Agriculture and Food Crops PDF

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Agriculture and Food Crops:
Development, Science, and Society
George G. Khachatourians
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. AGRICULTURE AND EMERGENCE OF FOOD CROPS 2
III. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN INTENSIFIED FOOD CROP PRODUCTION 3
IV. THE ULTIMATE EQUATION: CROP PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION 6
A. World Supply of Grains 7
B. Complexities in Feeding the World 7
V. IMPACT OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS ON FOOD 10
A. Crops and Nutrition 10
B. Crops and Food Security 11
VI. TRANSGENIC PLANTS AND TRADE 11
A. Transgenic Crops: New Trade Rules 12
B. Transgenic Crops: Biodiversity and Germplasms 13
VII. TRANSGENIC CROPS AND THEIR GENOMICS 14
VIII. TWO EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH IN TRANSGENIC CROPS 16
A. Mycopathogens and Mycotoxins 16
B. Ingredients for Food Production or Processing 17
IX. THE TRANSGENIC CROPS: A COMPLEX PARADIGM 17
A. Intellectual Property, Technology Transfer, and Consumers 18
B. The Interface Between Social and Technological Issues 18
C. Issues of Ethics and Safety 20
D. Transgenic Crops, Food Security and Policy 22
X. CONCLUSIONS 23
REFERENCES 24
I. INTRODUCTION
Edible plant products are the major component of our food. During the next 25 years, the food
demand will triple, the world population will increase by at least 40%, and cultivated land area
will increase by perhaps 10%. The connections among land area, agricultural practices, small to
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very large farms, farmers, cropping, plant breeding for production, processing, and adding of
value will become very obvious. Sadly enough, all of these issues will place great demands on
each step of world agricultural productivity. Part of the knowledge needed to enhance productiv-
ity will arise from newer applications of the sciences of biotechnology (and not solely genetic en-
gineering) and informatics to agriculture and food production. The other factor important to agri-
cultural production climate and environmental change, despite much improved weather
forecasting and reporting, will remain immutable and nonchangeable by humans. Political and
economic policy considerations and consumer confidence and acceptance will further be con-
strained by the global epidemic of malnutrition, whether people are underfed or overfed. Progress
against a shrinking timeline should make this period in the life of humanity difficult. These chal-
lenges are indeed the necessary impetus for human ingenuity and inventiveness once again to rise
to the occasion. In this chapter, the above issues are examined from developmental, scientific and
societal perspectives.
II. AGRICULTURE AND EMERGENCE OF FOOD CROPS
Although it is difficult to pinpoint where or how our relationship with food crops and agriculture
began, certainly it has been a long and enduring one. Knowledge and use of plant and animal di-
versity help sustain human life. In terms of abundance, 0.25 to 0.75 million plants constitute the
third largest category in terms of species and diversity after fungi (1.5 million species) and insects
(6 to 10 million species). The most important scene in the evolutionary drama is the manner in
which diverse plants connect the community of organisms and food webs.
The importance of plants relates to photosynthesis and the production of food, fiber, fuel,
and structural material. Humans, through experience and understanding of the earliest edible
plants as food crops, have organized community growth around centers of diverse plants and pro-
ductivity. In Diamond’s (1) survey of the chain of causation in the broadcast of humans, horses,
the earliest technologies of steel, and the development and oceangoing ships were factors de-
pendent on the domestication of plant and animal species. With the development of food crop
productivity additional concerns, such as the need for the storage of surplus food, arose. Collec-
tively these changes transformed nomadic people into an organization of large, dense, sedentary,
and stratified societies. Independently of origins, the domestication of plants and animals oc-
curred between 8500 b.c. and 2500 b.c. (Table 1). The earliest crops and food production spread
both to and from other centers. At this time, the major food crops were obtained from cereals and
Table 1 Domestication of Food Crops
World region Location Date (b.c.)
Eurasia Fertile Crescent 8500

China 7500
England 3500
Native Americas Andes 3000
Argentina 3000
Mesoamerica 3000
Eastern America 2500
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Agriculture and Food Crops: Development, Science, and Society 3
other grasses (wheat, millet, rice, corn, sugarcane); pulses (pea, lentil, chickpea, bean); fiber
plants (flax, hemp, yucca, agave, cotton); and roots and tubers (yams, jicama, potato, sweet po-
tato, taro, Jerusalem artichoke). The relative influence of some other food plants, such as melons,
squash, and bananas, arose in the areas where these plants were adapted and abundant (e.g., the
Fertile Crescent, Mesoamerica, the Andes, and West Africa).
Through changes in the types of society, economy, religion, government, and membership
to the patterns of human settlement, decision making and leadership, modes of conflict settle-
ment, labor, food production, control of lands, and societal acquisition, exchange, and/or organ-
ized theft (kleptocracy) occurred (1). Whereas bands had no need for intensification of food pro-
duction, tribes and chiefdoms moved in this direction. As a result, organized economies and states
have adopted intensive agriculture and food production. Prehistoric agriculture in tropical high-
lands (2), through vegiculture or the cultivation of starchy tubers and rhizomes (root crops) and
seed cultures or selection and propagation of seed-bearing plants in South America, occurred be-
tween 3000 and 6000 b.c. Archaeological and historical records indicate that by 500 b.c. these
choices were leading to change (2), as a result of manipulation of ecosystems or their breakdown.
Technological ascendancy in the New World tropics aided the maize-bean agriculture in the high-
lands, and the root-tree crops in Atlantic sector, all of which were cultivated by the same ancient
people.
Early people’s experience and knowledge of food crop production given, the abundance of
land were at the mercy of serious pest problems and unpredictable and variable water supply. Ir-
rigation and control over the culturing of plants must have been key developments in intensifica-
tion of food production. Some societies became well positioned to lead the new technology of
agriculture and food production. Yet this knowledge even then must have been trailing so far as
its use in the ever-growing human population and its need for foods were concerned. During the
ensuing centuries, the realization that there is an interlocking of population, land use, environ-
ment, and plant-based food products required new understanding. Ultimately, by the early part of
the 20th century, enhanced understanding led to greater inputs of fertilizers, pesticides, capital,
cooperation, and trade. On a global scale we now need a different paradigm and set of relation-
ships to feed the world.
With the geometric doubling of population and marginally arithmetic doubling of food pro-
duction, which was and still is at the mercy of natural disasters, the ideas of Robert Malthus pro-
posed in 1798 remain as controversial as when they first appeared. Malthus’s hypothesis re-
mained an important unanswered question at the bicentennial of Malthus’s paper. Certainly, the
conventional practice of agriculture has not doubled and cannot double the production of plant-
based foods. One major intervening force has been the emergence of new and reemerging infec-
tious diseases, which in the absence of global war have had an equivalent effect in terms of human
suffering and death worldwide. Ironically these epidemic events are reoccurring in spite of ad-
vanced medical technologies and accelerated methods of health care delivery and immunization.
III. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN INTENSIFIED

FOOD CROP PRODUCTION
In part we create the future from our experiences. Human history, through experience, experi-
mentation, knowledge, and wisdom, has aided us in understanding our dependency on plants for
food, fiber, and fuel. The paradigm of obtaining our food from the land and its plants incremen-
tally and possibly deliberately must have expanded over millennia. The dimensions of hunger and
exploration of edible foods must have forced humans to accept their dependence on plants and
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4 Khachatourians
animals instinctively. Over the centuries, people came to know about the need for improved agro-
nomic practices, enhanced food production, and preservation and storage schemes. With genera-
tional experience and records of correlation and causality the mastery of early agrarian society
must have become sophisticated. During the period from 8000 to 2000 b.c. domestication of sev-
eral plants—foxtail, einkorn, emmer, lentil pea, millet, squash, gourds, and others—in parts of the
Old and New Worlds, Middle East, China, Americas, and North Africa was taking place (see
Table 1). Later civilizations with the advanced knowledge of the day and in the development of
scientific experimentation were changing planting and cropping practices. At the same time, sub-
stantial improvements in harvesting from a given area of farmland through better agronomic prac-
tices, improved crops through breeding, and amplification of agricultural production occurred.
Hopper (3) illustrates the events with rice yields in Asian agriculture (Table 2). Whereas an in-
crease from 0.8 to slightly over 2.5 metric tons per hectare of land was accomplished from 600 to
1900 a.d., a yield increase to 6 metric tons per hectare was achieved just 30 years ago. The task
of harvesting an acre in the 1830s took 2400 person-minutes (0–40hrs). This was reduced to 240
person minutes or 4 hours in 1890, and 1 hour in 1925 and further reduced to 10 minutes or 0.17
hour in 1965 (Fig. 1). Advances in harvest technology made these changes possible. With better
understanding of applied microbiology and food science new dimensions in food processing,
preservation, canning, prevention of spoilage, and avoidance of pathogenic microbes and food re-
frigeration had positive impacts on food safety, quality of life, and economic prosperity of na-
tions.
After the 1940s significant developments in other fields of human inquiry made an impact
on the paradigm of agriculture and food production (Fig. 2). Much of the unprecedented increase
in developing countries’ food production was due to chemical input and advances in agricultural
engineering–based technologies. However, these successes were achieved with favorable envi-
ronmental conditions, availability of irrigational water, and economic resources (4). During the
1960s, problems of soil, lack of essential nutrients, buildup of salts, iron or aluminum excess, and
high acidity were critical constraints on food crop production in the developing countries (4).
Disciplinary crossovers of genetics, microbiology, nutritional sciences, and engineering set
the stage for reconsidering the paradigm of agriculture from traditional breeding for food plants.
The strongest impact on agriculture in this area occurred after the discovery of in vitro genetic en-
gineering and the use of transgenic plants. This new revolutionary era of biotechnology was 25
Table 2 Intensification of Production of Rice
Cultivation era Location Year (a.d.) Rice yield (MT/Ha)
Primitive farming NA 600–700 0.8

Irrigated cultivation Laos 900 1.3
Cambodia 970 1.4
India, Philippines, Thailand 1350–1500 1.7–1.9
Burma, North Vietnam, Bangladesh 1560 2.1
Sri Lanka, Pakistan 1685 2.2
South Vietnam 1800 2.5
Technical innovation Indonesia 1910s 2.7
Malaysia 1920s 3.2
China 1940s 3.5
Taiwan 1950s 4.3
Structural reforms Korea 1960s 5.3
Japan 1970s 5.9
Biotechnology Many 1990s NA
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PERSON-MINUTES/ACRE OF CROP
YEAR
Figure 1 Technological developments and innovations in wheat harvest. The rate of harvest (acre of crop
per person per minute) between 1820 to 1963 is shown. Advances in harvest technology are labeled with
each datum. (Data from Dr. L. Katz).
Figure 2 Major technological or developmental changes in agriculture and food production paradigm.
Input products or processes that have contributed to agricultural innovation and increased food production
from an application point are indicated with the beginning of heavy lines. Continuation of use is shown with
arrows and end of practice with diagonal lines for each technology or practice.
years in development before it could demonstrate positive impacts in production agriculture and
new food crops.
Today we are confident that judicious and timely applications of modern genetics to the un-
derstanding of plant science will be an important driver of world agriculture. Given the rise in
population, we must also understand that abundance of food through biological technologies does
not necessarily translate into abundant supply for people. To feed the world population we must
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strive overcome global deficiencies in food transportation and storage in many countries as well
as affordability. Certainly, agricultural biotechnology can provide part of the answer, but global
sociopolitical factors, including ethics of farming, farmers, corporate agribusiness, world trade
organizations and states, and international treaties and enforcement agencies, will also be influ-
ential. Plants can do their share in the production of foods; another variable of the equation is
clearly the role of humans.
IV. THE ULTIMATE EQUATION: CROP PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
The production and consumption of food are locked in a delicate balance. Twenty-eight plants
whose production exceeded 10 million metric tons (MMT) in 1975 (Table 3) made the most sub-
stantial contribution to global food production (5), which by 2000 had increased notably. Today
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) data indicates over 135 plants are major food crops. In
2000 45 food crops produced more than 10 MMT, 11 more than 100 MMT, and five more than
Table 3 Production of Food Crops with Over 10 mmt 1975a
Crop Product MMT Rank
Apple 31.1 18
Banana 31.6 16
Barley 135.4 9
Beans (broad + dry + green) 26.5 21
Cabbage 31.4 17
Cassava 110.3 10
Coconut 30.7 19
Grape 58.4 13
Maize 341.6 4
Millet 27.4 20
Oats 25.9 22
Onion (dry + green + shallots) 18.7 26
Orange 32.5 15
Peanut 20.0 25
Peas (dry + green) 13.1 27
Potato 270.3 5
Rice 356.9 2
Rye 24.1 23
Sorghum 61.9 12
Soybean 64.2 11
Sugar beet 251.3 6
Sugarcane 655.6 1
Sunflower seed 9.8 28
Sweet potato 141.6 8
Tomato 47.0 14
Watermelon 23.6 24
Wheat 355.8 3
Yam 214.6 7
a
MMT, million metric tons.
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
http://www.fao.org/.
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500 MMT (Table 4). By rank, sugarcane, wheat, rice, maize, and potato have been the top five
crops, with production of over 300 and 500 MMT in 1975 and 2000 respectively. Production and
demand Food and Agriculture organization (FAO) data ever increasing population made these
changes possible. More significantly, overall demand for both varieties and volume of many food
crop products, tubers, fruits, vegetables, and seeds has increased during the past 1975 years. In a
significant manner breeding of agronomic, quality, and yield value through conventional genet-
ics has been part of the success story of agriculture. Modern genetics and construction of trans-
genic traits, as shown in this book, are the trends for building production capacity in the next 25
years.
Plant-based food production is also advancing more rapidly than in past decades. We have
significant new understandings of the processes involved in production and postproduction agri-
culture. We have the traditional and biotechnological means for combating pathogenic microor-
ganisms and their toxic metabolites. We have also learned to add value after production agricul-
ture to foods and new products by microorganisms (6). These trends by all criteria will continue
because of human ingenuity and should help to maintain an equilibrium of food production and
consumption (7).
A. World Supply of Grains

Historically applications of agronomic practices and free availability of plants for food produc-
tion have been exploited by society. Many countries rely on importation of food grains, fruits, and
vegetables. However, many nations have shortfalls of food crops that are aggravated by unpre-
dictable global climate change. The world production of grains per person has remained at about
300 to 340 kg since the 1970 yr. To explain the world supply of grains, Borlaug (8) is said to have
said, “Picture the whole world’s grain harvest as a highway—circling the earth at the equator. In
1971 it would have been 55 feet wide, six feet deep and 25,000 miles long. That was the greatest
harvest in history. And we ate up all of it the following year. With the world population increas-
ing each year, we have to do more than maintain the highway of grain. We have to add 625 miles
each year.”
However, this picture has changed. Of the three—wheat, rice, and corn—the world wheat
carryover stock was at 78 days in 1999. This is the third lowest supply on record since the Green
Revolution in terms of the food security threshold of 70 days. The supply of rice stocks was down
to 42 days of consumption; consumption had been on the rise for 26 consecutive years since 1973
(9). Climate change and population increase are changing food security. If we add the role of
water in irrigation, sustainability of production, and its scarcity, the outlook deteriorates dramat-
ically with the future forecast pointing at worsening of events. A total of 1000 tons of water is re-
quired to produce 1 ton of grain. Aquifer depletion or contamination is an ignored but real threat
to food grain production.
B. Complexities in Feeding the World

Foods in the developed countries greatly depend on an animal-based protein economy, which has
five sources—beef, pork, poultry, fish, and soybeans. Improved economic conditions in China
and India have created greater demand for better and more varied food products, including meats.
Although some ethnic food groups satisfy part of the need, whether by agriculture or ocean fish-
eries, increases in production have limits and efficiency can have only a small deciding role. With
annual growth rates of 11.6% for aquaculture and 1.3% in oceanic fish catch and 5.2%, 3.4 yr and
0.3% for poultry, pork, and beef, the demand on plant-based feed products is putting added con-
straints on foods (9); already 35% of world grain is used as livestock feed. Finally, grain harvest
area has largely remained unchanged since the 1960s. To translate these figures, the decline in
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8 Khachatourians
Table 4 Production of Food Crops with Over 1.2 mt in 2000a
Rank MT Crop product
1 1,281,767,380 Sugarcane
2 597,154,664 Rice, paddy
3 589,355,356 Maize
4 580,014,595 Wheat
5 308,216,588 Potato
6 249,888,712 Sugar beet
7 171,517,343 Cassava
8 161,042,126 Soybean
9 141,069,941 Sweet potato
10 132,896,783 Barley
11 100,761,543 Tomato
12 97,761,398 Oil palm fruit
13 66,054,079 Orange
14 63,185,776 Watermelon
15 62,312,769 Grape
16 59,963,060 Apple
17 58,764,543 Sorghum
18 58,687,214 Banana
19 52,351,974 Cabbage
20 50,777,191 Cottonseed
21 48,374,677 Coconut
22 47,781,146 Dry onions
23 40,242,599 Rapeseed
24 37,772,511 Yam
25 34,522,077 Groundnut in shell
26 30,583,162 Plantain
27 29,963,141 Cucumber and gherkin
28 27,491,475 Millet
29 27,482,145 Sunflower seed
30 25,994,503 Oat
31 21,987,062 Eggplant
32 19,971,448 Rye
33 19,558,989 Carrot
34 19,468,796 Cantaloupe and other melon
35 18,825,653 Dry beans
36 18,636,610 Tangerines
37 18,614,569 Pepper-chili and green
38 16,926,929 Lettuce
39 16,626,473 Pear
40 15,415,747 Pumpkin, squash and gourd
41 14,240,402 Cauliflower
42 13,741,161 Olive
43 13,456,924 Peach and nectarine
44 13,455,362 Pineapple
45 10,928,256 Dry pea
46 9,974,584 Garlic
47 9,972,298 Lemon and lime
48 9,319,616 Triticale
49 8,821,530 Taro (coco yam)
50 8,801,590 Chickpea
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Table 4 (Continued)
Rank MT Crop product
51 8,222,955 Plum
52 7,755,161 Spinach
53 7,058,028 Coffee, green
54 7,001,343 Green pea
55 5,363,167 Papaya
56 5,312,000 Vanilla
57 5,237,941 Date
58 5,088,450 Grapefruit and pomelo
59 4,963,959 Cauliflower
60 4,571,955 Green bean
61 4,167,960 Asparagus
62 4,109,099 Dry onion, shallot and green
63 3,874,099 Okra
64 3,303,590 Dry cowpea
65 3,222,329 Pigeon pea
66 3,183,427 Dry broad bean
67 3,172,531 Lentil
68 3,117,405 Cocoa bean
69 3,110,186 Strawberry
70 2,880,122 Tea
71 2,742,100 Apricot
72 2,383,710 Mushroom
73 2,336,765 Avocado
74 2,143,942 Persimmon
75 1,934,071 Pimento
76 1,769,197 Cherry
77 1,452,465 Almond
78 1,289,997 Artichoke
79 1,201,558 Cashew nut
a
MT, metric tons.
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
http://www.fao.org/.
grain area harvested per person (0.12 hectare for the period 1992–1999) represents half of the
level of 1950 (9). With shrinkage in the amount of arable land, which at this time comprises only
about 3% of the Earth’s surface, and deterioration of topsoil quality and quantity there will be fur-
ther decreases in the global per capita arable land from the current 0.26 hectare to half that in just
50 years (10). Excluded in any future calculation are the roles of drought, pollution, soil erosion,
floods, insect attacks, warming trends, and lack of irrigation water (11). Separately the outcomes
of these predictors are well known; however, when they are combined, the particular synergisms
and antagonisms that the elements create are not. As indicated in State of the World 2000 (12),
human pressure on Earth’s natural systems has reached a point at which it is more and more likely
to engender unanticipated problems. Further, without new and comprehensive principles, we
fathom neither the complexity of nature nor its homeostasis. The contributions of new research in
agricultural biotechnology, creation of new cooperatives, and implementation of sustainable agri-
culture should be a strong consideration. New solutions are urgently needed, as nature gives away
nothing for free and has no reset button.
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V. IMPACT OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS ON FOOD
The options provided by genitically modified (GM) and transgenic (TG) plants, the latter involv-
ing the incorporation of genes from other species than the specie in question, therefore, trans, by
genetic techniques and food biotechnology can have a significant impact on human nutrition.
Augmentation of foods to yield nutritionally balanced and adequate micronutrient content is
being achieved through innovation in food science and technology. With the advances in biotech-
nology and genetic engineering, value can be added to foods by physiological, biochemical, and
genetic techniques. The goal of nourishing the world’s people, 1.2 billion of them unfed, 2 billion
having an unbalanced diet, and 1.2 billion overfed, has faced calamities. Norman Borlaug devoted
his life to the oldest struggle of human life, the battle to grow food and avoid starvation (8). What
Borlaug created came to be known as the Green Revolution, which provided a means for meeting
the demand for food production for the next few decades. The battle, however, was far from over.
Although Borlaug’s work was recognized by the Nobel Peace Prize, certainly an exceptional
honor for an agronomist, it did not nullify the Malthusian theory. Deficiencies in daily food are
the major challenge in agriculture and food production. Shortage of the essential daily required
proteins and oils and the search for life-sustaining vitamins and minerals, whether associated with
hunger and malnutrition in the developing countries or overconsumption of food and excessive
calories in the developed world, do not have simple cause-effect relationships. Although the con-
ventional wisdom that income growth results in improved health held true for a time, recent stud-
ies on health-led development show that the converse also holds true (13). Indeed, economic
analysis indicates that health status, as measured by life expectancy, is a significant predictor of
subsequent economic growth (13,14). In this regard, the nature of food crops from the nutrition
and health perspectives becomes especially important. Although much of plant-based food con-
tains an adequate supply of minerals, trace elements, vitamins, and phytochemicals, inadequacies
can be met through fortification or transgenic techniques (see chapter 14). Countries with health-
led development, that is, healthier and nutritious foods, safe water, and good quality health ser-
vices, tend to generate better economic growth and wealth.
A. Crops and Nutrition

The well-known facts on population growth and economics are that 800 million people are mal-
nourished today, most of them in Africa. About 1.3 billion people live on less than U.S. $1 per
day and another 3 billion on less than U.S. $2 per day. In addition to these figures, 1.3 billion peo-
ple do not have access to clean water and 2 billion live without any sanitation. These are all con-
cerns for several countries, the World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Bank. Other
global themes of urgent consideration are meeting basic human needs: the ever-increasing global
demand for food, energy, and sustainable development (15). In conjunction with the rapid rate of
climate change, temporal patterns of precipitation, and high temperatures have effects on agri-
cultural systems and the quantity and quality of food plants. Some of these changes have pro-
found effects on the emergence and spread of past and new infectious diseases: malaria, cholera,
dysentery, and so on (15,16). If changes due to climate continue, then crop yields, quality, and
storage and delivery of foods will be severely affected. Serious concerns are raised by yield fore-
casts of a 30% decrease in overall agricultural productivity doubling in production of carbon
dioxide (15). Any further increase in the temperature of the tropics and subtropics, especially in
arid or semiarid areas, where some food crops are at their maximal temperature tolerance, should
aggravate food production.
Some of the richer countries in the Middle East and Africa are equally vulnerable to the el-
ements of nature. The dependency of these areas on water for irrigation and drinking is extremely
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high. There are 19 countries in these regions that have national water scarcity. Conservation and
sharing of water as a limited resource will be harder if water continues to have its value as a pub-
lic rather than an economic good. Should water be looked at as an economic good, other ethical
issues will emerge. It is paradoxical that 90% of the composition of many crops and fruits is
water, yet dependence on water cannot be included in the food equation. In the view of the World
Bank, the scientific efforts directed to this end should also help in plant and animal-based food
production and its sustainability. Biotechnology and particularly TG drought-tolerant crops have
been touted as an important aid in this regard, but their outcomes are still unsettled. It remains to
be seen whether scientific innovations and R&D will have an impact on water, particularly in
places where it could make a difference.
B. Crops and Food Security

In spite of the positive prospects for feeding the hungry world through new agriculture, there is
no assurance of success. Of some 250,000 to 500,000 plant species, only 7000 can be cultivated
and possibly 2000 to 5000 are edible and nontoxic to humans. Of these the 99% top food crops
for which FAO keeps production statistics (Tables 3 and 4) constitute only a small proportion of
the much greater diversity of plants of which current agricultural production cannot make effec-
tive use. The European Union and 174 national governments are signatories to the 1992 Conven-
tion on Biological Diversity (CBD) treaty. A group of scientists generated the information on the
State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and an accompanying plan
of action for conservation and sustainable utilization of it. Today what are at stake are over 3 mil-
lion crop accessions held in germplasm collections throughout the world (17,18). Plant genetic
resources are tremendously valuable, in terms of market opportunity, some U.S.$500 to U.S.$800
billion worth of market products is derived from these plant resources (19). Global crop
germplasm storage capacity will require a significan development fund (U.S. $130 to U.S. $304
million). Opportunities that are being eroded and lost are novel foods, phytonutrients, and other
medicinal products that can be built into TG food crops for socioeconomic returns (20).
However, there is a disconnect in the new paradigm of food production through biotech-
nology even with the great power of one of its ingredient technologies, genetic engineering. Since
the late 1980s low-input sustainable agriculture (LISA), in spite of wide advocacy has fallen short
of major subscription. Management of low-input farming would require high levels of integration
of multidisciplinary knowledge. This in turn would depend on the education of farmers in natu-
ral and engineering sciences and the social, economic, and political sciences. Individuals or
groups of traditional and new cooperative farmers must have the crosscutting knowledge base for
keeping their agriculture and income sustainable. Three clusters of technology—information,
precision farming, and biotechnology—will promote sustainability of agriculture. The addition
of specific features to food crops provides the opportunity for an important social experiment in
the agriculture and food production continuum. In order for LISA and other community-sup-
ported agriculture to work, institutional innovation and reform are urgently needed (21,22). Pre-
sumably, we will see whether our generation’s stewardship of the land will be characterized by
the phrase, “We did not just inherit the land from our grandparents, but are borrowing from our
next generation.”
VI. TRANSGENIC PLANTS AND TRADE
Food production, population growth, and the environment are interconnected so far as humanity’s
success in feeding itself is concerned (23). Economic and ecological operating systems are
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12 Khachatourians
linked. They will determine the proportion of people whose access to nutritional requirements is
secure and whose global food production is sustainable. The link between economic and ecolog-
ical operations works primarily at the local level, but at a higher level, policy and intervention are
the regulators of the link (23). Changes in trade policies as enacted throughout the globe have an
impact on the linkage and trends for TG food crop development, production, and trade.
The period since the 1970s has seen a remarkable reversal of positions between the devel-
oped and developing countries in world trade negotiations. In the 1970s, the developed countries
started extending, reintroducing, and inventing nontariff barriers to trade, which since the 1950s
had been recognized as contrary to the principles of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT). In agriculture it was accepted that this was an undesirable relic, perhaps needed until a
sector or population could fully adapt to international trade. In the 1980s, the reversal went fur-
ther, with the European Community (EC) and the United States. In contrast, in the 1970s and
1980s developing countries were recognizing that import substitution, usually behind tariff and
nontariff barriers, was neither the only nor a sufficient path to opening their economies to imports
and emphasizing exports. At the same time, the newly industrialized countries (NICs) gave ex-
amples of an alternative road, which by the early 1990s led to participation in multilateral nego-
tiations. As remarked by Page (24), the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations attracted much at-
tention in the developing countries by promising to weaken moves toward bilateral trade
agreements and to break open trade in temperate agricultural products. As such these actions
should remove the last vestiges of protection against tropical products under awkward but esca-
lating tariffs. Overall, the main gains for the developing world will probably accrue to exporters
of temperate products, above all those in Latin America that have captured the resources, strate-
gies, and technological advantages (25). For some of the poorer developing countries, losses
occur as shortage of technologically trained human resources, weak research infrastructure, and
lack of appreciation of local resources for plant productivity erode their access to markets.
A. Transgenic Crops: New Trade Rules

Current and evolving agricultural trade policy has widened to include the necessity to protect pub-
lic health through monitoring the movements of pests, pathogens, and contaminants associated
with plants and plant-based commodities. There is a greater understanding of origins of material
or agents that threaten public health across international borders. In part this is associated with
lack of specific sanitary measures for food crops. Internationally, these threats impede the free
movement of goods. The World Trade Organization (WTO) at a meeting in 1994 adopted the
Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures (26). This and the Food and Agricul-
ture Organization’s International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) agreement have placed an
increased emphasis on science-based phytosanitary regulations. As Roberts (26) points out, the
SPS measures and process create a set of multilateral trade rules for their legitimate use for the
protection of environment and human health while disallowing its use for mercantilist regulatory
protectionism.
A major issue in SPS is the effect of animal and plant pathogenic fungi on cut flowers, hor-
ticultural and food crop plants, and edible crop products in a host of diseases and mycotoxicoses.
Foodstuff contamination can occur in the field before and after crop harvest, in storage, and dur-
ing food preparation. Since the discovery of aflatoxins in the early 1960s, trichothecenes (de-
oxynivalenol and T-2 toxin) in 1970’s, ochratoxins in 1980, and fuminosins in the 1990s, it has
been estimated that one-quarter of the world’s foods and feeds are contaminated annually. My-
cotoxins’ adverse health effects include cancer (aflatoxins, ochratoxins, strigmatocystin, fumi-
nosins), mutations, teratogenicity or induced birth defects, immunosuppression, dermotoxicity,
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neurotoxicity, and changes in estrogenic activities. Target plants widely susceptible to mycotox-
ins that produce fungi are maize, peanuts, oil seeds, nuts (almond, brazil, hazel, pecans, pistachio,
walnut), and fruit-producing plant spices.
Until TG plants resistant to attack by mycotoxin-producing fungi are developed, we have to
rely on SPS measures. What is clear is that as we move through the 21st century, the prospects for
grain storage, transportation, and processing will change as a result of the same forces that have
an impact on all other facets of the economy (27). In addition to government regulation, in the pub-
lic and private sectors social, environmental, and economic changes must occur. The subscription
and implementation of SPS measures will be responsibilities for everyone. Applied mycology and
biotechnology approaches can ensure that many aspects of agriculture-based commodities are free
of mycotoxins, mold allergens, and other problems of quality loss during storage.
Many vegetables, fruits, and seeds lose their nutritive and other qualitative values through
loss of moisture, infection with spoilage microorganisms, and senescence. This wastage occurs
during transport, handling, and redistribution. Loss of shelf life alone, e.g., due to lack of refrig-
eration, is a major contributor to limited market expansion of foods. Saprophytic and pathogenic
fungi are major determinants of fruit and vegetable freshness and safety. Application of antifun-
gal peptides and antimicrobial peptides (28,29) could significantly change this situation. For ex-
ample, gene regulators that will cause expression of plant protectants at the desired time, control
of growth and development of plants of ethnobotanical importance, and alteration of the compo-
sition of the harvested product will provide major opportunities in fungal biotechnology for ap-
plication in trade.
B. Transgenic Crops: Biodiversity and Germplasms

Intensification of agriculture in itself has had a serious negative effect on biodiversity since the
1970s. In part this has manifested itself in terms of control or loss of weeds, insects, and other an-
imal and plant species due to use of herbicides and insecticides. Monoculture of plants with cer-
tain agronomic values and indiscriminate use of pesticides along with the TGs raise concerns
about further erosion of biodiversity. Additional criticism relates to the monopolistic practices
permitted through intellectual property rights (IPRs) and protection by patents (7, also see Chap-
ter 18).
Since the 1980s, globalization of the world economy has had an effect on the use of patents,
namely, special rewards and benefits for the intellectual property rights of owners and licensees.
It is argued that in the context of agriculture and food use of patents further exacerbates its com-
modification. It is in this context that IPRs and biodiversity, community, indigenous people, com-
pensation, and other issues collide (7, 30, 31–32 and chapter 21).
Transgenic food crops provoke two topics of debate—knowledge and food—that give a
new shape to intellectual property legislation. The reaffirmation of state sovereignty over genetic
resources (Convention on Biological Diversity and FAO) calls for the protection of plant varieties
by either patents, effective sui generis systems, or a combination thereof (GATT agreement on
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 1994). Modifications of plant breeders’
rights extend rights on protected materials (International Convention for the Protection of New
Varieties of Plants [UPOV] Amendment 1991). These treaties signal a shift in the aim of property
protection systems, particularly for plant genetic resources. Key social objectives of intellectual
property legislation are promoting and rewarding innovation while ensuring access of the public
to useful information. Increasingly, however, greater emphasis is being placed on intellectual
property as a tool to secure the exclusivity of information and to maximize the rights of innova-
tors to profits (7,30).
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14 Khachatourians
The drive to monopolize benefits from the research and development of new products has
led to vast increases in the number of patent applications and the increasing employment of in-
tellectual property systems by outside users of indigenous resources. Faced with this situation, in-
digenous and local communities experience growing pressure to develop their own legal protec-
tion systems (31). The protection of plants and genetic resources is needed for food security. At
the same time the recognition of the rights of people, indigenous or otherwise, is also needed. If
these issues are not resolved, the entire area of TG food plants and ownership, production, and
distribution of improved seed, especially in the developing world, will be a problem. As well, in
many African countries the future of agriculture and food production depends on intensified land
use rather than cropping area to solve major local or poor rural population’s problems (32). In
such an event, countries such as Egypt, Kenya, and Zimbabwe, where seed production industries
are developed, and other countries, where they are being developed (Malawi and Zambia) or
progress has been very limited in spite of investment (Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Tanzania, and
Uganda) will benefit from genetic engineered food crops and biotechnological agriculture ac-
cordingly. The main outcome of course will be a continuation of disparity in Africa and similar
other parts of the world. Iwu (30) calls for establishment of meaningful and just collaborations,
cooperation, and functional partnerships as a paralegal requirement if these issues are to be re-
solved and implemented. The developing world has a great deal of advantage in TG food crops
and food development that is not recognized by the developed world. As indicated in Table 5, for
the developing countries, plant diversity and genetic resources are only two aspects of the many
advantages and opportunities in the utilization of TG food production.
VII. TRANSGENIC CROPS AND THEIR GENOMICS
The history of plant sciences and most importantly of plant genetics stands on the shoulders of
giants. The discovery of plant genetics, from Gregory Mendel, to Barbara McClintock, to the cur-
rent generation of molecular geneticists, has paved the road for a much easier entry into theoret-
Table 5 Advantages of the Developing Countries for Use of Transgenic Cropsa

Item Advantage Organizations and year commenced
Plant diversity Native plants IARC

Germplasms Existing seed/gene banks IBPGR, 1973
Infrastructure IARC research institutes IRRI, 1960; IITA, 1965; CIAT, 1968,
fermentation facilities CIP, 1972; ICRISAT, 1972;
ICARDA, 1976
Human resources Trained collaborators IRRI, 1960; IITA, 1965; CIAT, 1968,
Highly productive workers CIP, 1972; CRISAT, 1972; ICARDA,
Low labor costs 1976; local centers/institutions
Collaborations International and cross-cultural Many
Knowledge base Fermented foods/beverages National level
Production agriculture Established in many areas Local and regional levels
a
IARC, International Agricultural Research Center; IBPGR, International Board for Plant Genetic Resources; CGIAR,
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research; IRRI, International Rice Research Institute; IITA, Interna-
tional Institute of Tropical Agriculture; CIAT, Centro International de Agricultura Tropical; CIP, International Potato
Center; ICRISAT International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics; ICARDA, International Center for
Agricultural Research in Dry Areas.
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ical, quantitative, and applied genetics of many food plants, most notably maize. Few scientists
have had the impact on our understanding of genetic process like Barbara McClintock, who dis-
covered the transposable elements in the maize. Today we have a better comprehension of these
elements and the occurrence of retrotransposons, which make up huge intergenic segments of de-
oxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in maize, rice, and sorghum. Although the retrotransposon insertion
into chromosomes and the long terminal repeats were evolved within the past 5 million years, the
idea that these transposable elements in maize have undergone massive amplification has also
been supported (33).
Whether under natural environmental selection or the plant breeder’s activity, understand-
ing of the even simplest trait and its alleles determining its location and its inheritance has been
difficult. Through molecular markers and electrophoretic analysis of whole chromosomes, such
as pulsed-field gel electophoresis (PFGE), contour clamped homogeneous electric field (CHEF),
chromosome length polymorphism (CLP), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RELP),
and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), we are able to map and dissect the control
of complex plant traits into its elements (see Chapter 2). Further, the availability of Arabidopsis
spp. for dicot and rice for monocot plant models combined with their genome sequence data is
making it easier to study others.
Introduced genes must be expressed at the appropriate time to be effective (34). Under-
standing of the regulation of gene expression is critical. Recent work has identified genetic ele-
ments involved in regulation of plant gene expression. Beyond the curiosity of dissection, we are
beginning to have the genetic and mechanistic details of how epigenetic factors interact with and
control plant development (see Chapter 7). In addition, studies of plant embryogenesis (see Chap-
ter 3), development (35–37), photosynthesis (38), pollination (see also Chapter 39, 40), and cell
culture (see also Chapter 4), and regeneration of plant tissues, indicate that we can dissect and
manipulate those genetic processes that control root proliferation and interaction with microor-
ganisms (42), plant height, leaf size, numbers, flower timing, color, size and shape (43); plant de-
fenses against microbial and insect pests and pathogens, (29, 44–48 and Chapter 17); environ-
mental stress (49,50); size and shape of seeds and seed contents (51); metabolic pathways and
engineering of such pathways; and organelles within the cell. Certainly a substantial number of
achievements have occurred in the past 50 years, a testimony to science in its efforts to further-
ing the frontiers to new limits.
The evolutionary trend in genetic research has moved from genes to genomics, the science
of studying the genome of organisms. Plants have broad classes of dispensable metabolic path-
ways involved in catabolism of low-molecular-mass nutrients and natural product synthesis.
These gene clusters can have as many as two dozen genes and occupy 60kb of DNA to contribute
to survival from fungal infections and ecological stress through other features (52). Best studied
in this context are the shared clusters of genes in Arabidopsis sp. and various Brassica sp. plants
(36,60). What began with the height reduction genetics of rice, which significantly aided the
Green Revolution, can now be done with many plants. However, in the era of TG plants and
biotechnology the rules of the road differ from those of the open access to improved varieties dur-
ing the Green Revolution (53).
There are three major elements of genomics: structure, evolution, and functionality. Today
the genomes of Arabidopsis thaliana, barley, corn, cotton, foxtail millet, legumes, maize, oats,
pearl millet, rice, sorghum, sugarcane, tomato, triticale, and wheat are being sequenced (54,55).
The information on plants’ genomics is accumulating and can be updated from various institu-
tions. Further, genomics has direct and substantial economic ties with many industries.
Research in the area of functional genomics include, molecular and structural biology, bioin-
formatics, combinatorial chemistry, proteomics, high-throughput technologies, model plants,
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16 Khachatourians
transgenics and differential gene expression (56,57 and Chapter 2, 5, 7 and 16). Both researchers
and companies are using functional genomics to determine gene function and transfer of genetic
information to particular dimensions of products and processes.
The technology push from the other microbial and animal genome projects has had an im-
pact on the development of a generic technology for genetic analysis (57,58). New generations of
analytical instruments and systems that speed up gene sequencing and biochip technology allow
100 to 200 analysis to be performed in a day whereas in the early 1990s only 1 to 5 such analy-
ses could have been performed by using conventional technology. Single-nucleotide polymor-
phism (SNP), which is a mutation due to a single base pair, can be detected in amplicons ranging
from 70 to 700 base pairs in size. Such measurements are possible with better than 90% sensitiv-
ity by, e.g., Varian Inc. (Palo Alto, CA) advance technologies. Biochip technologies, such as those
of Gene Logic (Gaithersburg, MD), have developed a porous glass chip with 1 million mi-
crochannels of 10-micrometer size running in three-dimensions to analyze complementary ri-
bonucleic acid (cRNA) or cDNA and immunoassays.
VIII. TWO EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH IN TRANSGENIC CROPS

A. Mycopathogens and Mycotoxins
Historical records on consequences of drought, pests, and shortcomings in food crops are nu-
merous. As shown in Table 6, since the 1600s, several records indicate the negative social impact
of food crop microbial pathogens in reducing or seriously threatening the availability and safety
of food. It is estimated that over 400 fungi can be considered potentially toxigenic of which about
20 are confirmed producers of mycotoxins (59,62). Food crops and their products and feedstuff
contaminated with single or multiple toxigenic fungi are well known today.
Human and animal exposure to these fungal metabolites results in well-known toxopatho-
logical manifestations and death. Compared to singular toxins, in the environment there are mul-
tiple and often structurally different mycotoxins, which at subthreshold levels by their interac-
tions with multiple sites and targets often produce devastating synergistic effects on living cells
and whole animals (60,66). Because of the polygenic nature of some of these plant-fungus inter-
actions, the rational choice is genetic engineering of mycotoxin resistance in food crop plants
(63,64). So far, however, breeding of corn and cereal grain plants for resistance has been at-
tempted but remained unsuccessful. This is possibly due to multiple modes of action and poly-
genic nature of resistance (24–26). Perhaps with the isolation of target specific genes a better and
fuller resistance could be achieved.
Table 6 History of Major Plant Diseases Since 1600 a.d.
Year(s) Location Food plant Disease Social impact
1840–1846 Ireland Potato Blight Famine

