable energy certificates are validly issued; imposition of penalties and
conducting audits. Other Commonwealth support for business, including renewable energy businesses, is delivered
by the Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources.

Relevant current programs for BiPV include:

Photovoltaic Rebate Program (PVRP)
- solar power your house - supporting the renewable energy industry
Renewable Remote Power Generation Program (RRPGP)
- supporting renewable energy in remote areas
Renewable Energy Equity Fund (REEF)
- provides venture capital for small innovative renewable energy companies
Mandatory Renewable Energy Target (MRET)
- sourcing an additional 9,500 GWh of Australia's electricity from renewable sources

Previous grant programs included:

Renewable Energy Industry Development Program (REID)
Renewable Energy Commercialisation Program (RECP)
Renewable Energy Industry Program (REIP)
Renewable Energy Showcase

State and Territory renewable energy programs

Some State and Territory Governments have also implemented measures to increase the uptake of renewable energy –
click on the relevant state/territory organisation below:
Australian Capital Territory
New South Wales
Northern Territory
Queensland
South Australia
Tasmania
Victoria
Western Australia

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

A4 Added values offered by PV (summary of report that can be downloaded from IEA PVPS website
www.iea-pvps.org and www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/products/rep1_09.htm)

The perceived benefits of PV, over and above the electricity generated, depend to some extent on the perspective from
which it is viewed. For instance [Watt et al, 1999]:

• a building owner may be interested in offset building costs, enhanced property value and improved rental
prospects, compared to the investment made;
• a building occupier may attribute value to visual appeal and green image, as well as to reduced power bills,
increased self reliance and reliability of supply;
• to the community, the value may be determined by visual amenity, enhanced property values, local
employment, reduced power outages or brown-outs, safety and reduced local and global pollution levels;
• for the nation, the value may be determined by employment creation, pollution reduction, energy self
reliance and impacts on fossil fuel requirements.

Some of these values are based on perceptions or preferences that are difficult to define or quantify. They are,
however, a key component of energy system choice and are particularly important when introducing new
technologies into the marketplace. The added values available for architects and builders using BiPV have been
detailed in the main report. The following provides a summary of values that may be significant to the wider
community and hence, may influence choices.

A4.1 PV Values for Governments

A4.1.1 Net energy benefits and greenhouse gas emission reductions
Greenhouse gas reduction strategies are becoming key energy policy drivers in industrialized countries. PV is one of
the most attractive and versatile emissions free electricity technology options suitable for use in the built
environment.

Estimates of the time required for rooftop PV systems to “pay back” the energy used in their manufacture range from
3 to 8 years using existing technology [Alsema, 1998]. Hence, with existing technology, PV systems can be expected to
generate at least 3 times, and most probably more than 10 times, the energy required for their manufacture over their
lifetime of operation. Expected reductions in PV manufacturing energy requirements will reduce energy payback
periods to less than 2 years. Hence, if PV is used to power PV component factories, it can operate as a “solar breeder”
technology, with a sustainable long-term future.

The emissions reduction benefits offered by PV depend on the technologies used and the energy sources being
displaced. In Australia, PV is calculated to release around 104 g CO2 equivalent per kWh produced, compared with
932 g per kWh for existing black coal fired electricity plants and 439 g from combined cycle gas plants [BHP, 2000].
Hence emissions are reduced by 85% or more compared to coal fired generation, making PV an attractive long term
option for sustainable energy supply.

A4.1.2 Clean air targets

Clean air programmes have been put into place in many countries, usually on a regional basis and aimed at local air
pollution. Programmes typically target local emissions from vehicles and combustion of coal and biomass. More
recent clean air policies acknowledge global issues and incorporate greenhouse gas reduction strategies. For instance,
the NSW air quality management plan deals with local, regional and global issues.

NOx and SOx trading is already being used as a part of clean air policies in some countries and offers opportunities for
PV to play a role. Where PV generation displaces coal fired power generation, NOx emissions are halved and SOx
emissions are reduced by 90% [BHP, 2000]. Clean air policies are already beginning to impact on standby generation,
with restrictions on the use of plants using diesel or waste fuel, thus creating opportunities for PV.

A4.1.3 Energy supply security

The installation of photovoltaics on household, commercial and light industrial buildings can reduce peak electricity
demand and improve short-term energy supply security. PV can also contribute to long-term energy supply security
by reducing reliance on depleting fossil fuels, by increasing the use of indigenous resources and by diversifying fuel
sources. With Australia’s high levels of coal use and export and high per capita greenhouse gas emission levels, the
challenge of reducing emissions and diversifying away from fossil fuels is an important long-term supply security
issue.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

A4.1.4 Industry development and employment growth

Although still relatively small, the PV industry is growing fast. The scope for PV use is widespread, in both urban and
rural areas and thus there are opportunities for new manufacturing and service industry development and associated
professional and trade level employment creation in urban and regional areas.

A4.2 Values for Utilities

Smaller scale generation, connected into the electricity distribution, rather than the transmission, network is referred
to as distributed generation and includes building integrated PV systems. Table A4.1 summarizes some of the benefits
offered by distributed generation, termed “micro-power” by the authors.

Table A4.1: Eight Hidden Benefits of Micropower [Lovins & Lehmann, 2000]
Benefit Description
By adding or removing units, micropower system size can be adjusted to match
Modularity
demand.
Small-scale power can be planned, sited, and built more quickly than larger systems,
Short lead time reducing the risks of overshooting demand, longer construction periods, and
technological obsolescence.
Fuel diversity and Micropower’s more diverse, renewables-based mix of energy sources lessens exposure
reduced price volatility to fossil fuel price fluctuations.
Some types of small-scale power, such as cogeneration and end-use efficiency, expand
“Load-growth insurance”
with growing loads; the flow of other resources like solar and wind, can correlate
and load matching
closely with electricity demand.
Small plants are unlikely to all fail simultaneously; they have shorter outages, are easier
Reliability and resilience
to repair, and are more geographically dispersed.
Avoided plant and grid Small-scale power can displace construction of new plants, reduce grid losses, and
construction, and losses delay or avoid adding new grid capacity or connections.
Local and community Micropower provides local choice and control and the option of relying on local fuels
choice and control and spurring community economic development.
Avoided emissions and Small-scale power generally emits lower amounts of particulates, sulfur dioxide and
other environmental nitrogen oxides, heavy metals and carbon dioxide, and has a lower cumulative
impacts environmental impact on land and water supply and quality.

A4.2.1 Reduced infrastructure costs and network losses

Distributed generation can offer reduced costs for infrastructure, such as line capacity and peak load generation
facilities, as well as reduced network operating and maintenance costs. It can also serve to delay or eliminate the need
for network augmentation. This is an important benefit, particularly where networks span large distances, where high
load growth in some areas is leading to grid constraints or where lines are reaching the end of their expected life
[Outhred & Watt, 1999]. Generation close to load centres also reduces network losses, which can be as high as 25% of
electricity distributed through long rural lines.

A4.2.2 Reduced financial risk

Another key advantage of decentralized PV systems over traditional centralized supplies is the lower risk it offers in
upgrading capacity. The ability to follow load growth more closely, by adding incrementally to supply, reduces the
period of over-capacity which inevitably follows the installation of a large system, and hence also the period of low
prices experienced until load growth catches up. In periods of uncertainty, the risks associated with under-utilized
assets may add considerably to the costs.

A4.2.3 Capacity credit and peak lopping

Compared to central PV stations, decentralized systems smooth output fluctuations and provide a better match to
loads, therefore providing a higher capacity value from the utility point of view. For commercial and industrial
customers, the capacity value that can be placed on a PV system is as important as its energy value, since billing often
has a strong demand component. Where air conditioning loads contribute significantly to peak demand a positive
correlation can be expected with PV output. The value of PV could therefore be higher in areas with a summer
peaking load. Similarly, PV generation augments electrical supply and helps in dealing with additional appliances
and building loads that may come from improved living standards and changes in the building’s function.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

A4.2.4 Green Power

Green Power products have emerged as one means for utilities to offer differentiated products to domestic and
business customers, with the intention of gaining new customers or increasing customer loyalty. Australian schemes
are certified and labeled to distinguish levels of greenhouse gas reduction.

A.4.3 Values for Customers

Improved thermal comfort and soundproofing, reduced energy demand charges and interesting building design
features are all of importance to customers. In addition, customer surveys around the world increasingly show an
interest in the impacts of energy systems on the environment and on quality of life. Some customers are also
interested in increasing their own energy self-reliance, others in portraying a clean image.

A4.3.1 Non-intrusive qualities

Compared to almost all other electricity generators, PV is noiseless, produces no on-site emissions, is relatively
maintenance free and can be installed in a wide range of locations. Combined with its modularity, these
characteristics make PV attractive for household, community or urban use, particularly as a replacement for diesel or
petrol generators, but increasingly as a non-intrusive supplement or replacement for grid power.

A4.3.2 Image
For commercial customers especially, but also for residential customers, on-site PV generation creates a strong green
and high-tech image. This makes PV attractive for use in corporate buildings, housing developments at the high end
of the market and for any person or group wishing to demonstrate environmental credentials.

A4.3.3 Energy independence

PV obviously offers the opportunity for increased or total energy self reliance. In addition, the use of distributed PV
systems can conceivably mitigate the onset and/or the effect of power outages caused by high summer demand or
severe weather [Perez et al, 1997; Perez, 1998].

It should be noted that grid connection guidelines in many areas require the PV system to disconnect when grid
power fails. This removes the emergency benefit for both the customer and the utility, unless self-operation of PV
systems is allowed when the grid fails, with a manual inverter switch-over.

The value of PV for general energy independence and in emergency situations is increased when storage is included
in the system. However, storage increases the system cost and complexity. Nevertheless, many commercial,
institutional and industrial buildings already include battery storage uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems for
emergency power supply. Hence, connection of a BiPV system to the UPS battery system can extend emergency
power availability. An 80 kWp building integrated photovoltaic power system installed in a commercial building in
Brisbane provides added value by feeding its output through a UPS system which supports the building’s computer
equipment [Wren & Barram, 2000].

A4.3.4 Customer preferences

Marketing of the first generation of houses with PV was, perhaps understandably, been undertaken in a low key way.
PV systems on houses in the Newington Solar Village near the Sydney Olympic site were placed so as not to be
generally visible. However, recent Australian government grants for BIPV systems have had to be modified following
overwhelming customer demand. For the next generation of BIPV product, therefore, it would seem that customers
require attractive, multifunctional PV products and that marketers must provide substantially more information on
all aspects of their systems, so that customers can appreciate all features.

A4.3.5 Electricity supply costs

In Australia there are an estimated 10,000 off-grid residences and up to 60,000 off-grid holiday homes. For these
customers, the option of BiPV systems may save considerable costs otherwise associated with grid extension or with
fuel delivery for gas or diesel based power systems. Low maintenance requirements are also an important factor for
remote locations.