1851 Europe Vineyards Powdery mildew Reduced wine production
1878 Europe Vineyards Downy mildew Reduced wine production
1870s Ceylon Coffee Rust Beginning of coffee cultivation in
South America
1904 United States Chestnut Fungal blight Near eradication of U.S. chestnuts
1958 Central America Banana Microbial Economic losses
1600–1816 Europe Rye Ergot Poisoning and death of populations
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The plant-based food threat to public health in this regard arise, from the fungal alkaloids
the lead to ergotism. The fungus Claviceps purpurea is prevalent in the cool climates where rye
is grown, and Clavicepes africana in the last few years has spread through sorghum from Brazil
to the United States, Australia, and Africa (65). Sorghum is the fifth most important cereal crop
in the world. It would be desirable to engineer Claviceps resistant sorghum.
A 1999 publication (66) draws to our attention a large number of plant pathogenic and tox-
igenic Fusarium species that were isolated from human blood; autopsies or biopsies of organs,
cerebrospinal, bronachioalveolar lavage, and peritoneal fluid, and wounds of patients in Japan.
Further, all 18 of the Fusarium solani specimens from this collection were cyclosporin A (an im-
munosuppressant) producers. Vigilance in management of fungal spread among edible plant
products and environments is needed. At the same time plant breeding and genetic engineering
options for combating these threats to public health are urgently needed. Implementation of pres-
ent-day knowledge in the production, formulation, and application of mycoinsecticides and my-
coherbicides will be necessary (29,67).
B. Ingredients for Food Production or Processing

Research and development work on food products and processes is less advanced than that in the
plant and animal area. For the most part, research to decrease process costs is just beginning. Un-
doubtedly, biotechnology will allow improvement in important consumer and health-associated
aspects of food (14). These may include longer shelf life, improved appearance, improved flavor,
and increased perceived healthfulness of the food. “Light beer” is an example of the few com-
pleted products or processes in the food and beverage industries. New technology development
in fermentation can be through genetics or epigenetics; either of these is valid and powerful in its
contribution to the agrifood industries. In the production of certain foods, food additives, phyto-
chemicals, nutraceuticals, and ingredients, another facet of biotechnology, fermentation technol-
ogy, enters the picture.
IX. THE TRANSGENIC CROPS: A COMPLEX PARADIGM
The new research in agriculture and food has become even more complex than the previous par-
adigm, in which food production was reasonably in par with its consumption, most likely for re-
gional and national needs and then some exports. Today the challenges to agriculture and food
production are many: to name a few, production-versus value-added agriculture and food, envi-
ronmental constraints, ecological expectations, distortions from national to transnational and in-
ternational policymakers, disparity of poor versus wealthy nations, unpredictable weather pat-
terns, large corporate bodies ownership of intensive livestock operations, and vertical integration
of the food production chain. The new technologies have created multiple shifts in the agricul-
tural and food research and development paradigms. As shown in Fig. 3, four levels of complex
social factors lead this phenomenon: multidisciplinary, multidimensional (spatial, temporal,
scale, quantitative, and qualitative aspects), multisectoral, and multiperspective. Furthermore, the
promise of genetic engineering of plants and the associated intellectual property rights and own-
ership of patented seeds, genes, and input products have precipitated unprecedented societal re-
action. Current uneasiness about potential pitfalls, concern about ethics of science, and other
questions indicate unusual global public reaction. These issues have been subject of many books,
forums, and protests. From my perspective, there are four immediate issues that face the trans-
genic crops that will be addressed here.
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18 Khachatourians
Complex
social
challenge
Figure 3 Relationship between transgenic crops as food and multiple levels of scientific and social issues.
Multiple inputs (left) converge on all contextual aspects of transgenic crops as food (box at right). Individ-
ually and collectively these outcomes provide a complex social challenge.
A. Intellectual Property, Technology Transfer, and Consumers

The new inputs derived from biotechnology, especially those from the private sector, are finding
wide utility in agriculture. This is made evident by the number of products reaching fields and
markets in industrialized countries and the amount of ongoing cross-licensing of biotechnology
products by commercial agricultural research organizations. Most of these inputs are protected
through some form of IPR (7 and Chapter 18). However, it is not only the commercial sector that
is using and developing materials for which intellectual property protection is being sought (68).
The development and use of protected materials are also occurring among public, national, and
international agricultural research organizations working for and with developing countries.
B. The Interface Between Social and Technological Issues

As with other technologies the social and ethical issues of genetically modified crops have been
the subject of journalistic, academic, and scholarly debate and writing. The context for risk and
benefit assessment is well established and indeed the subject of many universities degree pro-
grams. Fig. 4 depicts the elements, tool kit,and operational requirements for a general risk/bene-
fit assessment and decision making. The issues are many, the Nuffield Council on Bioethics Con-
sultation (69) considers (1) that genetically modified (GM) crops can greatly contribute to human
well-being; (2) that there are human health, environmental safety, and proprietary concerns; (3)
that with a proper regulatory system, benefits are likely to outweigh concerns; (4) that there
should be complete transparency as to the presence of GM foods in the human food chain; (5) that
it is not unethical to favor some crop genes, but there are, for some, ethical concerns as to the size
of the species gap across which genes are transferred; and (6) that continued GM research is re-
quired to maximize benefit and minimize risk.
Spires (70) presents in some detail the interface of technology and society, in particular the
examination of animal and plant cell biotechnology. Historically, the components of the technol-
ogy-society interface have been the societal needs for new products, services, or product oppor-
tunities to drive the universities, government research establishments (GREs), and industry re-
search establishments (IREs) to generate new and beneficial goods, services, or technology. This
is transferred to end users directly, as in the case of information or knowledge (say, through ex-
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Figure 4 A generalized model for risk-benefit assessment in transgenic crops. The elements of the tool
kit (left) needed for risk- and benefit-assessment and processes required in risk determination, risk estima-
tion and risk evaluation (right) lead to the process of decision making.
tension division or public domain materials). Alternately, through transfer of the technology or
prototype industry, R&D generate agricultural technologies and agrifood products for consump-
tion. Social acceptance or “buying in” demonstrates itself at the cash register, to begin with, and
through “Darwinian selection” for the long-term survival and success in the marketplace. In most
classic technologies the new goods must be socially beneficial and market-adaptable. In the case
of plant biotechnology and more specifically TG plants, newer constraints of ethics and medicine
feed into social acceptability both before and after the maturation of research and development
for a new technology or product.
To respond to all players, governments intervene at the regulatory level through national and
international agencies. Spire (70) argues that there is a continual thrusting up of new issues and
opportunities to improve the “human condition” that, in turn, leads to the requirement to review
the way we behave. This is particularly acute when we survey the way in which the products of an-
imal and plant cell technology impinge on the public domain. Areas in which ethical issues have
been raised include the culture of the universities’ interface and alliance with industry. Further-
more we see that the regulatory agencies, the media, and ethical society become influential agen-
cies in the determination of which products enter the marketplace. Part of the decision-making
process is dependent on the ethical views held by the regulators (71). Between extreme cautious-
ness, to the point of inaction, and quick action, to a point of irresponsibility, lies the balance point
where answers to questions of fairness, safety, nature, and purity will sit (72, also see Chapter 19).
Scientific and public perceptions are the two distinctive aspects of public attitudes about
risk due to GM plants, i.e., the belief that the process is risky and is morally wrong. There is also
a disparity between expert and lay perceptions of recombinant (rDNA) technology and its appli-
cations to food crops. This makes providing public information a difficult task. Ruibal-Mendiet
and Lints, and Hoban (73 and see Chapter 19) present these conflicting points of view and make
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20 Khachatourians
recommendations pertaining to public information in Europe. It appears that consensus confer-

ences might be a good approach to stimulate public knowledge and public debate. The conse-
quence of public reaction lies in the ways that perception of risk is modified by the so-called out-
rage reaction. The components of outrage reaction are many for GE plants, including issues of
morality, risk, unfamiliarity, partial or total lack of knowledge, unnaturalness, artificiality, disre-
spect for life, fairness, and control (see Chapter 20). Polls show that although knowledge about
GE is lacking, outrage plays a major role in public perception and its effects. Boulter suggests
(74) that scientists should be prepared to discuss their work, its nature, and the way in which gen-
eralizations are made and to participate in nonscientific forums. The overall objectives should be
to communicate and provide opportunity for public debate to consider the risk and/or benefit
trade-offs, including ethical and social issues.
Consideration of safety of food, whether from plant crops or animal sources, has always
been required and expected in the history of food production, whether traditional or commercial.
Currently, the methods for assessment of hazard, that is, the result of risk times exposure, deter-
mination of consequences, and reduction or elimination are well known and practiced (60–63). A
variety of national and international agencies are responsible for setting guidelines and standards
for such hazard assessment and remediation measures. Risk to humans can be assessed for food
crops–based on traditional plant breeding practices and those based on genetic engineering. Kap-
peli and Auberson (75) of the Agency for Biosafety Research and Assessment of Technology Im-
pacts of the Swiss Priority Programme Biotechnology contrast the detailed national guidelines for
safety and hazards of TG crops to those for traditional plant breeding. Hazards, real or otherwise,
are perceived to originate from TG plants and necessitate accountability for at least three broad
issues: (a) the congruence at genotypes, phenotypes, and epigenetic relationships; (b) the role of
pleiotropic events; and (c) genomic plasticity. Genome plasticity is the capacity of the genome to
reorganize itself; it can occur through external or internal cues and can result in mutations, trans-
positions, translocations, recombinations, selfing, and other primary and secondary chromosomal
effects.
C. Issues of Ethics and Safety

Whereas the past practices of plant breeding of food crops had routine ways of testing for bio-
chemicals, phytochemicals, plant-borne mutagens, phytotoxins, and sensory analysis, the per-
ceived hazards of TG crops will require many more and different types of considerations. For ex-
ample, if a TG plant–engineered gene for an improved agronomic phenotype has been deemed
allergenic, the TG plant’s source of the introduced gene must be checked for allergenicity, in-
cluding testing for amino acid similarity with known allergens and whether or not such a protein
will be susceptible to digestive degradation and stability to heat and acid pH. In this case safety
considerations regarding TG plants will be scientifically quantitative and measurable. With TG
plants, three potential hazards, that posed by the TG crop itself, that posed by introgression and
gene flow, and that posed by horizontal gene transfer, have to be considered. In the case of an un-
expected or unintended phenotype that arises long after the TG construction and is due to ge-
nomic plasticity, there are solutions. One approach is to employ safety considerations based on
substantial equivalence with the unmodified plants, while remaining aware of hazard and moni-
toring and containment.
The wider and longer-term acceptance of TG food crops should be secured after the in-
tended or unintended effects are known. The collection of such information would be incremen-
tal and the knowledge required for its comprehension still developmental. The critical approach
and solution will require long-term (5 to 15-year) collection of experimental data, baseline infor-
mation from reports of adverse consumer health reactions or interaction with other medicinals
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and foods, trait stability and environmental or biotic community interaction, cross reaction, and
evolutionary fate. The ultimate biosafety and environmental safety protocols will be derived in
part from regulatory guidelines but also from long and painstaking trickling of individual case re-
ports. This system is beginning to work well for pharmaceuticals and is worth considering for TG
food plants. As with the Food and Drug Administrations (FDA’s) approval of drugs, multiphase
preclinical and clinical trials do not ensure absence of side effects or drug interactions. At times,
newer research does force the recall of a drug; why not a TG food? Do we not consume both
alike? DeKathen (76) suggests that a balance must be found with respect to TG plants. This
should be done irrespective of viewpoints on the assessment of impact or the reluctance to make
such an assessment. Such an outlook could end fundamentalism and reductionism by weighing
potential risks against potential benefits and causes of and solutions to problems.
Democratic societies of the current era have operated and ideally will continue to operate
in the best interest of the citizens. From a crossover view point, facets of environment and agri-
culture, economics and employment, and production of foods, industrial goods, and human ser-
vices, we balance our actions and reactions (see Fig. 5). The regulators of our deeds are ethics,
law, and, depending on the day, the scrutiny of legal statutes or media. Our societies function and
do it well because of our desire to have a civil society, governed by freedoms, respect for democ-
racy, education, law, and security. With respect to provision of food and related industrial prod-
ucts, subsets of these items interact and sustain our society. The principal institutions, universi-
ties and colleges, industry, GREs and IREs, media establishments and agencies of governance,
through sets of laws, statutes, and conventions, create and maintain the interface of today’s soci-
ety and the flow of its relationships.
There are few TG plants that have been cultivated in fields for over a decade and more that
are under construction (19). Collectively, the first wave of aggregate technical, social and ethical
consequences and outcomes will not be known until 2010 or late. This process must be decidedly
Gres Research
and Universities and
Ires Colleges
Laws, Legal, and Regulatory Agencies
Figure 5 A conceptual model for transgenic agri-food products research and production and their link-
ages with larger social phenomena. The transgenic crops or products are governed by legal and regulatory
frameworks and receive perspectives of ethics, media and society. Arrowheads show directionality of inter-
actions and impacts. GREs and IREs represent government and industry research establishments respec-
tively. (Adapted from Ref. 70, with modifications.)
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22 Khachatourians
open, interactive, constructive, and inclusive. Consumer demand for information on TG product
labels is one outcome of such a process that is already unfolding (77). The process indicated
should be in force with an intended resolution, which might be to label. If so, other aspects of TG
foods must follow. For example, there could be a language used in labeling in which the limited
amount of space (depending on the size of the label) should be used for information, warnings,
and brand advertisements or selling points (see Chapter 19). Alternatives such as a food-line tele-
phone service or on-line food safety information site should be considered, too. In any event, ac-
cessible technical language, not emotive language (78), would better serve the intended purpose
of informing the public and offering the essential facts for decision making. In communication
words convey meaning but also have a psychological effect on the listener.
It would also help were the biotechnologists to agree to become professionals like doctors,
lawyers, and architects, who have a formal contract with society. Because the issues and devel-
opments under debate and consideration are momentous, we have to resist the temptation to issue
blanket declarations, e.g., to ban all TG development. Present-day communication media handle
the TG and biotechnology issues in a manner that may comply with the realities of the situation.
A cautious, open, and inviting approach is what citizens require. As scientists and technologists
we can no longer remain in a back room and foist on an unprepared public whatever we have con-
cocted for instruction. This is an unprecedented era of intellectual and technical advancement,
and it is best if issues of TG food crops discussion demonstrate conjoint effort in a caring, delib-
erate, and well-considered manner.
D. Transgenic Crops, Food Security, and Policy

There are beliefs that future agricultural policy lies in reorienting emphasis from maximal pro-
duction and toward sustainability. Such a shift could focus the food production system on nour-
ishment, food security, and sustainability. Certainly, chapters in this volume discussing strategies
for TG crops with increased agronomic value and enhanced qualitative or quantitative nutritional
attributes are a part of such a system. To create congruence, focus is needed on a new policy-mak-
ing system and building of integrative themes compatible with the responsibilities and activities
of feeding the world. Emphasis on agriculture and food policy development must become more
transdisciplinary and proximal to the diverse groups affected needing the policy resolutions for
daily food.
To the extent that the Green Revolution dominated the last 50 years, plant biotechnology
has the power to lead the next 50 years (9). However, it will not be the magic bullet that will solve
all of the problems. It is argued that the food security system in a community should be consid-
ered in a manner that relinks production and consumption and seriously restructures research
trends and policy issues (7,76,78–80). Arguably, community food security cannot be a substitute
for governmental and international means for food security, but it should be an important addi-
tion to it (90). In this regard, Rod MacRac and the Toronto Food Policy Council (81) emphasize
a new impetus for rethinking about food and technology. Agriculture, although promising to be
more productive to feed the hungry world, suffers from fragmentation of issues, knowledge, and
responsibilities. The hidden costs of planning in the food sector by governments reside in envi-
ronmental, social, and health factors that converge in sociopolitical issues. In a government some
issues of agriculture and food are considered in ministries with histories unrelated to agricultural
policy. The current system is preoccupied with traditional views of competitiveness and effi-
ciency. Policies, programs, and regulations are organized to support specific commodities, not
farming and food systems. Responsibilities are extremely fragmented and frequently uncoordi-
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nated. In this environment, the focus on nourishment, food security, and environmental sustain-
ability has become subordinate to economic issues. Associating issues of TG food plants and food
products with agricultural economics, demographics, and food security remains nothing less than
a Herculean task.
Altieri (82) argues that unexpected results that follow TG releases have potential impacts.
For these TG plants the environmental risks ought to be evaluated in the context of agroecologi-
cal goals of making agriculture more socially just, economically viable, and ecologically sound.
The author believes that public funding of research on TG crops should be diverted to ecological
sustainability, alternative low-input technologies, needs of small farmers, and human health and
nutrition rather than biotechnology. On the other hand, Ismail Serageldin, chairman of CGIAR
(83), argues that biotechnology can contribute to future security with one proviso, that is, if the
research outputs of agricultural biotechnology benefit the sustainability of small-farm agriculture
in developing countries. In such a case a double shift in the agricultural research paradigm is nec-
essary: first, the integration of crop-specific research with larger multisectoral, multiperspective,
multidimensional aspects of the complex and changing dimensions of the agriculture-forestry-
food complex, second, harnessing of genetics for the benefit of poor people and the environment.
As in most policy-making, formal and informal players are involved in setting agricultural
policy. Agricultural policy is based on explicit and implicit values and assumptions and both pub-
lic and private sector influences. The formal system is that of federal and provincial governments.
Central governmental responsibilities lie mostly with trade and national standard setting for food
safety, grading, and labeling. Provincial or regional responsibilities focus on extension, land use,
environment, and internal movement of goods. Finally, development of policy related to funding
human resource training in agriculture, education, and public sector R&D could occur within ei-
ther national or local governments and might include input from the private sector.
X. CONCLUSIONS
Biotechnology as an umbrella of concepts, methodologies, and tools under which genetic engi-
neering of food crops rests has created a new foundation for our foods. Transgenic food plants
and their products should make agriculture-based food production more successful and produc-
tive. Now biotechnology must create a framework for agriculture and food sustainability and food
security. However, fragmentation of issues, knowledge, and responsibilities could hide the costs
incurred in the success of TG crops. These are mainly environmental, social, and health costs, as-
signed to various levels of government and world governance. At the national level, each country
has had its own history of lack of connections between policy, population growth, economics,
food security, and cost. The disappearance of traditional farming and the remaining 1–2% that
continue farming to feed the world will pose new challenges, difficulties, and opportunities. Cre-
ating TG crops, as described in this volume, is only one side of the food equation. The presence
and adequacies or deficiencies of the ancillary technologies in food transportation, refrigeration,
public health, and safety will also have significant impact.
The complex problems facing people involved in the chain of food and agriculture systems
today may become even greater in the future. It is desirable for biotechnology to actualize its sig-
nificant potential by continued transformation of plant-based food production. The economic
base of the global agrifood industry has been fundamentally changed by the introduction of TG
plant research. How the agricultural sciences governing food and nutrition will be perceived in a
few decades from now will greatly depend on our activities today. To continue with this chapter
of human history, the cooperation of citizens at all levels will be required. Instead of repeating
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24 Khachatourians
Dickens’s “It was the best of times and it was the worst of times,” I hope that future researchers
will characterize the period that lies ahead as unequivacally the best of times.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to Dr. Leon Katz, who has been an inspiration to me and some time back introduced
to me to the progress in harvest technology depicted in Fig 1. I am also thankful to Lorraine M.
Khachatourians; Drs. Holmes Tiessen, and Peter Phillips, for input, discussions, and review.
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2
The Dynamics of Plant Genome Organization
Isobel A. Parkin and Derek J. Lydiate

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
I. WHAT IS THE GENOME? 29

II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES 30
A. Cytogenetics 30
B. Genome Mapping 31
C. Genome Sequencing 32
III. FACTORS DRIVING THE EVOLUTION OF GENOME STRUCTURE 33
A. Polyploidy 34
B. Chromosomal Rearrangements 34
C. Transposable Elements 35
IV. IMPACT OF GENOME DYNAMICS ON CROP IMPROVEMENT 35
A. Comparative Mapping 35
B. Intergenomic Gene Transfer 37
C. Candidate Gene Analysis 37
V. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 38
REFERENCES 38
I. WHAT IS THE GENOME?
The nuclear genome of a plant includes all the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) found in the nucleus
of each cell and all the genes encoded by this DNA. The genome also comprises the cytological
and biochemical structures that regulate the expression of these genes and ensure the stable in-
heritance of the DNA, in the form of chromosomes, from generation to generation. Plants also
have two organeller genomes, one in the mitochondrion and one in the chloroplast, which are be-
lieved to be the degenerate genomes of ancient prokaryotic symbiotes. It appears that genes have
migrated from the organellar genomes into the nuclear genome during millions of years of evo-
lution, leaving the organellar genomes completely incapable of supporting a free living prokary-
otic organism. Much of the DNA of all three genomes is organized into genes that encode either
proteins or biochemically active ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules such as transfer RNA and ri-
bosomal RNA. The protein encoding regions of genes are flanked by regulatory elements that
control the temporal and spatial expression of these genes. The programming that defines the ar-
chitecture and the biochemical and physiological processes of a plant is contained within these
29
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30 Parkin and Lydiate
genes and their associated regulatory elements, but the expression of this programming is subject
to modification as a response to environmental factors.
The nuclear DNA is arranged in a small number of incredibly long DNA molecules. Each
molecule along with its associated proteins can be visualised as a distinct chromosome. The DNA
molecule at the core of each chromosome is composed of two complementary strands, with each
strand carrying essentially all the information required to replicate an identical copy of its sister
strand. This duplication of DNA molecules occurs during the replicative phase of each cell cycle,
when two sister chromatids are formed from each chromosome. During mitosis, or division, one
chromatid of each chromosome is inherited by each of the new cells. During meiosis, the sexual
cell division that forms gametes, homologous chromosomes pair and recombine to form hybrid
DNA molecules, and one of the four chromatids from each homologous pair of chromosomes is
inherited by each gamete at the second meiotic division. This recombination process allows se-
quence variations present on different DNA molecules representing the same chromosome and of
benefit to the organism to be combined on a single superior DNA molecule.
II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
The study of plant genomes has changed dramatically with advances in technology. Cytogenet-
ics, the microscopic examination of chromosome behavior, charted the associations of related
chromosomes at meiosis and the patterns of inheritance of normal and aberrant chromosomes.
The advent of molecular markers gave new impetus to studies of the genome organization and
provides insights into genome evolution through comparative mapping. DNA sequencing prom-
ises to provide a considerably more detailed picture of the genome, and the DNA sequence of all
five chromosomes of the model species Arabidopsis thaliana has been completed.
A. Cytogenetics
In the early 1900s the two disciplines cytology, which is the study of the structure and life history
of the cell, and genetics, which is the study of heredity, united with the realization that most as-
pects of genetic behavior could be explained by the recombination and reassortment of chromo-
somes. Cytogenetics revealed the organization of chromosomes for a number of the major crop
species, contributing to the study of plant evolution and facilitating the development of cytoge-
netic stocks that have been used for both crop improvement and for positioning of genes on chro-
mosome segments. Evolutionary relationships could be inferred from the study of chromosome
pairing at meiosis by observing the number of bivalents formed and the presence of any abnor-
mal pairing structures (Fig. 1). Chromosome doubled synthetic hybrids can be formed from the
interspecific hybridization of diploid and tetraploid species related to more complex crop species.
On crossing these resynthesized plants with major crops such as wheat and canola the evolution-
ary origins and genome organizations of these crops could be inferred from the cytological char-
acteristics of the resulting hybrids. For example, three diploid Brassica species (B. oleracea, B.
rapa, and B. nigra) have fused in each pairwise combination to generate three amphidiploid Bras-
sica species (B. napus, B. juncea, and B. carinata) (1). Cereals have proved to be extremely
amenable to cytogenetic techniques because their relatively large genomes are distributed over
comparatively small numbers of chromosomes, allowing easy visualization of individual chro-
mosomes under the light microscope. Wheat has a hexaploid genome with six related copies of
each of seven basic types of chromosome that was probably formed from three distinct parental
species each containing seven pairs of chromosomes (2). A set of 21 monosomic lines have been
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Dynamics of Plant Genome Organization 31
Figure 1 Synaptonemal complex showing meiotic association of two pairs of homoeologous chromo-
somes (quadrivalent) common to all F1 lines derived from a cross between a spring and a winter variety of
canola. (From DJ Lydiate, AG Sharpe, and JS Parker, unpublished data.)
generated, each missing a chromosome from one of the 21 chromosome pairs of hexaploid wheat
(3). Such lines have proved very useful for positioning genes and in interspecific hybridizations.
For example, variation at the Ph locus on chromosome 5B controls whether the chromosomes of
wheat associate and recombine in 21 pairs of strict homologues or as seven sets each with six ho-
moeologous chromosomes (4,5), and lines nullisomic for 5B allow enhanced transfer of agro-
nomically important genes from alien chromosomes to the wheat genome (6). Lines derived from
interspecies crosses tend to inherit deleterious genes along with the gene of interest, and the re-
moval of these unwanted characteristics involves years of breeding. The use of molecular mark-
ers to tag the genes of interest has revolutionized the introgression of genes from diverse geno-
types into established cultivars. The molecular makers allow not only selection of the region of
the genome containing the gene of interest but concurrent elimination of unwanted regions of the
foreign genotype (7).
B. Genome Mapping
Molecular biology techniques have furnished an almost unlimited number of phenotypically neu-
tral and highly reproducible markers for genetic analysis. The first class of molecular markers
were restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) (8). RFLPs are based on size differ-
ences in DNA fragments generated from equivalent regions of homologous chromosomes after
digestion with restriction enzymes (Fig. 2). The molecular basis of these polymorphisms is se-
quence variation at endonuclease cleavage sites and the insertion and excision of mobile genetic
elements. RFLP markers were quickly applied to a number of crop plants because they are
codominant (allowing every possible genotype to be determined), because they are immune to the
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Figure 2 Schematic diagram showing the pathway from visualization of chromosome structure to the
final nucleotide sequence of the DNA, through molecular marker analysis of DNA (genetic mapping) and
the use of those markers to identify overlapping clones containing large inserts of DNA (physical mapping).
effects of the environment and epistasis, and because a number of naturally occurring alleles are
commonly found in crop germplasm (9). A number of PCR-based marker systems have been de-
veloped, including random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) (10) and amplified fragment
length polymorphisms (AFLPs) (11). Such markers allow considerable numbers of loci to be po-
sitioned on the genome relatively easily and quickly; however, these markers are of limited use
for genome analysis and in particular comparative mapping, because the different loci detected
by a particular marker are evolutionarily unrelated. A number of genetic maps of crop plants have
now been established by using all three marker systems; such maps show the linear arrangement
of genetic loci along linkage groups (12–15). In some crops these linkage groups have been as-
signed to distinct chromosomes by integration with the original cytogenetic maps using morpho-
logical markers as anchor points. The low copy RFLP probes can also be used as probes for in
situ experiments in which the homologous region on the genome is directly detected on extended
chromosome fibers (16). In A. thaliana and rice the genetic map has now been aligned with a
physical map of the genome, in which the chromosomes have been cut into large fragments (rang-
ing from 90 to 600 kb); each fragment is maintained individually (as a bacterial or yeast artificial
chromosome, BAC or YAC, respectively), and the order of the fragments along the chromosome
is determined (17,18) (Fig. 2). Physical maps underpin genome sequencing programs that prom-
ise to uncover the organization of the chromosomes down to the DNA nucleotide level and also
serve as resources for map-based gene cloning projects.
C. Genome Sequencing
The Maxim-Gilbert method of chemical cleavage made it possible to determine the exact nu-
cleotide sequence of DNA. DNA sequencing was simplified and accelerated with the advent of
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Sanger sequencing, which involves the controlled termination of DNA replication and which, with
the addition of flourescent labels, led to the development of automated high-throughput DNA se-
quencers. These machines paved the way for projects to derive the exact nucleotide sequence of
entire genomes. Arabidopsis thaliana (which is closely related to Brassica crop species) and Ozyra
sativa (rice) are the first two plant subjects for genome sequencing projects. This will reinforce the
position of Arabidopsis as the model dicotyledonous plant and rice as the model monocot. Ara-
bidopsis and rice have been chosen due to their relatively small genome size (Table 1) (19–21),
low proportions of repetitive DNA, and the extensive genomics tools (such as BACs, YACs, and
markers) (22,23). The sequence of the entire genome of Arabidopsis thaliana was completed at
the end of 2000 (24). The data for the Arabidopsis genome has shown an average gene density of
approximately one gene every 5 kilobases, it has uncovered the organization of disease resistance
loci, has revealed the distribution of retroelements, and has identified an unexpectedly high num-
ber of duplicated genes (25). The usefulness of all the sequencing data is dictated by the efficacy
of the bioinformatics tools that are used to analyze the data, and caution should be exercised when
evaluating the exact sequences of genes predicted by existing algorithms. Of the predicted genes,
56% have been found to have a high level of similarity to partially sequenced cDNAs (expressed
sequence tags [ESTs]), confirming that the predicted genes are indeed transcribed. However, in
most cases the functions of these genes can only be inferred from homology to known genes. The
large and often highly duplicated genomes of most crop species have made them technically un-
attractive subjects for whole genome sequencing. EST sequencing has provided a relatively cheap
and quick method for obtaining data about the genes that define a species, and this technology has
been adopted for a number of crops including maize, soybean, and rice. This type of data has
proved to be extremely useful for phylogenetic studies, for comparative genome studies, as anchor
points in physical maps, for exon prediction in large expanses of genomic DNA, and most recently
for expression studies as targets on microarrays (26).
III. FACTORS DRIVING THE EVOLUTION OF GENOME STRUCTURE
Normal genetic analysis assumes that the linear order of genes along the chromosomes is con-
stant. This inferred stability underpins the construction of genetic and physical maps. However,
Table 1 Haploid Genome Size and the Basic Chromosome Number for Various Plant Species
Chromosome Nuclear DNA

Plant species Family Number Content (⬃Mbp)
Arabidopsis thaliana Cruciferae x=5 100,a 145,b 190c

Oryza sativa (rice) Gramineae x = 12 430,b 580c
Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato) Solanaceae x = 12 950,b 965c
Brassica napus (canola) Cruciferae 2x = 19 1200,b 1500c
Zea mays (corn) Gramineae x = 10 2500,b 2300c
Hordeum vulgare (barley) Gramineae x=7 4900,b 5300c
Triticum aestivum (wheat) Gramineae 3x = 21 16,000,b 16,700c
a
See Ref. 19.
b
See Ref. 20.
c
See Ref. 21.
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the processes of polyploidy and chromosomal rearrangement and the activities of transposable el-
ements introduce fluidity into the organization of plant genomes (described later).
A. Polyploidy
It has been estimated that up to 70% of modern angiosperms could be polyploids (27), indicating
the pervasive and recurrent nature of genome fusion as a factor in plant evolution. Allopolyploid
and amphidiploid genomes are formed from the fusion of two or more distinct but closely related
genomes (28,29). They probably arise from chromosome doubled interspecies hybrids and con-
tain the full chromosome complement of each parent. Autopolyploids, which are rarer than al-
lopolyploids, contain three or more haploid copies of the same genome (28,29).
The increase in genome size resulting from polyploidy causes a related increase in cell size
and this normally translates into an increase in plant size. The duplicate sets of parental genes ex-
pressed in allopolyploids also produce an effect akin to heterosis. Duplicate genes protect the
plant from naturally occurring recessive mutations that are masked by functional gene copies. As
a result polyploid plants tend to be larger and exhibit more vigorous vegetative growth than their
parental species and hence have the potential to dominate habitats. In the long term, polyploidy
probably also plays an adaptive role, since the duplicate copies of genes can be seconded to per-
form distinct functions. However, in the short term, polyploidy reduces the rate of adaptation, be-
cause recessive mutations are masked by dominant wild-type alleles.
In new polyploids and particularly autopolyploids, the pairing of multiple copies of related
chromosomes at meiosis can be irregular and lead to unbalanced gametes and/or chromosomal
rearrangements. In most cases, the resulting aneuploidy causes reduced fertility and reduced fit-
ness. Successful allopolyploids have generally evolved a genetic mechanism to control chromo-
some pairing, ensuring the faithful alignment of homologous chromosomes. However, seemingly
well adapted amphidiploids such as B. napus still produce chromosomal rearrangements at meio-
sis at a detectable frequency as a result of pairing between related but nonhomologous (ho-
moeologous) chromosomes (30) (Fig. 1).
B. Chromosomal Rearrangements
The structure of individual chromosomes evolves through centric fusions, centric fissions, inver-
sions, and translocations, both reciprocal and nonreciprocal. In the Solanaceae, comparative map-
ping revealed that the chromosomes of potato and tomato were differentiated by chromosomal in-
versions, all derived from single breakpoints mapped at or near to the centromeres and resulting
in the inversion of entire chromosome arms (31). In the Brassiceae, comparative mapping has
similarly positioned centromeres at the breakpoints of collinearity between the ancestral A and C
genomes of B. napus, again suggesting that centric fission and fusion have been strong driving
forces in the evolution of the B. rapa (the A genome) and B. oleracea (the C genome) as they di-
verged from a common ancestor (32, IAP Parkin and DJ Lydiate, unpublished). The intragenomic
and intergenomic translocations that differentiate the genomes of wheat and rye have been iden-
tified and the breakpoints defined (33). From the preceding it is clear that some (rare) chromoso-
mal rearrangements have been fixed during evolution and speciation; however, rearrangements
occur continuously in nature and the vast majority probably cause reduced fitness and are elimi-
nated. This is illustrated by B. napus, in which the amphidiploid genome structure has been main-
tained for several hundred years, presumably as a result of continual selection for fitness, al-
though 1 in 15 gametes carry nonreciprocal translocations at each generation (30, DJ Lydiate,
unpublished).
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C. Transposable Elements
With the discovery of transposons, or “jumping genes,” by Barbara McClintock in the 1940s (34)
it became apparent that the linear organization of genomic DNA is far from rigid, but the extent
to which mobile elements can constitute a high proportion of genomic DNA only became appar-
ent with the advent of Southern hybridization and DNA sequencing (35,36). Triticum aestivum
(wheat) and Zea mays (corn) appear to be fairly extreme examples of genomes carrying heavy
loads of dispersed repetitive elements (37,38). In the case of Z. mays, these elements are com-
posed of numerous fairly well characterized families of transposons, retrotransposons, and re-
lated defective elements (39,40). A common feature of plant transposable elements is their abil-
ity to excise from one chromosomal location and randomly reinsert into another location.
Excision events are normally imprecise and leave potentially mutagenic “footprints,” which are
most commonly insertions of a few nucleotides. Retrotransposons and retroposons are replicated
through the reverse transcription of RNA intermediates, and new copies are again inserted ran-
domly into the genome. The combined activity of mobile elements in corn is such that they are
likely to have produced a high proportion of the allelic variation observed in corn germplasm. The
genetic load of continually increasing numbers of mobile elements will erode the success of well-
adapted organisms in stable environmental conditions where the ability to adapt further is not at
a premium and it is likely that the processes of DNA methylation and the high mutation rate of
methylated cytosine residues have evolved at least in part in order to curb the activity of wayward
mobile elements.
IV. IMPACT OF GENOME DYNAMICS ON CROP IMPROVEMENT
A. Comparative Mapping
Comparative mapping involves the charting of regions of orthology between the genomes of dif-
ferent plant species, that is, regions that have related structures by virtue of having evolved from
a common ancestral structure. Such studies should eventually allow researchers to deduce the
genome organizations of the ancestral progenitors of modern-day plants. Typically, the relative
positions of RFLP-defined loci detected by a common set of probes in a number of related species
have revealed chromosomal regions with conserved gene content and indeed conserved gene
order. For example, all crop species of the Gramineae, which after 60 million years of evolution
have markedly different genome sizes and chromosome numbers, exhibit striking genome
collinearity (41). More high-resolution experiments using physical information based on cloned
contigs and DNA sequence have confirmed these patterns of collinearity (42,43). Analysis of the
Gramineae has revealed some chromosomal rearrangements that characterize taxonomic groups
and others that have occurred more recently, during or even after speciation (41).
Moore (44) presented a holistic model of cereal genome evolution (Fig. 3) in which all
genomes, including those of corn, wheat, and rice, can be broken down into 19 linkage blocks.
Similar, but less extensive, comparative mapping studies have been carried out in the Solanaceae,
involving tomato, pepper, and potato (45,31); between a number of legume species (46,47); and
in the Crucifereae between B. napus, the three diploid Brassica crop species (48,49), and Ara-
bidopsis, the model dicot (50–52). Large regions of collinearity have been observed in each of
these families, but areas of the genome that appear to be hot spots for rearrangements have also
been identified (53,54). These regions with clustered disruptions in the collinearity appear to be
associated with centromeric and telomeric repeats, suggesting that such regions are common sites
for chromosome breakage and fusion in plant evolution (32, 54, DJ Lydiate and IAP Parkin, un-
published).
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36
Figure 3 Comparisons of cereal genome evolution based on rice linkage segments. (a) Rice chromosomes dissected into link-
age blocks, (b) wheat, (c) maize, (d) foxtail millet, (e) sugarcane, and (f) sorghum chromosomes represented as rice blocks on
the basis of homology and/or conservation of gene order. Connecting lines indicate duplicated segments within the maize chro-
mosomes. (g) An ancestral “single chromosome” reconstructed on the basis of these linkage blocks. (Redrawn from Ref. 44.)
Parkin and Lydiate
Comparative mapping, which is identifying regions of collinearity between complex crop

genomes and the model genomes of rice and Arabidopsis, will allow researchers working with
crop species to exploit the genomic resources and data being developed for the model species.
B. Intergenomic Gene Transfer

The wild relatives of crop species often contain unique genetic variation of potential benefit to
crop improvement, such as genes for disease and insect resistance (55,56). Similarly, related crop
species often contain complementary sets of useful genetic variation. Many crops can form fer-
tile interspecies hybrids with related species, and these hybrids can function as bridges for the in-
terspecies transfer of useful genetic variation. Two examples of this process are the interspecies
transfer of resistance to club root in Brassica (57) and the transfer of resistance to leaf rust, stripe
rust, and powdery mildew from rye to wheat (58,59). Successful intergenomic gene transfer is a
vital component of systems where the interspecies transfer of useful genes have long-term utility
in plant breeding. In instances in which whole donor chromosomes or large segments of donor
chromosome containing the gene of interest are transferred into a crop species but in which these
large pieces of donor genome are unable to recombine efficiently with the recipient genome, the
resulting linkage drag normally prevents successful crop development. The association of poor
quality (high seed glucosinolates) with the restorer of cytoplasmic male sterility transferred from
Raphanus to Brassica (60) and the association of poor protein profiles with the disease resistance
loci transferred from rye to wheat (61) are examples of this problem. The development of effec-
tive genetic marker systems and accurate comparative maps will assist in the future selection of
high-precision intergenomic gene transfer events, in which hybrid chromosomes with structures
that should allow them to pair efficiently with recipient chromosomes can be recognized in the
early generations of interspecies gene transfer programs. In the future it might even be possible
to develop variants of crop species in which recombination between homoeologous chromosomes
is more frequent.
C. Candidate Gene Analysis

The conservation of gene content and gene order between crop species and related model species
offers the enticing prospect of identifying the molecularly well characterized genes in model
genomes that correspond to genes in related crops that control major agronomic or quality traits
but have only been characterized genetically. The imminent availability of the entire genome se-
quence for Arabidopsis will allow the prediction of many genes that might have counterparts that
contribute to agronomically important traits in crop species. This candidate gene prediction
should be feasible in crucifers, in which Brassica napus and Arabidopsis share on average 85%
sequence identity between orthologous genes (52) and wild-type genes cloned from B. napus can
complement the corresponding mutant phenotype in Arabidopsis (62). Candidate genes that have
been identified in Arabidopsis appear to control similar traits in B. napus; fatty acid elongase
(FAE1) maps coincidentally with a locus controlling variation in erucic acid content (63); simi-
larly curly leaf (CLF) has been shown to map at the loci controlling variation for an apetalous
phenotype (64). In other plant families candidate genes have been less forthcoming; however, de-
tailed comparative mapping between wheat and the model genome rice has identified a rice YAC
contig that corresponds to the region of wheat containing the Ph1 locus and still might yield pos-
sible candidate genes (65). However, the high density of genes and the relative imprecision of ge-
netic mapping make it likely that candidate gene analysis will sometimes result in spurious asso-
ciations between attractive candidates in model species with homologues that are closely linked
to genes controlling important traits in crop species (66).
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V. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
We are presently entering a new stage in genomics research with large organizations worldwide
investing significantly in plant genomics and particularly functional genomics. Over the next 10
years this effort will yield an enormous reservoir of information generated through high-capacity
methods of research such as the analysis of gene expression patterns using DNA chips (67), map-
based gene cloning using ordered BAC and YAC libraries (68), genome and EST sequencing, and
finally functional genomics using populations of insertion mutagenized lines (69). Currently only
approximately 50% of the genes predicted from the Arabidopsis sequence can be assigned puta-
tive functions, indicating the vast wealth of genes for which functions still have to be identified
(25). On a cautionary note, with huge volumes of data comes the potential for huge numbers of
errors and an absolute requirement for automated data analysis. Efficient bioinformatics tempered
with informed biological insight will be vital if genomics data are to be applied successfully to
crop improvement.
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3
Embryogenesis
Alison M. R. Ferrie
National Research Council, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
I. INTRODUCTION 43
II. ANDROGENESIS 44
A. Factors Influencing Androgenesis 45
III. GYNOGENESIS 50
A. Factors Influencing Gynogenesis 50
IV. HAPLOID OR DOUBLED HAPLOID PLANT PRODUCTION 52
A. Regeneration 52
B. Chromosome Doubling 52
V. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS 53
VI. APPLICATION OF HAPLOID AND DOUBLED HAPLOID PLANTS 54
A. Varietal Development 54
B. Mutation Breeding 55
C. Gene Transfer 55
D. Biochemical and Physiological Studies 56
VII. CONCLUSION 56
REFERENCES 56
I. INTRODUCTION
Embryogenesis is a process that can occur in a fertilized egg cell, reproductive cells, or somatic
tissue. This chapter reviews the published literature on the induction of embryogenesis from the
male and female gametophyte with emphasis on advances since 1995.
Androgenesis is the process of embryo development from male gametophytic cells. When
given appropriate conditions, microspores switch from a normal gametophytic developmental
process to a sequence of events that lead to the formation of embryos. A number of factors influ-
ence this type of embryogenesis, and these are discussed in this chapter.
Gynogenesis is the process of embryo development from the culture of unfertilized ovaries
or ovules. It is extremely difficult to isolate and culture the egg cell or other haploid cells, and
therefore a group of cells, i.e., embryo sac, is cultured at one time. The embryo sac undergoes di-
vision and develops into an embryo without fertilization when given the appropriate culture con-
ditions. A number of factors similar to those in androgenesis influence gynogenesis; they are dis-
43
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44 Ferrie
cussed in this chapter. Gynogenic protocols have been used in a number of species to develop hap-
loid plants, although the culture of anthers or microspores is the preferred method of haploid plant
production for many species. There are fewer reports on development of haploid embryos via
gynogenesis, partly because microspores are easier to handle and gynogenesis is very labor-
intensive. Microspores are also more abundant and uniform in size and developmental stage.
However, gynogenesis is an important technology for species that do not respond to androgenic
techniques.
Haploid cells, embryos, plants, and doubled haploid plants are useful for both fundamental
research and practical applications. Doubled haploid technology has been used for varietal devel-
opment, mutagenesis, and gene transfer. The developmental pathway for in vitro haploid embryo-
genesis is similar to that of in vitro somatic embryogenesis and in vivo zygotic embryogenesis. Be-
cause of this, microspore-derived embryos have been used in biochemical and physiological
studies. The uses, both applied and basic, have been well documented and are reviewed briefly in
this chapter.
II. ANDROGENESIS
In 1964, Guha and Maheshwari first demonstrated development of haploid plants from cultured
anthers (1), although haploids had been reported several decades before (2). The early work on
anther and isolated microspore culture was mostly with the Solanaceae species, e.g., Datura in-
noxia Mill. (1) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) (3,4). Since the 1960s, haploid calli, embryos,
or plants have been produced in over 250 species, including many economically important crops.
In 1996, Maheshwari estimated that there were over 2000 publications on androgenesis and its
applications (5). Table 1 shows a listing of some species in which plants have been regenerated
via anther or microspore culture since 1995 (6–20). For a listing of other species producing hap-
loids, refer to reviews by Maheshwari et al. (21), Dunwell (22), and Ferrie et al. (23).
A number of factors influence haploid embryogenesis from male gametophytic tissue.
Donor plant genotype, donor plant growing conditions, developmental stage of the pollen grain,
pretreatment of the floral organs, media composition, and culture conditions are factors that have
Table 1 Haploid or Doubled Haploid Plant Production via Androgenesis Since 1995
Species Reference
Aesculus hippocastranum 6
Apium graveolens 7
Atriplex glauca 8
Avena sativa 9,10
Avena sterilis 11
Bupleurum falcatum 12
Cajanus cajan 13
Cichorium intybus var. foliosum 14
Cicer arietinum 15
Guizotia abyssinica 16
Helianthus annuus 17
Oryza species 18
Quercus suber 19
Solanum melongena 20
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Embryogenesis 45
been studied in many species in order to develop efficient protocols for generating haploid or dou-
bled haploid plants.
A. Factors Influencing Androgenesis

1. Donor Plant Genotype
As with many tissue culture systems, genotypic differences are reflected in androgenic response.
Genotype screening studies have shown that there are differences among genotypes and even in-
dividual plants within the same genotype for both embryo induction and plantlet regeneration (24,
25). Genetic control of androgenesis has been reported in a number of species. In wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.), additive and dominant gene action affected callus induction frequency, embryo in-
duction frequency, and green plant regeneration (26). Cytoplasmic effects have also been reported
in wheat (27,28). Reciprocal substitution analysis has shown that chromosomes of genomes A, B,
and D influenced anther culture response, whereas green plant production was influenced by
chromosomes of A and D (29). Genes on chromosomes of the B and D genomes affected albino
plant regeneration (29). For a cross-pollinating cereal like rye (Secale cereale L.), regeneration
via androgenesis is limited to genotypes derived from crosses between S. cereale and S. vavilovii
Grossh (30,31). Crosses with this wild rye ancestor resulted in a line (SC35) capable of high-fre-
quency embryogenesis (32). Further crosses with S. cereale indicated that it was possible to trans-
fer genes for embryogenic ability to low-responding types (33). This response has also been
shown in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) (34). The highest frequency of embryo formation oc-
curred in large-fruited pepper genotypes. Small-fruit genotypes gave poor response, and crosses
between large and small-fruited genotypes gave an intermediate response (34). In rice (Oryza
sativa L.), japonica types were found to be more responsive in terms of embryogenic capability
in comparison to indica types (35). When comparing wild Oryza species, it has been suggested
that those species possessing the A genome have a higher regeneration capability than those with
the B, C, E, BC, or CD genomes (18). In tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), the gene ms 1035
controlling male sterility was found to play a role in callus induction from anther culture (36).
Callus formation was greater from genotypes that had the gene in the homozygous state than in
genotypes carrying the gene in the heterozygous state (36).
2. Donor Plant Conditions

The environmental conditions in which donor plants are grown can influence embryogenic re-
sponse. Healthy, vigorous donor plants are essential for successful anther/microspore culture. In
vitro culture studies have shown that embryo yield can be affected by temperature, photoperiod,
light intensity, time of year, fertilizer regime, age of the plant, and location where the plant is
grown (i.e., greenhouse, field, or growth chamber) (Table 2). For many species, especially the
Brassica species, growth of the donor plants at a low temperature (10°/5°C) is beneficial (Table
2) (37–39). It may not always be necessary to grow the donor plants under low temperatures, as
a cold pretreatment of buds can have the equivalent effect (13,17,47,48).
3. Developmental Stage of the Pollen Grain

The optimal pollen developmental stage for in vitro culture can vary, depending on the species,
genotype, donor plant conditions, and technique used (i.e., isolated microspore culture or anther
culture) (Table 3). For microspore culture of most species, this developmental stage is usually the
mid-uninucleate to early binucleate stage. However, recent studies have shown that the “narrow
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46 Ferrie
Table 2 Donor Plant Conditions Influencing In Vitro Embryogenesis
Factor Factor Species Reference
Temperature 10°/5°C Brassica species 37,38,39

14°/8°C Linum usitatissimum 40
25°/15°C Triticum aestivum 41
25°/18°C Capsicum annuum 42
Photoperiod 14 hr Oryza sativa 43
18–24 h Triticum aestivum 44
Light intensity 300–350 µmol m–2s–1 Triticum aestivum 44
Growth environment Field vs. greenhouse S. chacoense 45
Lycopersicon esculentum 46
Time of year Spring/early summer Atriplex glauca 8
Table 3 The Developmental Stage of the Pollen Grain Most Responsive to Embryogenesis
Developmental stage Technique Species Reference
Tetrad Anther culture Apium graveolens 7

Anther culture Daucus carota 49
Uninucleate Anther culture Lilium longiflorum 50
Microspore culture Gingko bilboa 51
Microspore culture Cichorium intybus 14
Microspore culture Cajanus cajan 13
Microspore culture Apium graveolens 7
Microspore culture Daucus carota 52
Microspore culture Brassica species 53,54
Binucleate—trinucleate Microspore culture B. oleracea 55
window” for microspore embryogenesis induction can be manipulated to allow embryo develop-
ment from a number of developmental stages (56–58). Embryos can develop from tobacco mi-
crospores at the early uninucleate (G1 phase) to mid-binucleate stage (56,57). In B. napus, a se-
vere heat shock (41°C) induced bicellular pollen grains to develop into embryos (58). These
microspores had previously been considered unresponsive as starch had already formed within
the cells. Starch has been used as an indicator of nonembryogenic cells (59,60).
In rye, embryo induction frequency increased as the microspores developed from uninu-
cleate to binucleate, being highest at the binucleate stage (61). However, plant regeneration de-
creased with an increase in microspore development, with the highest regeneration efficiency at
the early- to mid-uninucleate stage. Studies have shown that callus induction from anther culture
involves several chromosome regions, which are different from those involved in plant regenera-
tion (62). Other studies have shown that microspores earlier or later than the optimal stage for em-
bryogenesis may produce toxic substances, which could lead to a reduction in embryogenesis and
the production of abnormal embryos (53,54).
The developmental stage of the pollen may also have an effect on the ploidy of the result-
ing embryo/plant. This has been observed in Atropa and Datura spp. (63–65). Haploid embryos
were obtained from microspores cultured at the tetrad stage, whereas higher-ploidy embryos de-
veloped from binucleate pollen grains.
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Embryogenesis 47
Table 4 Pretreatment Factors Influencing Microspore Embryogenesis
Factor Pretreated plant organ Species Reference
Low temperature
4°C, 24 h Buds Morus indica 47
4°C, 3–7 days Buds Cajanus cajan 13
4°C, 4 days Buds Helianthus annuus 17
4°C, 7 days Buds Triticum aestivum 66
10°C, 21 or 42 days Buds Oryza sativa 48
Elevated temperature
32°C, 2.5 h Buds Oryza sativa 35
Slow desiccation Buds Oryza sativa 35
Reduced atmospheric pressure Buds Sinapis alba 67
Anaerobic conditions Anthers Nicotiana tabacum 68
Gamma irradiation Microspores B. napus 69
Donor plants B. napus 70
Buds Malus × domestica 71
Gamma irradiation and low Buds Lycopersicon esculentum 46
temperature
Colchicine Anthers, microspores B. napus 72,73
Ethanol stress Buds B. napus 70
Chemical mutagens Anthers Nicotiana tabacum 74
Chemical hybridizing agents Donor plants Triticum durum 75
4. Pretreatments
Both physical and chemical pretreatments have been used to enhance microspore embryogenesis
(Table 4). Cold treatment of plants or floral organs prior to in vitro culture has been successfully
used (13,17,47,48,66). Both temperature and duration of pretreatment are important and in many
species, the duration of the cold pretreatment is genotype-dependent. The role of a cold pretreat-
ment in inducing embryogenesis is unclear, and a number of theories exist. It has been speculated
that the cold pretreatment delays the first haploid mitosis and hence delays pollen development
or increases the viability of the microspore and increases the permeability of the pollen wall (76).
A delay in the senescence of the anther wall allowed a supply of nutrients to the developing em-
bryos (77). Some have also suggested that a cold treatment increases the number of microspores
that divide into two identical nuclei, possibly by destroying the microtubules (78–80). Most
species seem to respond to cold pretreatments, however, elevated temperatures have also en-
hanced embryo induction (Table 4).
5. Media Constituents
The composition of the media plays a major role in embryogenesis. There are numerous studies
evaluating the different components of media and their role in anther/microspore culture (Table
5). Critical factors are carbon source and concentration, macro- and micronutrients, growth reg-
ulators, pH, physical factors (e.g., gelling agents, microspore density, and anther orientation), and
other beneficial additives.
One of the essential media components is carbon. The source and the concentration are im-
portant in both microspore and anther culture. Sucrose is one of the most common carbohydrates
used in androgenesis as both a nutrient and an osmoticum. Elevated levels of sucrose (>8%) have
been used in microspore culture of Brassica spp. (37,81,82). It has also been observed that mi-
crospore-derived embryos take up excess sucrose when it is provided in the media, leading to
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48 Ferrie
Table 5 Media Constituents Positively Influencing Embryogenesis from the Male Gametophyte
Factor studied Species Reference
Carbon source
Sucrose Brassica species 37,81,82
Zea mays 83
Cichorium intybus 14
Cucurbita pepo 84
Asparagus officinalis 85
Sucrose starvation Nicotiana species 86,87
Triticum aestivum 88,89
Quercus suber 19
Oryza sativa 48
Solanum melongena 20
Maltose Hordeum vulgare 90
Dactylis glomerata 91
Fagopyrum esculentum 92
Helianthus annuus 93
Triticum aestivum 94
Oryza sativa 95,96
Avena species 9
Glucose Fragaria × ananassa Duch. 97
Camellia japonica 98
Lactose Solanum tuberosum 99
Growth regulators
N-1-Naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) Avena species 10
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) Helianthus annuus 100
Silver nitrate (AgNO3) Oryza sativa 96
Phenylacetic Acid (PAA) Triticum aestivum 94
Elevated levels of 2,4-D Avena sterilis 10
Avena sativa 10
2,3,5-Triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) Zea mays 83
Ancymidol Avena sativa 10
Triticum durum 29
Asparagus officinalis 101
Other medium components
W14 salts Avena species 10
Ficoll Hordeum vulgare 102
PEG Brassica napus 103
abundant starch accumulation (104,105). This has an effect on the morphological characteristics
and subsequent germination of the embryos. Studies have tried to separate the nutritional and the
osmotic effects of sucrose. A novel system was reported in which embryos were induced and de-
veloped in very low levels of sucrose (103). Very low levels of sucrose were used along with poly-
ethylene glycol (PEG), an osmoticum. PEG is a neutral polymer, which is highly soluble in water.
Frequency of embryogenesis was similar using either this novel system or sucrose as the main
medium osmoticum (103). However, embryo quality differed; those embryos induced in PEG
more closely resembled zygotic embryos. Embryos induced in sucrose differed in size, morpho-
logical features, and color of the cotyledons (103). Mannitol and sorbitol have also been used to
induce osmotic stress in Brassica sp. but were detrimental to embryo induction (103,106).
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Embryogenesis 49
Carbohydrates other than sucrose have also been used successfully in androgenesis (Table
5). Replacing sucrose with maltose has resulted in an increase in embryo induction and green
plant regeneration in cereals (90,94,95). Glucose and lactose have also been used to induce em-
bryogenesis in some species (97–99).
The type and concentration of growth regulators can influence microspore embryogenesis
in many species. The beneficial growth regulators differ among species and genotypes, and there-
fore conflicting results are reported in the literature. For the Brassica species, growth regulators
are generally not required. The auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) was reported ben-
eficial in oat (Avena sativa, A. sterilis (10), rice (95), wheat (107), chicory (Cichorium intybus)
(14), rye (108), celery (Apium graveolens) (7), soybean (Glycine max) (109), and maize (Zea
mays) (83). Cytokinins have also been used. Zeatin was found beneficial in chicory (14). Kinetin,
in combination with 2,4-D, was beneficial for Camellia japonica, but kinetin caused severe
browning in Avena cultures (10). Benzyladenine (BA) improved embryo induction in barley
(Hordeum vulgare) (110), soybean (109), and celery (7).
6. Culture Conditions
In vitro embryogenesis can be influenced by culture conditions (Table 6). Much research has fo-
cused on culture temperature and duration, which vary among species. Culture temperature usu-
ally ranges from 24°C to 27°C. For some species (e.g., Brassica, Triticum spp.), an elevated tem-
perature (30°C to 35°C) for 12–72 hours is required for embryo induction (37,111–113). It has
been shown that colchicine can also induce embryogenesis in Brassica sp. (73,117). Different de-
velopmental stages are affected by the culture treatments. Heat induction was beneficial for mi-
crospores that were more advanced than those induced by colchicine. The microtubules of the
early uninucleate microspores were more sensitive to colchicine than the binucleate microspores
(117). Pollen development is disrupted by colchicine by depolymerizing microspore micro-
tubules. This reorganization of the cytoskeleton results in a loss of cell asymmetry and normal
pollen development. In addition, a combination of heat shock and colchicine treatment was re-
ported beneficial especially in poorly responding Brassica sp. genotypes (121,122). Besides im-
proving embryo induction, the colchicine treatments induced high rates of chromosome doubling.
Table 6 Culture Conditions Affecting Microspore Embryogenesis
Factor studied Species Reference
Heat shock
32°C, 2–3 days Brassica species 24,37,111,112
32°C, 5 days Avena sativa, A. sterilis 9,10
32°C, 6 days Triticum aestivum 113
33°C, 5 days Quercus suber 19
35°C, 12 h Solanum tuberosum 114
35°C, 1 day Linum usitatissimum 115
35°C, 8 days Capsicum annuum 116
Colchicine treatment B. napus 73,117
Low light intensity (80-µmol m–2s–1) Triticum aestivum 44
Plating density Hordeum vulgare 118
Ginkgo biloba 51
Coculture with other tissue Triticum aestivum 119,120
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50 Ferrie
III. GYNOGENESIS
The same year as Guha and Maheshwari (1964) demonstrated haploid plant production from an-
thers, Tulecke (123) obtained haploid callus from the female gametophyte of Ginkgo biloba.
However, because of the success of anther culture compared to ovary culture, much of the focus
remained on haploid plant production via androgenesis. It was not until 1976 that the first plants
derived from in vitro gynogenesis were reported (124). Since then, haploid plant production from
ovule or ovary culture has been reported in a number of species (124–128). In some species, in
which both gynogenesis and androgenesis are possible, androgenesis is the preferred technique.
Practical application of gynogenesis is limited to only a few species (e.g., Beta and Allium spp.).
Haploid embryos have been produced from the female gametophytic cells, including un-
fertilized ovaries, ovules, or flower buds. Compared to that of androgenesis, the embryo yield is
lower because there are fewer cells to work with and they are more difficult to manipulate phys-
ically. However, gynogenesis is most useful where there is defective pollen (e.g., male sterile
lines) or where pollen is unresponsive to culture (e.g., Beta, Allium, and Gerbera spp.). It has also
been shown that plants derived via gynogenesis are of better quality than those derived via an-
drogenesis. Albinism is usually a problem in cereal haploid production and may be alleviated by
using ovule or ovary culture. For example, green plants were derived via gynogenesis of Hordeum
sp. (124,129), Oryza sativa (130), and Triticum aestivum (131). Spontaneous chromosome dou-
bling in some species is higher from plants derived via gynogenesis than via androgenesis (124,
125,129,132).
Similar to those in androgenesis, genotype, donor plant conditions, developmental stage,
pretreatments, media composition, and culture environment influence the induction of embryo-
genesis from the female gametophyte.
A. Factors Influencing Gynogenesis

1. Donor Plant Genotype
Genotypic differences exist for embryo induction and plantlet regeneration in most species eval-
uated for gynogenic response. This has been shown in durum wheat (133), Allium spp. (134–
137), and Oryza sativa (138). As with androgenesis, japonica rice genotypes were more respon-
sive than indica rice genotypes (138,139). Selection among genotypes for high embryogenic
response can lead to lines with greater ability to produce haploid embryos and plants.
2. Donor Plant Conditions

Donor plants for ovule/ovary culture have been grown in the field, greenhouse, or growth cabi-
net. Embryogenic frequency differs, depending on where the plants are grown. A higher embryo
yield was observed when Beta vulgaris (sugar beet) donor plants were grown in the greenhouse
or growth cabinet than under field conditions (140). The time of year also appears to influence
embryogenesis in Beta and Gerbera spp. The summer months (May–September) were favorable
for embryo production in Beta sp., whereas callus induction of Gerbera sp. was highest during
the autumn months (140–142).
In Beta vulgaris, the location and age of the florets on the plant are important. Florets from
the lateral branches gave a higher ovule response in terms of embryo induction, when compared
to florets from the stem apex. In addition, florets from the lateral branches that formed first gave
a higher response than florets at the top of the plant or that formed later (143).
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Embryogenesis 51
3. Developmental Stage of the Female Gametophytic Cell

The female gametophyte, i.e., embryo sac, generally consists of seven cells (egg cell, two syn-
ergids, three antipodals, and central cell). The embryo sac can be cultured and potentially develop
into a haploid embryo. Histological studies in Helianthus, Beta, and Nicotiana spp. and Salvia
sclarea have shown that the egg cell develops into the embryo (144–147); however, antipodal or
synergid cells may also develop into embryos (148). Similar to that in androgenesis, the devel-
opmental stage of the female gametophyte influences embryogenesis (Table 7). There are a lim-
ited number of studies in this area as it is difficult to determine the developmental stage of the em-
bryo sac. For some species, there is a correlation between the development of the embryo sac and
the development of the pollen grain; hence, this correlation has been used to estimate the optimal
stage of culture (Table 7). San and Demarley (152) found that barley, wheat, maize, sugar beet,
and lettuce (Lactuca sativa) cells were most responsive in culture when the embryo sac was ma-
ture or nearly mature. At this stage, all cells had the capability of dividing and producing calli or
embryos. This is in contrast to androgenesis, in which microspores were immature, usually at the
mid-uninucleate to early-binucleate stage, for optimal embryogenic response.
4. Pretreatments
A cold pretreatment has proved beneficial for gynogenesis in a number of species. The tempera-
ture and duration of the cold pretreatment vary among different species. In rice, a treatment of
8°C for 6–14 days enhanced embryo production (138). A pretreatment temperature of 4°C was
beneficial for both Helianthus and Beta spp. However, a short duration of 24–48 hours was re-
quired for Helianthus sp. (126) but 4–5 days was beneficial for Beta vulgaris (140). Cold pre-
treatments were also beneficial for durum wheat (133) and Salvia sclarea (147). For Picea
sitchensis, a cold treatment was ineffective, whereas a heat treatment of 33°C for 2–4 days was
beneficial for callus induction (153).
5. Media Constituents
Similar to the culture of male gametophytic cells, the composition of the media plays a major role
in influencing haploid embryogenesis via the female gametophyte. The induction of calli occurs
most frequently on solid media although liquid media has been used for wheat and rice cultures
(154,155). Basal media like Murashige and Skoog (MS) (156), B5 (Gamborg B5), (157) and N6
(158,159) and modifications of these have been used in ovule/ovary cultures with success (129,
133,138,160).
Carbohydrate source and concentration are also important. Sucrose has been used most
widely for ovule/ovary culture with concentrations ranging from 2% to 10% (129,133,138,161).
Table 7 Developmental Stage of the Female Gametophyte Most Responsive to Gynogenesis
Corresponding male
Female gametophytic stage gametophytic stage Species Reference
Uninucleate to tetranucleate Late uninucleate to early Oryza sativa 149

embryo sac binucleate
Mature embryo sac Uninucleate Solanum tuberosum 150,151
Trinucleate Oryza sativa 138
Trinucleate Hordeum vulgare 124,129
Bicellular Triticum durum 133
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52 Ferrie
Higher levels of sucrose may inhibit growth and development. Other carbohydrates such as malt-
ose have also been used (92).
Growth regulators have been used to culture the female gametophyte and their effects dif-
fer among species. Beneficial effects of auxins and cytokinins have been reported either alone or
in combination with other growth regulators. The auxins 2,4-D (52,133,134,136), 4-chloro-2-
methylphenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) (126,129), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) (134), and napthale-
neacetic acid (NAA) (138) have been used. Cytokinins having beneficial effects include BA
(92,129) and N6-2-isopentenyladenine (2iP) (92). Other additives used successfully in the culture
of the female gametophyte include thiadiazorun (TDZ) (134,161), coconut water (129), and di-
methyl sulfoxide (DMSO) (138).
6. Culture Conditions
Very few studies have looked at the culture conditions required for continued development of the
female gametophyte. Usually callus induction or embryo development takes place in the dark;
however, light is required for plant regeneration. A dark period of 2–5 weeks was beneficial for
durum wheat (133). Culture temperatures usually range from 25°C to 28°C (127). A heat treat-
ment of 30°C led to a reduction in regeneration in Allium spp. (162). Other environmental factors
may also be beneficial. For example, up to 90% of the female gametophytes in a responsive Picea
sitchensis could be induced to form calli when given a low oxygen treatment for 7 weeks (153).
IV. HAPLOID OR DOUBLED HAPLOID PLANT PRODUCTION
A. Regeneration
Plants can be regenerated from cultures via direct embryogenesis or indirectly via a callus phase.
Genotype, media, and culture conditions can influence frequency of plantlet regeneration as well
as plantlet quality. For tobacco, regeneration takes place on anther culture medium, but for most
other species, a specific embryo culture medium is required. Usually embryo culture medium has
a lower level of carbohydrate and different growth regulators when compared to the induction
medium. Light is required for embryo germination and the temperature is usually 24°C to 26°C.
Poor plantlet regeneration and quality may limit utilization of the plants produced. Tissue
culture manipulations are required to improve embryo germination, plantlet regeneration, and
normality of the plantlets (163). An example of abnormality is that of albinism, which is a prob-
lem in cereals especially those derived from the male gametophytic cells. However, recent im-
provements to the protocol have resulted in an increase in the frequency of green plants regener-
ated (102,164–166). Studies have shown that alterations or deletions in plastid deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) may be the cause of albinism in cereals (167–169). At the ribonucleic acid (RNA)
level, transcription does occur in plastids; however, the pattern of plastid transcription of albino
plants is different from that of green plants (169). A large reduction of ribosomal RNA was also
observed in all albino plants.
B. Chromosome Doubling
Doubling the chromosome number of haploid plants is necessary for the production of doubled
haploid plants, which can then be used in breeding, genetic studies, mutagenesis, or gene trans-
fer. For some species, a chemical treatment is required because spontaneous doubling is very low.
Traditionally colchicine has been used to double the chromosome number. This compound is
classified as a carcinogen, and therefore other compounds that are less toxic have been evaluated
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Embryogenesis 53
as chromosome doubling agents. Oryzalin, trifluralin, amiprophos-methyl, and pronamide are an-
timicrotubule agents that can be used for this purpose. Both colchicine and antimicrotubule
agents have been used successfully to double the chromosome number of haploids generated via
androgenesis or gynogenesis (170–173).
Early chromosome doubling techniques involved colchicine application to the plants by
root immersion or application of colchicine to the buds. These techniques were time-consuming
and inefficient. More recently, in vitro chromosome doubling protocols have been developed. The
addition of colchicine or antimicrotubule agents to the microspore induction medium has resulted
in doubling frequencies similar to or greater than those achieved with doubling at the plant stage
(174–176). One additional feature of in vitro colchicine application to microspores has been an
improvement in the frequency of embryogenesis, which has been shown in Brassica spp. (122),
Zea mays (176), and Triticum aestivum (175). However, other studies have shown that colchicine
causes a reduction in embryogenesis (177).
V. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS
Many of the molecular, biochemical, and physiological aspects of haploid embryogenesis are
studied in Nicotiana, Triticum, and Brassica spp. These studies were feasible after the develop-
ment of microspore culture systems that provided high efficiency, uniform, synchronized em-
bryogenesis, as well as direct embryogenesis from the microspore with no intervening callus
phase. Pollen development follows a precise sequence of events. To change the developmental
pathway from the gametophytic to the embryogenic requires specific inductive conditions. It has
been shown that stress triggers the embryogenic pathway. These stress triggers include nitrogen
or sucrose starvation (56,88,89,178,179), thermal shock (cold or heat) (88,89,180–184), and
colchicine (185). Different species respond to different stress triggers. In B. napus, a heat shock
of 32°C for 8 hours results in embryo development, whereas microspores kept at 18°C develop
into mature pollen grains (184). Cultures maintained at 25°C contain both gametophytic cells and
embryogenic cells. Similarly, in Nicotiana sp. and wheat, sucrose starvation treatment in combi-
nation with heat shock was required for embryo induction (88).
Prior to culture, microspores have a large central vacuole, thin tonoplast, parietal cyto-
plasm, and peripheral nucleus. During stress the microspores swell, the cytoplasm reorganizes,
and the nucleus moves into the central position. Techniques have been developed so that the de-
velopment of an individual microspore can be followed from single cell to embryo (186). Em-
bryogenic microspores are difficult to identify, although methods have been reported. Sangwan
and Camefort (187) identified a cytological marker. They observed that within 12 hours, em-
bryogenic microspores developed a uniform coating, which consisted of tannins. Telmer et al.
(60) used fluorescence microscopy to identify embryogenic pollen grains. Flow cytometric tech-
niques have also been used to isolate embryogenic cells (188–190).
After 8 hours of culture, B. napus cells are irreversibly committed to embryogenesis. When
comparing heat-stressed cells (32°C) and nonstressed (18°C) cells, there was a twofold increase
in protein synthesis (192). Twenty-five proteins were differentially synthesized during the first 8
h of microspore embryogenesis (193). Seventeen of the proteins belonged to the class of heat
shock proteins (HSPs). Of the 25 proteins, 4 have been identified as HSP17, HSP68, HSP70, and
one that was not a HSP, which could be used as a marker for embryo induction (193). Further
studies have reported strong correlation among embryo induction, HSP70 synthesis, and location
of the nucleus (192). The expression of HSP68 and HSP70 under nonembryogenic conditions
was similar to in vivo pollen development (192,194). Smykal and Pechan (195) observed the ex-
pression of HSP17 corresponded to the frequency of embryogenesis. Expression of HSP17 was
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54 Ferrie
lower in plants that had poor embryogenic response than those plants with high embryogenic re-
sponse. There was also an association with HSP17 expression and embryogenesis induced by
colchicine treatment (195). Boutilier et al. (196) observed that high levels of napin seed storage
protein gene expression was correlated with induction of embryogenesis. No expression of the
napin gene was observed in microspores following normal pollen development. Napin gene ex-
pression was induced by elevated temperature (196). However, gene expression did not resemble
heat shock response, as expression remained high for a long time.
In Nicotiana sp. there was a decrease in overall synthesis of RNA and protein during the 7-
day starvation period. The degradation of protein or suppression of protein synthesis was neces-
sary to induce a switch from pollen to embryo development. In Brassica sp. there was an increase
in protein synthesis during the inductive period (first 48 hours) and then a gradual decrease in syn-
thesis. It has been postulated that there is gamete-specific gene expression that starts after the first
pollen mitosis when the microspores divide to produce a small generative cell and a large vege-
tative cell (192). In Brassica sp. where mid to late-uninucleate microspores are used, there is a
fast switch to embryogenesis (8 hours), whereas in Nicotiana sp., where mid-bicellular stage is
used, a longer stress is required (7 days).
Several approaches are being undertaken to isolate and characterize genes expressed dur-
ing induction of microspore embryogenesis. These include differential display of reverse tran-
scribed mRNAs, suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH), and mutagenesis. Several cDNA
fragments have been identified, of which some show homology to known genes (186,197).
Zárský et al. (198) first characterized a gene that was transcriptionally activated during pollen
embryogenesis. A genetic approach to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) is also being used
(199–201). Comparison has been made between responding and nonresponding Zea mays lines
(199–201). QTLs for anther culture response have been identified, however, the location of these
markers did not overlap and seemed to be genotype-specific.
VI. APPLICATION OF HAPLOID AND DOUBLED HAPLOID PLANTS
In vitro haploidy techniques aimed to produce haploid and doubled haploid plants were initially
developed for plant breeding. In some species, these techniques are well established and routinely
used by breeding groups to develop advanced breeding lines and cultivars (202,203). Cultivars,
derived via doubled haploidy, have recently been released and include Quantum and Q2 canola
(204) and McKenzie (R Graf, personal communication) and GK Délibáb (205) wheat. Haploids
and doubled haploids also have other practical and fundamental applications.
A. Varietal Development
The use of doubled haploids has a number of advantages in plant breeding. The main advantage is
the ability to produce a homozygous line in one generation rather than after several cycles of self-
ing and backcrossing. This saves 3–4 years in the development of a cultivar compared with a con-
ventional plant-breeding program (206). The canola cultivar Quantum was developed in 6 years
(204) instead of the usual 9–10 years required for a conventionally derived cultivar. With haploidy
technology, traits are immediately fixed in the homozygous condition, allowing a greater efficiency
of selection since there is no masking of recessive genes by dominant genes. The homozygous
doubled haploid plants are also an advantage in hybrid breeding in that they allow immediate test-
ing of combining ability. The use of doubled haploids also allows the plant breeders to use smaller
population sizes when screening for desirable genotypes (207). Doubled haploids in combination
with molecular markers can enhance the transfer of genes or chromosomal segments between lines
or species. These advantages result in savings of time, space, and effort.
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Embryogenesis 55
Anther/microspore culture techniques have been used to develop disease-resistant pepper

cultivars (116,208,209), higher-yielding eggplant (Solanum melongene) lines with better fruiting
ability (210), “supermale” asparagus (211), and high linolenic flax (Linum usitassimum) (212). In
addition, haploids or doubled haploids are used in genetic studies in detecting linkage and in cal-
culating recombination values between linked genes (28,213) as well as genome mapping for
major genes or QTLs (214–216). Genetic linkage and mapping studies are additional tools de-
veloped to enhance plant breeding.
B. Mutation Breeding
Conventional mutagenesis using seeds has been used to develop varieties in both ornamental and
crop species. The main disadvantage of using conventional methods of mutagenesis is that seed
is multicellular and therefore the resulting plant could potentially be chimeric. Also there is a lim-
ited chance of the mutant cells being part of the germ line. Mutagenesis of single cells, such as
microspores, which have a high regenerative potential, is desirable and has been used in mutation
breeding and selection studies. Because the microspore is a single cell, any genetic variation in-
duced by the mutagen is expressed in all cells of the regenerated plant and its progeny, therefore
eliminating chimeras and segregation. Both recessive and dominant traits are expressed and are
easily selectable in culture. Since selection can be made at the haploid or doubled haploid level,
undesirable traits can be readily discarded instead of being carried for generations in the het-
erozygote. Apart from the high regenerative potential of microspores, there are other advantages
for their use in mutagenesis. A large number of uniform cells can be exposed to chemical or phys-
ical mutagens in a relatively small space. Appropriate selection pressure can be applied to the cul-
ture to select mutants. In the case of herbicide-tolerant mutants, the chemical can be incorporated
directly into the culture medium and potential mutants can be selected. Screening thousands of
microspores in a petri plate can save resources compared to growing thousands of plants in the
greenhouse or field.
Although such advantages are evident, there are few reports of the successful use of mi-
crospores in mutation breeding. One limitation is the small number of species and genotypes in
which microspore embryogenesis can be reliably achieved in numbers sufficient for a mutagene-
sis approach. There may be negative effects of mutagens on regeneration capacity of the mi-
crospores. Microspore mutagenesis has been used in B. napus and B. rapa to develop lines resis-
tant to herbicide (217,218) or possessing alterations in the fatty acid profile (219–221). Isolated B.
napus microspores subjected to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation resulted in two lines showing in-
creased resistance to Alternaria brassicicola (222).
C. Gene Transfer
The haploid microspore system is advantageous for genetic transformation. This is due to the
availability of large numbers of uniform single cells, from which haploid or doubled haploid em-
bryos can be easily developed and regenerated to doubled haploid plants homozygous for the in-
troduced gene. Other advantages to transforming microspores are that the resulting transformants
are nonchimeric and as the male gametophyte is less tolerant to genetic aberration, there is a nat-
ural selection for normality. In addition, in systems where direct embryogenesis occurs, undesir-
able somaclonal variation is largely eliminated, as no callus phase is present. However, this tech-
nique relies on efficient microspore culture protocols, and since both species and genotype play
a major role in embryogenic response, this method of gene transfer cannot yet be applied to all
species and genotypes. An efficient screening procedure is another requirement. Green fluores-
cent protein (GFP) is a nontoxic, nondestructive marker, which has been used successfully in
screening for transgenic pollen in male germ line transformation (223,224) although this study
did not involve in vitro haploidy techniques. Other genes like β-glucuronidase (GUS) and firefly
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56 Ferrie
luciferase (Luc) have also been used as markers to identify transformed microspores and embryos
(225–230).
Microspores or microspore-derived embryos have been the subject of transformation stud-
ies. Several methods have been investigated, including microinjection (231,232), Agrobacterium
mediation (233–235), Agrobacterium and particle bombardment (236), electroporation and PEG
delivery (225,227,237), and particle bombardment (226,228–230,238–240). Most of this work
has been conducted in barley, tobacco, and B. napus since in vitro haploidy techniques are well
established. However, these studies generally report transient expression and low efficiency of
transformation. This topic has been reviewed by Harwood et al. (241) and Morikawa and Nishi-
hara (242).
D. Biochemical and Physiological Studies

The developmental sequences of many biochemical pathways of a zygotic embryo and a mi-
crospore-derived embryo are similar (243), and therefore microspore-derived embryos can be
used in fundamental biochemical and physiological studies. Much of this work has been done in
the Brassica species. This includes lipid storage (244,245), oil quality (246), glucosinolate me-
tabolism (247), chlorophyll metabolism (248), freezing tolerance (249,250), and embryo matu-
ration studies (251).
VII. CONCLUSION
Androgenesis and gynogenesis are powerful tools in crop improvement. Substantial advances
have been made in the area of in vitro haploidy techniques since the original experiments in the
1960s. The focus of the early experiments was to develop a protocol for generating embryos/
plants from gametophytic cells (i.e., microspores or ovaries/ovules). Constant improvements in
media and culture conditions have allowed us to produce embryos/plants reliably and in sufficient
numbers to allow the use of the system for practical application. For some species, in vitro hap-
loidy techniques are well established and are being routinely used to develop breeding lines and
cultivars. However, improvements are still required to widen the range of responding species and
genotypes and to improve quantity and quality of doubled haploid plants. Many species such as
legumes, specialty crops, woody plants, and medicinal plants are still considered recalcitrant to
haploid induction. Fewer species are amenable to gynogenic procedures. The numerous advan-
tages of in vitro haploidy technology are only starting to be exploited, and exciting opportunities
lie ahead to develop these technologies. Since reliable in vitro haploidy technologies are now
available in some species, there are a number of questions to be answered: What is the underly-
ing mechanism of gametophytic embryogenesis? What genes control embryogenesis? What is the
potential of transferring this ability to other genotypes? New technologies such as DNA arrays
and DNA chip technologies may have application in the area of gene expression. In vitro haploidy
technology would also greatly promote advances in the understanding of the basic biochemical
and physiological processes in nature.
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4
Shoot Regeneration and
Proliferation
Seedhabadee Ganeshan, Karen L. Caswell, Kutty K. Kartha, and Ravindra N. Chibbar

I. INTRODUCTION 69
II. STRATEGIES FOR IN VITRO SHOOT PRODUCTION 70
III. IMPLICATIONS OF IN VITRO SHOOT PROLIFERATION IN
TRANSGENE TECHNOLOGY 71
A. Axillary Shoot Formation 71
B. Direct Adventitious Shoot Formation 71
C. Callus-Mediated Production of Adventitious Shoots 74
IV. FACTORS AFFECTING IN VITRO SHOOT PRODUCTION
AND PROLIFERATION 74
A. Biotic Factors 75
B. Abiotic Factors 76
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 78
REFERENCES 80
I. INTRODUCTION
The ability of plant cells cultured in vitro, under suitable conditions, to form completely normal
plantlets efficiently and reproducibly is the cornerstone for the production of transgenic plants.
The retention of totipotency in differentiated plant cells provides the theoretical basis for this
unique phenomenon in plants. Thus, plant tissues cultured in vitro can differentiate to form de
novo organs such as shoots, roots, flowers, and embryos. Although the concept of plant cell
totipotency dates back to the late 1800s, it was first demonstrated in 1939 when Gautheret (1),
Nobécourt (2), and White (3) independently reported that continuously growing callus cultures
were derived from meristematic tissues. However, Skoog (4) and Skoog and Tsui (5) are credited
with the induction of callus and adventitious shoots from isolated mature and differentiated cells.
They also implicated plant growth substances in the induction of shoot and/or root initiation from
NRCC No. 43799
69
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70 Ganeshan et al.
tobacco callus, thereby providing the principle on which all micropropagation depends. Since
these pioneering discoveries related to de novo organ formation from plant tissue cultures, this re-
search area has developed into a scientific discipline that has become critical to the production of
transgenic plants. Although the major impediments encountered in in vitro culture of most plant
species have been overcome, the process still requires careful optimization in order to develop an
efficient transgenic technology for plant improvement. In addition to development of high-fre-
quency transformation efficiencies, the transgene must be stably integrated into the genome, in-
herited in a predictable manner, and expressed with fidelity. The foundation for fulfilling these re-
quirements lies in the efficient regeneration of plants from a single cell that has received the gene
of interest.
The in vitro production of shoots has been studied for a number of years with different ob-
jectives in mind. Initial experiments focused on the effect of plant growth regulators on such
processes as callogenesis (callus formation), embryogenesis (somatic embryo formation), caulo-
genesis (shoot formation), and rhizogenesis (root formation) under controlled conditions, all of
which, with the exception of rhizogenesis, culminate in the production of shoots in vitro. In the
mid-1970s, in vitro shoot proliferation was used for clonal propagation of elite germplasm of eco-
nomically important plant species. Optimized protocols based on a number of parameters such as
the physiological status of donor plants, explant size and type, culture medium composition, and
environmental conditions during incubation of cultures were developed. In the mid-1980s, with
the advent of transgenic technology, the interaction of optimized regeneration protocols with de-
oxyribonucleic acid (DNA) delivery methods and selective agents became the focus of many re-
ports. The decade of the 1990s saw the extension of in vitro shoot regeneration systems to a wide
range of plant species, including many that were previously considered recalcitrant. It is an oner-
ous task to present an extensive commentary on the vast volume of literature devoted to in vitro
shoot proliferation. However, we will attempt to highlight critical issues that pertain to in vitro
shoot proliferation and to the application of such a system to produce transgenic plants.
II. STRATEGIES FOR IN VITRO SHOOT PRODUCTION
The developmental fates of cultured cells are dictated by a complex number of stimuli, which trig-
ger a cascade of events at the molecular level, hitherto only superficially understood. The results
of such interactions lead to in vitro shoot production according to the following developmental
pathways: (a) elongation of dormant meristems, (b) adventitious shoot formation, (c) organogen-
esis from callus or cell cultures, and (d) somatic embryogenesis. The elongation of preformed
meristems is essentially the proliferation in culture of axillary meristems. This form of in vitro
shoot production is widely used in commercial micropropagation. Its use in the production of
transgenic plants is unclear at present, as discussed in the following paragraphs. The remaining
three approaches for in vitro shoot production are of vital importance to transgenic plant produc-
tion. In vitro regeneration through somatic embryogenesis has been discussed in an accompany-
ing chapter, and therefore is not discussed here. The focus of this review is on the in vitro pro-
duction and proliferation of shoots from meristems or meristemlike tissues, depending on the
starting explant type.
However, before proceeding further, the pertinent terminologies used in this chapter are de-
fined. The terms adventitious shoot formation and organogenesis are often cited interchangeably
in tissue culture literature, and a very fine line of distinction between these two processes is gen-
erally perceived. Organogenesis refers to the formation of unipolar structures such as shoot or
root primordia from cells or tissues in culture (6). Adventitious shoot formation refers to the de
novo development of a shoot or shoots from points of origin other than the axils of leaves or
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Shoot Regeneration and Proliferation 71
apices (7). In nature, the occurrence of adventitious shoots on leaves, modified leaves, stems, or
roots is common (8). By extrapolation, shoots produced directly from calli can also be referred to
as adventitious. Moreover, these processes of shoot formation, from callus or other plant tissues,
are initiated from meristemlike layers of cells often referred to as shoot meristemoids (6), as an
analogy to shoot meristems in planta. Meristemoids were described by Torrey (9) as meristem-
atic layers of cells organized within calli that have the potential to differentiate into shoots, roots,
or embryos. Throughout this chapter the term adventitious shoot is used to encompass in vitro
shoot production from either plant tissues or calli.
III. IMPLICATIONS OF IN VITRO SHOOT PROLIFERATION