For grid connected customers, the values offered by PV, combined with current grant programs and renewable
energy targets, can make PV financially attractive. With current cost reduction trends, PV is expected to be able to
supply electricity at costs equivalent to grid power by around 2015, even without considering other values.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Table A4.2: Summary of Non-Energy Benefits Which Can Add Value to PV Systems [IEA-PVPS, 2000/4]
Category Potential Values
kWh generated; kW capacity value; peak generation and load matching value; reduction in
demand for utility electricity; power in times of emergency; grid support for rural lines;
Electrical
reduced transmission and distribution losses; improved grid reliability and resilience; voltage
control; smoothing load fluctuations; filtering harmonics and reactive power compensation.
Significant net energy generator over its lifetime; reduced air emissions of particulates, heavy
metals, CO2, NOx, SOx - resulting in lower greenhouse gases, reduced acid rain and lower
Environmental
smog levels; reduced power station land and water use; reduced impact of urban
development; reduced tree clearing for fuel; reduced nuclear safety risks.
Substitute building component; multi-function potential for insulation, water proofing, fire
protection, wind protection, acoustic control, daylighting, shading, thermal collection and
Architectural dissipation; aesthetic appeal through colour, transparency, non-reflective surfaces; reduced
embodied energy of the building; reflection of electromagnetic waves; reduced building
maintenance and roof replacements.
New industries, products and markets; local employment for installation and servicing; local
choice, resource use and control; potential for solar breeders; short construction lead-times;
modularity improves demand matching; resource diversification; reduced fuel imports;
reduced price volatility; deferment of large capital outlays for central generating plant or
transmission and distribution line upgrades; urban renewal; rural development; lower
Socio-Economic
externalities (environmental impact, social dislocation, infrastructure requirements) than fossil
fuels and nuclear; reduced fuel transport costs and pollution from fossil fuel use in rural areas;
reduced risk of nuclear accidents; symbol for sustainable development and associated
education; potential for international cooperation, collaboration and long-term aid to
developing countries.

References relevant to Appendix A4

Alsema, E.A., 1998, “Energy Requirements and CO2 Mitigation Potential of PV Systems”, presented at the
BNL/NREL Workshop on PV and the Environment 1998, CO, USA, 23-24 July 1998.
BHP, 2000, Case Study B9 – Electricity from Photovoltaics, http://www.sustainabletechnology.com.au/frames.html.
IEA-PVPS, 2000/4, Task 1 Workshop on the Added Value of PV Systems, Glasgow, 5 May 2000.
Lovins, A. and Lehmann, A., 2000, Small is Profitable: The Hidden Benefits of Making Electrical Resources the Right Size
(Boulder, CO: Rocky Mountain Institute, forthcoming), cited in Dunn, 2000.
Outhred, H. and Watt, M.,1999, “Prospects for Renewable Energy in the Restructured Australian Electricity Industry”,
presented at World Renewable Energy Congress ,10-13 February,1999, Perth, Western Australia.
Perez, R. et al, 1997, “PV as a Long-Term Solution to Power Outages, Case Study: The Great 1996 WSCC Power
Outage”. Proceedings of the ASES Annual Conference, Washington, DC.
Perez, R., 1998, “Photovoltaic Availability in the Wake of the January 1998 Ice Storm”, Proc. Renew 98, NESEA,
Greenfield, Mass.
Watt, M., Kaye, J., Travers, D., MacGill, I., Prasad, D., Thomas, P.C., Fox, E. and Jansen, S., 1999, Opportunities for the
Use of Building Integrated Photovoltaics in NSW, Photovoltaics Special Research Centre, University of NSW, Sydney,
Australia.
Wren, C. and Barram, F., 2000, “Solar Integration on Commercial Buildings”, Proceedings of the 2nd World Solar Electric
Buildings Conference, Sydney, March 2000, pp. 68-74.

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A5 BiPV codes and standards

Local Government Authorities (LGAs) rely on nationally developed building codes that delineate required safe-
building practices. Building inspectors are concerned with the proper construction of safe buildings:
! regulation of public safety;
! health; and
! amenity in buildings.

Accepted variations:
! tropical cyclonic north;
! various earthquake prone areas;
! snowfields of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania; and
! bushfire prone areas of the south-east and far south-west.

BCA96 – performance based building codes – sustainability goals, energy efficient benchmarking and standards -
“deemed to satisfy requirements”.Until recently, a lack of Australian standards for BiPV have not encouraged the
uptake BiPV development, with a reliance on:
! nternational standards;
! Existing national building codes, electrical & wiring standards;
! Code, standards and guideline development for Australia; and
! Stand alone systems – batteries – hybrid systems (AS 4509.2)

AGO have assisted with the development of Australian standards in this area and now there are a number of very
helpful Australian standards giving guidance on PV array installation, (AS/NZS 5033) and AS 4777 which covers the
installation and characteristics of inverters used for grid connected PV systems. Module standards have been revised
and the old AS2915 standard has been withdrawn and IEC standards for modules have been adopted as they are the
most widely accepted and most useful standards (See IEC 61215, IEC61646 and IEC 61730, listed below.) PV modules
should have a minimum 10-year warranty, and other components and design shall meet relevant Australian
Standards. PV array installation shall meet AS/NZS 5033. BiPV stems across architecture, electrical engineering,
device physics, structural engineering, construction industry, architecture and planning. The current status of codes
for BiPV include:

AS 1170 Minimum design loads on structures.

AS 1170.2 Part 2 Wind loads.
AS 1319 Safety signs for the occupational environment.
AS 1530 Methods for fire tests on building materials, components and structures.
AS 1530.4 Part 4 Fire resistance tests of elements of building construction.
AS 1768 Lightning protection.
AS 1931.1 Part 1 High voltage - Test techniques - General definitions and test requirements.
AS 1940 Storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids.
AS 2279 Disturbances in mains supply networks.
AS 2481 All-or-nothing electrical relays (instantaneous & timing relays).
AS/NZ 3000 Electrical installations – Buildings, structures and premises “SAA Wiring rules”.
AS 3008 Selection of Cables.
AS 3100 Approval & test specification - General requirements for electrical equipment.
AS 3300 Approval & test specification - General requirements for household & similar electrical
appliances.
AS 3595 Energy Management Programs.
AS/NZS 3131 Approval and test specification – plugs and socket outlets for use in installation wiring.
AS 4777 Grid connection of energy systems via inverters. Part 1 installation, Part 2 Inverter
requirements and Part 3 protection requirements.
AS/NZS 5033 Installation of Photovoltaic (PV) Arrays.
IEC 61215 Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules: Design qualification &type approval
IEC 61643 Low voltage surge protective devices
IEC 61643-12 Part 12: Surge protective devices connected to low voltage power distribution systems—Selection and
application principles
IEC 61646 Thin film terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules—Design qualification and type approval
IEC 61730-1 Part 1: Photovoltaic module safety qualification: Requirements for construction

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A6 Monitoring equipment and parameters

Procedures for monitoring the energy performance of PV systems are well established. In Europe the Joint Research
Centre (JRC) of the European Commission developed guidelines for use in EC funded projects. These were widely
used internationally and then used as the basis for developing IEC 61724 (1998-11) “Photovoltaic system performance
monitoring - Guidelines for measurement, data exchange and analysis”. This recommends procedures for the
monitoring of energy-related photovoltaic (PV) system characteristics, and for the exchange and analysis of
monitored data.

The following is a guide only for developing a wishlist of monitoring parameters for determining the outside climatic
characteristics and the performance of the PV system from the modules through the inverter and to the grid at time-
step intervals. These include:

! PV solar generator Voltage (V);

! DC current to each inverter;
! Earth to solar generator – Voltage (V);
! Primary Voltage (Grid Voltage-V);
! Primary Current (AC current supplied to grid in amps (A));
! Primary Power (AC power supplied to grid in Watts);
! Ambient Temperature (oC);
! Heat sink Temperature (oC);
! Transformer Temperature (oC);
! Total Energy (produced since installation in kWh);
! Voc (open circuit voltage);
! Vmax (maximum power point voltage);
! MPPT – maximum power point tracking window start; and
! MPPT– maximum power point tracking window end;
! Inverter run time.

The data should be logged at least every 15 minutes to a file that is suitable for importing into Excel or accessed for
Web-based display purposes. Reports that are extracted from the monitoring system should be capable of being
produced in spreadsheet format for easy of analysis and reporting.

Weather station and logging software to be inclusive of the following:

! Isolation sensor for measuring both global and diffuse irradiation (W/m2);
! Ambient temperature (oC);
! Relative Humidity (%);
! Wind Speed (metres/second);
! Rain Gauge (millimetres);
! Wind direction (True direction, in degrees, referenced from true north usually averaged over a period of ten
minutes);

Data logger, weather station enclosure, support hardware, software, modems and other sundry supply equipment
such as uniterupted power supply (UPS) system to ensure monitoring continues during blackouts; Communication to
the weather station should be preferably configured as a dedicated line modem.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

A7 Summary of Australian BiPV case studies and other relevant PV projects

Summary of major projects, demonstration and field test programmes in Australia
Last updated: November 2004 – please advise if there are missing or incorrect information and the pdf can be updated

Shoulharbour Workers’ Club

Date plant start up: 2003
Objectives:
! Building of a new $3 million verandah, which fronts the eastern and northern facades of the original club
building. The verandah’s eastern and northern roofs incorporate solar panels – “photovoltaics” or “PV” for short
- that generate up to 22 kilowatts of electricity in full sunlight. In a year, they’ll generate about 25,000 kilowatt-
hours – enough to power 4 typical Australian houses.
! The PV system incorporates clear glass laminate panels that filter the light coming through the roof onto the
verandah below. The laminated panels were manufactured by BP Solar in Germany while the other style of PV
used was made at BP’s Homebush plant, Sydney.
Project Architects: Caroline Pidcock Architects and Richard Goodwin
Project management: Big Switch Projects

Chadwick Centre, Brisbane

Date plant start up: 2002
Technical and economic data: AU$ 740,000 grant to Forrestor Kurtz Properties and Integrated Energy Services for a
60kW BiPV array on a commercial building.
Objectives:
! To demonstrate the feasibility of using PV as the energy source for a UPS
! To achieve significant cost offsets through BiPV integration and use of PV electricity for a UPS.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned:
Project completed in 2002
Demonstrated significant reduction in cost of PV through offsets in building integration and UPS hardware.
Funding: Australian Government RE Commercialisation Program
Project management: Integrated Energy Services

BiPV system for the heritage-listed Queen Victoria Market, Melbourne

Date plant start up: 2002
Technical and economic data: AU$ 750,000 RECP grant plus Council funds. 200 kWp installed so as not to detract
from the heritage buildings producing 250 MWh of green electricity per year
Objectives:
! First large PV array for an industrial market-type building
! Long term performance monitoring by the University of Melbourne's Green Building Research Group
! Educational purposes
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Concept developed and funding granted
in 2000, System installation commenced 2002; Commissioning completed April 2003
Funding: Australian Government RECP, Melbourne City Council
Project management: Installation by BP Solar Australia , Utility – Origin Energy

Griffith EcoCentre
Date plant start up: 2001
Technical and economic data: 4.3 kWp system. AU$ 33,000, with 80% PVRP rebate.
Objectives:
! To provide environmental eduction at the Centre
! To demonstrate PV on community buildings
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: The system provides 7.8 MWh per
annum.
Funding: Australian Government PVRP, Stanwell Corporation
Project management: EnviroPower, Stanwell Corporation,,QLD Environmental Protection Agency

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

CSIRO Energy Centre

Date plant start up: 2001
Technical and economic data: SEDA provided AU$ 250,000 for 30kW of PV and 250kW of renewable energy
generation, plus a loan of AU$ 200,000 to STI towards a demonstration DSC array.
Objectives: To assist in the commercialization of renewable energy technologies.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: The building is largely completed and PV
system installation has commenced. Commissioning expected in 2003.
Funding: SEDA - NSW Renewables Investment Programme, CSIRO
Project management: CSIRO, Sustainable Technologies International, BP Solar, Pacific Solar
Remarks: Difficulties experienced with some aspects of the PV installation by building sub contractors.
Need for certified installers.