IN TRANSGENE TECHNOLOGY
A. Axillary Shoot Formation
As mentioned earlier, elongation of dormant meristems is widely used for clonal micropropaga-
tion. For some species that are recalcitrant to classical vegetative propagation methods, in vitro
shoot development has proved to be of great value (10). Some advantages of axillary shoot mul-
tiplication (refer to Ref. 10) are rapid production of a large number of plants, expeditious inter-
national exchange of germplasm, and production of disease-free stocks (11). A shoot prolifera-
tion system such as this would be a prime target for transformation. Although feasible, it raises
the problem of production of chimeras (12), because it is highly unlikely that all the cells of a
meristematic dome could have received the gene. However, there are reports claiming transfor-
mation of shoot apices. Successful transformation of shoot apices of petunia using Agrobacterium
sp. was achieved for the first time by Ulian et al. (13). Hussey et al. (14) reported on the trans-
formation of meristematic cells within shoot apices and young primordia of pea shoots by
Agrobacterium sp. Although tumor formation was reported, no shoot regeneration was men-
tioned. Gould et al. (12) transformed shoot apical meristems of Zea mays using Agrobacterium
tumefaciens and recovered transgenic, as well as chimeric, plants from preexisting shoot apical
meristems. A similar observation was reported by Schrammeijer et al. (15), in an attempt to trans-
form shoot meristems of sunflower.
Considering the advantages of shoot meristems for in vitro shoot production, a modifica-
tion of the microprojectile bombardment technique for DNA transfer to meristematic cells was
suggested (16). In order to target the gene to the few cells in the meristematic region that would
ultimately give rise to a plant, Sautter et al. (16) developed a system referred to as biolistic micro
targeting. Using this method, transient expression of the GUS and anthocyanin genes was re-
ported in wheat meristem cells (17).
B. Direct Adventitious Shoot Formation

There are numerous reports on the production of adventitious shoots directly from plant tissues,
and no attempt is made here to present an exhaustive list. There are several advantages to this
method, both for regeneration of plants, as well as for their genetic transformation (18). It has
been suggested that direct initiation of shoots would alleviate the problems associated with so-
maclonal variation (19), which is generally attributed to the passage of plant tissues in culture via
a callus-mediated phase (20). Furthermore, the time from initiation of culture to production of
plants is significantly reduced. It is a particularly appealing system for production of transgenic
plants. Table 1 shows selected examples of transformation strategies using adventitious shoot ini-
tiation. The explants used include stem segments, leaf disks, cotyledons, hypocotyls, embryonic
axes, shoot apices, and buds. Both Agrobacterium sp. and particle bombardment have been used
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Table 1 Examples of Transformed Plants Produced Through Organogenesis
72
Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated transformation
Species Common Name Explant Regeneration Ref.
Arachis hypogaea L. Peanut Epicotyl or leaf Multiple shoots 80

Brassica napus Rapeseed Hypocotyl sections Shoots from callus 81
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L. Taiwan cauliflower Hypocotyl Adventitious bud regeneration 82
Brassica oleracea var. capitata Cabbage Hypocotyl or petiole Shoots from explant or callus 83
Brassica oleracea var. italica Broccoli Peduncle, hypocotyl or petiole Shoots from explant or callus 83
Cicer arietinum L. Chickpea Embryo axis from seed Direct mutiple shoot production 22
Cichorium intybus L. var. sativum Chicory Shoot buds Multiple shoots produced per bud 84
Citrus aurantifolia Swing. Lime Internodal stem segments Adventitious shoots 85
Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck Sweet orange Internodal stem segments Multiple shoots and in vitro grafting 86
Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck × Carrizo citrange Internodal stem segments Little callus formed before shoots 87
Poncirus trifoliata L. Raf.
Dendranthema indicum L. Des Chrysanthemum Leaf pieces Shoots directly from leaf pieces 88
Moul
Dendranthema × Grandiflorum Florists’ chrysanthemum Leaf pieces Organogenesis with or without callus 89
Fragaria × ananassa Dush. Strawberry Leaf disks Shoots from meristematic regions 90
Glycine max L. Merr. Soybean Cotyledonary node Multiple shoots 91
Glycine max L. Merr. Soybean Cotyledons De novo adventitious shoots 92
Lycopersicon chilense Dun. Wild tomato Leaf disks Direct or indirect organogenesis 93
Lycopersicon esculentum Tomato Leaf sections Shoots from callus 94
Malus × domestica Borkh. Apple Leaves Shoots from callus 95
Medicago truncatula Barrel medic Cotyledons plus split embryonic Direct organogenesis 96
axis
Nicotiana alata Link & Otto Flowering tobacco Hypocotyls Organogenesis, no callus 97
Oryza sativa L. Rice Shoot meristems Elongation of preformed meristems 98
Pelargonium × domesticum Regal pelargonium Leaf-lamina explants Adventitious shoots from callus 99
Dubonnet
Pisum sativum L. Pea Epicotyl segments or nodes Organogenesis 100
Pisum sativum L. Pea Seed embryonic axis Organogenesis 101
Poncirus trifoliata Raf. Trifoliate orange Epicotyl segments Adventitious shoots 102
Ganeshan et al.
Populus alba × P. grandidentata Hybrid poplar Suspension cultures Shoots from callus 103
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Rubus Blackberry, raspberry Internodes Organogenesis 104
Solanum melongena L. Eggplant Cotyledonary leaves Organogenesis or embryogenesis 105
Solanum tuberosum L. Potato Leaf disks Adventitious shoots with or without callus 106
Solanum tuberosum L. Potato Leaf strips Shoots from callus 107
Solanum tuberosum L. Potato Stem internode sections Shoots from callus 108
Trifolium repens L. White clover Cotyledons and apical shoot Direct shoot organogenesis 109
Trifolium subterraneum L. Subterranean clover Hypocotyl segments Adventitious shoots, organogenesis 110
Ulmus procera English elm Shoots or internodes Shoots from tumors 111
Vigna radiata Mung bean Cotyledons Organogenesis 112
Agrobacterium rhizogenes–Mediated Transformation
Astragalus sinicus Chinese milk vetch Seedlings Callus, roots, shoots from roots 113
Lotus angustissimus L. Slender bird’s-foot-trefoil Plantlets Shoots from adventitious hairy root calli 114
Shoot Regeneration and Proliferation
Microprojectile–Mediated Transformation
Avena sativa L. Oat Shoot meristematic culture Adventitious shoot meristems 18

Catharanthus roseus Periwinkle Nodal explants with axillary buds Adventitious organogenesis 21
Eucalyptus globulus Eucalyptus Zygotic embryos Shoots from callus 23
Hordeum vulgare L. Barley Shoot meristematic culture Adventitious shoot meristems 18
Phaseolus vulgaris L. Common bean Seed meristems De novo shoot formation 115
Phaseolus vulgaris L. Bean Shoot apices Multiple shoot formation 116
Zea mays L. Maize Shoot apices Shoot tip multiplication 117
73
74 Ganeshan et al.
to deliver DNA to the target tissues. Particle bombardment was used to transform nodal explants
of Catharanthus roseus with GFP or GUS reporter genes, and adventitious bud induction was
achieved on medium containing 1 mg/l benzyladenine (BA) (21). A 98% survival rate of rooted
shoots was also reported upon transfer to soil. The embryo axis of chickpea, devoid of the root
meristem and shoot apex, was transformed with Agrobacterium tumefaciens and cultured on
medium containing 3.0 mg/l BA and 0.004 mg/l naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), wherein multi-
ple shoots were induced (22). Zhang et al. (18) reported on the transformation of commercial cul-
tivars of oat and barley from in vitro shoot meristematic cultures by using particle bombardment.
Transformed plants for both cultivars were obtained.
C. Callus-Mediated Production of Adventitious Shoots

The induction of adventitious shoots directly from calli is also a very useful approach for the in
vitro proliferation of shoots. Since production of adventitious shoots directly from tissues is not
always possible for many species, a callus-mediated phase is beneficial. Although the phenome-
non of somaclonal variation has been attributed to callus-mediated cultures, the frequency of oc-
currence of such genetic instability varies from genotype to genotype (19). Nonetheless, callus or
transformed tissue derived callus has been used for shoot induction for a number of plant species
(Table 1). Serrano et al. (23) transformed zygotic embryos of Eucalyptus globulus and produced
calli, which led to shoot formation by organogenesis. Internodes from in vitro grown plants of
Forsythia × intermedia were transformed using Agrobacterium sp., and after an intermediary cal-
lus phase, shoots were induced (24). Studies have also been conducted to determine the effect of
selection agents on shoot induction. Casas et al. (25) observed that callus induced from immature
inflorescences transformed by particle bombardment underwent two pathways for shoot produc-
tion upon selection with bialaphos for the bar gene. In the absence of bialaphos embryogenesis
occurred preferentially, whereas the presence of bialaphos led to shoot induction mainly by
organogenesis.
IV. FACTORS AFFECTING IN VITRO SHOOT PRODUCTION

AND PROLIFERATION
Although the production and proliferation of shoots in vitro are possible for many species, there
are critical parameters to be followed in order to alter the developmental pathway of cultured cells
and to regenerate plants efficiently. Interaction of explant tissues with components of culture
medium alone is not sufficient to achieve this. A plethora of other factors such as explant type,
growth conditions of donor plants, light, temperature, and humidity affect the culture process at
every stage of in vitro regeneration. Furthermore, many studies have implicated the genotype ef-
fect on regeneration in vitro (6); the consequence is that a specific optimal set of conditions is re-
quired for each genotype. However, the time-consuming and labor-intensive nature of this opti-
mization process is not practical. Instead, a consensus is reached on a set of culture medium
compositions and conditions for use with genotypes of the same species, sometimes with minor
modifications.
The process of in vitro shoot production can be broadly divided into three stages as follows
(6): (a) shoot induction, (b) shoot development and proliferation, and (c) rhizogenesis from de-
veloped shoots. At each stage different sets of conditions may be required. For some genotypes
or explants, all three stages can be effectively completed with one set of conditions. It is therefore
imperative to set preliminary experiments to fine tune the whole process a priori, then proceed
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with actual large-scale experiments. The factors involved in the in vitro shoot proliferation
process can, therefore, be divided into biotic and abiotic. Whereas biotic factors are associated
with the genotype per se, abiotic factors comprise all the physical and chemical environments sus-
taining the in vitro culture process. Essentially, this is analogous to the genotype × environment
interaction encountered by plant breeders and quantitative geneticists to account for the perfor-
mance of a particular cultivar under different environments, albeit at a microenvironmental level
in tissue culture.
A. Biotic Factors
Although the concept of totipotency iterates that every cell in a plant is capable of regenerating a
whole new plant, choice of the initial starting material is important. Explants for culture have
been obtained from a number of sources such as leaves, stems, shoots, roots, flowers, or imma-
ture tissues. However, for a specific genotype one explant may be more responsive in culture than
others. This is because the extent to which a differentiated cell can dedifferentiate depends on the
cytological and physiological states it has attained (26), in conjunction with the genotypic back-
ground of the donor plant material (27,28). The physiological state can be due to the growth con-
ditions of the donor plant and the origin, size, and relative maturity of the explant. Many reports
have alluded to the impact of the physiological state of explants and/or whole donor plants on in
vitro response. However, most of the studies have focused on factors affecting androgenesis and
somatic embryogenesis. Nonetheless, those factors influence in vitro shoot development in a sim-
ilar manner. For example, plants grown in growth chambers and greenhouses, as opposed to field-
grown plants, have been found to be more responsive to in vitro regeneration. The fluctuation in
temperature, incident radiation, humidity, exposure to pests and diseases, and nutrient levels
would very easily affect the physiological state of the plant. Using immature embryos derived
from four cultivars of Zea mays grown for three consecutive years in the field, Santos and Torné
(29) showed variation in the production of totipotent callus within and among the cultivars over
the three years.
1. Explant
The choice of the explant is crucial in that it may affect the success of the whole process leading
to shoot production. Reference to the explant in terms of position on the donor plant, size, and
maturity implicates the explant’s physiological and developmental state. Generally, embryonic,
meristematic, and reproductive tissues have been found to be more amenable to culture (30). A
number of studies have been conducted to determine the efficiency of different explants for
organogenesis. For example, in a comparative study of Panax ginseng explants obtained from
leaves, petioles, flower stalks, and roots of in vitro grown plants, Lim et al. (31) found the peti-
oles to be more suited for callus induction. Petiole-derived callus was subsequently used for ad-
ventitious shoot induction. The morphogenetic pathways of explants from Citrus grandis were
found to vary with the type of the explant and medium composition (32). Multiple shoots were
formed de novo from epicotyl and root segments, when cultured on MS medium supplemented
with BA, although a lower level of BA was required for root segments. However, cotyledonary
and leaf explants produced calli, which subsequently regenerated shoots. High frequencies of
shoots were also obtained from shoot tips and nodal explants. Therefore, judicious selection of
explants, in combination with specific culture medium types, would determine the pathway and
efficiency of shoot production. Orientation and polarity of the explant on culture medium can also
affect the developmental pathway of cultured cells. Garcia et al. (33) showed that epicotyl seg-
ments of Troyer citrange produced adventitious shoots directly from the apical end when placed
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76 Ganeshan et al.
vertically, with the basal end in the culture medium. However, when the explant was placed hor-
izontally, callus induction occurred at both ends of the epicotyl and adventitious shoots developed
from the calli when the culture medium was supplemented with BA.
2. Genotype
The process of shoot regeneration is further compounded by the genotypic influence inherent in
the donor plant, the so-called genotype dependency. In 1975, Steward et al. (34) observed differ-
ences in the abundance and form of somatic embryos derived from four cultivars of carrot. Green
and Phillips (35) found that of four cultivars of maize they studied, three produced shoots by
organogenesis and one produced somatic embryos. Other studies have demonstrated varying fre-
quencies of callus induction, somatic embryogenesis, androgenesis, and regeneration among dif-
ferent genotypes. Most of the studies have focused on genotypic effects with regard to androge-
nesis and somatic embryogenesis; reports on the genotypic influence on organogenesis are less
widespread. Banerjee et al. (36) found variation in the rate of shoot bud proliferation from meris-
tem tip cultures of eight triploid cultivars of Musa spp. The variation was suggested to be due to
the presence of one or two B genomes. Higher frequency of bud proliferation tended to correlate
with ABB or AAB genomic composition. The genetics and inheritance of organogenic potential
have been studied in only few species (e.g., 37, 38). For example, in melon, the organogenic re-
sponse was suggested to be under the control of two genes, which were partially dominant and
segregated independently (37).
B. Abiotic Factors
The influence of the physicochemical environment of the explant during culture is as important
as that of the biotic factors. The composition of the culture medium and physical factors such as
light, temperature, and humidity can greatly affect the developmental pathway of the cultured
cells and preclude attainment of desired morphogenesis and morphogenic efficiency.
1. Culture Medium Composition

The basic composition of a culture medium includes the following: macro- and microelements,
vitamins, plant growth substances, carbon source, and sometimes miscellaneous compounds. The
macro- and microelements and vitamin constituents have remained fairly constant, although dif-
ferent formulations have been developed over the years to suit particular culture systems. The
Murashige and Skoog (39) medium has been one of the most commonly used culture media since
its inception. Prior to that, medium formulations devised by White (40) and Heller (41) were
widely used. Many of the medium formulations, such as Eriksson (42), B5 (43), and Schenk and
Hildebrandt (44), have evolved from the MS medium composition. One or more of these medium
types are often tried in preliminary experiments to assess the efficiency of each.
2. Plant Growth Regulators

The role of plant growth regulators in in vitro cultures has been documented extensively. In fact,
the pioneering work of Skoog and Miller (45), implicating the interaction between auxins and cy-
tokinins in the initiation of roots and shoots, has made possible the in vitro regeneration of a wide
array of plant species. It is now common knowledge that the concentrations and ratios of these
two classes of compounds influence callus production, organogenesis, and somatic embryogene-
sis. For callus induction high levels of auxins are usually required, whereas shoot production gen-
erally requires higher levels of cytokinins. However, there are exceptions. The most commonly
used auxins are 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), and in-
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dole acetic acid (IAA). The commonly used cytokinins are kinetin and 6-benzyladenine (BA).
Several other types of these plant growth substances, or analogues thereof, are also used. Com-
pounds that are unrelated to auxins and cytokinins but produce similar effects have also been
used.
The in vitro proliferation of shoots requires careful optimization of the levels of auxins and
cytokinins at each stage during the culture process. Four potential pathways exist when an explant
is inoculated onto a culture medium, viz., callogenesis, caulogenesis, rhizogenesis, and somatic
embryogenesis; the latter three occur either directly or via callus mediation. Plant growth regula-
tors play an important role in determining the outcome of these processes. A detailed account of
plant growth regulator combinations and levels for in vitro proliferation of shoots is not given here,
since these have been the subject of a number of research publications and reviews. In general,
higher levels of cytokinins and lower levels of auxins have been found to induce multiple shoots.
Other plant growth regulators such as gibberellins, abscisic acid, and ethylene have been used in
conjunction with auxins and cytokinins for improvement of morphogenesis in vitro. The ability of
a novel plant growth substance, thidiazuron (TDZ), to induce multiple shoots is now well docu-
mented (46,47). It has been claimed to have both auxinlike and cytokininlike activities (46), but its
mode of action has not been fully elucidated. TDZ, alone or in combination with auxins or cy-
tokinins, has been used in diverse species of plants for in vitro shoot proliferation. A combination
of TDZ and BA (at 2 mg/l of each) was used for multiple shoot production from cotyledonary nodes
of Vicia faba (48). When TDZ or BA was used alone, the frequency of shoot production was lower.
Cotyledons and hypocotyl segments of Glycine max cultured on medium containing 2 mg/l TDZ
produced more shoots than those cultured on medium containing 1.15 mg/l BA (49). TDZ has also
been found to switch developmental pathways in cultures of Cicer arietinum, by supplementing
the medium with an amino acid (50). MS medium supplemented with TDZ induced multiple
shoots directly from cotyledonary notches of seedlings. When the MS medium was supplemented
with l-proline, somatic embryos were mainly induced. TDZ has also been used to induce multi-
ple shoots from a graminaceous species. Gupta and Conger (51) were able to induce multiple
shoots from seedlings of switchgrass, Panicum virgatum. Another plant growth substance, brassin,
which is a synthetic analogue of brassinolide (52), has also been implicated in in vitro shoot pro-
liferation, albeit indirectly. Ponsamuel et al. (53) demonstrated that although caulogenesis was in-
duced from plumular explants of Arachis hypogaea, most of the shoot buds were dormant. Con-
version of these dormant shoots occurred upon transfer to a medium containing brassin, BA, and
naphthoxyacetic acid. Polyamines have been demonstrated to play a role in morphogenesis, either
directly or indirectly (for a review, see Refs. 54 and 55). Chi et al. (56) reported on the enhance-
ment of de novo shoot formation from cotyledonary explants of Brassica campestris spp. pekinen-
sis, in response to polyamines such as spermidine, spermine, and putrescine.
3. Carbon Source in Culture Media

Sucrose has been one of the most commonly used carbon sources in tissue cultures. Glucose has
also been used to some extent. However, in recent years studies have demonstrated that maltose
is a very effective carbohydrate source for improved response of plant tissues in culture (57,58).
Besides providing the required energy source to the cultured tissues, carbohydrates have also
been shown to contribute to the osmoticum of the medium (59).
4. Environmental Factors
Physical requirements such as light, temperature, and humidity are equally important in the
process of in vitro growth and development. Culture response can be affected by duration of ex-
posure to light and its intensity and quality. Although photosynthesis may not necessarily occur
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78 Ganeshan et al.
in cultured tissues, light may be required for other photomorphogenetic processes (60). Light re-
quirements tend to be overlooked but can affect morphogenesis (61,62). For callus induction, cul-
tures are generally incubated in the dark, wherein prolific callus development occurs. Low light
intensity favors shoot-bud induction in tobacco (4,63). Organogenesis is also affected by expo-
sure to continuous light (64), and generally cultures are incubated under a photoperiod of 16/8-
hour light/dark cycle. The influence of light quality on shoot production has been studied to some
extent with varying results. Although fluorescent lamps (cool white) are the most commonly used,
sometimes better results have been obtained when combining incandescent lamps with cool white
lamps. Schneider-Moldrickx (65) studied the effect of light from six different types of fluorescent
lamps on adventitious shoot production from leaf explants of Kalanchoë sp. It was found that
lamps that emitted mostly orange-red light increased the frequency of adventitious shoot forma-
tion, whereas lamps that principally emitted in the ultraviolet (UV) or near-UV range inhibited
adventitious shoot formation.
Growth and differentiation of cultures in vitro are expected to proceed at altered rates at dif-
ferent temperatures. Cultures are usually incubated at 24°C–26°C. Ideally, for each genotype an
optimal temperature for in vitro growth and development is required (62,66) and is generally
3°C–4°C higher than in vivo (10). Better shoot bud initiation was obtained when hypocotyl seg-
ments of Linum usitatissimum were incubated at 30°C (67). Skoog (4) studied the response of to-
bacco callus growth and differentiation at temperatures ranging from 5°C to 33°C. Callus growth
increased with increasing temperatures, but no shoot buds were initiated at 33°C. The optimal
temperature for shoot bud initiation was found to be 18°C. Higher temperatures, which may pro-
duce optimal explant differentiation, may potentially encourage growth of contaminants in cul-
tures. In some cases, alternating temperatures may be required to induce growth and differentia-
tion, much as in a photoperiod. This was demonstrated by Capite (68); best callus growth was
obtained when cultures of Helianthus tuberosus, Parthenocissus sp., and carrot were incubated at
26°C during the day and at 20°C at night.
Humidity has not been given much attention with regard to in vitro shoot development. Cul-
ture vessels are sealed and are, therefore, expected to maintain a relative humidity of close to
100%. High relative humidity can lead to growth of contaminants. Besides humidity inside a cul-
ture vessel, gaseous components hovering over cultures can influence growth and development
(62). A number of gases such as ethylene, ethanol, and acetaldehyde, in addition to oxygen and
carbon dioxide, can be found in the culture vessels. Ethylene buildup inside culture vessels can
either adversely or positively affect morphogenetic potential (69). Gonzalez et al. (70) showed
that use of aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) (an inhibitor of ethylene synthesis) in culture
medium inhibited organogenesis from nodal explants of Populus tremula. Medium containing ei-
ther 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), a precursor of ethylene, or ethepon (ethrel,
2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid [CEPA]), which decomposes to release ethylene, induced organo-
genesis. These two compounds are involved in ethylene production and therefore indicate a pos-
itive effect of ethylene for shoot induction. A study by Chraibi et al. (71) demonstrated that addi-
tion of silver nitrate (an inhibitor of the physiological action of ethylene) to culture medium
enhanced shoot production from cotyledonary cultures of Helianthus annuus. In the same study,
cobalt chloride (an inhibitor of ethylene biosynthesis) stimulated shoot production.
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
The production of shoots in vitro is the culmination of a series of complex events triggered by
physical and chemical stimuli perceived by receptors within the explant. Although the combina-
tion of these stimuli catalyzes the reprogramming of cells for dedifferentiation, only a judicious
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approach can determine the proper developmental fates of those cells via callogenesis, cauloge-
nesis, rhizogenesis, or somatic embyogenesis. These events can occur independently or concur-
rently, or callogenesis may lead to the other three processes. In this review, several issues related
to the production of shoots in vitro have been discussed. Besides the selection of the explants and
cultural aspects for efficient shoot production, the genotypic constitution of the donor plants was
implicated. Unfortunately, the latter cannot be obviated currently. To compound matters further,
very often the most desirable genotypes of commercial value tend to be the least responsive in
culture. The elucidation of this genotypic dependence has been the subject of many studies, par-
ticularly in anther culture responsiveness. Nonetheless, results from those studies may possibly
be correlated to organogenic response. In fact, a report by Veronneau et al. (72) established a cor-
relation between anther culture response and leaf disk culture response in Solanum chacoense.
Two anther culture responsive clones and eight of their reciprocal F1 hybrids were analyzed for
anther and leaf disk culture response. Genetic analysis of the reciprocal hybrids revealed a sig-
nificant correlation (r = 0.82) between callus induction from anthers and shoot induction from
leaf disks. Therefore, under those specific culture conditions, it was suggested that the genetic
control mechanism for these two types of cultures might be similar. Furthermore, the study also
indicated estimates of broad-sense heritability to be 83% for leaf disk culture, indicating that the
gene(s) for culture responsiveness may be transferred to nonresponsive genotypes with relative
ease. More research on the genetic analysis of caulogenetic responsiveness needs to be con-
ducted, so as to maximize the efficiency of this simple culture system.
Characterization of a number of genes involved in meristem-related expression has been
achieved (73). The role of two of these genes is illustrated to highlight the potential of molecular
tools and transformation technologies in dissecting developmental pathways to contribute to the
understanding of genetic switches involved during in vitro shoot production. The gene cdc2Zm
encodes a cyclin-dependent kinase involved in cell division (74) and the gene knotted1 (KN1)
(75) encodes a protein associated with shoot meristem formation (76). Zhang et al. (77) studied
the expression of these two genes in maize and their cross-reacting proteins in barley during in
vitro axillary shoot meristem proliferation and adventitious shoot formation. Expression of
CDC2Zm approximately corresponded with in vitro cell proliferation. Also, in meristematic
domes its expression was initiated during in vitro proliferation. Expression of KN1, or its homo-
logue, was localized in meristematic cells during proliferation of axillary shoots in vitro. Cells in
the proliferating meristematic domes expressing KN1, or its homologue, seemed to form multi-
ple adventitious shoot meristems. In transgenic maize, leaves overexpressing KN1 did not lead to
initiation of adventitious shoot meristem on their surfaces. However, ectopic expression of KN1
was observed in leaves of Arabidopsis sp. (78) and tobacco (79). It was inferred that KN1 alone
was not responsible for adventitious shoot meristem formation from in vitro proliferating axillary
shoot meristems in maize.
For the transgene technology to be more effective, the advantages offered by in vitro shoot
proliferation systems would be of great value. The transfer of genes to explants from a number of
species used for in vitro adventitious shoot induction is now possible by particle bombardment
and Agrobacterium sp.–mediated techniques. Refinement of the methodologies and assessment
of possible genotypic instability due to insertion of the gene and/or culture process must be un-
dertaken.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Professor C.E. (Don) Palmer (University of Manitoba) and Dr. Patricia Polowick are gratefully
acknowledged for the review of this manuscript.
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80 Ganeshan et al.
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5
Techniques for Gene Marking,
Transferring, and Tagging
Albert Abbott
Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina
I. MOLECULAR MARKER SYSTEMS 85

II. PROTEIN MARKER SYSTEMS 86
III. DNA MARKER SYSTEMS 86
A. Hybridization-Based Markers 86
B. DNA Amplification Fingerprinting (DAF) 88
IV. TAGGING SIMPLE TRAITS 90
V. TAGGING COMPLEX TRAITS 90
A. Quantitative Trait Loci Mapping 90
VI. COMPARATIVE GENOMICS 91
REFERENCES 91
I. MOLECULAR MARKER SYSTEMS
The discovery that allelic forms of enzymes (isozymes) could be separated electrophoretically on
gels and detected with histochemical activity stains heralded the introduction of molecular marker
technology into the field of genetics (Smithies, 1955; Hunter and Markert, 1957). With these tech-
nologies, it was no longer necessary to have a visible change in the phenotype of the organism to
identify a marker locus. This significantly increased the number of markers identifiable in genetic
material and made possible the production of highly saturated genetic maps for use in marker-as-
sisted breeding, gene transfer, and genetic manipulation of crop species. These marker systems
have now become the major tools for genetic analysis. Depending on the molecular technology
employed, the markers can be highly abundant, phenotypically neutral, and detectable at early
stages of growth and can show no environmental effects on detectability. These markers have been
employed for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fingerprinting, for construction of genetic linkage
maps, for tagging of genes controlling certain traits, and as molecular landmarks for map-based
cloning of genes.
85
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86 Abbott
II. PROTEIN MARKER SYSTEMS
One of the earliest molecular marker technologies was the application of gel electrophoresis and
activity staining techniques for the visualization of differently charged enzymatic forms of partic-
ular enzymes (Markert and Moller, 1959). Isoenzymatic forms of particular enzymes (isozymes)
are derived from genetic mutations that change the primary structure of the individual peptides of
the protein, thereby producing allelic variants that can be distinguished by protein gel elec-
trophoresis technologies. Isozyme markers have been developed in many species such as Phase-
olus vulgaris (Vallejos et al., 1992), barley (Zhang et al., 1993), maize (Gardiner et al., 1993), grape
(Lodhi et al., 1995), peach (Messegeur et al., 1987; Chaparro et al., 1994; Foolad et al., 1995),
apple (Lawson et al., 1995), almond (Vezvaei et al., 1995), and sweet cherry (Granger, 1996). Iso-
zyme markers have been used for genetic applications (Causse et al., 1994; Benito et al., 1994;
Freyre and Douches, 1994; Ragot et al., 1995) and for assessment of genetic diversity among dif-
ferent species (Simonsen and Heneen, 1995; Maas and Klaas, 1995; Sonnante et al., 1994; Stalker
et al., 1994). However; the paucity of isozyme loci and the fact that they are subject to posttrans-
lational modifications often restricts their utility (Staub et al., 1996).
III. DNA MARKER SYSTEMS
The utilization of DNA-based genetic markers has signaled a new era in genome analysis. DNA
polymorphisms are more abundant than conventional phenotypic and biochemical markers, en-
abling saturated maps to be developed in a single segregating population. This abundance of mo-
lecular markers throughout the genome greatly facilitates the development of highly saturated
molecular marker maps that in turn allow the tagging of quantitative trait loci (QTL), as well as
those controlled by single genes. Molecular marker-based genetic maps facilitate the develop-
ment and use of indirect selection schemes for germplasm improvement. Such strategies strive to
increase precision and efficiency in the manipulation of both qualitative and quantitative traits.
There are two major technologies that have been employed to detect DNA polymorphism:
(a) molecular hybridization, which employs the use of specific probes to detect polymorphic re-
striction enzyme fragments; (b) the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) where oligonucleotide
primers are used to amplify polymorphic DNA fragments. In either case, polymorphic fragments
are subsequently linked to traits of interest and serve as molecular markers for tagging and trans-
fer of genes in conventional breeding schemes. Each technology has its merit and limitations in
specific applications.
A. Hybridization-Based Markers
1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis
Historically restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis paved the way for the im-
plementation of DNA marker-based systems for genetic mapping and gene tagging purposes.
This technology couples the use of restriction enzyme digestion of genomic DNA, southern trans-
fer, and molecular hybridization for the detection of specific regions of genomic DNA that have
undergone sequence change through mutation. The markers revealed are highly reproducible in
different laboratories, generally codominant, easily visualized, and theoretically abundant. How-
ever, the process requires large amounts of genomic DNA and restriction enzymes, requires sev-
eral days for display and detection of polymorphism, and, depending on the degree of genetic di-
vergence of individuals under study, may require numerous hybridizations to detect a limited
number of polymorphic loci. RFLP based markers are highly portable within species and, de-
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Gene Marking, Transferring, and Tagging 87
pending on the nature of the RFLP probe (gene encoding or random genomic sequences), may be
portable across much greater taxonomic distances.
Mapping of chromosomes in a number of species belonging to a wide variety of plant fam-
ilies has been accomplished through the implementation of RFLP marker systems [e.g., Brassi-
caceae (Chang et al., 1988; Song et al., 1988a, 1988b; Ferreira et al., 1995; van Denzye et al., 1995),
Fabaceae (Apuya et al., 1988; Keim et al., 1990; Kochert et al., 1991; McCoy et al., 1991), Poaceae
(Helentjaris et al., 1986; McCouch et al., 1988) Ragab et al., 1994; Causse et al., 1994; Yu et al.,
1995; Galiba et al., 1995), Pinaceae (Neale and Williams, 1991), Solanaceae (Bonierbale et al.,
1988; Tanksley et al., 1988; Gebhardt et al., 1989; McLean et al., 1990; Messegeur et al., 1991),
Rosaceae (Nybom and Schall, 1990; Eldredge et al., 1992; Foolad et al., 1995; Rajapakse et al.
1995; Lawson et al., 1995), Malvaceae (Reinisch et al., 1994), Liliaceae (Restivo et al., 1995), and
Chenopodiaceae (Pillen et al., 1992). In many of these maps, economically important genes have
been tagged, e.g., downy mildew resistance genes in lettuce (Paran and Michelmore, 1993) and a
gene for resistance to tobacco mosaic virus in tomato (Young et al., 1988).
Clearly this technology has not only been instrumental for gene tagging and marker map-
ping, but has been fundamental to the development of our current understanding of plant genome
structure and evolution.
2. Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms

As sequence databases become more complete for model organisms, it becomes possible to uti-
lize DNA chip hybridization technologies to detect single nucleotide polymorphisms with un-
precedented efficiency (Chee et al., 1996; Lashkari et al., 1997). This approach has already been
demonstrated to be of great value in yeast and human genomics (Chee et al., 1996; Lashkari et
al., 1997; Wang et al., 1998; Winzeler et al., 1998) and holds great promise for application in mu-
tation analysis and gene discovery in other systems.
3. DNA Amplification-Based Markers

With the development of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technologies (Mullis et al., 1986) al-
ternative approaches to hybridization-based detection of DNA polymorphism were possible. In
general, these approaches utilize randomly or specifically derived primer sequences to amplify
regions of the genome that may display polymorphic differences among individuals. Polymor-
phic amplification products are then used as markers for linkage mapping and tagging of traits of
interest. PCR-based technologies have the advantages of being easily automated, capable of high
throughput, suited to easy transfer and application of marker sequences from laboratory to labo-
ratory, and, depending on the marker system, relatively inexpensive in cost, time, and effort.
However, they can present problems of reproducibility, contaminate amplification, and are char-
acterized by low level of transferability between different crosses; in most cases markers are dom-
inant in genetic nature.
4. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA

One of the first applications of PCR methods to detection of polymorphic regions of the genome
utilized a single short (e.g., ≤10 nt) oligonucleotide primer of arbitrary sequence to amplify re-
gions of genomic DNA that by chance have this sequence and its inverse, separated by a sufficient
number of nucleotides to produce a visible PCR product. The presence of this sequence and its
inverse within amplifiable distance of each other usually occurs within the genome in a number
of places, producing a primer/DNA template-specific amplification pattern of fragments. Poly-
morphism is detected by the presence and absence of amplified products among individual DNA
samples. This method, referred to as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, was
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88 Abbott
developed independently in two laboratories (Welsh and McClelland, 1990; Williams et al.,
1990). This approach has many advantages. It requires very little DNA, has a high throughput, is
easily automated, and utilizes relatively simple gel detection systems. However, in most cases the
markers are dominant markers, may not transfer well between crosses, and may suffer from low
reproducibility in different laboratories. Some of these limitations have been overcome by
cloning and sequencing polymorphic RAPD fragments to develop sequence-specific primers for
amplification of specific marker regions (Paran and Michelmore, 1993). These sequence charac-
terized sites (SCARS) greatly simplify the process of marker detection by other laboratories, are
more reproducible from experiment to experiment than are RAPDs, and in many cases are
codominant markers.
RAPD-based marker mapping has been used in various species such as Arabidopsis thaliana
(Reiter et al., 1992), alfalfa (Echt et al., 1993), oat (Penner et al., 1993), lettuce (Kesseli et al.,
1994), tomato (Klein-Lankhorts et al., 1991; Williamson et al., 1994), peach (Chaparro et al., 1994;
Rajapakse et al., 1995; Warburton et al., 1996), and sweet cherry (Stockinger et al., 1996). They
have also been used for cultivar identification (Gregor et al., 1994; Myneni et al., 1995; Salimath
et al., 1995), for obtaining of markers closely linked to specific genes (Paran and Michelmore.,
1993; Dickinson et al., 1993; Barua et al., 1993), for saturation of genomic regions in marker as-
sisted cloning studies (Martin et al., 1991; Michelmore et al., 1991), and for plant population ge-
netic studies (Yeh et al., 1995; Bonnin et al., 1996; Dawson et al., 1996; Yan et al., 1997).
B. DNA Amplification Fingerprinting (DAF)

DNA amplification fingerprinting is a PCR-based method related in principal to the RAPD tech-
nology that involves the use of shorter primers, thereby increasing the frequency of primer-tem-
plate annealings. This yields a significant increase in the number of randomly amplified fragments
of the genome. These amplification products are visualized on silver stained polyacrylamide gels
(Caetano-Anolles et al., 1991; Bassam et al., 1991). DAF produces relatively complex DNA pro-
files that have utility for genetic mapping analysis (Prabhu and Greshoff, 1994; Jianq and Greshoff,
1997) and for assessing genetic relatedness (He et al., 1995). The procedure has many of the same
advantages as RAPD analysis for polymorphism detection. However, amplification patterns are
more complex and the polymorphic amplification products are dominant markers.
1. Simple Sequence Repeats

The very short simple sequence repeats (SSR) of extremely high polymorphic content, the so-
called microsatellites (Litt and Luty, 1989), are arguably the best molecular marker system avail-
able for the molecular analysis of plant genomes, as they are with other organisms (Dietrich et al.,
1992; Weissenbach et al., 1992).
Microsatellite loci are regions of the genome containing simple sequence repeats of vary-
ing complexity and repeat number. The repeat units are usually less than six bases in length, and
individual loci may contain several to many tandemly arranged repeats. The frequency of occur-
rence of these loci varies, depending on the complexity of the repeat sequence. For example, from
our studies in Prunus persica (peach), (CT) repeats occur at least once in every 78 kb in peach,
compared to once in every 120 kb in apple (Guilford et al., 1997) and 225 kb in rice (Wu and
Tanksley, 1993). In concurrence with previous observations, (CA) repeats were less frequent, oc-
curring once in every 156 kb in peach. In apple and rice, (CA) repeats occur every 190 kb and 480
kb, respectively. Of the microsatellite motifs we have examined in peach, the (AGG) repeat motif
was found to be the least common, occurring approximately once in every 700 kb. Low frequen-
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cies of occurrence of trinucleotide repeats have also been reported: in apple, trinucleotide repeats
occur every 3 Mb (Guilford et al., 1997); in wheat, trinucleotides are as much as 10 times less fre-
quent than dinucleotide repeats (Ma et al., 1996). Studies on the utility of microsatellites reveal
that many of the most informative repeats are dinucleotides [e.g., (CA), (AT) or (AG)] (Weber
and May, 1989). Once microsatellite containing loci are identified, cloned, and sequenced, unique
primers flanking the tandem repeats are synthesized and used to search for codominant, simple
sequence length polymorphisms (SSLPs) (Tautz, 1989), usually by size fractionating labeled am-
plification products on denaturing polyacrylamide gels. This class of markers is in essence ana-
lyzed as sequence tagged sites (STS) (Olson et al., 1989) or sequence tagged microsatellites
(STMS) (Beckmann and Soller, 1990).
A number of reports have appeared demonstrating the utility of these markers for molecu-
lar genetic mapping and phylogenetic analysis of plant species (Condit and Hubbel, 1991;
Akkaya et al, 1995; Zhao and Kochert, 1993; Morgante and Olivieri, 1993; Bell and Becker,
1994; Akagi et al., 1996; Guilford et al., 1997; Provan et al., 1996).
When compared to other codominant markers, such as RFLPs, microsatellite loci exhibit
more variability at a given locus. This was observed in rice (Wu and Tanksley, 1993), wheat
(Roder et al., 1995), and other species. For example, in barley, a predominantly inbred species, as
many as 33 alleles were observed at a single locus (Saghai Maroof et al., 1994). Cregan et al.
(1994) found 23 alleles in soybean. We have observed in Rosaceae species that the number of al-
leles in peach appeared to be relatively low (1–4) when compared to that of other species such as
apple (1–9). However, the polymorphism level in peach germplasm is still quite satisfactory (av-
erage heterozygosity = 0.5) for most genetic studies. Microsatellites are thus highly informative
even in species in which low variability exists. Since the markers generated from microsatellite
sequences identify significant levels of polymorphism, are highly transportable, and occur in rea-
sonable abundance, it is evident that microsatellites have significant potential for genetic map-
ping, map merging, and cultivar identification.
Microsatellites can also be used in an oligonucleotide “fingerprinting approach.” In this
method, oligonucleotide probes complementary to simple tandem repeats are used as hybridiza-
tion probes on southern transfers of restriction digested, electrophoretically separated DNA, and
the products visualized by autoradiography (Sharma et al., 1995). An alternative method of gen-
erating microsatellite based DNA fingerprints is by hybridizing microsatellite containing
oligonucleotides to southern blotted RAPD products (Richardson et al., 1995).
2. Single Primer Amplification Reactions