Renewable Remote Power Generation Programme

Date plant start up: 2001
Technical and economic data: Up to AU$$ 264 million available to 2010, allocated on the basis of diesel fuel excise
paid by public generators in each State. Grants up to 50% of costs, for renewable energy generation components.
Objectives:
! To substitute renewable energy generation for diesel use in off-grid areas and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
! To assist the Renewable Energy Industry
! To meet infrastructure needs of indigenous communities
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Sub-Programmes are now operational in
all States and Territories. 1,036 systems installed to end 2002, including 1 MWp of PV.
Funding: Grant funding provided by Australian Greenhouse Office, topped up in some States.
Project management: Separate programmes operating in each State and managed by the State governments.

Demonstration thin-film CSG technology

Date plant start up: 2001
Technical and economic data: AU$ 2 million project, of which AU$ 1 million provided by RECP
Objectives: To demonstrate CSG technology in 4 grid-connected rooftop systems
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Project is running to programme.
Funding: Pacific Solar Pty Ltd, Australian Government RECP
Project management: Pacific Solar Pty Ltd

Full commercialisation of Plug&PowerTM

Date plant start up: 2001
Technical and economic data:
AU$ 1 million (RECP – AU$ 0.5 million)
Balance of systems (BoS) hardware to be configured for mass production & sale.
Objectives:
! To develop new packages & hard tooling for BoS components
! To develop Plug&Power™ for cyclonic regions
! To develop sales & marketing tools
! To monitor six Plug&Power™ sites
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Project is running to programme.
Funding: Pacific Solar Pty Ltd, Australian Government RECP
Project management: Pacific Solar Pty Ltd

Caboolture Regional Environmental Centre

Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data:
5 kWp system, costing AU$ 52,000.
PVRP rebate of 60%.
3 x 1.6 kW grid interactive inverters
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: The system is roof mounted and provides
around 7.3 MWh per annum.
Funding: Stanwell Corporation, Australian Government PVRP
Project management: Choice Electric Company, Stanwell Corporation, QLD Environmental Protection Agency

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Titania Dye Sensitised Solar Tile and Wall Panel manufacturing facility
Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data:
AU$ 2.5 million (RECP-AU$ 1 million)
The facilities will be capable of producing 10 000 m² of Solar Wall Panels annually.
Objectives:
! To validate manufacturing processes
! To enable the first phase (500kWp) start-up
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: World’s first DSC manufacturing
facilities installed in Queanbeyan.
Funding: Sustainable Technologies International Pty Ltd.
Australian Government - RECP
Project management: Sustainable Technologies International

BiPV cladding of the Melbourne University Alan Gilbert building

Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data: AU$ 755000 RECP grant + University funding.
Objectives: To demonstrate the application of building-integrated PV power generation on a large scale.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Systems design completed by STI and
Ove Arups.
Funding: Australian Government RECP, Melbourne University Private Ltd
Project management: Melbourne University Private

PV Rebate Programme
Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data:
Grants of AU$ 5 000 per kWp for households and AU$ 10 000 for community buildings.
To date, 4 MWp installed on 3 760 systems with over AU$ 21 Million provided in grants
Objectives: To stimulate the use of PV on residential and community buildings
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: 40% of installations, comprising 48% of
installed PV capacity, have been on grid connected buildings.
Funding: Australian Government funded, with State Government administration
Project management: Australian Greenhouse Office and State energy agencies
Remarks: Demand in the grid-connected market picked up quickly. The programme was over subscribed and money
was rationed for some months. The Government has announced continuation of the programme for 2 years, with
lower grant levels.

Wetlands Project - Homebush Bay 64kWp

Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data:
64 kWp PV grid-connected and battery backup system sited on the Homebush Bay wetlands.
800 SX80 Solarex PV modules, three 20 KVa AES string inverters, 240 volt DC 1000 Ampère battery backup
Objectives: To pump water from 40 ponds once every three days during the summer and less frequently in the winter
to mitigate mosquito infestations and the build up of algae blooms. The tilt of the array is 15 degrees, to maximize
summer output.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Positioned slightly east of north, a
carefully constructed galvanized steel custom-made frame was designed on a 45 degree slope without detracting
from the historic munitions building.
Funding: Waste Services and Olympic Co-ordination Authority (OCA)
Project management: Waste Services and Olympic Co-ordination Authority (OCA) , Advanced Energy Systems (AES)
of Perth, Solar Technology Australia (SOLARTECH).

Citipower Solar Pioneers Programme

Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data: AU$ 60 000 REIP grant plus contributions from customers and Citipower.
Objectives: To help accelerate the commercialization and uptake of PV, assist in increasing sales of Australian made
equipment and to enable participating customers to make their own contribution to the reduction in Australia's
greenhouse emissions.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: 50 systems, with a capacity of 5,6 kW, are
installed. Most of the systems are rated at 1 kWp. One system is installed on a secondary school, the remainder on
residential properties.
Funding: Citipower, customers, Australian Government - Renewable Energy Industry Programme
Project management: Citipower

GreenGel battery
Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data: AU$ 1 Million RECP grant + funding from the companies involved
Objectives: Commercialization of a long life deep cycle lead acid battery for off-grid renewable energy systems.
Funding: Australian Government RECP, BP Solar, Battery Energy South Pacific, CSIRO
Project management: BP Solar