Single primer amplification reaction (SPAR) markers are derived from the use of microsatellites
as primers to amplify intermicrosatellite DNA sequences (Gupta et al., 1994). This system can
produce multiple markers per assay, but these markers are usually dominant in genetic nature.
3. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism

One of the most recent molecular marker technologies implemented in plant genome analysis is
amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis (Vos et al., 1995). AFLP analysis cou-
ples the technologies of restriction enzyme digestion of genomic DNA with PCR amplification
of select digestion products. For this analysis, genomic DNA is first digested with restriction en-
zymes (typically Eco RI and Mse I), then specific adapters are ligated onto the resulting frag-
ments. The adapter sequences, typically with two or third additional specific bases at the 3′ end,
are then used as primers for PCR amplification of a specific subset of the adapted restriction frag-
ments. The products of the PCR step are visualized by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
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90 Abbott
This marker technique allows the inspection of numerous RFLP-derived polymorphisms si-
multaneously, making AFLP a powerful tool for genome analysis. The markers identified by
AFLP are typically dominant, requiring conversion to STSs before they are useful for positional
cloning and marker assisted selections. AFLP has been used for DNA fingerprinting (Vos et al.,
1995) and for the construction of linkage maps in crops such as barley (Becker and Heun, 1995),
potato (Meksem et al., 1995), tomato (Thomas et al., 1995), and peach (Lu et al., 1998, Dirle-
wanger et al. 1998). They have also been used to assess gene-pool similarities of populations
(Folkerstma et al., 1996) and for messenger RNA (mRNA) fingerprinting (Money et al., 1996).
Powell et al. (1995) evaluated the relative utility of various molecular marker systems in
terms of their Marker Index (MI). This is a numerical product of the marker’s expected het-
erozygosity and the multiplex ratio (number of polymorphic products per reaction). They deter-
mined that dinucleotide SSRs had the highest expected heterozygosity, almost twice that of
RFLPs and RAPDs. AFLPs, on the other hand, had the highest multiplex ratios (more than an
order of magnitude greater than that of SSRs). They determined MI values in soybean for AFLPs,
SSRs, RAPDs, and RFLPs as 6.14, 0.60, 0.48, and 0.10, respectively. The same relative order of
MI values is likely to be found in other crop plants.
We believe that AFLPs, RFLPs, and SSRs can play complementary roles in strategies to
quickly obtain marker-saturated linkage maps. AFLPs produce more polymorphisms per unit ef-
fort and provide the largest number of markers on the saturated map. However, codominant loci
such as RFLPs and SSRs are needed to tie these loci together into a single map and to integrate
information from different maps. Due to their high polymorphism level and codominant expres-
sion, SSRs provide the best avenue for the integration of map information from different crosses,
both within and among species.
IV. TAGGING SIMPLE TRAITS
The utility of molecular markers for the tagging and manipulation of simple gene controlled traits
is well established. With the earliest reports of molecular map construction, it was evident that
these technologies were capable of producing tightly linked markers that could be used to stream-
line the breeding process. Once a trait is closely tagged, the processes of transferring the trait to
other cultivars is greatly simplified, because large numbers of progeny can be scored easily and
cost-effectively for the presence of the tags. Highly saturated maps can significantly shorten the
time required for introgression of traits by allowing the breeder to identify and maintain impor-
tant genomic components during advanced introgressive crossing (Tanksley et al., 1992).
V. TAGGING COMPLEX TRAITS

A. Quantitative Trait Loci Mapping
Mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTL) is important in plant breeding because most traits of agri-
cultural importance (e.g., yield, hardiness, fruit flavor) are influenced by several loci. QTL analy-
sis can be used to identify most of these loci, facilitating marker-assisted introgression, thereby
enriching the genetic base and accelerating the rate of crop improvement (Tanksley, 1995).
An early example of this approach is provided by the development and application of ge-
netic linkage maps for tomato (Helentjaris et al., 1986; Tanksley et al., 1987). These maps were
employed to analyze and localize quantitative trait loci for such characters as insect resistance
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(Nienhuis et al., 1987), water use efficiency (Martin et al., 1989), fruit mass, pH, yield, and solu-
ble solids (Paterson et al., 1990). These pioneering efforts provided the first molecular maps of
quantitative traits and highlighted the potential benefits of this analytical method for plant breed-
ing. Subsequently, researchers working on many different crop species have demonstrated the
utility of QTL mapping using molecular marker systems, as a valuable tool for the identification
of genes controlling complex traits and for their manipulation by marker assisted breeding meth-
ods (Kowalski et al., 1994; Groover et al., 1994; Eshed and Zamir, 1995; Toroser et al., 1995; Lee,
1995; Lin et al., 1996; Tanksley et al., 1996; Bernacchi and Tanksley, 1997; Yano and Sasaki
1997; McCouch and Doerge, 1995; Meyer et al., 1998; Mitchell-Olds and Pederson, 1998; Lub-
berstedt et al. 1998; Austin and Lee, 1998).
Another benefit resulting from the molecular genetic localization of QTL is the opportunity
to clone them by using map-based approaches. In a few cases, for genes with relatively large ef-
fects, the map location has been precise enough to allow “chromosomal landing” rather than
“walking” (Tanksley, 1995).
VI. COMPARATIVE GENOMICS
As the expressed sequence tag (EST) and genomic marker databases of model species are devel-
oped in each of the major plant families, cross correlation of genomic regions among maps will
facilitate marker identification in regions where important genes controlling simple and complex
traits are located. This approach to tagging traits will be particularly simplified if it can be demon-
strated that there is significant genome microsynteny among the model species. Microsyntenic
studies have revealed that among closely related species, the degree of preservation of genomic
organization can be quite high (Dunford et al., 1995; Lagercrantz et al., 1996; Bennetzen et al.,
1996; Chen et al., 1997; Kilian et al., 1997; Avramova et al., 1998). Thus, by using model ge-
nomic physical maps, EST, and genomic markers, in particular SSRs, and large insert clone li-
brary resources, close tagging of traits in related species will be significantly facilitated.
Indeed, from the coupling of QTL analysis and comparative molecular marker mapping, it
appears that there may be significant functional conservation of QTL intervals in different plant
species (Paterson et al., 1991; Fatokun et al., 1992, Pireira and Lee, 1995; Lin et al., 1995). Ob-
servations from these reports suggest that QTL information from one species may be broadly ap-
plicable to many species (Paterson, 1996). However, this needs to be tested rigorously in differ-
ent plant families, and particularly in those such as the Rosaceae, in which long generation time
and juvenility hamper traditional breeding approaches. In this regard, we and others are working
closely with a number of laboratories worldwide to integrate the markers from various maps and
obtain comparative map information for a number of plant species. Conservation of QTL-con-
taining genomic regions suggests that markers that tag significant QTL intervals in one species
may be broadly applicable for crop improvement strategies in other related species in the same
family. These observations further underscore the importance of establishing genetic model
species for each family of major agricultural importance.
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6
Pollen Biotechnology
Vipen K. Sawhney
I. INTRODUCTION 99
II. GENETIC CONTROL OF POLLEN DEVELOPMENT 100
A. Male Sterile Mutants 100
B. Chemical Hybridizing Agents 102
C. Genetic Engineering 102
III. GENETIC TRANSFORMATION OF POLLEN 104
REFERENCES 105
I. INTRODUCTION
Pollen grain, the male gametophyte, in flowering plants is a microscopic two- or three-celled
structure, and its primary function is to deliver male gametes (sperm cells) to the female repro-
ductive organ, the carpel. Pollen grains are highly desiccated structures when mature and contain
either two cells, a vegetative cell and a generative cell; the latter divides to form two sperm cells
before germination, or three cells: a vegetative cell and two sperm cells. Pollen are produced in
large numbers in the anther of a stamen and may be carried long distance by wind, insects, or
other animals for fertilization. Pollen grains have a thick outer protective wall, the exine (1,2),
which contains sporopollenin, a complex polymer that makes the pollen resistant to decay, a use-
ful feature for pollen storage and function. The exine also forms a distinct sculpturing pattern on
the pollen surface that is characteristic of a plant species (2). Since plants are sedentary organ-
isms, they are entirely dependent on pollen for the transport of sperm cells either to the carpel of
the same flower in which they are produced (self-pollination) or to a flower of another plant
(cross-pollination) of the same species. Thus, pollen development is crucial for successful sexual
reproduction in angiosperms, and for subsequent fruit and seed development. In addition, pollen
grains are of direct, or indirect, importance in several areas of human interest, e.g., in honey pro-
duction, in pharmaceutical products, in pollen allergens, and as food supplement (see e.g., 3–5).
Over the years, there has been a tremendous interest in understanding the genetic, physio-
logical, and environmental control of pollen development. The major reason for this has been the
ultimate ability to control pollination and fertilization in plants, especially in crops. The control
of pollination, which in essence involves the control of pollen development or pollen function, is
of significance in the production of hybrid seed. Since the discovery of heterosis (hybrid vigor)
99
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100 Sawhney
in maize plants in the later part of the 19th century, most cultivated cereals and vegetable crops
are now grown from hybrid seed, instead of seed from inbred lines. Indeed, the hybrid seed tech-
nology has revolutionized crop production throughout the world.
Pollen biotechnology is the “manipulation of pollen development and/or function with the
objective(s) of increased production and improvement of crops, and other pollen products” (6).
There are several steps during pollen development, and later during the delivery of male gametes,
that are known to be regulated by genetic, chemical, and environmental factors. These include pre-
meiotic and meiotic events in the microsporogenous tissue, the development of microspores and
pollen in the anther, pollen maturation and pollen release, pollen dispersal, attachment of pollen
to the stigma of carpel, pollen germination and tube growth, and release of sperm cells into the fe-
male gametophyte in the ovule of an ovary. A disruption in any one or more of these events can
lead to failure of fertilization and the lack of seed and fruit development. This chapter is focused
on discussing the genetic control and manipulation of pollen development and the genetic trans-
formation of pollen grains with the objectives of crop improvement. Discussions on related areas,
e.g., pollen-stigma interactions and self-incompatibility, can be found elsewhere (e.g. 7–10).
II. GENETIC CONTROL OF POLLEN DEVELOPMENT
There are a large number of genes controlling different steps in pollen development, starting from
the differentiation of the microsporogenous tissue through to the maturation and release of pollen
from the anther. Genes controlling pollen development reside both in the nucleus and in the cy-
toplasm, mainly mitochondria. A number of nuclear-encoded or genic male sterile (GMS) and cy-
toplasmic male sterile (CMS) mutants are known in every major crop (see, e.g., Ref. 11). For ex-
ample, in maize over 100, in soybean approximately 20, and in tomato 50 GMS mutants have
been reported. In 1999 by using T-DNA and EMS mutagenesis, Sanders et al. (12) reported over
800 male sterile mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana. This exemplifies the complexity of the genetic
control of pollen development.
It is estimated that there are approximately 24,000 different mRNA transcripts in maize
pollen. Whereas the majority of these represent housekeeping genes, or the genes expressed in
vegetative tissues, about 355 genes are specifically expressed in the pollen (13). These estimates
are in line with other species examined. In general, pollen genes are categorized into two classes,
“early” and “late” genes (14). The early class genes are associated with the development of the
microspores from the sporogenous tissue, and the later genes are considered to have a role in
pollen maturation, germination, and pollen tube growth on the stigma (14–16). The majority of
pollen genes are the late genes and the expression patterns of many of these show homologies to
wall degrading enzymes, e.g., pectate lyase (17,18), and to proteins involved in cytoskeleton
(19,20). The wall degrading enzymes are probably required for the growth of the pollen tube
through the stigma and style of the female reproductive organ, and the cytoskeleton proteins, e.g.,
actin, α- and β-tubulin, and profilin, have a role in cytoplasmic streaming and the growth of pollen
tubes (15). A list of some of the pollen-specific genes can be found in Hamilton and Mascaren-
has (16).
The primary objective of manipulating pollen development has been to develop “pollina-
tion control systems” for use in hybrid seed production. There have been several approaches used
to manipulate male fertility/sterility in angiosperms, especially in crop plants. These include the
use of spontaneous and induced male sterile (ms) mutants; application of chemical hybridizing
agents (CHAs), also called gametocides, for the induction of male sterility; and genetic engi-
neering.
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Pollen Biotechnology 101
A. Male Sterile Mutants

Considerable research has gone into the characterization of various CMS and GMS systems at the
genetic, cytological, hormonal, and, more recently, molecular levels. As well, the role of envi-
ronmental factors, e.g., temperature, photoperiod, and drought, in male sterility has been exam-
ined. The latter are particularly important if ms systems are to be used under field conditions for
commercial scale production of hybrid seed.
CMS is maternally inherited and generally represents an alteration in the mitochondrial
genome (21–23). Molecular analysis of CMS systems in a number of species has shown that
genes concerned with male sterility are novel open reading frames (ORFs) linked to 5′ or 3′ ends
of the normal genes. ORFs may be formed by different mechanisms, including duplication, re-
combination, insertion, or deletion of the mitochondrial genes (see, e.g., Refs. 24,25). The inter-
esting feature of CMS is that although the ORFs are expressed in different parts of the plant, the
phenotypic changes are only observed in the anther. Research has shown that the expression of
sterility genes in the cytoplasm is influenced by fertility restoration (RF) genes in the nucleus.
However, the mechanisms by which RF genes regulate pollen fertility but have no influence on
other tissues are not well understood.
The expression of CMS can be affected by environmental factors, e.g., temperature and
light. In Brassica napus, for example, in the nap and ogu CMS systems, high temperatures restore
partial to complete fertility in ms plants (26,27). Similarly, the expression of some of the CMS
systems can be altered by plant hormones (reviewed in Ref. 28), and CMS mutants may also con-
tain altered levels of endogenous hormones, particularly cytokinins (29). Thus, it appears that
both the physiological and molecular factors are responsible for the expression of CMS. Although
CMS has been successfully used in some crops, e.g., sunflower, sorghum, sugarbeet, corn, and re-
cently rapeseed or canola (30,31), there can be some limitations to its use. These include negative
pleiotropic effects of CMS, increased disease susceptibility, instability of male sterility and fer-
tility restoration due to environmental factors, and absence of restorer lines (11,31).
GMS is more commonly known than CMS in most plant species examined. The majority
of GMS mutants are recessive, although some dominant mutants also exist (11). At the cytologi-
cal level, lesions in nuclear genes controlling male fertility may affect pollen development at any
stage, i.e., from premeiosis to pollen release. In the anther, the tapetum, the tissue layer that sur-
rounds the developing pollen grain, is known to provide many essential precursors and metabo-
lites for pollen development (2,32,33). In many of the GMS, and some of the CMS systems,
breakdown in pollen development is associated with aberrations in tapetum development (e.g. 31,
34,35). Indeed, many of the genes controlling pollen development are believed to reside in the
tapetum. This has led to the development of molecular strategies that selectively destroy tapetum,
thereby inducing male sterility in crops (discussed later).
The expression of GMS can also be regulated by environmental and hormonal factors. For
example, in male sterile lines in Brassica oleracea (36) and tomato (37) low temperatures restore
fertility. Photoperiod can also affect pollen development in some of the GMS mutants, e.g., rice
(38) and tomato (35). Similarly, hormones, e.g., gibberellins (GAs), are known to restore fertility
in some of the male sterile systems and this is correlated with reduction in the level of GAs, but
increase in the concentration of indole acetic acid (IAA) and abscisic acid (ABA) in ms tissues
(reviewed in Ref. 28). This ability to manipulate male sterility/fertility in GMS lines by environ-
mental or hormonal factors is especially useful in hybrid seed programs.
Since GMS is generally expressed in the recessive condition, the mutant lines are main-
tained by backcrossing with the heterozygotes. The progeny produced are one half fertile and one
half male sterile. Thus, in the field male fertile plants have to be manually removed (rogued) so
that ms plants alone are used as female parents. This poses an impediment for the use of GMS
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102 Sawhney
systems in large-scale hybrid seed production. Different strategies have been proposed to over-
come this limitation, including the linking of ms genes to marker genes (reviewed in Ref. 35). The
approach of restoring fertility by chemical or environmental factors permits the production of
100% pure male sterile seed, which can be directly used in the field as female parents for hybrid
seed production (35).
B. Chemical Hybridizing Agents

Another approach to controlling pollen development is to treat normal wild-type plants with
growth regulating chemicals that would result in abnormal pollen structure or function. This ap-
proach has been used with a number of crops, but most notably with wheat (39–41). Various
CHAs, or male gametocides, have been used, including known plant hormones, e.g., auxins, gib-
berellins, ABA, and ethrel, and a number of synthetic compounds. The effects of these com-
pounds have, in general, not been specific on pollen development. For example, in addition to in-
ducing pollen sterility, the effects of an auxin, naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), on lentil plants
included increased branching, inhibition of plant growth, and flower abnormalities (42). Similarly
gibberellic acid, i.e., GA3, affects pollen development in Capsicum annuum, but it also causes
feminization of flowers and affects female fertility (43). Abscisic acid is known to cause male
sterility in wheat (44) and tomato (45), but ABA is also known to affect plant growth, including
growth of floral organs.
There have been a few promising synthetic compounds that affect pollen development, in-
cluding Fenridazon (46), phenylcinnoline carboxylates (47), and aztidine-3-carboxylates. These
compounds, along with some trade name substances (reviewed in Ref. 41), have largely been
tested on wheat and have had variable success in inducing complete male sterility in the plant and
ultimate use in hybrid seed production. The mode of action of many of these compounds is, how-
ever, not well understood.
C. Genetic Engineering
In recent years transgenic approaches, which involve the linking of an anther-specific promoter
with a gene encoding an enzyme that selectively affects certain aspects of pollen development,
have been used effectively for inducing male sterility. The first such success was obtained by Mar-
iani et al. (48), who used a construct of a tapetum-specific promoter TA29 and a ribonuclease gene
(barnase) from the bacterium Bacillus amyloliqueafaciens and expressed it in tobacco and rape-
seed plants. The expression of this chimeric gene resulted in the destruction of tapetum in the an-
ther and thus failure of pollen development or induction of male sterility (Fig. 1). However, the
male sterility induced was dominant, and, as in the case of recessive GMS systems (described pre-
viously), when ms plants were crossed with the heterozygotes, 50% of the resulting plants were
male fertile. This problem was overcome by linking the male sterile gene to a gene that is resis-
tant to the herbicide glufosinate ammonium. Thus, treating plants of the ms and heterozygote
cross with the herbicide at an early stage eliminated the fertile plants, i.e., with sensitivity to the
herbicide, and 100% male sterile population could be obtained (49,50).
Since male sterility in the genetically transformed plants is dominant, one half of the F1 hy-
brids produced by such a system would be male sterile. Thus, a restorer gene is required to ob-
tain full fertility in the hybrids. Mariani et al. (51) used another gene, barstar also from B. amy-
loliqueafaciens, which is a specific inhibitor of barnase, and linked it to the same tapetum-specific
promoter, TA29. The pollen donating plant contains the barstar, which inactivates the barnase in
F1, and the hybrids are 100% fertile (Fig. 1). This genetic engineering approach has now been suc-
cessfully used to produce hybrid seed in canola (oilseed rape) and in corn (49,51).
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Figure 1 Genetic engineering of male sterility/fertility using the barnase and barstar system. MS, mi-
crospores; T, Tapetum. (From Ref. 48a. Reproduced with permission.)
An alternative approach for the restoration of male fertility in transgenic plants is to treat
the male sterile plants with a chemical to induce pollen development. In such a system, called re-
versible male sterility (RMS), Greenland et al. (52) fused the barstar gene with a promoter
GST27, isolated from corn, that is up-regulated by chemicals called safeners; treatment with
safeners causes herbicide tolerance in plants. Thus, transgenic male sterile plants were treated
with safeners and normal pollen development was obtained. The restored plants were selfed and
the resulting population was 100% male sterile.
Male sterility has also been induced by developing constructs containing a tapetum-specific
promoter and the β-1,3-glucanase (callase) gene (53,54). In the anther, callase breaks down cal-
lose (β-1,3-glucan), which is deposited around the tetrads of microspores during meiosis, thereby
releasing microspores in the anther locule. The timing of both the callase release and the disso-
lution of callose is critical, and the early release of callase in the transformants resulted in abnor-
mal pollen development (53,54). Other approaches for inducing male sterility include inhibiting
the expression of chalcone synthase (CHS), an enzyme required for flavonoid synthesis.
Flavonoids are critical for pollen maturation, and in their absence functional male sterility results
(55,56). Male sterility was induced by expressing an antisense CHS cDNA fused with a 35S
CaMV promoter in the tapetum tissue. In transgenic male sterile plants produced by this method,
fertility was restored by spraying plants with flavonoids during pollination (57).
In an interesting, opposite approach, Kriete et al. (58) developed a system in which the tape-
tum-specific promoter TA29 was fused with the argE gene from the bacterium Escherichia coli.
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104 Sawhney
The argE product codes for an enzyme that causes deacetylation of the compound N-acetyl-l-
phosphinothricin (N-ac-Pt). N-ac-Pt is otherwise nontoxic to plant tissues, but the deacetylated
compound has cytotoxic effects on anther tissues. Thus, when transgenic plants containing the TA
29/ argE construct were sprayed with N-ac-Pt, it was deacetylated and male sterility resulted: i.e.,
anthers were devoid of pollen. In the absence of spray treatment, plants were male fertile, and
therefore, fertility restoration in F1 generation was not required.
III. GENETIC TRANSFORMATION OF POLLEN
Several attempts have been made to transform pollen by gene delivery with two objectives: (a) to
produce genetically modified seed by pollinating plants with transformed pollen and (b) to pro-
duce haploid plants from transformed pollen and microspores. The following is a brief summary
of the efforts made, and successes obtained, in this area.
Different approaches have been used to transform pollen genetically. These include Agro-
bacterium- and polyethylene glycol– (PEG-) mediated transformation, electroporation, and par-
ticle bombardment (for review see Ref. 59). Each of these techniques has limitations, partly be-
cause of the tough nature of the pollen wall, the exine. However, significant successes have been
obtained with one or the other approach. For example, by using particle bombardment, transient
expression of foreign genes has been observed in pollen of a number of plant species e.g., tomato
(60), tobacco (61), corn (62), and lily (63). Anther-specific promoters LAT52 and, LAT 56 from
tomato and ZM13 from corn were used to drive the expression of gus gene in the transformed
pollen. A number of factors influenced the expression of foreign genes, including the stage of mi-
crospore/pollen development, preculture of pollen in a growth medium, and type of the medium,
and type and size of the particle used in particle bombardment. Various levels of expression were
observed in transformed pollen, depending upon the species and the promoter used. Although
there are no published reports on the production of transgenic seed using transformed pollen, the
successes obtained so far are significant and will form the ground work for future research in this
direction.
The production of haploid plants from transformed microspores has been achieved in Nico-
tiana rustica (59) and in Brassica napus and B. rapa (64). In the Brassica species, young mi-
crospores were transformed by Agrobacterium containing the GUS or PAT gene. The modified
microspores were cultured in vitro and more than 100 putative transformants were obtained that
developed into haploid embryos. After colchicine treatment, doubled haploid plants were pro-
duced that were fully fertile and later set seed. In 1998, by using a nondestructive marker, the lu-
ciferase (Luc) gene, Fukuoka et al. (65) also transformed B. napus microspores and obtained hap-
loid embryos. These embryos were diploidized by colchicine, and the progeny produced from
mature fertile transgenic plants showed Luc activity, indicating that the introduced gene was fixed
in the T1 generation. This study documents that it is possible to obtain double haploid transgenic
plants by combining the genetic transformation of pollen with the techniques of production of
pollen embryos.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author expresses his gratitude to Prof. K. R. Shivanna for his critical review of the manu-
script. The author’s research reported here was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineer-
ing Research Council of Canada.
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perature: possible mediation by abscisic acid. Aust J Plant Physiol 9:529–537, 1982.
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the effect of a gametocide. Can J Bot 68:2509–2516, 1990.
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suppressant activity of phenylcinnoline-3-carboxylic acids. J Agric Food Chem 40:2026–2032, 1992.
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7
Parent-of-Origin Effects and Seed
Development: Genetics and Epigenetics
Charles Spillane and Ueli Grossniklaus

University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Jean-Philippe Vielle-Calzada
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York
I. INTRODUCTION 109
II. PARENT-OF-ORIGIN EFFECTS AT THE GENE LEVEL 111
III. GENOMIC IMPRINTING IN HIGHER PLANTS 113
IV. PARENT-OF-ORIGIN EFFECTS IN PLANT BREEDING 114
A. Parent-of-Origin Effects for Crossability 115
B. Endosperm Genome Dosage Ratios and Imprinting Effects in Interploidy Crosses 115
C. Pseudogamous Apomixis and Genomic Imprinting 118
D. Epigenetic Regulation of Seed Quality Traits 120
E. Parent-of-Origin Effects for Combining Ability and Heterosis 120
V. THE medea MUTANT: A GATEWAY FOR THE DISSECTION OF GENOMIC
IMPRINTING MECHANISMS 122
VI. EPIGENETIC ENGINEERING OF SEED TRAITS 124
VII. CONCLUSIONS 126
REFERENCES 126
I. INTRODUCTION
Seeds play a crucial role in the evolution of both higher plants and human civilization. The do-
mestication of the major crop plants about 13,000 years ago was contingent upon altering key
seed characteristics, especially within the Gramineae and Leguminosae (1,2). The seeds of just
three crops (rice, wheat, and maize) provide more than half of the global plant-derived energy in-
take (3). The persistent endosperm of wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, millet, barley, and oats con-
tributes much of the world’s food supply (4). The world market for crop seed is approximately
U.S. $45 billion, which can be roughly divided into three equal categories—commercial seed,
farm-saved seed, and seed provided by government institutions (5). The importance of crop seeds
109
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110 Spillane et al.
has provided much impetus for research to understand seed ontogeny and develop improved seed
characteristics (e.g., improved starch, protein, and oil profiles) (6).
Understanding seed formation and ontogeny requires due consideration of the characteris-
tic life strategy of plants (7). The plant life cycle alternates between a diploid and a haploid gen-
eration, the sporophyte (spore-producing organism) and the gametophyte (gamete-producing or-
ganism). In the sexual organs of the sporophyte, mega- and microspores are produced: the haploid
products of meiosis that mark the beginning of the gametophytic phase. The fusion of the gametes
at fertilization concludes the gametophytic phase to reconstitute the diploid sporophyte by form-
ing the zygote. After fertilization the ovule bearing the female gametophyte develops into a seed,
in a complex process that depends on interactions among various tissues of zygotic and maternal
origin. The seed is the vegetative propagule for the plant embryo.
Seed development in all angiosperms depends on double fertilization, involving the fusion
of two pairs of gametic cells. One of the sperm cells delivered by the pollen tube fuses with
the egg cell to form the diploid zygote; the second fuses with the binucleate central cell to form
the triploid primary endosperm nucleus (8,9). The angiosperm seed is usually comprised of
(a) the embryo; (b) the endosperm; (c) the perisperm, derived from the nucellar tissue of the
ovule; and (d) the testa or seed coat, formed from one or both of the integuments of the ovule (Fig.
1). Although all mature seeds contain an embryo, and many are surrounded by a seed coat, the ex-
tent to which the endosperm or perisperm persists varies between species. The embryo consists
of the embryo proper and a suspensor, which is linked to the sporophyte and may play a nutri-
tional role. Endosperm is a nutritive tissue found only in the angiosperms (4). The endosperm
may have a differentiated epidermal cell layer, the aleurone. Where it is persistent, endosperm
typically accumulates storage proteins, lipids, and starch used later during seed germination. Cur-
rent research on endosperm development mainly focuses on cereals and more recently on the
model dicot Arabidopsis thaliana (hereafter referred to as Arabidopsis) (10).
Viable seed formation depends on the coordinated development of the embryo, endosperm,
and maternal seed coat. The interactions between these cells and tissues remain an unresolved and
complex aspect of seed development and it is not clear to what extent one tissue influences the
development of the other. Studies of maize (11) and rice (12) mutants indicate that the develop-
Figure 1 Mature seeds of Zea mays and Arabidopsis thaliana. (A) Maize kernel showing endosperm
(En), aleurone (Al), pericarp (Pe), scutellum (Sc), radicle (Ra), coleoptile (Co), and plumule (Pl); (B) Ara-
bidopsis seed showing endosperm (En), cotyledons (Cy), hypocotyl (Hy), root meristem (RM), shoot meris-
tem (SM), and seed coat (SC). Not drawn to scale: maize seed 8–9 mm long, Arabidopsis seed approxi-
mately 0.5 mm long. (Reprinted with permission, copyright 1999, Springer Verlag. From Ref. 27.)
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Parent-of-Origin Effects 111
ment of embryo and endosperm are interrelated. However, mutations affecting embryogenesis but
apparently not the endosperm have also been described in rice and maize (13,14). Hence, normal
embryogenesis appears to not be strictly required for endosperm development. Although a failure
of endosperm development in maize often results in embryo abortion (15), the embryo can un-
dergo normal morphogenesis in some dek mutants with very little endosperm (16). Similar ob-
servations have been made for endospermless rice grains (17).
Because of double fertilization and the clonal origin of both male and female gametes in
most angiosperm species, it is technically difficult to determine whether a mutant primarily af-
fects the embryo or the endosperm. Chang and Neuffer used B-A translocations with a range of
maize dek mutants to generate kernels that had a genetically normal embryo in the presence of a
genetically mutant endosperm, or vice versa (18). Their studies suggest that although interactions
between endosperm and embryo may play a role with respect to nutrition, embryo and endosperm
determine their independent morphogeneses, and neither tissue requires a normal counterpart for
its own normal development (16).
Different types of parent-of-origin effects can arise during seed development because of
complex interactions (a) between maternally provided factors and zygotically expressed genes,
(b) between sporophytic and zygotic tissues, and (c) between the embryo and endosperm. Suc-
cessful seed development may not only depend on the specialized cytoplasm of the female ga-
metes, but also require genomes from both parents.
Parent-of-origin effects can have a genetic or an epigenetic basis. Epigenetics generally re-
lates to mitotically and/or meiotically heritable changes in gene function that do not involve any
changes in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence (19). An epimutation at any locus can pheno-
typically behave as a genetic mutation but does not result from a change in the DNA sequence.
Epimutations may result from differential effects of chromatin packing and act in cis (20).
Whereas epigenetic inheritance has been observed in many species, the underlying molecular
mechanisms remain largely unknown. Epigenetic effects have been observed for many seemingly
unrelated phenomena in plants, including paramutation (21), dioecious sex determination (22),
nucleolar dominance (23), transposition (24,25), genomic imprinting (26–28), meiotic drive (29),
and transgene silencing (30).
In this chapter we review the evidence for parent-of-origin effects and epigenetic regulation
of seed development and plant reproduction and outline some molecular and genetic approaches
underway to dissect the underlying genetic and epigenetic mechanisms.
II. PARENT-OF-ORIGIN EFFECTS AT THE GENE LEVEL
Parent-of-origin effects are observed if reciprocal crosses confer differing phenotypes on the F1
(maternal or paternal effect) or F2 progeny (grandparent-of-origin effect). Parent-of-origin effects
are seen in many organisms (31,32). Maternal effect genes have been extensively studied in
Drosophila melanogaster (hereafter referred to as Drosophila) and Caenorhabditis elegans (here-
after referred to as Ceanorhabditis), where most affect a cytoplasmic factor stored in the egg cell.
In plants, maternal effects can be more complex because double fertilization allows for ma-
ternal control over both embryo and endosperm development (33,34). Maternal control can be ex-
erted via gametophytic (i.e., the female gametophyte) and/or sporophytic tissues (i.e., maternal
ovule tissues surrounding the female gametophyte or developing embryo and endosperm) (Fig.
2) (9,35). On the basis of mutational analyses it is known that seed morphogenesis requires ma-
ternal gene activity in the gametophytic (34,36,37) as well as in the sporophytic tissues of the de-
veloping ovule (38–40).
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112 Spillane et al.
100 % 100 %
normal mutant
A B
Figure 2 Genetic behavior of maternal effect mutants in plants. (A) Results of test crosses that identify a
sporophytic maternal effect (sme), such as sin1 in Arabidopsis. (B) Results of test crosses that identify a ga-
metophytic maternal effect (gme), such as the mea, fie, and fis2 mutants in Arabidopsis.
Early events in embryogenesis depend on a complex interplay between maternally provided

factors and zygotically expressed genes. In many animals, maternal products (messenger ribonu-
cleic acid [mRNA] or protein), deposited in the egg, can support the embryo for a limited num-
ber of division cycles, prior to the activation of zygotic transcription. Although at least 50 mater-
nal effect genes affecting Drosophila embryogenesis have been identified, it is unknown to what
extent maternally provided components direct early embryogenesis in plants. The polarity of the
egg and early embryo is suggestive of a maternal influence on axis determination (9,41,42).
Whereas considerable information on gene expression is available for later stages of embryo-
genesis (43,44), very little is known about the molecular events occurring in the early morpho-
genetic phase.
In plants, a gametophytic maternal effect mutation can be caused by (a) a mutation in a cy-
toplasmic factor deposited into the egg and/or central cell, (b) disruption of a dosage-sensitive
gene, or (c) disruption of an imprinted gene (28,34). In angiosperms, gametophytic maternal ef-
fects can be of egg cell or central cell (endosperm effect) origin (35). Only a few gametophytic
maternal effect mutations that influence embryogenesis have been identified (9,35,45). The ga-
metophytic maternal effect mutants known to date in Arabidopsis are the medea (mea), fertiliza-
tion independent seed2 (fis2), and fertilization independent endosperm (fie) genes. In these mu-
tants, seeds that inherit a mutant allele from the mother abort (34,36,37,46).
Maternal sporophytic tissues play important roles in embryo and/or endosperm formation;
mutations that disrupt such roles can display a sporophytic maternal effect. These tissues include
(a) the inner and outer integuments that are the precursors of the seed coat, (b) the nucellus that
forms the perisperm, and (c) the ovary wall, which can differentiate into the pericarp or fruit coat.
The first maternal effect embryo-defective mutation (short integument1) discovered is essential
for normal embryo development in Arabidopsis (39). There are more identified sporophytic ma-
ternal effect mutants affecting the endosperm: at least six maize mutants display a defective aleu-
rone pigmentation phenotype (Dap) (47), and in Petunia hybrida, sporophytic expression of two
MADS-box transcription factors (FBP7 and FBP11) is required for normal endosperm develop-
ment (40). A number of barley shrunken endosperm mutants that exhibit sporophytic maternal ef-
fects on endosperm formation have been identified (38,48).
Parent-of-origin effects have also been observed for quantitative trait loci (QTL). Recipro-
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cal crosses between several plant species have shown strong maternal effects on seed size (33).
Maternal effect QTL responsible for differences in seed size and number between two Arabidop-
sis ecotypes (Cvi, Ler) have been mapped (49). The Cape Verde Islands (Cvi) ecotype yields on
average about 40% fewer seeds than Landsberg erecta (Ler), but Cvi seeds are almost twice as
heavy. The seed size differences between the two ecotypes resulted from changes in the final cell
number and cell size of the seed coat and the embryo. Cell number variation was controlled
mainly by maternal factors, whereas nonmaternal effect allelic variation mostly affected cell size.
Five of the seed size QTL colocated with QTL for other traits, suggesting that they control seed
size via trade-offs with maternal components affecting ovule number, carpel or ovule develop-
ment, or reproductive resource allocation in the mother plant. It is possible that the large size ob-
served in Cvi × Ler hybrid seeds and the slightly smaller than Ler mean size of the reciprocal Ler
× Cvi hybrid seeds could result from genomic imprinting at loci controlling seed size (49).
III. GENOMIC IMPRINTING IN HIGHER PLANTS
Genomic imprinting is a parent-of-origin-dependent epigenetic phenomenon. Imprinted genes

are differentially expressed depending on their parental origin, resulting in non-Mendelian seg-
regation and parent-of-origin-specific functional hemizygosity at the imprinted locus (50). Dif-
ferential imprinting can be specific to a developmental stage and/or tissue.
Two types of genomic imprinting have been identified. Imprinting was first shown for par-
ent-of-origin-dependent inheritance of chromosomes in coccoid insects (Sciara and allies), in
which the entire paternal genome is inactivated or eliminated (51–53). Parent-of-origin-specific
chromosome elimination has also been observed in interspecific barley crosses (54,55). An anal-
ogous form of imprinting that affects most if not all of the paternal genome may also occur dur-
ing early stages of seed development in Arabidopsis, in which paternally inherited genes are si-
lenced until the mid-globular stage of embryogenesis (55a).
Gene-specific genomic imprinting refers to the differential marking of maternally or pater-
nally inherited alleles of certain autosomal genes during gametogenesis, whereby the expression
level of an allele depends upon its parental origin (56). Such gene-specific genomic imprinting
was first described for the maize red color (r) locus (57) and for mammals in the early 1980s
(58–60). Because genomic imprinting leads to functional hemizygousity, successful embryogen-
esis in mammals (50) and seed development in many plant species (26,61), respectively, requires
both a paternal and a maternal genome in addition to the specialized cytoplasm of the female ga-
metes. It is estimated that there are approximately 100 imprinted genes in the mammalian genome
(62), of which over 25 have been identified (50). In contrast, very few imprinted genes have been
studied in plants (27). For the remainder of this chapter, we focus on gene-specific genomic im-
printing.
In mammals, both androgenesis and gynogenesis are highly restricted as a result of ge-
nomic imprinting. The failure of mammalian androgenotes and gynogenotes is probably due to
an imbalance in the dosage of imprinted genes (50). However, the requirements for genomic im-
printing in plants may be less strict than in mammals and the situation is more complex because
of interactions between tissues of different genetic composition and developmental origin. In
many angiosperms there is no strict requirement for both paternal and maternal genomes for suc-
cessful embryogenesis (26,27,63). For instance, plant embryos can form independently of fertil-
ization in apomictic plants (64), and from somatic cells or microspores under appropriate condi-
tions (65). In addition, both maternal (gynogenesis) and paternal (androgenesis) haploid embryos
produce viable seedlings in many flowering plants (66–68).
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114 Spillane et al.
A role of imprinted genes for seed formation has been inferred from interploidy crosses, in
which entire parental genomes or individual chromosomes are manipulated (15,26). In maize,
changes of the parental genome ratio lead to endosperm abortion but have little effect on embryo
development, suggesting that imprinting is specific to the endosperm in this species (69). In Ara-
bidopsis, interploidy crosses have an effect on both endosperm and embryo proliferation (70).
The recently identified MEA gene provides the first instance of an imprinted gene that affects seed
development in plants (28,34,45,71). Previously, gene-specific genomic imprinting in plants had
only been described for three genes, all of which are expressed in the endosperm of maize but do
not affect seed development (27). These are the r gene involved in the regulation of anthocyanin
biosynthesis (57), the seed storage protein regulatory gene dzr1 (72), and some α-tubulin genes
(73). In all four cases (r, dzr1, α-tubulin, mea) only maternally inherited alleles are expressed. For
the r, dzr1, and α-tubulin loci only specific alleles are subject to epigenetic regulation by im-
printing. In contrast, imprinting in mammals, and at the mea locus in Arabidopsis is generally
locus-specific and all alleles are subject to imprinting (28).
With a few possible exceptions (74,75) gene-specific imprinting has only been observed in
mammals and plants (27,50). In both, reproduction is characterized by a placental habit whereby
the embryo receives most or all of its postfertilization nutrients from the mother. Haig and West-
oby (76) proposed a model whereby genomic imprinting evolved as a consequence of a conflict
between paternal and maternal genomes over the allocation of nutrients from the mother to the
offspring. The model predicts that some parentally controlled loci should influence the growth
rate of the embryo, with paternally expressed genes promoting growth and maternally expressed
ones tending to reduce growth. However, a parental conflict is only expected if a female carries
offspring from more than one male over the span of her lifetime. Importantly, even a very limited
partner exchange in a species is sufficient to induce a parent-offspring conflict (77). In mammals,
many imprinted genes are involved in fetal growth and the vast majority are expressed and im-
printed in the placenta, although the precise function and role of many imprinted genes are
unknown (50,62). In plants, larger seeds with higher food reserves produce more vigorous
seedlings. According to Haig and Westoby’s (76) evolutionary theory, genes expressed in the off-
spring that influence seed size are selected to promote greater nutrient flow from the mother and,
thus, larger seed size when the genes are of paternal origin, than when the same genes are of ma-
ternal origin. This selection pressure ultimately leads to differential expression of maternal and
paternal alleles.
Evidence directly supporting Haig and Westoby’s (76) model has come from both studies
on gynogenetic and androgenetic mouse embryos and imprinted loci in mammals (50,78,79), as
well as from interploidy and interspecific crosses in flowering plants (61,70,80). Although not all
cases of imprinting can be easily explained by Haig and Westoby’s model (50,81), it has been ex-
tremely successful in accommodating many of the functional observations on imprinted genes.
IV. PARENT-OF-ORIGIN EFFECTS IN PLANT BREEDING
Parent-of-origin effects are widespread in plant reproduction and breeding at the whole genome
level (82). Many empirically developed plant breeding methodologies require directional crosses
at various stages (82,83). A number of plant breeding models based on quantitative genetics have
been proposed for the analysis of maternal effects on endosperm and embryo (84–86). The mo-
lecular and genetic mechanisms underlying parent-of-origin effects are generally unknown, al-
though they are often interpreted as resulting from gene dosage imbalances caused by genomic
imprinting. The following sections outline four important areas of plant breeding where parent-
of-origin phenomena are encountered, yet poorly understood at the molecular genetic level.
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A. Parent-of-Origin Effects for Crossability