220 kWp Diesel Grid Feed Sun Farm for the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Lands, South Australia
Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data:
AU$ 1 million RECP grant + funding from ATSIC and SA Government
10 x 22kWp PV concentrator dishes, which operate and feed power directly into the local grid, supplying 20% of the
daily load
Objectives:
! To reduce diesel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
! To develop an air-cooled concentrator dish technology particularly suited to remote and arid locations where
cooling water is in limited supply.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Installation largely completed in 2002.
Commissioning expected in 2003
Funding: Australian Government RECP, Pitjantjatjara Council Inc, South Australian Division of State Aboriginal
Affairs
Project management: Pitjantjatjara Council

Peak lopping in off-grid diesel systems using PV

Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data:
AU$ 0,5 million RECP grant + 1,25 million via the RRPGP programme and funding from NT PAWA
Flat-plate PV modules at Bulman Aboriginal community (55kWp) and Kings Canyon tourist site (225kWp), connected
to diesel-powered grids via inverters.
Objectives:
! To demonstrate the large scale commercial viability of PV peak lopping in remote diesel grid systems
! To lower operating costs and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
! To reduce diesel consumption.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Early studies have shown good
correlation between peak load and solar insolation, which will allow maximum benefit to be gained by addition of
PV.
Funding: Australian Government. RECP, RRPGP.
Power and Water Authority of the Northern Territory. NT Centre for Energy Research, Project management: PAWA

All-plastic PV roof tile

Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data: AU$ 135 000 RECP grant, AU$ 20 000 from NSW SEDA + funding from the companies
involved.
Objectives:
! To develop an extruded frame for PV laminates and a low cost pluggable PV junction box.
! To market and promote the product to architects, BIPV installers, home renovators and financiers.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: The new Solar Tile is already being used
in Sydney, using BP Solar’s 85 Wp Saturn cell PV laminates, under a contract to developer MIRVAC for the
Newington Solar Village stage 2. 79 homes are now being built, each with 12 tiles, making a 1 kWp PV system.
Funding: Australian Government RECP, NSW SEDA, PV Solar Energy Pty Ltd, Utilux Pty Ltd and BP Solar Australia
Project management: PV Solar Energy Pty Ltd

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Solar Sailor
Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data:
AU$ 1 million RECP grant + company funding.
108-seat multi-purpose catamaran capable of running on solar and wind energy with CNG or LPG back-up
Objectives:
! To construct, test and demonstrate commercial viability
! To showcase the solar wing, a solid-aerofoil sail with an embedded array of PV cells that utilizes solar and wind
energy separately or in combination
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Solar Sailor is operated commercially on
Sydney Harbour and is in high demand.
Funding: Australian Government. RECP, Solar Sailor Holdings Ltd, Project management: Solar Sailor

Commercialisation of an efficient solar electric charge controller

Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data: AU$ 125 000 RECP grant + company funding.
Objectives: To repackaging the technology in a more commercial form, lower unit costs and develop effective
marketing strategies and materials.
Funding: Australian Government. RECP, Plasmatronics Pty Ltd, Project management: Plasmatronics

Solar Kogarah
Date plant start up: 2000
Technical and economic data: AU$ 1 million RECP grant, AU$ 200 000 from NSW SEDA + Council funding
148 kWp of UniSolar PV modules on the roof and 12 kWp glass/glass BP PV modules over the entrance and lobby. 59
SunPower 1.5 – 2.5 kW inverters are used.
Objectives:
! To establish a major building demonstration site for specific solar energy products and BIPV in an inner city
town centre.
! On-site marketing and promotion of solar energy in urban environments
Renewable energy training services.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: The PV systems been installed and was
commissioned in 2003. The utility EnergyAustralia is responsible for the PV component of the building. BiPV
modeling by SOLARCH, UNSW
Funding: Australian Government RECP, NSW SEDA, Kogarah Council
Project management: Kogarah Council

NSW Solar in Schools Programme

Date plant start up: 1999
Technical and economic data: AU$ 0,5 million provided jointly by NSW SEDA, the Department of Education and
Training and Integral Energy
Objectives: To increase awareness and knowledge of PV systems.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: 18 schools were provided with 1 to 1,5
kWp roof mounted PV systems.
Funding: NSW SEDA, Dept of Education & Training,,Integral Energy
Project management: Integral Energy

20 kWp grid-connected solar PV trough concentrator

Date plant start up: 1999
Technical and economic data: AU$ 300 000 REIP grant + University and company funds Parabolic trough-shaped
mirror to concentrate the sun's energy onto a line of high efficiency PV cells.
Objectives: To demonstrate and evaluate the commercial potential of PV concentrator technology, especially for use in
diesel powered mini-grids in rural and remote areas.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: System commissioned.
Funding: ANUTECH
Project management: Australian Government. REIP, ANUTECH Pty Ltd, Solahart Industries Pty Ltd and Western
Power Corporation

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Sydney Superdome Solar System

Date plant started up: 1999
Technical and economic data: 70 kWp amorphous silicon roof integrated array, comprising 1176 X 77 Wp modules on
a steel frame with an 8º tilt, 19 X 4 kW inverters and optic fibre monitoring link.
Objectives: To demonstrate a large roof-integrated array and supply 1000 of EnergyAustralia’s PureEnergy customers.
Funding: EnergyAustralia, via contributions from PureEnergy customers
Project management: EnergyAustralia in conjunction with SEDA, Abi Millenium, Olympic Co-odinating Authority

Olympic Boulevard PV Lights

Date plant start up: 1999
Technical and economic data: 1520 laser grooved crystalline silicon modules on 19 towers. Grid connected.
Objectives: To provide lights, signage, shelter and shade, plus a high profile demonstration of PV power.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned:
Won the Inst of Eng 1999 Eng Excellence Award for Project Development.
Provides 160,000 kWh/year
Funding: Australian Olympic Co-ordinating Authority
Project management: EnergyAustralia

Newington Solar Village

Date plant start up: 1998-2000
Technical and economic data: 629 X 1 kWp grid connected rooftop systems (c-Si cells) in a high density residential
estate.
Objectives:
! To develop and demonstrate standardized, easy to install BiPV systems in commercial housing.
! To investigate network issues involved with a high density of small PV arrays.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Valuable trade and professional
experience, understanding and skill development.
Funding: PV costs included in house prices.
Project management: Pacific Power, BP Solar.

Western Plains Zoo

Date plant start up: 1998
Technical and economic data: Grid-connected 50 kWp mc-Si array.
Objectives: To demonstrate PV for its Green Power customers and gain installation & operational experience.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Trees surrounding site.
Funding: Advance Energy via its Green Power customers, SEDA
Project management: Advance Energy

Queanbeyan Energy Depot

Date plant start up: 1998
Technical and economic data: Grid-connected 50 kWp mc-Si array, comprising 720 X 77 Wp modules.
Objectives: To gain installation & operational experience with larger scale PV systems.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Difficult sloping site, with non-ideal
orientation.
Funding: Great Southern Energy via its Earth Saver customers and SEDA.
Project management: Great Southern Energy

White Cliffs Solar Power Station

Date plant start up: 1998
Technical and economic data: Grid-connected 42 kWp concentrating array with 14 X 20 m² tracking dishes.
Objectives: To refurbish a concentrating solar thermal system with PV.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Produces 70,000 kWh/an.
Funding: Advance Energy & Solar Systems.

Wilpena Pound Solar Power Station

Date plant start up: 1998
Technical and economic data: 100 kWp ground mounted mc-Si array in hybrid configuration with 440 kW diesels, 400
kWh battery bank, 125 kVA inverter /charger plus innovative remote monitoring & controls
Objectives: To gain experience with and demonstrate a stand-alone community sized PV based power system.

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: The PV/battery system typically supplies
all daytime load.
Funding: South Australian government, Electricity Trust of SA.
Project management: ETSA Power

Singleton Solar Farm

Date plant start up: 1997-98
Technical and economic data: Grid-connected 400 kWp array of 3,312 a-Si and 3456 mc-Si panels on steel frames at 30º
N tilt. 5 X 50 kW and 36 X 4 kW inverters are used.
Objectives: To gain experience with large grid connected arrays and system components.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned:
Largest central PV power station in Australia.
Produces 500,000 kWh/an, supplies 6,000 PureEnergy customers
Funding: EnergyAustralia, via contributions from PureEnergy customers, SEDA, Singleton Shire Council.
Project management: EnergyAustralia

Homebush Business Park PV Power Station

Date plant start up: 1997
Technical and economic data: 11.2 kWp c-Si array, comprising 140 X 80 Wp panels and a 10 kW inverter.
Funding: EnergyAustralia via its PureEnergy customers.
Project management: EnergyAustralia

Foreshore Park PV Power Station, Newcastle

Date plant start up: 1996
Technical and economic data: 6.5 kWp array on a historic railway shed, comprising 80 X 83 Wp and 16 X 64 Wp mc-Si
modules with a 5 kVA inverter.
Objectives: To demonstrate a grid connected building integrated PV system.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: Very careful design required to fit
heritage listed building requirements.
Funding: EnergyAustralia via its PureEnergy customers.
Project management: EnergyAustralia

National Innovation Centre PV Power Station

Date plant start up: 1996
Technical and economic data: 10 kWp array at Australian Technology Park.
Main accomplishments until the end of 2002/problems and lessons learned: 120 X 83 W mc-Si modules and 10 kVA
inverter.
Funding: EnergyAustralia via its PureEnergy customers.
Project management: EnergyAustralia

60L Green Building, Carlton

Owner: Green Building Partnership
Commissioned: 2002
Configuration: 64 x 0.15kW PV
Total Capacity: 0.01 MW
There is also a website about this building: www.60lgreenbuilding.com

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

A8 Useful websites
Key PV sites
International Energy Agency (IEA) PVPS Program and Task Reports www.iea-pvps.org
IEA Task 7 - PV in the Built Environment www.task7.org
Australian and New Zealand Solar Energy Society (ANZSES) www.anzses.org
International Solar Energy Society (ISES) www.ises.org/
UNSW PV Centre www.pv.unsw.edu.au and www.pv.unsw.edu.au/links/othersites.asp

Search engine for latitudes and longitudes of Australian cities and towns
Charles Sturt University - http://life.csu.edu.au/geo/findlatlong.html

Bureau of Meteorology http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/

Business Council for Sustainable Energy (BCSE) www.bcse.org.au - Australian industry members directory
Other industry players can be found at AGO www.greenhouse.gov.au/renewable/reis/reid/index.html

PV Databases
www.pvdatabase.com
www.demosite.ch

PV System sizing guide

BCSE (2004) PV Grid connect systems (non-UPS) Guidelines No2, September 2004
www.bcse.org.au/docs/Solar%20Accreditation/accreditation%20forms/For%20Accredited%20Installers/GridCon_install_V2.pdf.