In higher plants parent-of-origin effects are prevalent in many interspecies reciprocal crosses,
and in some intraspecies crosses (61). The phenotype of the F1 generation in such crosses can dif-
fer substantially, depending on which of the two parents was the pollen donor or recipient. In
many cases, crosses are successful in one direction but not in the other even though the same par-
ents are used. Such effects are particularly common in crosses between crops and their wild
relatives.
Haig and Westoby (61) have reviewed the early evidence for parent-of-origin contingent in-
compatibility in crosses between species. Interspecies “crossability” of different lines between
the primary (GP1) to tertiary (GP3) gene pools of crops is of major interest to plant breeders in
terms of transferring useful traits into elite germplasm (87–89). The definition of primary to ter-
tiary genepools is empirically based on crossability polygons (90), and many crop genepools are
classified into different sections on the basis of their crossability (91,92). For instance, over 1500
Asian rice cultivars that were classified into six different phyletic groups by molecular analysis
exhibit various levels of sterility in intergroup crosses but not in intragroup crosses (93,94).
The success of wide hybridization efforts depends on overcoming pre- and postzygotic
crossing barriers, the achievement of high fertility, and stable expression of desirable traits in F1
progeny and backcross derivatives. Wide crossing techniques such as hybrid embryo culture (95)
and the development of novel crossing strategies (e.g., ploidy changes and bridge crosses) are
often necessary to overcome interspecies or interploidy crossability barriers (96). Although such
wide crossing techniques are an integral element of plant breeding, the underlying molecular ge-
netic factors conditioning whether a wide cross will work or not are largely unknown (97,98).
Prezygotic barriers to wide crossability such as pollen-pistil incompatibility may be responsible
for some crossing failures. Syntenic differences between chromosomes causing irregular meiotic
pairing and chromosome segregation are thought to be a major cause of hybrid sterility in wide
hybridization efforts. Some postzygotic barriers may be due to gene dosage imbalances caused
by imprinting that lead to seed abortion (61). However, the contribution of epigenetic barriers to
inter- or intraspecies crossability has not been explored to any significant level.
Parent-of-origin effects on crossability have been observed, for instance, in potato (88,89),
Alstroemeria sp. (99), and intergeneric Brassica/Crambe hybrids (100). The cowpea wild relative
Vigna rhomboidea can only be crossed with the cultivated V. unguiculata in a unidirectional man-
ner, with V. rhomboidea as the pollen donor (101). There are also instances of segregation distor-
tion in progeny of wide crosses that are suggestive of parent-of-origin effects. For instance,
crosses between chickpea and its wild relative Cicer echinospermum are reported to produce F1
hybrids with 50% fertility (92).
Studies of wheat-rye hybrids suggest a role for genomic imprinting/gene silencing via the
methylation of DNA of rye origin (102). In some inbred polyploid hybrids, such as Triticale
(wheat × rye), treatment with the demethylation agent 5-azacytidine releases “hidden” pheno-
typic variation, suggesting that some aspects of gene expression in such hybrids are regulated by
methylation (102). Methylation-defective plants often exhibit developmental abnormalities in-
cluding the ectopic expression of meristem identity and homeotic genes leading to changes in
flowering time and transformations of floral organs (103,104).
B. Endosperm Genome Dosage Ratios and Imprinting Effects

in Interploidy Crosses
Failure of endosperm development can be a cause of seed abortion in both intra- and interspecies
hybrids (105). Successful seed development in some species depends on a particular ratio of ma-
ternal to paternal genomes in the endosperm. In maize and potato this ratio is two maternal to one
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116 Spillane et al.
paternal genome (2m:1p) (106,107). Deviations from a 2m:1p genome dosage ratio (GDR) typi-
cally lead to endosperm abortion and failure of seed development. Seed abortion has been inter-
preted as resulting from gene dosage imbalances of imprinted genes (26,106). Deviations from
the 2m:1p GDR occur in interploidy crosses, and, indeed, many crosses between diploids and au-
totetraploids fail. If a diploid is used as the pollen parent, the endosperm has a 4m:1p GDR,
whereas in the reciprocal cross the resultant endosperm has a 2m:2p GDR. Imprinting effects are
also likely to be responsible for the breakdown of endosperm, which is often seen in wide crosses
between related plants of different ploidies. However, interploidy crosses provide better evidence
for genomic imprinting since there is less allelic variation between the parents potentially con-
tributing to the parent-of-origin effect than in interspecies crosses (76).
Genome instability in plants can be triggered by a change in chromosome number arising
from genome duplications (polyploidy) or loss/gain of individual chromosomes (108). Evidently
some interploidy crosses do not give rise to viable seeds. Elucidating the causes of instability of
some polyploids, aneuploids, and trisomics is of major importance to understanding crop evolu-
tion and to devising improved means of plant breeding involving polyploids. It will be interest-
ing to determine whether there are any links (e.g., in terms of GDR) between the genetic mecha-
nisms controlling genome instability and the mechanisms controlling genomic imprinting.
Ploidy manipulations are often necessary to effect gene flow between the secondary gene-
pool and the primary cultivated genepool of many crops. For instance, ploidy-based barriers to
wide crossing are observed in most cultivated plants, including cassava (109), pearl millet (110),
alfalfa (111), potato (88,89), sweet potato (112), Musa spp. (113), and groundnut (114,115). Par-
ent-of-origin-specific effects in diploid × autotetraploid crosses have also been demonstrated for
a wide range of crops such as maize (116), barley (117), rye (118), and oilseed rape (119). Sim-
ilar results have been obtained for wild plants such as Primula spp. (120) and Lycopersicon
pimpinellifolium (121). Evidence for genomic imprinting in reciprocal diploid × tetraploid
crosses was strengthened by work on Oenothera hookeri (122,123). Oenothera sp. is unusual be-
cause its endosperm is normally diploid, produced by the fertilization of a single polar nucleus.
Therefore, endosperm is triploid in both 4n × 2n and 2n × 4n crosses, such that reciprocal differ-
ences could be attributed to parental origin rather than ploidy per se (122,123).
Many models were initially proposed to account for the behavior of reciprocal interploidy
crosses (15,61,76). However, not until genetic studies in maize was it conclusively demonstrated
that normal maize endosperm development required a 2m:1p GDR (69,106). Although any plant
species require a 2m:1p GDR in the endosperm, this requirement is not axiomatic. Many species,
including Arabidopsis can tolerate deviations from the 2m:1p GDR, as long as the imbalance is
not too extreme (70,124).
The embryological evidence for inter-ploidy crosses supports Haig and Westoby’s pre-
dictions (61,76). An excess of maternal genome dosage in the endosperm often leads to slower
nuclear division in the endosperm, earlier cellularization, smaller seeds, and high germination
levels. Conversely, excesses of paternal genome dosage in the endosperm are often associated
with normal-sized but shrivelled seeds, poor germination, delayed cellularization, and faster
nuclear division. Such effects are often seen in seeds resulting from incompatible reciprocal
crosses, especially for species with nuclear endosperm. These generalizations are based on
supporting evidence from reciprocal crosses in Avena, Triticum, Zea mays, Hordeum vulgare,
Lolium/Festuca, Brassica spp., Primula, Oenothera, and Citrus spp. (61,76). More recent genetic
evidence from maize (69) and Arabidopsis (70) confirms the reciprocal associations between
seed size and an excess of either maternal or paternal genome dosage in the endosperm. We
briefly review the evidence from interploidy crosses in (a) Arabidopsis (b) potato, and (c)
maize.
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1. Arabidopsis Interploidy Crosses

In Arabidopsis, reciprocal crosses between diploids and tetraploids produce viable seeds con-
taining triploid embryos, indicating that deviations from the 2m:1p GDR can be tolerated (70,
124). Arabidopsis is not totally intolerant of GDR imbalances because reciprocal crosses between
diploids and hexaploids invariably produce seeds that abort.
Viable seeds produced from the diploid × tetraploid reciprocal crosses exhibit abnormal en-
dosperm development, with maternal and paternal genomic excess producing complementary
phenotypes. When the maternal genome dosage in the endosperm is doubled, endosperm devel-
opment is reduced and a smaller embryo is produced. When the paternal genome dosage in the
endosperm is doubled, endosperm and embryo growth is promoted. The alteration of the parental
GDR in the endosperm affects seed size at maturity, with larger seed size correlating with in-
creased paternal genome dosage in the endosperm, and vice versa, for increased maternal dosage
as expected from Haig and Westoby’s model (61).
Changes in the parental genome dosage ratio have effects on seed viability, seed weight,
rate of mitosis in the endosperm, and timing of endosperm cellularization. Because interploidy
crosses change the genome balance of the embryo and endosperm simultaneously, Scott et al. (70)
were not able to determine whether the effects seen were due to imbalance in the embryo, the en-
dosperm, or both. However, they concluded that genomic imprinting is the most likely explana-
tion for the differential phenotypes.
2. Potato Interploidy Crosses

In some genera certain interploidy crosses may be more successful than same-ploidy crosses.
Within Solanum species all intraspecies interploidy crosses conform to the 2m:1p GDR hypoth-
esis (125,126). The failure of a particular species to produce triploids in 4x × 2x intraspecific
crosses is commonly called “triploid block” (55). However, this generalization regarding the
2m:1p GDR does not hold at the interspecies level, where some crosses between Solanum species
of the same ploidy are incompatible, whereas other crosses between species of different ploidies
are compatible (88,89). Consequently, Johnston et al. (125) proposed that each species be as-
signed a specific endosperm value, the endosperm balance number (EBN), which describes its ef-
fective ploidy in crosses with an arbitrarily chosen tester species. As a basis for the EBN desig-
nation, it was hypothesized that the genes involved in the development of the hybrid endosperm
may have different EBN values or “strength” among species, regardless of ploidies. The EBN has
been determined for most Solanum species by crossing each with standard species of known EBN
(127). Through this empirical testing species were identified that were 2x (1EBN), 2x (2EBN),
4x (2EBN), 4x (4EBN), and 6x (4EBN).
According to the EBN hypothesis, normal endosperm development requires a 2:1 ratio of
the sum of the EBNs of the polar nuclei to the EBN of the sperm nuclei. For instance, diploid (2n
= 2x = 24) Solanum species with EBN = 1 are sexually isolated from diploid 2EBN species and
both tetraploid (2n = 4x = 48, 4EBN) and dihaploid (2n = 2x = 24, 2EBN) S. tuberosum group
Tuberosum. Carputo et al. (96) have manipulated EBN levels by scaling ploidy levels both up and
down to overcome crossing barriers between the diploid species S. commersonii (1 EBN) and the
4x (2EBN) gene pool of cultivated potato.
In a complete diallel cross between wild potato species of different ploidies and EBNs, Ma-
suelli and Camadro (88) observed that in incompatible EBN combinations, more than 85% of the
seeds were not well developed or were shrunken. The inviable seeds had poorly developed or col-
lapsed endosperms and thick endothelia, whereas the viable seeds have large endosperms and thin
endothelia. In the same study, parent-of-origin effects on crossability were observed for both the
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118 Spillane et al.
self-compatible S. acaule and the self-incompatible S. gourlayi, which had better crossabilities as
female or male parent, respectively. Jackson and Hanneman (89) noted better success in crosses
with more unrelated potato species if they were used as the male.
However, not all inter-EBN crosses conform to the EBN hypothesis. Jackson and Hanne-
man (89) performed reciprocal crosses between cultivated potato (2n = 4x = 48; 4EBN) and over
400 accessions of 134 wild potato species and found that a few crosses were successful despite
predicted failure due to EBN differences. In some inter-EBN crosses where the EBN ratio devi-
ates from 2:1, normal or plump seeds are occasionally formed (128,129). Interestingly, some
plump seeds are formed in both intra- and inter-EBN crosses, where the 2:1 EBN requirement
seems leaky (130).
The EBN seems to be under oligogenic control in potato (131) and models based on two or
three unlinked loci that control endosperm development in a threshold-dependent manner have
been proposed (55,132,133). The same loci may control endosperm incompatibility both between
and within Solanum species. However, nothing is yet known about the genes that are responsible
for the EBN phenomenon.
3. Maize Endosperm Genome Dosage Ratios

In maize, it has been conclusively shown that any deviation from the normal 2m:1p GDR in the
endosperm results in seed abortion or the production of small kernels in the case of a 3m:1p GDR
(15,69,134). The evidence for the 2m:1p GDR requirement in maize has been extensively re-
viewed (15,26,27) and is briefly summarized here.
That normal endosperm development in maize requires a 2m:1p GDR was elegantly shown
by a series of crosses, using 2n or 4n pollen parents, and 2n seed parents (69), that contributed
differing numbers of polar nuclei to the endosperm because of the indeterminate gametophyte (ig)
mutation (134). Hence, it was possible to generate a range of kernels that had normal 2n sporo-
phytic tissues and either 2n or 3n embryos, but crucially had a complete range of maternal:pater-
nal GDRs in the endosperm. The results demonstrated that it is the parental GDR in the en-
dosperm, rather than the ploidy per se, that is critical, whereas the relative ploidy ratios between
the endosperm and embryo or sporophytic tissue are not important. The detection of parental ef-
fects in maize endosperm but not in the embryo suggests that imprinting is specific to the en-
dosperm in this species.
It has been proposed that imprinting may play a role in the epigenetic differentiation of egg
and central cell during megagametogenesis (26,27). Although genes playing a role in the differ-
entiation of cells in the megagametophyte may not be subject to selection resulting from a
parental conflict, the endosperm phenotypes observed in interploidy crosses are in agreement
with Haig and Westoby’s model (80). Indeed, several regions of the maize genome are suspected
of carrying imprinted genes involved in endosperm growth (e.g., chromosome arms 1L, 4S, and
10L) (106,135). For instance, the lack of a paternal copy of any of the endosperm factors (Ef1–4)
on chromosome arm 10L leads to the production of small kermels. Kernel size cannot be restored
by adding extra maternally derived alleles, suggesting that the Efs are only active if inherited pa-
ternally. Thus, two distinct classes of imprinted genes may exist in plants, one involved in the dif-
ferentiation of the cells in the megagametophyte, and a second that shows functional similarities
to imprinted genes in mammals and controls cell proliferation and growth during seed develop-
ment (27).
C. Pseudogamous Apomixis and Genomic Imprinting

Apomixis is a naturally occurring process that allows asexual reproduction through seeds, result-
ing in offspring that are genetically identical to the mother plant (64,136). In theory, apomixis
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could be used to generate true-breeding F1 hybrids that maintain the benefits of heterosis
(137–141). The introduction of apomixis into crop species is expected to revolutionize plant
breeding, seed production, and crop improvement and is perceived as one of the most important
scientific challenges faced by modern agriculture (138,140–142). It has been estimated that the
benefit of apomixis technology to hybrid rice alone could amount to more than U.S.$2.5 billion
per annum (143).
Apomictic wild relatives have only been identified for a few agriculturally important grain
crops such as pearl millet, wheat, and maize (137). For other major crops such as rice, no apomic-
tic wild relatives have been identified (94). Although apomixis has been introduced from wild rel-
atives into pearl millet (144–146) and maize (147–150), only apomictic plants with a high degree
of seed abortion and additional chromosomes have been recovered. Introgression of apomixis
through backcrossing programs is dependent on the occurrence of apomixis in wild relatives and
is often impeded by breeding barriers between the cultivated and wild species (138).
Imprinting phenomena may account for the high degree of sterility observed in some sex-
ual × apomictic hybrids resulting from attempts to introgress apomixis into sexual crops, e.g.,
Tripsacum/maize hybrids (149,151); Pennisetum spp./pearl millet hybrids (144,152,153), and
Poa longifolia/P. pratensis hybrids (154). A better understanding of genomic imprinting in plants
will be essential for introgression or de novo engineering of apomixis in sexual crops with per-
sistent endosperm, e.g., cereals (141).
Apomicts can be classified as either pseudogamous or autonomous. In autonomous
apomicts, both the embryo and endosperm develop without fertilization. However, the majority
of apomicts require fertilization of the central cell (pseudogamy) to ensure endosperm formation
if viable apomictic seeds are to be obtained. In contrast to the formation of unreduced megaga-
metophytes, apomicts usually produce pollen with a reduced chromosome number (64). Fertil-
ization of an unreduced central cell with reduced sperm results in a GDR imbalance that may re-
sult in endosperm abortion (141). To overcome this epigenetic constraint apomicts use two
strategies: (a) They are insensitive to genomic imbalances in the endosperm, or (b) they modify
gametogenesis or fertilization in a manner that results in viable endosperm with the correct GDR
(61,141). Such modifications include the production of (a) unreduced megagametophytes that are
4-nucleate (Panicum type), with usually only one rather than two polar nuclei (64,155); (b) unre-
duced male gametes (156,157); (c) fertilization of the two polar nuclei with both sperm cells de-
livered by the pollen tube (158,159); or (d) karyogamy of a single unfused polar nucleus with one
reduced sperm nucleus (160).
In Tripsacum dactyloides (hereafter referred to as Tripsacum) and Paspalum notatum there
are no GDR constraints for endosperm development. Grimanelli et al. (161) have investigated
dosage effects in the endosperm of diplosporous apomictic Tripsacum. They found that en-
dosperm develops normally over a wide range of maternal to paternal GDRs in both apomicitc
and sexual accessions. Thus, a specific GDR is not required for normal endosperm development
in Tripascum Quarin (162) analyzed the effect of different sources and ploidy levels of pollen
donors on endosperm and seed development in the aposporous tetraploid apomict P. notatum. Al-
though a GDR of 2m:1p is required for endosperm and seed formation in sexual P. notatum plants,
pseudogamous apomictic P. notatum exhibit an insensitivity to such requirements. This insensi-
tivity seems to be effective when the maternal genomic input exceeds the 4x level, possibly as a
result of imprinting changes. Whether this is also the case in Tripsacum is not clear since no con-
trolled pollinations were made to address whether diploid sexual Tripsacum is sensitive or insen-
sitive to imbalances in the parental GDR. However, tetraploid sexual Tripsacum accessions were
also found to be insensitive to dosage effects due to imprinting (161).
In any species in which genomic imprinting is strictly essential to embryogenesis and/or
endosperm development, it constitutes an obstacle to the introduction of apomixis (141,161). The
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120 Spillane et al.
successful engineering of apomixis in cereals depends upon the production of functional, high-
quality endosperm for consumption, in combination with the production of a viable embryo that
can be clonally propagated. Although autonomous apomixis is highly desirable (139), genomic
imprinting constraints on endosperm and/or embryo development may make the engineering of
autonomous apomixis difficult, especially in sexual crops such as cereals, which are especially
sensitive to GDR imbalances in the endosperm (140,141).
D. Epigenetic Regulation of Seed Quality Traits

Physiologically seeds behave as sinks for assimilates from maternal sources. During assimilate
partitioning, seed growth and development are controlled by coordinated interactions among the
embryo, endosperm, seed coat, and other maternal tissues. As a result, many seed quality traits
exhibit a complex inheritance because they are controlled by several genetic systems (e.g., nu-
clear genes of maternal plant, nuclear genes of endosperm and embryo, and organellar genes).
Cooking quality characters in cereals are largely defined by the constitution of the endosperm. A
number of studies have demonstrated that seed quality traits in crops such as cotton, rice, and bar-
ley can be controlled by gene effects of embryo, endosperm, and/or maternal tissues (163–166).
Development of cereal grains can be divided into two stages: grain enlargement and grain
filling. Grain enlargement is the result of cell division followed by cell expansion. Grain filling
occurs as the reserves, starch and proteins, are deposited within the persistent endosperm. Grain
filling is a highly important agronomic trait in cereals, where a number of cell layers in the en-
dosperm play a critical role. The endosperm’s strength as a nutrient sink during grain filling is pri-
marily determined by the number of endosperm cells, and this number is stabilized before grain
filling begins (167–169). Endosperm with more cells accumulates more storage materials. The
development of endosperm depends on both sink capacity and assimilates supplied by sporo-
phytic maternal tissues, and hence the maternal genotype.
In angiosperm seeds the embryo sac is symplastically isolated from the maternal tissues.
The embryo and endosperm also share no symplastic continuity. Specialized transfer cell layers
are thought to play important roles in nutrient transfer. The aleurone cell layer surrounds the re-
serve cells of the endosperm and can consist of one layer (maize, rice, wheat) or up to four lay-
ers (barley). The transfer cell layer is composed of modified aleurone cells and is considered to
have a role in nutrient transfer from maternal to gametophytically derived tissues.
Charlton et al. (170) performed crosses in maize between diploid female plants and autote-
traploid pollen donors to generate seeds that contained an unbalanced GDR (2m:2p) in the en-
dosperm. Such seeds abort but undergo apparently normal development until 10–12 days after
pollination (DAP). Structural comparisons of aberrant and normal endosperm indicate that the
formation of the transfer cell layer is almost completely suppressed when paternal genome
dosage is in excess. Both triploid and tetraploid endosperms have a similar ontogeny until 6 DAP,
when in the normal triploid endosperm early signs of transfer cell layer development are first ob-
served. In the tetraploid endosperms, transfer cell layer development fails to be initiated.
Imprinted genes may play crucial roles in the regulation of endosperm cell number, en-
doreduplication, and differentiation of the transfer cell layers and thus grain size, grain filling, and
other seed quality traits. Thus, it should be possible to improve seed quality traits through targeted
manipulation of the (epi)genetic regulation of endosperm cell number and transfer cell layer de-
velopment.
E. Parent-of-Origin Effects for Combining Ability and Heterosis

Heterosis or hybrid vigor is usually described in terms of the superiority of F1 hybrid perfor-
mance over some measure (midparent or high-parent heterosis) of its parents (82). Yet, despite
decades of theoretical and empirical studies the genetic basis of heterosis and the factors causing
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heterotic hybrid genesis and breakdown remain unclear. Most studies propose a role for domi-
nance (masking of deleterious recessives), overdominance (single-locus heterosis), or epistasis
(traits derived from two different lines that give superior performance in combination). In rice,
both dominance and epistasis have been suggested to be the genetic basis of heterosis (171,172).
Many plant breeding methodologies are proposed on the basis of different theoretical mod-
els for heterosis: recurrent selection for general combining ability, and inbred per se selection
(additive effects), recurrent selection for specific combining ability (dominance effects), and re-
ciprocal recurrent selection (both additive and dominance effects) (173). Prediction of hybrid per-
formance is of major interest to hybrid crop breeding programs. Although some studies have
shown positive correlations between genetic distance and heterosis (174), in general such predic-
tion has proved difficult as the molecular genetic basis of heterosis remains unknown. In both
plant and animal breeding, the relative level of heterosis observed in F1 and F2 generations can
be affected by maternal effects. Plant breeders routinely conduct polycrosses, top-crosses, or di-
allel crosses with other (tester) lines to determine empirically which lines are likely to be the best
candidates for use in further breeding.
Elucidation of the molecular or biochemical basis of heterosis remains a challenging and
elusive task (175–177). Rood et al. (178) have positively correlated higher gibberellin levels with
heterosis in maize. Single-gene (overdominance) heterosis is rare but has been demonstrated in a
number of cases (179–182). There may be links between paramutation and single-gene heterosis.
Paramutation is the meiotically heritable alteration of one allele after exposure to another allele
in particular heterozygous combinations (21,183). For instance, two alleles of a gene may inter-
act such that one of the alleles is epigenetically silenced and the silenced state is genetically trans-
missible for one or more generations. Paramutation-like phenomena are being found in a wide va-
riety of organisms (21,184). Paramutation at the multigenic R-r locus in maize has been
correlated with increases in its level of cytosine methylation (185). Hollick and Chandler (182)
revealed interesting parallels between paramutation and heterosis. They found that a paramutable
maize locus (Pl-mah) could exhibit single-locus heterosis, or overdominance, whereby the het-
erozygote displays a gene activity that is greater than in either homozygote.
It is still an open question whether there is some epigenetic basis to heterosis (177,186–
188). Although there is certainly no strong evidence for epigenetic components of heterosis, there
are disparate reports that warrant further testing. Chakraborty (189) proposed that genomic im-
printing may mimic observations that are often construed to be due to hybrid vigor and/or in-
breeding depression. Interestingly, tissue-specific heterosis may also be observed for endosperm
qualities (55,190,191).
The methylation status of parental lines and heterotic F1 hybrid progeny has only been in-
vestigated in a few instances (177,192). In a number of studies it was found that hybrids were less
methylated than inbreds and that improved inbred lines were less methylated than older low-
yielding lines (177). An investigation of the heterochromatin and euchromatin composition in
maize F1 hybrids and their parental inbreds found that in some F1 hybrids there was an increased
level of heterochromatin (192). It was proposed that chromatin structure changes within hybrid
nuclei appeared to be necessary for proper organization of the F1 hybrid genome (192). As with
most methylation studies, it is not known whether the changed levels of methylation seen in some
F1 hybrids are a cause or an effect of heterosis.
Heterosis is considered as the converse to inbreeding depression (82). Highly inbred
parental lines are developed for use in F1 hybrid seed production through successive generations
of self-pollination with selection for desired attributes in the F1 progeny. Specific combining abil-
ities are considered to be positively correlated with the level of inbreeding that line has under-
gone. Interestingly, Brink and Cooper (190) showed that seed failure due to the inbreeding of al-
falfa was often the result of the collapse of the endosperm, suggesting that inbreeding in some
species is detrimental to endosperm function and development (55).
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122 Spillane et al.
Very little is known about the genetic basis of inbreeding depression in plants. Because the
observed heterosis from inbred line combinations may be due to the recovery of inbreeding de-
pression, light may be shed on the genetics of heterosis by studying the genetics of inbreeding de-
pression. Pray and Goodnight (193) found evidence for nonlinearity in inbreeding depression that
suggested that epistasis may be important for some traits. They also concluded that the genetic
variation present for inbreeding depression may suggest that inbreeding depression is a heritable
trait.
V. THE medea MUTANT: A GATEWAY FOR THE DISSECTION

OF GENOMIC IMPRINTING MECHANISMS
The elucidation of the genetic basis of genomic imprinting may have important implications for
the development of novel or more efficient crop improvement strategies, wide or interploidy
crosses, development of apomictic crops, improvement of endosperm quality, and heterosis
breeding. An applied perspective on the predictions of Haig and Westoby’s intergenomic conflict
theories (61,76) suggests that it may be possible to deliberately manipulate imprinted genes in
order to change seed size and other seed traits. Model systems for genomic imprinting in plants
will greatly facilitate the identification of genes involved in genomic imprinting, and possibly
other parent-of-origin effects.
The amenability of Arabidopsis to genetic and molecular analysis makes it an ideal system
for the identification and molecular isolation of genes and mutants controlling sexual plant re-
production (9,41,194). The imprinted MEA gene in Arabidopsis provides the first example of an
imprinted gene in a model dicot plant species (28,34) and a powerful tool for the dissection of ge-
nomic imprinting in higher plants. Grossniklaus and coworkers (34) used a transposon mutagen-
esis approach to isolate mea, a gametophytic maternal effect embryo-lethal mutant that exhibits
aberrant seed development. The MEA gene regulates cell proliferation by exerting gametophytic
maternal control during seed development, producing a phenotype that is in agreement with Haig
and Westoby’s theory (34,61,76). The mea locus is regulated by genomic imprinting and defines
a new class of imprinted genes in higher plants (28).
Self-fertilization of plants heterozygous for the mea mutation produce 50% aborted seeds
that collapse, accumulate anthocyanin, and do not germinate (Fig. 3). Reciprocal crosses between
mea mutants and the wild type have demonstrated that embryo lethality is under strict maternal
(gametophytic) control. Seeds derived from embryo sacs carrying a mutant mea allele abort after
delayed morphogenesis with excessive cell proliferation in the embryo and reduced free nuclear
divisions in the endosperm. Embryos derived from mea eggs grow to a giant size, suggesting that
the wild-type function of MEA is to restrict cell proliferation and embryo size. Morphogenetic
progression of mea embryos appears normal, but these embryos eventually die during seed des-
iccation as a result of delayed progression through embryogenesis (34).
MEA encodes a SET domain protein with homology to members of the Polycomb (Pc-G)
and trithorax group (trx-G) (34). The 130 amino acid SET domain is present in Drosophila pro-
teins, e.g., Su(var)3–9, Enhancer of zeste (E(z)), trithorax, which are best known for regulating
homeotic genes but also play crucial roles in the regulation of cell proliferation (195). MEA be-
longs to the E(z) SET domain subfamily (34), of which CURLY LEAF (CLF), a regulator of the
floral homeotic gene AGAMOUS, was the first plant member to be identified (196). Pc-G and
trx-G proteins are thought to regulate gene expression via the control of higher-order chromatin
structure, possibly via mechanisms with similarity to imprinting (195). Therefore, MEA may have
two links to imprinting: (a) its expression is regulated by genomic imprinting, and (b) it may reg-
ulate target genes by an imprinting-like mechanism that involves chromatin remodeling.
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Figure 3 The medea (mea) mutant displays a gametophytic maternal effect. (A) In a heteozygous
mea/MEA plant, half of the seeds abort after self-fertilization. (B) In an outcross with a wild-type male, 50%
of the seeds also abort. (C) All seeds are normal if the mea/MEA plant is used as a male in a cross to a wild-
type female. (B and C reprinted with permission from Ref. 34. Copyright 1998 American Association for
the Advancement of Science.)
Five alleles of mea have been described (34,37,46,197,198), all of which are likely to be re-
cessive loss-of-function mutations, although this has only been demonstrated for three of them
(34,198). Given that truncations of E(z) can create antimorphic alleles (203,204), the situation,
however, may be more complex. Ovules carrying a mutant mea megagametophyte are able to
initiate endosperm development and seed coat differentiation, and to induce silique (fruit) matu-
ration in the absence of fertilization at a low frequency (45,197,198). Hence, in addition to the ga-
metophytic maternal effect phenotype, all of the five known mea alleles display a fertilization-in-
dependent endosperm phenotype, a feature of autonomous apomixis. The relationship between
the two phenotypes is unknown.
The fie and fis2 mutants also show autonomous endosperm development and a gameto-
phytic maternal effect on seed formation (36,37). FIE is most similar to Extra-sex-combs (Esc),
another member of the Drosophila Pc-G (36), FIS2 encodes a protein with a TFIIIA-like Zn-fin-
ger motif (197). Although it is now known that MEA is an imprinted gene (28), the nature of the
maternal effect on seed development in fie and fis2 mutants has not been elucidated yet. Either
they may be regulated by imprinting themselves, or their activity may depend on interactions with
a factor that is regulated by imprinting such as MEA.
The interactions between E(z) and Esc or their homologues have been well characterized in
Drosophila (201,202) and mammals (205,206). Similar interactions and modes of action for the
regulation of higher-order chromatin structure might be inferred for the homologous plant com-
ponents (e.g., MEA, CLF, FIE) of Pc-G and trx-G regulatory complexes. It is possible that the fer-
tilization-independent endosperm phenotype is a manifestation of a disruption in protein com-
plexes that are involved in epigenetic regulation of endosperm proliferation or seed development
(197,198).
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124 Spillane et al.
Molecular and genetic characterization of the mea mutant continues with the goal of eluci-
dating the regulation of imprinting and its function in seed development. Because large-scale mu-
tagenesis approaches are not facile in mammalian models, the mea mutant provides a unique
entry point for identifying genes involved in genomic imprinting, including potential “imprintor”
genes. Using a variety of strategies we aim to identify both modifiers and target genes of MEA.
VI. EPIGENETIC ENGINEERING OF SEED TRAITS
Deliberate modification of higher-order chromatin structure to generate useful phenotypic effects

may be considered a form of “epigenetic engineering.” Chromatin serves as the structural organ-
izer of DNA. Advances are being made in understanding the molecular factors required to prop-
agate or maintain gene activation or gene silencing, through modification of higher-order chro-
matin domains (205). A number of multiprotein complexes that affect local domains of chromatin
structure provide a cellular memory system for epigenetic inheritance of repressed or activated
chromosome regions (206).
Genes of the Pc-G and trx-G are part of an evolutionarily conserved cellular memory sys-
tem that, by modulating higher-order chromatin structure, maintains inactive and active states of
homeotic gene expression (207). Related Pc-G and trx-G loci in mammals encode components of
multiprotein complexes that regulate transcriptional activation, repression, and aspects of chro-
matin structure, including the regulation of HOX genes (208). Both Pc-G and trx-G protein com-
plexes alter the accessibility of DNA to factors required for transcription by remodeling chro-
matin. Once the respective chromatin states are established early in embryogenesis, they are
faithfully inherited during development. As there is no DNA methylation in Drosophila, such epi-
genetic regulation cannot be methylation-dependent.
Pc-G and trx-G protein complexes are likely to have different compositions at different tar-
get genes (209). In Drosophila, formation of these multiprotein complexes appears to depend on
particular DNA elements, the overlapping Pc-G response elements (PREs), and trx-G response
elements (TREs) (206). PREs, TREs, and cis-regulatory imprinting control elements found in
mammalian imprinted genes may be functionally or structurally similar, even through they recruit
different trans-acting factors (206).
A number of multiprotein complexes in yeast, Drosophila caenorhabditis, and humans are
involved in the regulation of gene expression through remodeling of chromatin (205,210). For in-
stance, the evolutionarily conserved SWI/SNF multiprotein complex functions to open chromatin,
permitting access to transcription factors (211,212). In comparison to those in animal systems,
little is yet known about the corresponding multiprotein complexes in plants, which may regulate
higher-order chromatin structure, or any phenotypic effects resulting from the perturbation of
such complexes.
The ability to control key genes that affect epigenetic control of developmental or agro-
nomic traits may open new avenues for crop improvement and facilitate existing plant breeding
approaches. Jaenisch (79) suggested that imprinting may be dispensible under conditions in
which the imprints on both parental genomes are erased. If such erasure can be induced in a de-
velopmental or tissue-specific manner, then it may be possible to reduce genomic imprinting bar-
riers to crop improvement. Both transgene silencing and dominant-negative approaches to the
perturbation of such epigenetic regulatory systems may be possible once the underlying genes
and protein interactions controlling epigenetic phenomena are elucidated. The deliberate alter-
ation of chromatin structure at key stages of crop development or in a tissue-specific manner may
allow for transgenic approaches to the modulation of epigenetic agronomic traits or a form of epi-
genetic engineering.
www.taq.ir
Epigenetic engineering of seed size may be possible. In 1999 Vielle Calzada et al. (28) used
a “candidate modifier” approach to deliberately perturb genomic imprinting at the mea locus.
Potential modifiers of mea may exist among mutants known to affect DNA methylation or
gene silencing such as the decreased in DNA methylation1 (ddm1) mutant in which genomic
DNA methylation is reduced by 70% (213–215). DDM1 was shown to encode a chromatin re-
modeling factor of the SWI2/SNF2 family of DNA-dependent adenosine triphosphatases (AT-
Pases) (215).
Mutations in DDM1 can rescue mea seeds by activating the paternally inherited MEA wild-
type allele later during seed development (28). Our results indicate that DDM1 is required for the
maintenance but not the establishment of the imprint at the mea locus. Remarkably, rescue of
aborting mea embryos through a lack of zygotic DDM1 activity led to the formation of giant seeds
(Fig. 4). The mea seeds rescued by ddm1 show overgrowth of the embryo and some persistent en-
dosperm that may or may not be cellularized. The phenotype of the enlarged rescued seeds sug-
gests that during early seed development there is no MEA activity in meam/MEAp; ddm1/ddm1
seeds, leading to delayed embryogenesis and larger embryos as in the mea mutant. Later in seed
development, MEA activity is provided from the paternally inherited allele, which is reactivated
as a result of a lack of DDM1 activity and allows embryogenesis to resume and form viable seeds
of giant size (28). Thus, seed size can be manipulated by inhibiting MEA activity early in seed de-
velopment but providing MEA activity later.
Seed size is a key adaptive trait for all plants, and an important agronomic trait for culti-
vated plants. Selection for larger seeds in wheat and maize through conventional breeding, al-
though successful, has proved difficult as a result of inverse correlations observed with other de-
sirable traits such as number of seeds, fruits, and/or inflorescences (216–218). A number of major
QTL that affect seed size have been identified in crops such as sorghum (219), rice (220,221), pea
(222), tomato (223), soybean (224), and other legumes (225).
Haig and Westoby’s parental conflict theory (61,76) predicts that deliberate perturbations
of genomic imprinting could lead to increases in embryo or endosperm size. The phenotype of
Figure 4 Rescue of meam/MEAp seeds in a ddm1/ddm1 background. The rescued meam/MEAp;

ddm1/ddm1 seeds grow to a giant size (top row), in comparison to normal siblings that are MEAm/meap and
segregate for ddm1 (bottom row). (With permission from Ref. 28, copyright 1999 Cold Spring Harbor
Press.)
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126 Spillane et al.
the mea mutant suggests that resultant increases in embryo size may lead to inviable seeds, un-
less it is possible to rescue seed abortion by reactivation of MEA, for instance, through a second
site mutation such as ddm1. Unlike most of the cereals, Brassicaceae such as Arabidopsis do not
have a persistent endosperm of economic importance. Nevertheless, it may be possible to engi-
neer increased seed (especially endosperm) size in cereals by an appropriate manipulation of
MEA activity (or the activity of its functional homologues) because MEA also affects cell prolif-
eration in the endosperm (34). It should be possible to increase embryo size in dicot crops such
as cotton and oilseed rape in which the main part of the seed is of embryonic origin (165), by ei-
ther controlling MEA expression stage-specifically in the seed or through creating second site
modifier mutations. Finally, abolishing MEA activity should lead to an overall decrease of seed
size in species in which seedlessness is a desirable trait (226).
VII. CONCLUSIONS
A greater knowledge of genomic imprinting in plants could prove important for future transgenic
and conventional breeding approaches to crop improvement. It is possible that the gametic im-
prints (marks) for many imprinted genes lie in their promoter regions (50,81). Given that minor
changes in the promoter activity of key regulatory genes can lead to major phenotypic changes
(227,228), alterations in regulatory regions of key developmental genes could be major determi-
nants of reproductive compatibility and embryogenesis.
Whole genome duplication (polyploidy) is an important source of evolutionary novelty in
many eukaryotic organisms (229,230). If imprinting and other dosage-related gene silencing phe-
nomena are ubiquitous in polyploids of higher plants, then such phenomena probably play a
major role in crop evolution and plant breeding (230–232).
It is likely that epigenetic regulation such as genomic imprinting has significant effects both
on reproductive biological characteristics (e.g., crossability barriers) and seed morphogenesis
(e.g., embryo or endosperm size, grain filling). The use of genes that regulate epigenetic phe-
nomena and are controlled by transgenic inducer/repressor systems may make it possible to en-
gineer conditional epigenetic effects, such as the perturbation of genomic imprinting at key stages
of plant breeding programs or crop production. Such manipulations may open new avenues for
biotechnology through epigenetic engineering.
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8
Direct DNA Delivery Into
Intact Cells and Tissues
Joseph F. Petolino
Dow AgroSciences, Indianapolis, Indiana
I. INTRODUCTION 137
II. VALIDATED METHODS OF DIRECT DNA DELIVERY INTO INTACT CELLS
AND TISSUES 138
A. Microparticle Bombardment 138
B. Tissue Electroporation 139
C. Whiskers 139
III. TISSUE CULTURE TARGETS 140
A. Target Tissue Characteristics Necessary for Direct DNA Delivery 140
B. Embryogenic Cell and Tissue Culture 140
IV. CONCLUSION 141
REFERENCES 141
I. INTRODUCTION
Transgenic plant production today seems a far cry from the mid-1980s, when recalcitrance to in
vitro manipulation in the major cereal and legume crops appeared to be the major limitation to
the advancement of agricultural biotechnology. These days, no species should be considered a
priori to fall outside the range of those amenable to transformation. The term recalcitrant species
has largely disappeared from our vocabulary in recent years. Experience has taught that, given
sufficient effort, any plant species can be transformed. Maize is a case in point. Because maize
was seemingly nontransformable by virtue of its resistance to Agrobacterium infection (1) and its
relatively recalcitrant to in vitro manipulation (2), not until the invention of a novel deoxyri-
bonucleic acid (DNA) delivery means (3), the development of a new selectable marker system
(4), the cloning of monocot expression elements (5), and major advances in tissue culture (6) did
reliable transgenic maize production become a reality (7,8).
Over the last decade, a whole generation of technology to transform cells and tissues has
revolutionized the field of gene transfer into plants, with the result that virtually all of the major
crop species have been transformed. A veritable “toolbox” of direct DNA delivery methods has
cropped up over the last several years. Although very different from each other at first glance,
137
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138 Petolino
most of these methods share a common paradigm: since all of these procedures involve intact
cells and tissues as targets, there is a need to breach the cell wall. This is accomplished by caus-
ing some degree of cellular injury such that DNA enters cells. Perhaps during some sort of wound
response, the cells become competent for dedifferentiation and ultimately DNA integration. This
chapter explores some of the critical issues relative to transgenic production via direct DNA de-
livery into intact cells and tissues. The focus is on the interaction between the delivery mecha-
nism and the recipient cells.
II. VALIDATED METHODS OF DIRECT DNA DELIVERY