Your Home Design Guide and PV www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/technical/fs47_4.htm

Life cycle analysis of PV

Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe www.nrel.gov/cdte/pdfs/cdte_lca_review1.pdf
Life cycle analysis of Amorphous Silicon modules www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/research/pv.pdf
Life cycle costs of PV systems www.sandia.gov/pv/docs/LCcost.htm
Environmental life-cycle assessment of multicrystalline silicon www.chem.uu.nl/nws/www/publica/95057.pdf

BiPV Simulation Tools

PVsyst www.pvsyst.com
PV design Pro-G www.mauisolarsoftware.com
PV*Sol www.valentin.de
Solar Pro www.lapsys.co.jp/pro/pro_english.html

City Guide on PV Potential and Issues

http://pvcityguide.energyprojects.net/

About Solar Power

www.greenhouse.gov.au/renewable/power/grid.html
www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/consumer/cg7b.htm
www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell.htm

Real Projects
www.kogarah.nsw.gov.au/asset/1/upload/Town_Square_Fact_Sheets_ENERGY1.pdf
www.newingtonvillage.com.au/healthy.html#Clean

Solar Power in the Built Environment

www.fbe.unsw.edu.au/research/
www.pvresources.com/en/top25bipv.php

Solar lights
www.solarg.com.au/

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

Australian Standards
www.standards.com.au

Connecting to the Grid

UNSW (2003) Development of a Standard Grid Connection Agreement for Small Grid-Connected Renewable Energy
Systems, January 2003 www.acre.ee.unsw.edu.au/anzses2002/ANZSES_StdConnAgreeUNSW.pdf
http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/documents/SmallGridCnectFinalReport.pdf

US Interstate Renewable Energy Council www.irecusa.org/connect/library.html

US Department of Energy (DOE) Photovoltaics
www.eere.energy.gov/pv/videos/pv3.mov
See how a PV cell works
US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) www.nrel.gov/
US NREL - National Centre for Photovoltaics (NCPV) www.nrel.gov/ncpv/
NCPV virtual library www.nrel.gov/ncpv/libbody.html

Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC)

www.accc.gov.au
Australian government organisation responsible for ensuring compliance with the Trade Practices Act 1974.

National Electricity Code Administrator (NECA)

www.neca.com.au
NECA is a company aimed at promoting the effectiveness, efficiency and equity of the national electricity market.

National Electricity Market Management Company (NEMMCO)

www.nemmco.com.au
The body corporate responsible for the administration and operation of the wholesale National Electricity Market
(NEM) in accordance with the National Electricity Code.

Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BiPV) for Commercial and Institutional Structures: A Sourcebook for Architects
www.nrel.gov/ncpv/pvmenu.cgi?site=ncpv&idx=3&body=infores.html

Solar Buildings, US Department of Energy

www.eren.doe.gov/solarbuildings/integrated.html

The Dawning of Solar Electric Architecture from the National Center for Photovoltaics (US), part of the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Includes reports on projects in different countries
www.nrel.gov/ncpv/documents/worldreport.html

Solar Electric Buildings On-line document with many examples of BiPV buildings
www.nrel.gov/ncpv/documents/seb/

US DOE Million Solar Roofs Project www.eren.doe.gov/millionroofs/

Sustainable by design Cool tools for sustainable building design

www.susdesign.com/

Most Attractive PV Projects in the World www.pvportal.com/stats/nicest/chartn2.html

BiPV (Building Integrated PV) Photo Album Kenji OTANI's Photovoltaics Room
www.etl.go.jp/etl/divisions/~k.otani/data/bipvphoto-e.htm

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 Best Practice Guidelines for Solar Power Building Projects in Australia

A9 Bibliography – Key reference publications

MAIN REFERENCES FROM THE IEA can be downloaded from the following link.
www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/products/index.htm

Duffie, J.A., Beckman, W.A. (1991) Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes; John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore. ISBN 0-471-51056-4

Eiffert, P., and Kiss, G.J. (1999) Building integrated photovoltaics for commercial and institutional structures – A sourcebook
for Architects.

Eiffert, P. (2000) Building integrated photovoltaics for Economic Evaluation, PVPS.

Eiffert, P., Leonard, G. and Thompson, A. (2001). Guidelines for the Economic Analysis of Building Integrated Photovoltaic
Systems. National Renewable Energy Labratories. Golden, CO.

Fthenakis, V.M. (2004) Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production, in Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews 8 (2004) pp303–334 www.nrel.gov/cdte/pdfs/cdte_lca_review1.pdf

Green, M.A. (1992) Solar Cells – operating principles, technology and system applications. Prentice-Hall, New York.

Haeberlin H. and Graf J.D. (1998) Gradual Reduction of PV Generator yield due to pollution, Proceedings of the 2nd
World PV Solar Energy Conference, Vienna, Austria.

Haas, R. (2002). Marketing Strategies for PV Systems, an International Survey. Institute of Energy Economics,
Vienna University of Technology. Vienna, Austria.

Honsberg, C.B. and Bowden, S. (1999) Photovoltaics – devices, systems and applications CD-ROM, UNSW Photovoltaics
Centre Vol.1, Version 1 ISBN 0-7334-0596-7

Lee T., Oppenheim, D. and Williamson, T. (1995) Australian Solar Radiation Data Handbook published by ERDC.

Prasad D.K. and Snow M. (2005) Designing with Solar Power - A sourcebook for building integrated photovoltaics (BiPV).
International Energy Agency (IEA), Images publishing, Melbourne. ISBN 1 86470 717 7

Sick F. and Erge, T. (eds.)(1996) Photovoltaics in Buildings, design handbook for architects and engineers, IEA Task 16 Solar
Heating and Cooling Energy Systems, James and James, Glasgow ISBN 1 873936591

Snow and Prasad (2002) Architectural and Aesthetic experiences for Photovoltaics (PV) in the Built Environment. In
proceedings of PLEA 2002, Toulouse, France, July.

Watt, M.E., et al (1999) Opportunities for the Use of Building Integrated Photovoltaics in NSW, Report to the NSW
Department of Energy, SERDF, PV Special Research Centre, Sydney see – PV Centre website for reports

Watt, M.E. (November 2000). Added Value of PV Systems. Report IEA-PVPS – 09: 2001. International Energy Agency.
University of NSW, Australia.

Wenham, S.R., Green, M.A. and Watt, M.E. (1994) Applied photovoltaics, Prentice-Hall, New York.

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