INTO INTACT CELLS AND TISSUES
A. Microparticle Bombardment
United States Patent 4945050 defines microparticle bombardment as follows:
A method for introducing particles into cells comprising accelerating particles having a diam-
eter sufficiently small to penetrate and be retained in a preselected cell without killing the cell,
and propelling said particles at said cells whereby said particles penetrate the surface of said
cells and become incorporated into the interior of said cells. (9)
The definition outlines the basic principle of microparticle bombardment as the acceleration of
high-density, micrometer-sized particles to penetrating velocities such that materials can be de-
livered to living cells. Numerous devices capable of accelerating microparticles to velocities
greater than 300 m/s have been developed for accurate and reliable delivery into intact cells and
tissues (10). The main differences between the various microparticle propulsion devices relate to
the means by which the particles are accelerated, i.e., macrocarriers and stopping plates (3), con-
tinuous gas flow (11), helium blasting (12), and so forth.
For gene transfer into plant tissues, DNA-coated gold or tungsten microparticles (1–2 mi-
crometers) are typically accelerated at targets comprising in vitro–cultured cells or meristematic
regions. The challenge is to deliver DNA effectively into a large number of target cells without
causing too much damage, thereby reducing survival. Transient expression of a reporter gene,
such as uidA or GUS (13), after bombardment has been used for determining DNA delivery effi-
ciency. Although the identification of physical and biological parameters associated with optimal
DNA delivery must be empirically determined for each particular system, general principles are
emerging (14).
After microparticle bombardment, transiently expressing tissues were found to correspond
to those cells in which a particle had hit a cell’s nucleus (15). Most, if not all, transient GUS ex-
pressing tissues were observed to contain at least one cell, usually in the central region of the
expressing tissue, that contained an intranuclear particle. Under optimal conditions, DNA deliv-
ery, as measured by transient expression of a reporter gene such as GUS, was as high as several
hundred units per target (100–500 mg of tissue). However, stable transformation was typically
orders of magnitude less (0.1–5 transgenic colonies per target). A kinetic study of cell survival
after microparticle bombardment showed that most cells (99%) that received a particle did not
survive 48 hours after bombardment (16). This might explain some of the discrepancy between
the number of cells receiving DNA (transient expression) and those integratively transformed
(stable colonies).
Nonetheless, microparticle bombardment has become one of the most broadly applicable
DNA delivery methods in current use. Reliable transgenic plant production in agronomically im-
portant and historically recalcitrant crops such as maize (17,18), wheat (19), barley (20), and soy-
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Direct DNA Delivery 139
bean (21) is testimony to the significance of this technology to applied agriculture. In addition,
microparticle bombardment, in combination with selection for antibiotic resistance, has con-
tributed to the demonstration of plastid transformation (22,23), which, once adapted to the major
crop species, will have far-reaching repercussions relative to transgene expression.
B. Tissue Electroporation
Canadian patent 1208146 defines tissue electroporation as follows:
The method of transferring genes into cells which comprises the step of subjecting a mixture
of said genes and said cells to an electric field (24).
The exposure of cells to a high-voltage electric field pulse results in the formation of temporary
pores in the plasma membrane whereby they become transiently permeable to large molecules,
such as DNA (25). Although not completely understood, DNA uptake via electroporation appears
to involve a two-step process whereby a prepulse adsorption to the membrane surface is followed
by an electric field–mediated endocytosis-like internalization (26). How the DNA reaches the nu-
cleus in not known, but many involve vesicular entrapment (27).
Although historically used to transfer genes to isolated plant protoplasts (28), electropora-
tion was shown to mediate DNA delivery into intact plant cells (29) as well as organized tissues
(30). Clearly, the cell wall must not represent a totally impenetrable barrier to DNA internaliza-
tion (25). Apparently, DNA diffusion– and/or electric field–mediated electrophoresis through cell
wall interstices allows cellular uptake via subsequent transient membrane pore formation. The
first report of stable transformation via electroporation of intact cells involved tobacco suspen-
sion cultures (31). Compared to that for isolated protoplasts, a somewhat longer pulse length was
required for DNA uptake into intact cells, perhaps supporting the electrophoresis concept. Sub-
sequently, this method has been adapted for use with embryogenic callus (32,33) and isolated em-
bryos (34). As with protoplasts, specific parameters for optimal delivery need to be determined
for each particular tissue type. Although not nearly as well studied as microparticle bombard-
ment, electroporation appears to be a generally applicable means of delivering DNA into various
types of intact cells and tissues.
C. Whiskers
U.S. Patent 5302523 defines whiskers as follows:
A method of introducing a nucleic acid into plant cells comprising providing in a liquid
medium i) plant cells suspended therein, ii) a multiplicity of metal or ceramic whisker bodies
and iii) a nucleic acid, and subjecting said liquid medium containing the said suspended cells,
the said metal or ceramic whisker bodies and said nucleic acid to physical motion so as to cre-
ate collisions between said metal or ceramic whiskers and said plant cells whereby said nucleic
acid is introduced into said plant cells (35).
Silicon carbide whiskers are microfibers 10–80 µm long and 0.6 µm in diameter. The vigorous
agitation of intact cells in the presence of whiskers and DNA is yet another validated method for
plant cell transformation (36). The mechanism by which whisker-mediated transformation occurs
is not completely understood, although evidence suggests that it is a largely physical process (37).
Silicon carbide is a hard ceramic substance that fractures readily, resulting in sharp cutting edges.
Scanning electron microscopy of whisker-treated cells clearly shows that the fine fibers are capa-
ble of cell wall penetration (38). It is not known whether or not the whiskers actually carry the
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140 Petolino
DNA into the cells, although precipitation is not a requirement for uptake (37). Nonetheless, col-
lisions between the whiskers and the plant cells probably result in sublethal damage, i.e., mi-
crometer-sized holes in the cell walls, thereby allowing DNA entry via either active or passive
means.
DNA delivery after whisker treatment, as measured by transient reporter gene expression,
has been reported in several plant species (36–41). Fertile transgenic maize plants have been re-
covered after whisker-mediated transformation of embryogenic suspension cultures (36). In ad-
dition, transgenic plants have been regenerated from suspension cultures of Lolium multiflorum,
Lolium perenne, Festuca arundinacea, and Agrostis stolonifera after whisker treatment (39). The
observation of transient GUS expression after whisker treatment of suspension cells of rice (40)
and isolated wheat embryos (41) suggests that this method may be of general applicability.
III. TISSUE CULTURE TARGETS

A. Target Tissue Characteristics Necessary for Direct DNA Delivery
In addition to an effective means of delivering DNA, successful transgenic plant production re-
quires appropriate target cells and the ability to manipulate them effectively. Although tissue cul-
ture–free transformation systems may one day be available for all crop species, efficient target tis-
sue manipulation, including in vitro culture and plant regeneration, is currently an absolute
requirement in all but a few systems. In spite of claims being made for stable transformation via
direct DNA delivery to pollen (42) or reproductive meristems (43), it is still in vitro cell and tis-
sue cultures upon which virtually all direct DNA delivery systems depend. With regard to gene
transfer via direct DNA delivery, there are three basic requirements: (a) reliable production and
maintenance of tissue cultures of particular morphological characteristics, (b) efficient delivery
of DNA to the appropriate cells without irreversibly inhibiting their capacity to contribute to the
future of the culture, and (c) effective isolation and recovery of rare integration events.
The following factors should be considered in relation to selecting an appropriate target tis-
sue for direct DNA delivery. Microparticle bombardment, electroporation, and whiskers all de-
liver DNA most effectively to surface cell layers (12,30,41). Conditions that allow deeper pene-
tration are usually not conducive to cell survival (16,25). Thus, surface cells must be competent
for DNA uptake and integration, including resistance to delivery-induced stress. Since integrative
transformation is a relatively rare event, transformed cells must be competent to proliferate in the
presence of a selection agent that inhibits the growth of surrounding “wild-type” tissue such that
de novo meristem formation, preferably after repetitive cycles of dedifferentiation, leads to trans-
genic, morphogenically competent colony isolation.
B. Embryogenic Cell and Tissue Cultures

The availability of target cells with the necessary features for direct DNA delivery is an absolute
prerequisite for transgenic production via any of the methods mentioned. The initiation and main-
tenance of embryogenic cultures, derived from immature tissue explants isolated at defined stages
of development, have been paramount to success in this area (44). Immature embryos, or callus
and suspension cultures derived from them, have been the most successful targets for direct DNA
delivery into intact cells and tissues to date. This is due to the fact that these cultures fulfill the
basic requirements of a target tissue: they contain cells that are accessible, selectable, and ulti-
mately totipotent.
Most of the early reports of successful transgenic production via direct DNA delivery into
intact cells and tissues involved embryogenic suspensions as target cultures (17,31,36). Once an
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appropriate suspension was established, transgenic production with these cultures was quite effi-
cient; as long as the cell line was maintained, i.e., using cryopreservation (45). Although em-
bryogenic suspensions display all of the characteristics required of a target tissue, their use is se-
verely limited by the difficulties associated with establishing these types of cultures in all but a
few specific genotypes. Later studies identified conditions such that embryogenic callus (19,32)
and immature embryos (44) could be used directly as targets. Although the target cells in these
tissues are not always as accessible and the proliferative capacity not nearly as high as that seen
in suspensions, the use of these more organized tissues reduces the time and effort required to es-
tablish the target cells and increases the range of genotypes available.
IV. CONCLUSION
There has been exceptionally rapid progress in recent years in extending gene transfer capabili-
ties to include economically important crop species that fall outside the natural host range of
Agrobacterium sp. Methods that allow direct DNA delivery into intact cells and tissues, such as
microparticle bombardment, electroporation, and whiskers, have contributed significantly to this
expanded capability, primarily by circumventing the need to regenerate plants from isolated pro-
toplasts. In principle, no plant species should be considered to fall outside the range of those
amenable to transformation. Indeed, experience has taught that, given sufficient effort, any plant
species can be transformed.
In current practice, the availability of regenerable target tissue displaying the necessary fea-
tures, such as immature embryos and embryogenic callus and suspension cultures, is an essential
component of all gene transfer systems involving direct DNA delivery. This requirement is un-
likely to change in the near future for most major crop species. Since little is actually known about
the control of in vitro morphogenesis, the development and optimization of tissue culture and re-
generation protocols tend to be rather empirical activities and, as such, require sustained com-
mitment over several years to acquire the necessary expertise. In practice, the establishment and
maintenance of cultures capable of exhibiting particular in vitro behavior are usually highly geno-
type-dependent. Thus, once beyond a few model species or genotypes, transgenic production is a
highly specialized and resource-intensive pursuit. Even in those species in which transgenic pro-
duction is currently being successfully performed, the systems are far from optimized.
Future work should include the identification of conditions that result in effective DNA de-
livery into intact cells without causing significant cellular or tissue damage as well as the devel-
opment of improved in vitro culture systems to afford greater accessibility and selectability of
totipotent cells across a broad spectrum of agronomically useful germplasm. This will require a
strengthening of basic understanding of the physical and biological events leading to DNA inter-
nalization and integration as well as increased knowledge of the factors associated with cell pro-
liferation and in vitro morphogenesis.
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Hill, S Kadwell, K Launis, K Lewis, D Maddox, K McPherson, MR Meghji, E Merlin, R Rhodes, GW
Warren, M Wright, SV Evola. Field performance of elite transgenic maize plants expressing an insec-
ticidal protein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis. Biotechnology 11:194–200, 1993.
8. AR Gould, NM Cowen, DJ Merlo, JF Petolino, SA Thompson, TA Walsh. Insect control via transgenic
hybrid maize. Proceedings of the 48th Annual Corn and Sorghum Industry Research Conference,
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11. C Sautter, H Waldner, G Neuhaus-Url, A Galli, G Neuhaus, I Potrykus. Micro-targeting: High effi-
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12. D Pareddy, J Petolino, T Skokut, N Hopkins, M Miller, M Welter, K Smith, D Clayton, S Pescitelli, A
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13. RA Jefferson. Assaying chimeric genes in plants: The GUS gene fusion system. Plant Mol Biol Rep
5:387–405, 1987.
14. R Birch, R Bower. Principles of gene transfer using particle bombardment. In: NS Yang, P Christou,
ed. Particle Bombardment Technology for Gene Transfer. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 3–37.
15. T Yamashita, A Iida, H Morikawa. Evidence that more than 90% of β-glucuronidase expressing cells
after particle bombardment directly receive the foreign gene in their nucleus. Plant Physiol 97:829–
831, 1991.
16. R Hunold, R Bronner, G Hahne. Early events in microparticle bombardment: Cell viability and parti-
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17. WJ Gordon-Kamm, TM Spenser, ML Mangano, TR Adams, RJ Daines, WG Start, JV O’Brien, SA
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Transformation of maize cells and regeneration of fertile transgenic plants. Plant Cell 2:603–618, 1990.
18. ME Fromm, F Morrish, C Armstrong, R Thomas, TM Klein. Inheritance and expression of chimeric
genes in the progeny of transgenic maize plants. Biotechnology 8:833–839, 1990.
19. V Vasil, AM Castillo, ME Fromm, IK Vasil. Herbicide resistant fertile transgenic wheat plants obtained
by microprojectile bombardment of regenerable embryogenic callus. Biotechnology 10:667–674,
1992.
20. Y Wan, PG Lemaux. Generation of large numbers of independently transformed fertile barley plants.
Plant Physiol 104:37–38, 1994.
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expression in intact and organized rice tissues. Plant Cell 2:591–602, 1990.
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suspension cultures. Plant Sci 132:31–43, 1998.
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embryogenic suspension cell cultures of maize (Zea mays L.) used for genetic transformation. Planta
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9
Electroporation and Cell Energy Factor
Paul F. Lurquin
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
Guangyu Chen
Jiangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanchang, China
Anthony Conner
Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
I. INTRODUCTION 145
II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 146
III. LITERATURE SURVEY 146
IV. ADDITIONAL EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE 147
V. CONCLUSION 148
I. INTRODUCTION
Since its inception in 1982, electroporation has possibly become the most widespread and versa-
tile technique used to introduce nucleic acids into living cells. Basically, cells are subjected to
short electric pulses, delivered through capacitor discharge (exponential decay) or fast switching
(square wave or pulse), in the presence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid
(RNA). So far, it has generally been assumed that E (electric field strength between the elec-
trodes) and RC (also designated τ, the time taken by a capacitor to release 63% of its charge), or
pulse time, in the case of a square wave, are the most critical parameters in electroporation suc-
cess: “E and τ are the most important electrical variables affecting electroporation” (1). We wish
to replace this statement with a new paradigm that unifies all electroporation parameters: “Once
the cell membrane breakdown voltage has been reached, the most important parameter affecting
electroporation is energy dissipation in the system.”
This new concept came about as a result of efforts to reconcile seemingly disparate elec-
troporation conditions (exponential decay vs. square wave, high voltage and low capacitance vs.
low voltage and high capacitance) reported by many authors. Further, electrical parameters were
systematically investigated in attempts to optimize electroporation of Asparagus officinalis pro-
toplasts. Similar conclusions were drawn independently in our two laboratories. Thus, both these
theoretical considerations and empirical results demonstrate that it is the release of electrical en-
ergy in the electroporation cell that determines cellular permeabilization (2–4). The examples
145
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146 Lurquin et al.
used in the following discussion to illustrate this concept all deal with plant protoplasts (cells de-
void of cell wall) but are also applicable to mammalian cells (4).
II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Plant protoplasts are ideally suited for the exploration of electroporation parameters, given their
perfect spherical shape. In this case, the integrated Laplace equation, where V (in volts) is the
membrane breakdown voltage, r (in centimeters) is the radius of the sphere, and E (in volts/cen-
timeter) is the electric field at the poles of the protoplasts
V = 1.5r E (1)
is directly applicable. Since the radius of plant protoplasts is not less than 10 µm, and since pulses
longer than 20 µs can lower the membrane breakdown voltage to 0.5 V (5), permeabilization of
these cells will occur at field strengths as low as about 300 V/cm or less for larger protoplasts.
The theory of electrical circuits shows that the energy (ε, in joules) released by a capacitor
is
ε = 0.5CV2 (2)
where C is the capacitance (in microfarads) and V (in volts) is the voltage applied to the poles of
the capacitor. In the case of a square wave, the equation becomes
ε = t V2/R = t V I = t I2R (3)
where V is the set voltage (in volts), R the resistance of the system (in ohms), t the discharge time
(in seconds), and I the current (in amperes).
III. LITERATURE SURVEY
Electroporation conditions published by a series of authors have allowed us to calculate energy

dissipation values in their systems. The first two examples given in Table 1 show that successful
electroporation of plant protoplasts in the presence of RNA only occurs at high enough energy
dissipation per unit volume (EDV) value, regardless of the values attributed to voltage (which
must be at breakdown level), and directly depends on the capacitance (which must be high enough
to reach a proper EDV value). It can be seen that Nicotiana tabacum protoplasts were not elec-
troporated at 1.00 kV/cm (a value well above breakdown level) using a capacitance of 1 µF but
were permeabilized at the much lower field strength of 0.50 kV/cm when the capacitance was
790µF (6). The EDV was 0.08 J/ml in the first case and 15.8 J/ml in the second. Table 1 also shows
several other examples of successful protoplast electroporation by exponential decay (this time
with DNA), with EDV values all exceeding 14 J/ml, and using widely different values for C (and
hence RC) and E/d (field strength). A. officinalis protoplasts could not be electrotransformed at 8
J/ml, but they expressed a donor chimeric transgene at 16 J/ml. In cases in which single dis-
charges were delivered at the low EDV value of 0.72 J/ml, 20 consecutive pulses (for a total EDV
of 14.4 J/ml) were necessary to observe optimal expression of the donor transgene in N. tabacum
protoplasts (7). The same authors observed that the number of pulses could be reduced to 10 when
the value of the capacitance was doubled. This is in full agreement with our model, since dou-
bling the capacitance while keeping the voltage constant simply doubles the EDV. At an EDV
level of 34.4 J/ml per discharge, only single pulses sufficed to achieve electrotransformation of
Glycine max protoplasts (8). Similarly, and using this time a square pulse, Daucus carota proto-
plasts were not electrotransformed at 7.2 J/ml (with E/d = 0.35 kV/cm, above the breakdown
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Electroporation and Energy 147
Table 1 Electroporation of Plant Protoplasts in the Presence of RNA or DNA
Exponential decay (capacitor discharge)
C E/d V Total EDV

Origin (µF) (kV/cm) (kV) (J/ml) Electroporation
N. tabacum (Ref. 6) 1 1.00 0.40 0.08a No

N. tabacum (Ref. 6) 790 0.50 0.20 15.8a Yes
N. tabacum (Ref. 7) 16 0.30 0.30 14.4b Yes
Glycine max (Ref. 8) 490 0.375 0.375 34.4a Yes
A. officinalis (Ref. 2) 500 0.28 0.113 8a No
A. officinalis (Ref. 2) 500 0.28 0.113 16a Yes
Square wave pulse
D. carota (Ref. 9) 0.54 0.405 17.2c Yes

D. carota (Ref. 9) 0.35 0.262 7.2c No
All energy levels were normalized to joules per milliliter (J/ml). RNA or DNA concentrations were optimized and all elec-
troporation parameters (including volume) were defined in the examples. This table shows that electrotransformation (or
electrotransfection) does not occur below a certain energy value even when the breakdown voltage is reached or exceeded.
A. officinalis protoplasts were electroporated at the same capacitance, voltage, and energy (3.2 J) in both cases; what dif-
fered was the volume, 0.4 ml in the first case and 0.2 ml in the second. Yes, presence of RNA or DNA expression in the
electroporated protoplasts; no, such expression not detected.
a
Single pulse.
b
20 Pulses of 0.72 J/ml each.
c
6 Pulses of 2.87 J/ml and 1.20 J/ml each.
threshold) but were electrotransformed at an EDV of 17.2 J/ml. In this case, 6 consecutive square
wave pulses at 2.87 J/ml (for a total of 17.2 J/ml) were needed to achieve electrotransformation
(9). Interestingly, Joersbo et al. (10) were able to derive a general empirical equation correlating
square wave electroporation parameters of the form
t Eq = K (4)
where t is pulse time, q is a constant, and K is a value that varies with the size of the protoplasts
and their origin. The average value of q calculated from these authors’ data is 1.89, indicating that
electroporation efficiency varied with the first power of time and, within 5.5%, with the square of
the electric field. Thus, it can be seen that t and E in Eq. (4) assume the same exponents as they
do in Eq. (3), which describes energy dissipation in a system containing no capacitor, as was the
case in their experiments.
IV. ADDITIONAL EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
Experimental evidence further demonstrated that the electroporation efficiency (electroperme-

abilization) of A. officinalis protoplasts in the presence of methylene blue (which is not subject to
biological variables, contrary to transgene expression) increased linearly with EDV from 0 to 95
J/ml (3). Figure 1 shows that the percentage of stained protoplasts was positively correlated with
energy dissipation, whereas survival rate was negatively correlated. The RC constant, at three dif-
ferent energy levels (6.6, 12.1, and 24.2 J/ml), had a minor effect on electroporation efficiency be-
tween 10 and 100 ms; for example, longer pulses increased electroporation efficiency from 40%
to 47% at 24.2 J/ml (3).
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148 Lurquin et al.
Figure 1 Regression plots of asparagus protoplast electropermeabilization efficiency (solid line) and sur-
vival (dashed line). The regression lines were calculated from four replicate points at 16 energy values as
published in Ref. 3. Electroporation volume was 0.2 ml. Equations are Y = 14.4 + (1 × energy) for electro-
poration efficiency and Y = 96.9 – (0.995 × energy) for survival.
V. CONCLUSION
Taken together, theoretical and empirical observations show that EDV, and not the RC constant,
is the major factor in protoplast electroporation. Similarly, the concept of EDV unifies results ob-
tained with square and exponential waveforms, making the electroporation phenomenon equip-
ment-independent. Optimization of electroporation conditions must take into account protoplast
survival as a function of energy level. Since electroporation efficiency increases linearly with en-
ergy dissipation whereas survival is negatively correlated, the optimal point is at the intersection
of both lines (Fig. 1). The existence of this linear relationship completely eliminates the guess-
work in establishing electroporation parameters and will greatly simplify the optimization of
electrical parameters during electroporation.
Although our conclusions are based here on the response of higher plant protoplasts, we be-
lieve that mammalian and microbial cells obey the same general principles (as reviewed in Ref.
4) since cell electroporation is based on the laws of physics. Of course, optimal EDV values must
be determined in individual cases, since electroporation efficiency directly depends on cell size,
as mandated by the integrated Laplace equation. Thus, bacterial cells require high EDV values
since their breakdown voltage is necessarily high, whereas larger cells by definition necessitate
lower EDV values.
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Electroporation and Energy 149
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank Dr. Charlotte Omoto (Washington State University) for help with computer graphics.
REFERENCES
1. K Shikegawa, WJ Dower. Electroporation of prokaryotes and eukaryotes: A general approach to the

introduction of macromolecules into cells. Biotechniques 6:742–751, 1988.
2. GY Chen, AJ Conner, AG Fautrier, RJ Field. Transient β-glucuronidase expression in asparagus pro-
toplasts following electroporation. Proceedings of the Ninth International Asparagus Symposium.
Acta Horticulturae 479:339–345, 1999.
3. GY Chen, AJ Conner, J Wang, AG Fautrier, RJ Field. Energy dissipation as a key factor for electropo-
ration of protoplasts. Mol Biotechnol 10:209–216, 1998.
5. U Zimmermann, J Vienken. Electric field–induced cell-to-cell fusion. J Membrane Biol 67:165–182,
1982.
6. K Okada, T Nagata, I Takebe. Introduction of functional RNA into plant protoplasts by electropora-
tion. Plant Cell Physiol 27:619–626, 1986.
7. P Guerche, C Bellini, J-M Le Moullec, M Caboche. Use of a transient expression assay for the opti-
mization of direct gene transfer into tobacco mesophyll protoplasts by electroporation. Biochimie 69:
621–628, 1987.
8. P Christou, JE Murphy, WF Swain. Stable transformation of soybean by electroporation and root for-
mation from transformed callus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84:3962–3966, 1987.
9. R Bower, RG Birch. Competence for gene transfer by electroporation in a sub-population of proto-
plasts from uniform carrot cell suspension cultures. Plant Cell Rep 9:386–389, 1990.
10. M Joersbo, J Brunstedt, F Floto. Quantitative relationship between parameters of electroporation. J
Plant Physiol 137:169–174, 1990.
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10
Cell Culture and Regeneration of
Plant Tissues
Wei Wen Su
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii
I. INTRODUCTION 151
II. BASIC CELL PROPERTIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES FOR IN VITRO
PLANT REGENERATION 152
III. PATHWAYS FOR IN VITRO PLANT REGENERATION 155
A. Organogenesis 156
B. Embryogenesis 157
IV. MOLECULAR AND BIOCHEMICAL MARKERS OF IN VITRO REGENERATION 158
V. FACTORS AFFECTING IN VITRO CULTURE 159
A. Species and Cultivars 159
B. Explant Source 160
C. Culture Conditions 161
D. Transformation Methods and Selection Agents 161
REFERENCES 163
I. INTRODUCTION
To obtain a transgenic plant, a common genetic transformation scheme involves the introduction
of foreign genes into a plant explant, followed by selection and regeneration. With the need to
convert the explants into whole plants, tissue culture techniques are indispensable in this process.
Development of transgenic plants encompasses an integration of a genetic transformation tech-
nique, a functional plant regeneration system, and a selectable or screenable marker gene system.
As a result of requirements for the genetic transformation process, the insertion of the foreign
gene(s) and the selection marker, as well as the selection procedures employed, there exist unique
challenges in developing tissue culture and regeneration systems for transgenic plants. Regener-
ation systems are generally species- and often cultivar-specific (1). Not all transformation tech-
niques are compatible with all regeneration systems. Furthermore, not all selectable markers
work well with all species. As such, tissue culture and regeneration methodology needs to be op-
timized for individual plant systems. Nonetheless, certain existing guidelines and general tech-
niques from the basis for developing the more specific regeneration protocols.
151
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152 Su
There have been several excellent reviews concerning in vitro regeneration of plants. These
reviews have covered general experimental protocols as well as developmental biological char-
acteristics of in vitro plant regeneration or morphogenesis (1,2). There also exists a large body of
literature published in the past few years that details specific experimental manipulations required
for transformation and regeneration of transgenic plants from many commercially important
species. A survey of recent literature published in 1998 on the transformation and regeneration of
a variety of plant species is presented in Table 1. The scope of this review is to cover the general
principles of in vitro plant tissue cultures and the recent advances of in vitro plant regeneration.
Special attention has been directed, wherever applicable, to issues specific to transgenic plants as
opposed to nontransgenic plant systems. This review does not detail the species- and cultivar-spe-
cific manipulations for plant regeneration. Specific protocols on several commercially important
crops can also be found in a number of recently published books and manuals on transgenic plants
(3–5).
II. BASIC CELL PROPERTIES AND DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES

FOR IN VITRO PLANT REGENERATION
An important requirement for in vitro plant regeneration is that cultured somatic cells remain
totipotent and competent. The capability of cultured cells or protoplasts to proliferate and orga-
nize into tissues and eventually develop into a whole plant is termed totipotency. The term com-
petence refers to the capability of a cell or cell clusters to respond to an inductive stimulus for a
developmental process. The competent states represent unique genetic, epigenetic, and physio-
logical characteristics of the responding cells in particular developmental processes. It is possi-
ble for a cell to be totipotent, but not competent to express totipotency under a particular set of
experimental inductive conditions. Identification of competent cells has been achieved to some
degree morphologically and cytologically, although the biochemical and molecular basis for
competency is still poorly understood (1). Note that not all individual cells in an in vitro culture
are capable of expressing totipotency. After cultures have been maintained at a dedifferentiated
state for a long period, chromosomal aberration (e.g., polyploidization) often occurs, rendering
the cultured cells incapable of expressing totipotency although they may be capable of prolifera-
tion. The main in vitro developmental pathways consist of three analogous phases. Using the
terms of de Klerk et al. (6), these three phases ar: (a) dedifferentiation or acquisition of compe-
tence (during which the tissue becomes competent to respond to the organogenesis or embryoge-
nesis stimuli), (b) induction (during which cells become determined to form either a root, a shoot,
or an embryo), and (c) realization (outgrowth to an organ or an embryo). The general sequence
of these developmental phases during regeneration is depicted in Fig. 1. This general scheme has
been observed in several systems in which a certain period of time is found necessary before a tis-
sue is competent for morphogenic induction. After the attainment of competence, a certain addi-
tional amount of exposure time to induction medium is required for the tissue to become deter-
mined for the developmental pathway (6,7). It is well known now that not only the medium
composition is important in morphogenesis (8); the amount of time in which the tissue is exposed
to a particular medium is also critical. Further, the amount of time required for dedifferentiation
and for attainment of competence for induction is surprisingly short in many instances but varies
considerably with different genotypes. It has been noted that competence for induction is tran-
sient. There is a window of competence in which induction for morphogenesis is possible; on ei-
ther side of this window, only callus proliferation occurs (1). As is discussed further in Sec. IV,
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Table 1 A Survey of 1998 Literature on Plant Transformation and Regeneration
Plant Transformation Explant Selection agent Regeneration method Reference
Astragalus sinicus (Chinese milk A. rhizogenes Seeding — Shoot organogenesis 15

vetch)
Manihot esculenta (cassava plant) A. tumefaciens Embryogenic suspension Paromomycin Somatic embryogenesis 66
culture
Vitis vinifera L. A. tumefaciens Embryogenic callus Kanamycin Somatic embryogenesis 67
Cell Culture and Regeneration
Brassica oleracea (cauliflower) A. tumefaciens Hypocotyl segments Kanamycin Shoot organogenesis 68

Gerbera hybrida A. tumefaciens Petiole, leaf, and shoot tip Kanamycin Indirect shoot organo- 69
explants from micro- genesis
propagated shoots
Rosa hybrida L. (rose) Particle bombardment Embryogenic callus Kanamycin Somatic embryogenesis 70
Saccharum officinarum L. (sugar- A. tumefaciens Meristem Phosphinothricine Micropropagation 14
cane)
Pinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) Particle bombardment Cotyledons and embryo- Geneticin Shoot organogenesis and 71
genic cultures somatic embryogene-
sis
Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato) A. tumefaciens Leaf discs Kanamycin Shoot organogenesis 72
Manihot esculenta (cassava) Particle bombardment Embryogenic callus Phosphinothricin Somatic embryogenesis 73
Nicotiana tabacum A. tumefaciens Leaf discs Kanamycin and Shoot organogenesis 74
methotrexate
Arachis hypogaea L. (peanut) Particle bombardment Somatic embryos Hygromycin Somatic embryogenesis 75
Eucalyptus camaldulensis A. tumefaciens Hypocotyl segments Kanamycin Indirect shoot organo- 11
genesis
Citrus aurantifolia (Mexican A. rhizogenes Internodal stem segments — Shoot organogenesis 76
lime)
Apple A. tumefaciens Leaf explants Kanamycin Indirect shoot organo- 12
genesis
153
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154
Table 1 (Continued)
Plant Transformation Explant Selection agent Regeneration method Reference
Rubus ideaus L. (Red raspberry) A. tumefaciens Leaf discs Kanamycin Shoot organogenesis 77
Populus nigra (poplar) A. tumefaciens Leaf explants Kanamycin Shoot organogenesis 78
Daucus carota L. (carrot) A. tumefaciens Hypocotyl segments Kanamycin Indirect somatic em- 79
bryogenesis
Avocado A. tumefaciens Somatic embryos Kanamycin Somatic embryogenesis 80
Prunus avium (cherry) A. rhizogenes In vitro grown shoots — Shoot organogenesis 81
Diospyros kaki (Japanese persim- A. tumefaciens Hypocotyl segment Kanamycin Shoot organogenesis 82
mon)
Pinus radiata Particle bombardment Embryogenic tissue Kanamycin Somatic embryogenesis 83
Arabidopsis thaliana A. tumefaciens Root explants Kanamycin Shoot organogenesis 84
Zoysia japonica (Japanese lawn- Polyethylene glycol- Protoplasts Hygromycin Indirect Shoot organo- 85
grass) mediated gene genesis
transfer
Medicago truncatula and Med- A. tumefaciens Leaf explants Kanamycin Somatic embryogenesis 86
icago sativa
Rice Particle bombardment Immature embryos Hygromycin Embryogenesis 87
Lilium longiflorum (lily) Particle bombardment Morphogenic calli derived Bialaphos Shoot organogenesis 88
from bulblet scales
Antirrhinum majus L. A. rhizogenes Seedlings — Shoot organogenesis 89
Sugar beet A. tumefaciens Cotyledons D-mannose Shoot organogenesis 10
Capsicum annuum L. (Chilli) A. tumefaciens Cotyledonary tissues Kanamycin Shoot organogenesis 90
Santalum album L. (sandalwood) A. tumefaciens Somatic embryos Kanamycin Somatic embryogenesis 91
Dendranthema grandiflora A. tumefaciens Leaf explants Kanamycin Shoot organogenesis 92
Brassica carinata A. tumefaciens Cotyledonary petioles and Kanamycin Shoot organogenesis 93
hypocotyls
Lotus corniculatus (bird’s-foot A. tumefaciens Cotyledon segments Kanamycin Embryogenesis 94
trefoil)
Rosa hybrida L. (rose) Particle bombardment Embryogenic callus Kanamycin Somatic embryogenesis 95
Su
Cell Culture and Regeneration 155
Figure 1 General sequence of developmental phases during in vitro regeneration. (Modified from Ref. 6.)
recent studies on the molecular and biochemical basis of the competent states have shed new light
on this complex phenomenon.
III. PATHWAYS FOR IN VITRO PLANT REGENERATION
Depending on the type of explants used for transformation and the transformation method em-
ployed, various tissue culture strategies can be utilized to establish transgenic plants. The main
pathways for in vitro plant regeneration involve formation of shoots and roots via organogenesis,
and of somatic embryos via embryogenesis. These two main pathways are discussed separately,
and some of the most common tissue culture strategies are depicted schematically in Fig. 2.
Figure 2 Pathways for in vitro plant regeneration. AR, Agrobacterium rhizogenes; AT, Agrobacterium
tumefaciens; PB, particle bombardment; EP, electroporation; PEG, PEG-mediated transformation.
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156 Su
Newly regenerated plant tissues lack fully functional cuticle. There is usually a low level of wax
found in the cuticles of regenerated plant tissues. It is necessary, therefore, to acclimate newly re-
generated plants slowly to the normal growth conditions, during which time there is a buildup of
cuticular wax. Acclimatization can be achieved by transferring the plantlets to a growth environ-
ment that has a lower relative humidity and a higher light level. It can also be achieved by cover-
ing the potted-out plants with polyethylene bags and by punching an increasing number of holes
in them (2). The hardened plantlets can then be grown in a greenhouse or growth chamber.
A. Organogenesis
Organogenesis is a developmental pathway in which shoots or roots have been induced to differ-
entiate from a cell or cell clusters. In vitro plant regeneration by organogenesis usually involves
induction and development of shoots from the explant tissue (shoot organogenesis), followed by
transfer to a different medium to induce root formation and development (Fig. 2). If the shoot or
root is induced and develops directly from the explant without undergoing an initial callus phase,
this is termed direct or adventitious organogenesis. An example of direct in vitro organogenesis
is found with tobacco leaf disks (9) or cotyledonary tissues of sugar beet (10). Indirect organo-
genesis involves an initial phase of callus proliferation and growth, followed by shoot or root in-
duction and development from this proliferated callus tissue that contains competent cells (Fig.
2). An example of indirect in vitro organogenesis is found with Agrobacterium tumefaciens trans-
formed Eucalyptus hypocotyl segments (11) and apple leaf explants (12). As a result of potential
problems with somaclonal variation in callus cultures, it is more desirable to regenerate trans-
genic plants by direct rather than indirect organogenesis, or at least to minimize callus prolifera-
tion before regeneration. In addition to adventitious shoot regeneration, an important type of di-
rect organogenesis, termed micropropagation, involves regeneration via existing meristems.
Micropropagation of apical meristems has been used as the regeneration system for transforma-
tion of sunflower (13) and sugarcane (14). Regeneration by micropropagation has the advantage
that plants are regenerated directly from an organized tissue without an intervening callus stage.
This not only saves time, but also eliminates undesirable somaclonal variation associated with
long callus culture period. Given that when regeneration is done via micropropagation, a strin-
gent selection procedure should be followed to minimize nontransformed plants, as is discussed
in Sec. V.2. Besides shoot regeneration, it is also possible to generate roots from the explants, fol-
lowed by induction of shoot formation. This is commonly practiced when A. rhizogenes is used
to transform the plants; hairy roots are formed from the wound sites of the seedlings or explants
as a result of the insertion of the Ri plasmid (15). Regeneration from adventitious or hairy roots
usually is more difficult to achieve than regeneration from shoots (6).
Organogenesis has been chosen for in vitro plant regeneration from a variety of transformed
explants, including protoplasts (Fig. 2; Table 1). As seen in Table 1 and current literature,
Agrobacterium transformation (with A. tumefaciens or A. rhizogenes) and particle bombardment
(biolistic; gene gun) are the most widely used techniques for plant transformation. For both tech-
niques, organogenesis has been used successfully in regenerating transgenic plants (Table 1). The
first breakthrough on control of organogesis was reported by Skoog and Miller (8), who showed
that alterations of the auxin and cytokinin ratios were sufficient to control morphogenesis in to-
bacco. High cytokinin-to-auxin ratios were found to produce shoots, low cytokinin-to-auxin ra-
tios produced roots, and more equal concentrations of these phytohormones were found to cause
callus proliferation. Since this initial report, media formulations for callus, shoot, and root in-
duction have been devised for many plant species (2,9). In general, these media formulations have
been derived empirically as a result of lack of understanding of plant development and mecha-
nisms of hormone action, and inability to apply plant regeneration protocols from one species or
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cultivar within a species to other species or cultivars successfully. Considering the sequential
phases leading to organogenesis (Fig. 1), different media are usually needed to cause dedifferen-
tiation, attainment of competence, induction for the organogenic pathway, and determination for
the pathway, and not to interfere with the morphogenic expression of the developmental pathway.
For the regeneration system used in the Agrobacterium-mediated leaf disk transformation system
(16), however, a single consensus medium was used.
B. Embryogenesis
In somatic embryogenesis, somatic cells develop to form complete embryos analogous to zygotic
embryos. The bipolar structure of the somatic embryo contains both shoot and root meristems. As
with organogenesis, somatic embryogenesis can occur from cells of the explant tissue with or
without an intervening callus phase (Fig. 2). For direct somatic embryogenesis, the immature zy-
gotic embryo is most often used as the explant and the response of the embryo depends largely
on the developmental stage of the explant (9). The indirect embryogenesis pathway, whereby
somatic embryos are induced and develop from proliferated callus or suspension cells, is gener-
ally more common (1). Embryogenic cells appear very similar to meristematic cells in that they
are small and densely cytoplasmic, have a large nucleus and prominent nucleoli, and contain
many small vacuoles, lipid droplets, and starch grains (17). Embryogenic cells in suspension cul-
ture commonly form small compact clumps that have been termed proembryonal complexes or
proembryogenic masses (PEMs) (17). Nonembryogenic cells, on the other hand, are usually
highly vacuolated and have variable shapes. Embryogenic cultures are highly heterogeneous;
they may contain a mix of organogenic and embryogenic structures, as well as nonembryogenic
cells (18).
Analogous to organogenesis, embryogenesis can be dissected into a series of successive
phases (Fig. 1). For newly initiated suspension or callus cultures, a certain period is usually re-
quired for the cells to dedifferentiate and attain competence for the embryogenic pathway (19). It
is generally believed that the embryogenic pathway is induced and becomes determined very early
in embryogenic cultures, and this clearly seems to be the case in the model species carrot (19). For
species other than carrot, embryogenic cultures probably also comprise determined cells in which
some level of embryo development is maintained in culture. The acquisition of competence and
induction of somatic embryogenesis depend upon auxin (usually 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)
(6). In established embryogenic cultures, the exogenously supplied auxin maintains cellular pro-
liferation but to some degree represses morphogenic expression of embryogenicity. The degree of
morphogenic repression depends primarily on the auxin concentration or cultural practices that af-
fect the auxin concentration (e.g., extended time between subculturing) but may also depend on
the cell density for suspension cultures. It is hypothesized that the auxin represses morphogenesis
by disrupting important cell-to-cell interaction. This allows some embryogenic cells in the clump
to develop autonomously and break away from the clump, rather than remain as part of the devel-
opmentally integrated primordial complex. This fragmentation of single cells or small groups of
cells from the clump is believed to be the mechanism for proliferation of embryogenic suspension
cultures (17). In order to allow the formation of matured embryos from the embryogenic cell cul-
ture during the “realization” phase of the developmental process (Fig. 1), the auxin usually has to
be removed. After its removal, the amount of embryonic development that can occur in liquid sus-
pension varies from complete somatic embryo development in carrot suspensions to blockage at
the late globular or early scutellar stage for most cereals and grasses (1). Several species have been
transformed, by using embryogenic suspension cultures, including carrot, corn, rice, cotton (1),
and more recently rose, cassava, and peanut (Table 1), as starting material. Embryogenic tissues
or cells are most often transformed with A. tumefaciens or particle bombardment.
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IV. MOLECULAR AND BIOCHEMICAL MARKERS OF

IN VITRO REGENERATION
The identification of molecular markers involved in early phases of in vitro morphogenesis not
only contributes to our understanding of the processes underlying growth regulator–controlled
determination, but also provides a useful tool for evaluating the regeneration potential of the tar-
get explant tissues. It has been found that in the carrot system, significant changes in the organi-
zation and modification of DNA occur during the callus phase (20,21). These are possibly related
to developmental events of the regeneration process. A progressive reduction in DNA was also
demonstrated by Giorgetti et al. (22) during the generation of an embryogenic cell culture from
carrot hypocotyls. Deumling and Clermont (23) reported a complex pattern of chromosome
diminution during cell culture and plant regeneration of Scilla siberica. They concluded that an
excessive and specific chromatin loss is a prerequisite for plant regeneration. Many studies have
shown that the state of dedifferentiation is related to DNA methylation (24,25). During the linear
growth phase of carrot callus, the extent of genome methylation increases; it then decreases dur-
ing the stationary phase. These changes are believed to be related to concurrent developmental
events in the callus. Auxin increases DNA methylation reversibly, whereas kinetin tends to block
changes in DNA methylation (20). An increase in genome methylation was suggested to be nec-
essary to disorganize an ongoing cell program (6). Fractionation of cell types of an embryogenic
carrot cell line indicated a characteristic low genome methylation level of a fraction enriched in
precursor cells of somatic embryos (24). Although the causal relationships concerning DNA
methylation are still obscure, the effect of methylated cytosine residues in the DNA is believed to
be mainly due to interference with DNA-protein binding, influencing the regulation of genome
activities (transcription, replication, rearrangements) (6).
Typical changes of gene expression during the early stages of differentiation have been re-
viewed by Sterck and de Vries (26). Using mitochrondrial ribonucleic acids (mRNAs) isolated
from polysomal fractions, Zimmermann et al. (27) by subtractive hybridization isolated 30 carrot
(cDNA) clones that are enhanced in globular embryos. By adapting a mRNA differential display
technique to the comparative analysis of a model system of tomato cotyledons that can be driven
selectively toward either shoot or callus formation by means of previously determined growth
regulator supplementation, Torelli et al. (28) were able to monitor changes in gene expression ac-
companying in vitro regeneration and identified two potential morphogenetic marker genes. In
barley, Stirn et al. (29) showed that expression of two embryo-specific genes was limited to em-
bryogenic cell cultures but not to nonembryogenic cultures. Nevertheless, cell aggregates that
were embryogenic but no longer able to regenerate plants expressed both genes. Comparing the
protein pattern of embryogenic/regenerable and embryogenic/nonregenerable suspension cul-
tures of barley, Stirn et al. (29) identified a 85-kDa polypeptide (pI 5.8) that accumulates only in
nonregenerable cultures. Moreover, after the electrophoretic pattern of secreted proteins, two gly-
coproteins correlating with the embryogenic capacity (46 kDa, pI 6.1) and the loss of regenera-
tive potential (17.4 kDa), respectively, were found. These data indicate that at least two levels of
control exist in somatic embryogenesis. One is the induction of bipolar embryos, and the second
the germination of somatic embryos into plantlets. In addition to the work of Stirn et al. (29), cor-
relation of excreted proteins, in particular glycoproteins, with differentiation of somatic embryos
has been shown in several reports (30,31). Various intracellular soluble proteins have also been
identified as potential markers for embryogeneic capability (32,33).
Another potential biochemical marker for regeneration is based upon differences of enzyme
activities in recalcitrant vs. easy-to-regenerate explants. For instance, peroxidase activity has
been correlated with rooting (34) and somatic embryogenesis (35), and esterase activity with so-
matic embryogenesis (36). Polyphenoloxidase activity in Euphorbia pulcherrima was used for
the characterization of the embryogenic status of cell suspension cultures (37). Differences in en-
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zyme activity may also be detected by the occurrence of the end products of the enzymatic reac-
tion. Short-lived starch grains occur in the very early stages of shoot and embryo regeneration
(38). In slices cut from apple microshoots and treated with auxin, short-lived starch grains appear
during the dedifferentiation phase in a ring consisting of cells of the vascular bundles and primary
rays. These cells enter division and from those in the primary rays, root primordia may develop
(39). When auxin is not supplied, starch grains are formed at a much later time. In Cucumis
sativus, differential uptake of carbon sources from the medium of suspension cultures has been
used as a biochemical marker for embryogenic cultures (40).
Various other biochemical and physiological features have been correlated with regenera-
tion. Variation in endogenous hormone (e.g., indole-3-acetic acid [IAA]) distribution was shown
to accompany morphological polarity in the process of somatic embryogenesis in Freesia refracta
(41). Enhancement of the in vitro organogenesis ability of rubber-tree clones after somatic em-
bryogenesis or repeated grafting onto juvenile rootstocks was accompanied by an increase of
zeatin riboside levels in shoots used as starting material for in vitro micropropagation. Further-
more, the zeatin level in in vitro shoots capable of organogenesis was higher than in their non-
organogenic counterparts. Perrin et al. (42) then concluded that the endogenous zeatinlike cy-
tokinin level (free and ribosylated forms) could be considered as a reliable marker for the recovery
of in vitro shoot and root organogenesis after rejuvenating treatments in rubber-tree clones. The
concentrations of polyamines, especially of putrescine and spermidine, are higher in embryogenic
than in nonembryogenic cells and media of suspension cultures (43). Inhibition of polyamine syn-
thesis reduces the number of embryos, whereas addition of polyamines to inhibitor-supplemented
cultures restores embryo formation at the original level. Accumulation of ethylene is less in em-
bryogenic suspensions than in nonembryogenic cultures (44), as well as the amount of glutathion.
The redox status of cells, characterized by the ability to reduce Fe3+, is far higher in nonembryo-
genic cells. Phenolics are a very heterogeneous group of substances, interacting with intra- and in-
tercellular processes, e.g., with auxin metabolism. The phenolic content is used in woody plants
to differentiate between juvenile and adult phases and thus serves as a marker for the capacity for
root formation (45).
A major challenge in the study of regeneration markers is the need for very sensitive ana-
lytical techniques. Besides the classical approaches involving mutant isolation and differential
display, recent advances in cDNA microarrays (gene chips) and proteomics should significantly
improve our ability to isolate genes that are involved in the early phases of regeneration.
V. FACTORS AFFECTING IN VITRO CULTURE
The main factors affecting in vitro transgenic plant regeneration are genotype, explant source,
culture conditions, and transformation/selection methods.
A. Species and Cultivars

Regeneration capacity differs between plant species and cultivars. It is well known that some fam-
ilies and genera, such as Solanaceae, Cruciferae, Gesneriaceae, Compositae, and Liliaceae, have
higher regeneration ability (46). Herbaceous plants regenerate far more readily than trees and
shrubs. With its relative ease and repeatability of culture initiation and plant regeneration, tobacco
(Nicotiana tabacum) has been the model species for organogenic studies and carrot (Daucus
carota) has been the model species for the study of embryogenesis (1). Other species within the
same family as tobacco (Solanaceae) and within the same family as carrot (Umbelliferae) have
also been readily amenable to in vitro culture and regenerability, whereas other families (e.g.,
Gramineae) have been less amenable (2,47). Different cultivars of the same species can also ex-
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hibit very different regeneration capacity. For instance, Machii et al. (48) screened 107 wheat
genotypes for callus induction and regeneration capability from anther and immature embryo cul-
tures. For anther cultures, only 9 genotypes produced normal plants. For immature embryo cul-
tures, 74 genotypes regenerated plants. Apparently, the genetic component is highly influential on
success in in vitro culture and plant regeneration.
B. Explant Source
To achieve effective in vitro plant regeneration, the major requirements for explant tissues are
high cell division potential and morphogenic plasticity. These criteria are usually satisfied by im-
mature, rapidly growing tissues. The use of young tissue is especially important for cereal mono-
cots such as maize in which parenchyma cells in vivo quickly lose the ability to redifferentiate as
they mature (49). Although plants have been regenerated in vitro from many different tissues of
monocots (9,47), the immature organs or meristematic and undifferentiated tissues are generally
the most responsive and reliable explant sources (9,47). The reason for this stage-specific re-
sponse may be genetic, epigenetic, or physiological changes that occur in mature cells (47). For
dicot species, successful in vitro regeneration has been achieved by using leaf pieces (disks or
strips), leaf petiole segments, cotyledonary petioles, cotyledonary pieces, hypocotyl segments,
root segments, stem segments, various floral and inflorescence structures, storage root and tuber
pieces, embryos, and immature embryos (47).
Before explant tissues can be cultured, contaminating microbes must be destroyed. Al-
though most microorganisms are confined to the surface of plant tissue and can be destroyed by
surface sterilization, using sodium hypochloride, for example, some microbes may invade the
plant vascular tissues and hence be difficult to remove. The use of aseptically grown material is a
convenient way to circumvent sterility problems. During the initial culture of the explant tissues,
common problems are browning and eventually the death of the tissue, which is due to the ex-
cessive production of polyphenolics. These problems can sometimes be alleviated by incorporat-
ing adsorbants such as charcoal or polyvinylpyrrolidone, or an antioxidant such as ascorbic acid.
The inclusion of adsorbants must be carefully controlled, however, because they can adsorb
medium components as well.
When using Agrobacterium sp. as a transformation vehicle it is essential that a reasonable
proportion of the intact cells at the wound sites of explanted tissues undergo dedifferentiation and
cell division. Direct organogenesis of adventitious organs and continued growth from preexisting
meristems have to be kept to a minimum as there is no evidence that cells undergoing this type of
development can be transformed (50). If these latter two modes of development are not con-
trolled, laborious screening techniques may have to be employed to identify transformed organs
among a much larger population of organs derived from nontransformed tissues.
Leaf disks from in vitro propagated or greenhouse-grown plants have proved useful for
transformation. Leaf lamina slices do not contain quiescent buds or preformed organ primordia,
and therefore the majority of adventitious organs forming at the wound sites of explanted tissues
originate from dedifferentiated cells susceptible to transformation by Agrobacterium sp. (50).
Many other types of explants contain quiescent meristems or buds and may preferentially pro-
duce shoot primordia, from cambial meristems or other cell layers deep within the explant, which
are not accessible to Agrobacterium sp. This is the case with hypocotyl explants. For such ex-
plants, it is desirable to include an intervening callus stage in the regeneration process (i.e., indi-
rect organogenesis or embryogenesis). It should also be stressed that the leaf-disk method is not
applicable to all species as it depends entirely on the ability to regenerate shoots efficiently from
dedifferentiated cells at the wound site. For instance, it has proved rather difficult to adapt this
technique for potato (again a solanaceous species) (50).
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Initiation of in vitro cultures almost invariably requires some injury to the explanted tissue;
wound response is hence an unpreventable consequence during the initial culture. Many dicot
species produce a callus in response to the injury at the wound site. Some dicot explants (e.g., po-
tato tuber slices) exhibit wound response in which cellular proliferation and wound healing are less
random because of the establishment of a wound periderm (1). Monocots typically show a poor
wound response by increasing cell wall lignification of cells adjacent to the wound and by show-
ing little or no proliferating wound callus in the wound site. Additionally, monocot cells may lose
their ability to dedifferentiate and resume meristematic activity upon maturity (1). As discussed
success with Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is dependent in part on dedifferentiation and
cell division in cells adjacent to the wound (50). For a species such as a cereal monocot that shows
a poor wound response (i.e., a small amount of cell division near the wound site by only a few
cells), the transformation efficiency with Agrobacterium sp. is expected to be reduced.
Suspension cell/callus culture may be considered as a unique “explant.” It is an important
component of indirect organogenesis and embryogenesis (Fig. 2). For monocots, suspension cells
and suspension protoplasts have been the primary target explants for plant transformation. Sus-
pension cells have been used to obtain transgenic maize via particle bombardment (51). In addi-
tion, suspension protoplasts combined with electroporation or polyethylene glycol- (PEG-) medi-
ated transformation techniques have been utilized to obtain transgenic rice, corn, and orchard grass
(1). Numerous species have regenerated completely to plants after protoplast culture. The versa-
tility of protoplasts is illustrated by the fact that they have been utilized in transformation systems
using Agrobaeterium sp., PEG, and electroporation (Fig. 2), and in protoplast fusion and microin-
jection (9).
C. Culture Conditions
Medium composition is usually the most important culture condition to consider for in vitro plant
regeneration. Of the various medium components, growth regulator plays a central role in culture
initiation and morphogenesis. Other compounds such as reduced nitrogen and sugar may also af-
fect morphogenesis (52). In addition, the type of medium gelling agent has been shown to affect
plant regeneration (53). Despite the complexity of the cell-growth regulator interaction, growth
regulator effects on differentiation do show a degree of consistency that make them useful guid-
ing principles, even if they do not hold universally. These principles are as follows:
1. High auxin concentrations suppress organized growth and promote formation of meris-
temlike cells.
2. Auxin/cytokinin ratio influences the balance between root and shoot formation. As a
rule of thumb, high auxin/cytokinin ratio favors root formation and the converse situa-
tion favors shoot formation.
3. High cytokinin concentrations inhibit root formation.
4. High auxin concentrations induce somatic embryogenesis but suppress further embryo
development and maturation.
Aspects of various culture conditions are discussed in greater detail by Vasil and Thorpe (47).
D. Transformation Methods and Selection Agents

Selectable genes encode proteins that render the transformed plants resistant to phytotoxic agents
(negative selection) or confering capability to outgrow nontransformed plants (positive selec-
tion). For either negative or positive selections, specific selection agents need to be added to the
selection media to select the transformed plants. In negative selection, chemicals such as antibi-
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162 Su
otics and herbicides are used to kill off nontransformed plants. The selection agent is usually ap-
plied early in the plant regeneration program to allow more efficient elimination of the nontrans-
genic cells. In some cases, exposure to the selection agent may have to continue throughout the
regeneration process to reduce the number of escapes. The concentration of the selection agents
has to be determined empirically for different plant species by generating killing curves. The re-
sistance of the transgenic plant tissues ultimately depends on the strength and tissue specificity of
the promoter driving the selectable marker gene. One frequently used selectable marker is the
neomycin phosphotransferase gene, which confers resistance to aminoglycosides such as kana-
mycin. This system is very efficient for the selection of transgenic shoots of Solanaceae but is less
suited for some members of, e.g., the Fabaceae because of high levels of inherent tolerance to the
selective agent (10). New selection systems based on “positive selection” have been developed
recently. One such system has been established using inactive cytokinin glucuronides as selective
agents and a β-glucuronidase (GUS) gene as selectable gene, releasing active cytokinin in the
transgenic cells, which, in turn, stimulates growth and regeneration (54). Another system is based
on mannose as selective agent and a phosphomannose isomerase (PMI) gene as selectable gene,
which has been shown to be superior to kanamycin in transforming sugar beet (10,55). The work-
ing principle of this selection system is quite different from that of the kanamycin selection sys-
tem. First, the toxicity of mannose is not mediated by the compound per se but is considered to
be a consequence of its phosphorylation to mannose-6-phosphate by hexokinase, whereby the
nontransgenic PMI-negative cells are starved for phosphate and adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Second, the transgenic PMI-positive cells convert the selective agent to readily metabolized com-
pound, fructose-6-phosphate, thus improving the energy status of the transgenic cells and pre-
venting accumulation of derivatized selective agent. The mannose concentration is increased
stepwise during selection. Several parameters affect the efficiency of the mannose selection sys-
tem, and hence it is not as straightforward to apply as the classical resistance-based selection sys-
tems. Some of these parameters are the interaction between the sugar and mannose, phosphate
concentration, and light intensity (10,55). Transgenic plants can also be selected or screened on
the basis of a unique phenotype. For instance, in A. rhizogenes transformation, transformants ex-
hibit the hairy root phenotype and hence no chemical selection agent is necessary. The resulting
plants, however, exhibit the “hairy root” syndrome such as small thin leaves and short internodes.
Plants have also been cotransformed by using both A. rhizogenes oncogenic Ri plasmid and a sep-
arate A. tumefaciens binary vector carrying the gene of interest (56,57).
In Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, supplementation by bacteriostatic antibiotics,
such as carbenicillin or cefotaxime, of the selection medium is necessary to eliminate the
agrobacteria from the plant material. The antibiotic solution is filter-sterilized and added to the
medium after autoclaving and cooling. Carbenicillin usually is used at concentrations of 300–500
mg/l, whereas cefotaxime has been used most commonly at concentrations around 250 mg/l. At
these concentrations, these antibiotics (by themselves or in combination with kanamycin) may
cause inhibition on growth or regeneration in some plant species. The effect of carbenicillin and
cefotaxime on regeneration of various plant species has been surveyed by Otani et al. (58). A
number of alternative antibiotics may be used for plant species that are sensitive to carbenicillin
and cefotaxime. Timentin, a mixture of ticarcillin (a penicillin derivative) and clavulanic acid, has
been shown to be superior to carbenicillin and cefotaxime in tobacco (58,59) and tomato (60).
This antibiotic mixture is commonly used at 150 mg/l. At this concentration, Ling and coworkers
(60) have shown that timentin is not toxic to tomato tissues and promotes callus formation and
shoot regeneration. A similar promoting effect of timentin was also observed by Nauerby and as-
sociates (59) in the tobacco system. For tomato, the transformation frequency was raised more
than 40% in comparison to that of cefotaxime. In this case, cefotaxime itself did not inhibit cal-
lus growth in culture medium, but it decreased shoot differentiation. Together with kanamycin,
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cefotaxime strongly reduced callus growth, shoot regeneration, and transformation efficiency. For
pears, Chevreau and colleagues al. (53) reported that cefotaxime (200 mg/l) plus ticarcillin/clavu-
lanic acid (100 mg/l) could be used in the culture medium without affecting the frequency of bud
regeneration. Another antibiotic, amoxicillin trihydrate (Augmentin) at 300 mg/l, was able to
eliminate A. tumefaciens and enhance shoot proliferation of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.)
(61). In a study of apple transformation and regeneration, Hammerschlag et al. (62) demonstrated
that the incidence of A. tumefaciens contamination could be reduced to 28% without negatively
impacting shoot regeneration by using a 1-hour vacuum infiltration with an acidified medium, an
18-hour vacuum infiltration with cefotaxime (5000 mg/l), and 52-day incubation of regeneration
and elongation media containing 100 mg/l each of cefoxitin and carbenicillin.
Depending on the property and level of the foreign gene product expressed, it may have
positive or negative effects on plant regeneration. When a tomato antisense ACC synthase gene
was expressed in tobacco, shoot proliferation during plant regeneration was significantly en-
hanced, indicating the regulatory role of ethylene in shoot formation (63). On the other hand,
when expressing a toxic protein constitutively (e.g., ribosome-inactivating protein (64) or when
an inert protein is expressed at an exceedingly high level (e.g., a modified green fluorescent pro-
tein (65), plant regeneration may be hampered.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank Dr. Kung-Ta Lee of the Development Center for Biotechnology
(Taiwan) for helpful discussion.
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11
Genetic Engineering for Modified
Starch Structure in Cereals
Ming Gao, Monica Båga, and Ravindra N. Chibbar

I. INTRODUCTION 169
II. STARCH AND ITS GENETIC MODIFICATION 170
A. Starch Granules in Cereal Grains and Potential Modifications 170
B. Amylose and Its Modification 171
C. Amylopectin and Its Modification 173
REFERENCES 178
I. INTRODUCTION
Cereal grains, particularly those from wheat, maize, rice and barley, provide staple foods and im-
portant industrial raw materials for human beings. Starch is the major component of cereal grains,
accounting for 60% to 75% of the grain weight. It provides 70% to 80% of the calories consumed
by humans worldwide. Cereal grains also contain an important amount of proteins, and a very
small amount of lipids. Thus, the two major components, starch and protein, mostly determine
the quality of cereal grains.
Genetic engineering of starch and proteins could potentially be a very powerful means of
improving cereal grain quality for various dietary and industrial applications. Although the process
is still difficult and time-consuming, major cereal species, including maize, wheat, and rice, can
now be successfully transformed by either biolistic or agrobacteria-mediated methods. These ge-
netic transformation technologies make it feasible to manipulate enzymes involved in starch
biosynthesis selectively for the production of starch with desired or novel functional properties and
to modify storage proteins directly for desired functional properties in cereal grains. In recent
years, great progress has been made in our understanding of the enzymatic machinery for starch
biosynthesis and of the structural and functional property relationships of starch and storage pro-
teins. This ever-increasing body of knowledge could lead to genetically modified starch and pro-
teins in cereal grains with novel or significantly improved functional and nutritional properties.
Cereal grains will undoubtedly continue to be a staple food and to provide essential indus-
NRCC No. 43798
169
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170 Gao et al.
trial raw materials. Genetic engineering of starch and proteins has a great potential for the qual-
ity improvement of cereal grains to meet the requirements of many established dietary and in-
dustrial applications, and for the development of new dietary and industrial products. In this chap-
ter, we attempt to identify those structural properties of starch amenable to genetic modification
and discuss characteristics of the enzymatic machinery for starch biosynthesis in cereal grains,
which pertain to their genetic modification.
II. STARCH AND ITS GENETIC MODIFICATION
Starch refers to two major homoglucans in starch granules, amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is
a mostly linear polymer of α-1,4 linked α-d-glucopyranosyl units. Some amylose molecules may
contain several branches of α-1,6 linkages per molecule. Amylopectin is a highly branched glu-
can with α-1,4 forming the main chain and α-1,6 at branching points (reviewed in Refs. 1–4). In
addition to two major polysaccharides, cereal starch granules contain a small amount of proteins
on the surface or as integral components, and a small amount of free fatty acids and lysophospho-
lipids.
Starch biosynthesis in cereal endosperm involves at least four groups of enzymes: adeno-
sine diphosphate (ADP)-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), starch synthases (SSs), starch
branching enzymes (SBEs), and starch debranching enzymes (SDBEs). The AGPase synthesizes
ADP-glucose from glucose-1-phosphate derived from photosynthesis assimilate. Most of ADP-
glucose for starch synthesis in cereal endosperm is synthesized by a cytosolic AGPase isoform
(5,6), and is translocated into amyloplasts through an adenylate translocator (7,8). Starch syn-
thases catalyze the formation of α-1,4 linkages in amylose and amylopectin, by adding a glucose
moiety from ADP-glucose to a nonreducing end of elongating glucans. SBEs are responsible for
the formation of α-1,6 linkages at branch points in amylopectin. SDBEs are also involved in the
starch biosynthesis, although their specific roles remain uncertain (4,9).
Our understanding of enzymatic machinery for starch synthesis is far from complete.
Aimed modifications of particular structural elements of cereal starch are presently not achiev-
able. However, recent progress in molecular characterization of genes encoding these four groups
of enzymes in cereal species enable us to manipulate these enzymes genetically for the modifi-
cation of cereal starch.
A. Starch Granules in Cereal Grains and Potential Modifications

The size and shape of plant storage starch granules are species-specific. Starch granules in cereal
endosperm are generally small and polyhedric and are heterogeneous in size, e.g., 3 to 26 µm in
diameter in maize and 1 to 40 µm in wheat. Starch granules in endosperm of maize, wheat, and
barely are simple granules, i.e., one granule per amyloplast. Those from oats and rice are com-
pound.
The size and shape of starch granules have an important impact on many dietary and in-
dustrial uses of granular starch (10). For example, the size and shape of starch granules are criti-
cal in the production of biodegradable plastic thin film (11). Relatively uniform and small starch
granules are highly desirable for some applications, such as face and talcum powders. On the
other hand, larger starch granules may be useful in other applications such as absorbent materi-
als. Thus, the size and shape of cereal starch granules are potential targets for genetic modifica-
tion to suit various applications.
Wheat, barley, and rye produce two types of starch granules, the large lenticular and the
small spherical granules (A and B types). A-type granules are developed from granules initiated
at an early developmental stage and increase in size, but not in number in developing endosperm
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Modified Starch Structure in Cereals 171
(12). At a later developmental stage, small B-type granules are produced within the evaginations
of the amyloplasts already containing developing A-type granules. The B-type granules are later
separated from the original amyloplasts. The number of B-type granules, but not the size, in-
creases throughout grain development (12). The two types of granules seem to differ in their amy-
lose concentration and gelatinization properties (13).
Very little is known about the genetic and biochemical bases for the formation of these two
populations of granules. Some starch synthetic enzymes and/or a particular type of amylopectin
may play an important role in their formation. Starch granules from the mature endosperm of bar-
ley shx mutant, with greatly reduced SSI activity showed an altered size distribution, comprising
normal B-type granules and small-size A-type granules (14). Therefore, starch granules in cereal
grains, especially those from wheat, could be potentially modified to give a narrower and uni-
modal size distribution by genetic modification of starch synthetic enzymes, such as starch syn-
thases. However, any targeted modification of the size distribution or structures of cereal starch
granules will have to await relatively complete knowledge of the genetic and biochemical mech-
anism for the formation of the granule structure and the size distribution.
Starch granules in cereal grains have a very complex semicrystalline structure comprising
concentric rings of alternating amorphous and semicrystalline composition. The semicrystalline
growth ring contains stacks of amorphous and crystalline lamellae. Amylopectin is mostly re-
sponsible for the granule crystallinity. Short side chains of amylopectin are believed to form dou-
ble helices that associate into clusters. These clusters pack together to form a structure of alter-
nating amorphous and crystalline lamellae, with most of the branch points in the amorphous
lamellae and with double helices forming the crystalline lamellae. The size of a layer of amor-
phous and crystalline lamella is 9 nm, as it is throughout the plant kingdom.
Despite recent progress in our understanding of starch biosynthesis (reviewed in Refs. 1–4),
it remains unknown how this complex granule structure is formed from its components and what
specific contribution amylose and amylopectin make to the granule structure. Amylose and amy-
lopectin are most likely synthesized in the amyloplast stroma and deposited on growing starch
granules (15), although it cannot be completely ruled out that some polysaccharides may be syn-
thesized on the surface of, or within, growing starch granules. The formation of granule structure
could be a complete crystallization process or an enzyme-mediated biochemical process. If the
former is true, amylopectin should essentially determine the size and morphological characteris-
tics of starch granules, in addition to their structure. Modification of the granule size and mor-
phological features may, thus, be achieved simply by changing amylopectin structure. Some ev-
idence indeed suggests that amylopectin could have an essential impact on the granule size and
morphological characteristics and that amylose may not have much influence on it. The size
and morphological traits of starch granules were significantly altered in a number of maize, pea,
and Chlamydomonas sp. mutants deficient in various starch synthases and starch branching en-
zymes involved in amylopectin synthesis (15,16). On the other hand, almost complete elimina-
tion of amylose in starch granules from waxy mutants of maize and wheat did not result in any
significant changes in the size, morphological features, and structure of these starch granules
(15,17). Amylose also seems to disrupt the structural order within the amylopectin crystallites
(18). If the granule formation is an enzyme-mediated process, the size, morphological features,
and structures of starch granules may be modified through manipulating yet to be identified en-
zymes, without changing amylopectin.
B. Amylose and Its Modification

The amylose concentration of nonmutant cereal starch varies among species and cultivars and de-
pends on the growing conditions and on the developmental stages at which starch is isolated. It
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172 Gao et al.
can vary from 20% to 36% of starch among 399 maize cultivars, and 17% to 29% among 167
wheat cultivars (15). Amylose, isolated from fractionation of cereal starch, has a rather broad size
distribution, e.g., 100 to 10,000 glucose residues in maize (19). In addition, the amylose fraction
comprises a mixture of linear and loosely branched chains (20). However, branches may not sig-
nificantly alter the solution behavior of the amylose chains (4). Although the conformation and
location of amylose in starch granules remain unclear, most amylose molecules may form a com-
plex with lipids present in starch granules (2,21).
The amylose concentration or the amylose/amylopectin ratio has a very important impact
on many physicochemical properties, and on many dietary and industrial applications of cereal
starches. High amylose concentration has a negative effect on the structural order within the amy-
lopectin crystallites (18) and may be thus responsible for the conversion of the X-ray diffraction
pattern from the A pattern for the normal maize starch to the B pattern for the high-amylose maize
starch (22). High amylose concentration in a cereal starch diet can yield many health benefits,
largely because of the increased amount of resistant starch (23–25). On the other hand, high-amy-
lose concentrations of wheat flour seem to have a negative effect on the quality of certain types
of noodles (26–29). The amylose concentration of cereal starch also influences paste properties
(30,31), gelatinization and retrogradation (32–37), the texture of cooked rice (38), and the prop-
erties of starch-based films, foams, and plastics (39–41).
Amylose concentrations of cereal starches have been successfully modified by using mu-
tants deficient in starch synthases and branching enzymes, using classical plant breeding tech-
niques. Cereal endosperm waxy mutants lacking the granule-bound starch synthase I (GBSSI) al-
most completely eliminate all amylose in cereal grains (15,17). Starches from waxy maize, rice
(glutinous), and barley have been utilized for many dietary and industrial applications for the past
few decades. Wheat mutants with one or two null waxy alleles have been recently identified and
shown to have reduced amylose concentration (42). Amylose-free waxy wheat has been recently
developed by combining three homoeologous null waxy alleles using traditional breeding meth-
ods (reviewed in Ref. 17).
Cereal starches with high amylose concentration have also been developed from endosperm
mutants. Maize endosperm mutant amylose-extender (ae) deficient in one of three starch branch-
ing enzyme isoforms, SBEIIb, accumulated more apparent amylose, but less total starch (15), and
is mostly responsible for up to 70% of amylose content in commercial high-amylose corn culti-
vars (43,44). Similar ae endosperm mutants have been also identified in rice and barley. It’s ex-
tremely difficult to identify null ae alleles in allohexaploid wheat. Therefore, we have trans-
formed wheat with starch branching enzyme antisense gene constructs to regulate the activity of
starch branching enzyme. Preliminary results show wheat grain starch with altered amylose con-
centration in transgenic plants (45). Maize dull mutation with reduced activities of the biochem-
ically defined soluble starch synthase II (or SSIII in this chapter) and SBEIIa, and su2 mutation
with unknown genetic lesion also elevate amylose concentration in certain genetic backgrounds
(15). These two mutants may also be used for breeding high-amylose corn cultivars.
Relative to the amylose concentration, the GBSSI activity seems not to be a limiting factor
in the triploid endosperm of cereal crops such as maize, rice, and wheat. Although the normal Wx
allele is not completely dominant to the mutant Wx allele relative to the amylose content in
triploid maize endosperm (15), the amylose content does not increase substantially with increased
dosages of the normal Wx allele in maize endosperm (21). A similar conclusion was also drawn
from the dosage study of the wheat waxy proteins on the amylose concentration in wheat en-
dosperm (46). Moreover, in a potato GBSSI gene dosage population, a certain level of GBSSI ac-
tivity led to a maximal amount of amylose although the GBSSI activity increased almost linearly
with the increase of the number of wild-type GBSSI alleles (47). Thus, the GBSSI activity is most
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likely not limiting relative to the amylose synthesis in the normal triploid endosperm of cereal
species.
The limiting factors for the amylose content are likely to be the availability of substrates for
the GBSSI, either ADP-glucose or glucan primers, or both. The increase of amylose concentration
in maize dull and su2 mutants in some genetic backgrounds might have resulted from shifting more
ADP-glucose to the amylose synthesis by GBSSI. The maize GBSSI, in its intact granule-bound
form, has an affinity for ADP-glucose 10-fold lower than that of other starch synthases (48). This
suggests that the amylose content in normal cereal endosperm may be restricted by the affinity of
GBSSI for limited ADP-glucose in vivo. Thus, transformation of cereal crops with heterologous
or modified homeologous genes coding for GBSSI with higher affinity for ADP-glucose could po-
tentially elevate substantially the amylose concentrations in cereal endosperm starch, especially
when mutations such as dull and su2 are incorporated in the genetic background of transfomants.
A substantial increase in starch production has been reported in a revertant of the maize sh2 mu-
tant with increased AGPase activity (49). Therefore, genetic combination of a GBSSI with high
affinity for ADP-glucose, a AGPase capable of producing a higher amount of ADP-glucose, and
controlled allocation of more ADP-glucose for amylose synthesis may be achieved in the future
by using genetic transformation and traditional breeding for the production of high-amylose ce-
real starch.
The nature of the primers required for GBSSI to synthesize amylose remains unclear. Two
types of primers have been proposed, small maltooligosaccharides (50) and short linear oligosac-
charides derived from trimming of branches of preamylopectin by SDBE (51,51a). If the latter is
indeed the primer in cereal endosperm, and if the full GBSSI activity for amylose synthesis re-
quires the granule structure, amylose should be a side product of amylopectin synthesis. Thus,
there would exist an upper limit on the amylose concentration in cereal starches.
Another challenge or interesting area for genetic modification of amylose is its size distri-
bution. The amylose fraction of cereal starch is heterogeneous and has a wide size distribution
that depends on species or cultivar. With the progress in our understanding of the mechanism of
amylose synthesis, we may, in the future, alter and narrow the size distribution of amylose in ce-
real starch, through the expression of a foreign or modified GBSSI gene.
C. Amylopectin and Its Modification

Amylopectin is the major polysaccharide in cereal endosperm starch, ranging from 72% to 82%
(w/w). It determines the crystalline structure of starch granule and the physicochemical properties
of starch. Although amylopectin and glycogen share the same glucose building blocks and the
same chemical linkages (α-1,4 and α-1,6), amylopectin has far more organized structures that are
mostly determined by the clustered α-1,6 branch structure and unique branch chain profiles (re-
viewed in Refs. 1, 4). In fact, the fine structure of amylopectin still remains unclear, mostly be-
cause of the lack of methods to resolve the heterogeneous amylopectin population and to deter-
mine locations of α-1,6 branch linkages in amylopectin molecules precisely. Complicating further
our understanding of the amylopectin structure are the secondary crystalline structure of amy-
lopectin molecules and its interactions with amylose, lipid, and proteins in a starch granule of very
complex structure itself (reviewed in Ref. 2). Direct correlation between physicochemical proper-
ties of starch and amylopectin structural features is currently not possible. It is not currently pos-
sible to modify amylopectin and produce predictable structural changes for targeted physico-
chemical properties.
However, now it is practical and achievable to manipulate enzymes involved in amylopectin
synthesis genetically, with a certain degree of predictability for the production of novel or modi-
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174 Gao et al.
fied starches. Novel dietary and industrial applications may be subsequently developed from
these modified starches. In cereal endosperm, the assembly of amylopectin molecules involves
three groups of enzymes, SS, SBE, and SDBE. Many mutants with deficiency in these enzyme
activities have been identified in cereal species, particularly in maize (reviewed in Ref. 15), and
have been utilized for production of specialty starches. Genetic transformation technology could
further extend the spectrum of the manipulation of these enzymes. Currently, the following ap-
proaches may be employed individually, or in combination, to manipulate these enzymes for the
production of novel or modified starch:
1. Use of different combinations of mutations in double or triple mutants to reduce or
eliminate various enzyme activities. Many mutants deficient in starch synthetic enzymes are
available or can be selected with relatively simple techniques in maize, rice, and barley. The draw-
back of this approach is the reduction of starch yield in these mutants. This may be alleviated in
the future by overexpression of a modified AGPase with higher enzymatic activity for the pro-
duction of more ADP-glucose, such as the revertant of the maize sh2 mutant (49).
2. Antisense technology to reduce the enzyme activities involved in amylopectin synthe-
sis. This approach has been successfully used in potato to down-regulate the activity of SSII and
III (52,53) and SBE A and B (54,55). It may be particularly useful in bread wheat because muta-
tions are extremely difficult to identify because of the allohexaploid nature of wheat.
3. Expression of foreign or modified genes for enzymes involved in, or nonrelated to,
amylopectin synthesis. The diversity of plant starch synthesis, as reflected in the diversity of gran-
ule structure and morphological characteristics, amylose/amylopectin ratio, and structures of
amylose and amylopectin in various plant starches, may be exploited for modification of cereal
starches. With the progress in our understanding of biochemical properties of starch synthetic en-
zymes, modification of these enzymes for desired properties at the DNA level could be very use-
ful in the future for engineering amylopectin synthesis. Enzymes that could modify side groups
of glucose residues in amylopectin, such as the potato R1 enzyme (56), may be used to modify
cereal starch for some desired properties, e.g., elevated phosphate content.
Our knowledge about the enzymatic machinery for amylopectin synthesis is far from com-
plete. Recent progress has been elegantly summarized in a series of reviews (4,16,57–59). Im-
portant features of three types of enzymes involved in amylopectin synthesis are discussed here
from the perspective of genetic modification of amylopectin:
1. Multiple SS and SBE isoforms and their enzymatic activities in the triploid cereal en-
dosperm
2. The clustered branching patterns and side chain profiles of amylopectin, which are
most likely determined by the combined action of starch synthase, starch branching en-
zyme, and starch debranching enzyme
3. Multienzyme complexes containing three groups of enzymes for amylopectin synthe-
sis that may be present in cereal endosperm
These features may profoundly impact the strategies for genetically modifying amylopectin syn-
thesis in cereal grains.
Multiple isoforms of starch synthases have been identified in the same tissue or different
tissues in many plants, including maize, rice and wheat, pea, and potato (60–67). On the basis of
their sequence relatedness, these isoforms can be classified into four basic groups, arbitrarily
named GBSSI, SSI, SSII, and SSIII (Fig. 1). Endosperm of cereal species, as represented by
maize (reviewed in Ref. 48), may contain all four types of starch synthases. These isoforms have
different degrees of association with starch granules, which may reflect their unique contributions
to the synthesis of amylose and/or amylopectin and the formation of starch granule structure.
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Figure 1 Phylogenetic relationships of starch synthase isoforms from higher plants. Amino acid se-
quences of various starch synthases were aligned by using the Clustal method with PAM250 residue weight
table. The dendrogram was constructed by using the MegAlign program. The starch synthases used in the
alignment and their Genbank accession numbers are the maize zSSIIa (AF019296), zSSIIb (AF019297),
zSSI(AF036891), waxy protein (zWx, X03935), and Dull protein (zDul, AF023159); the rice waxy protein
(rWx, X62134.1) and SSI (rSSI, D16202); the pea GBSSI (pGBSSI, X88789) and SSII (pSSII, X88790);
the potato SSI (stSSI, Y10416), SSII (st SSII, X87988), and SSIII (stSSIII, X94400); the cowpea SSIII (vuS-
SIII, AJ225088) and SSV (vuSSV AJ006752); the sweet potato SSI (ipSSI, U44126) and SSII (ipSSII,
AF068834); the cassava GBSSI (meGBSSI, X74160); the wheat waxy proteins wWxA1b (AF113843),
wWxD1b (AF113844) and WWx (X57233); the barley Waxy protein (hvWx, X07932); the wheat wSSIIb-
1 (Gao and Chibbar, unpublished) and wSSIIa-1 (Gao and Chibbar, unpublished), wSSIIa-2 (Gao and Chib-
bar, unpublished), and wSSIIa-3 (Gao and Chibbar, unpublished).
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176 Gao et al.
The four groups of starch synthase isoforms seem to make distinct contributions to amy-
lopectin synthesis and to the formation of starch granules. The exclusively granule-bound GBSSI
or Waxy protein may contribute to amylopectin synthesis to some degree, in addition to playing
an essential role in amylose synthesis (50). The SSI isoforms, including the maize SSI (68,69),
rice SSI (70), and potato SSI (71), exist both in starch granules and in stroma of amyloplasts but
account for a small portion of total soluble starch synthase activity. The antisense inhibition of the
potato SSI expression resulted in accumulation of starch granules with changed morphological
features and contained amylopectin with altered chain length distribution (71). Moreover, the bar-
ley shx mutants with reduced activity of SSI resulted in A-type granules with reduced size (14).
The starch synthase II (SSII), as represented by those in pea embryo and potato tubers, also oc-
curs in both stroma of amyloplasts and starch granules (71,72). Deficiency in the SSII in the pea
rug5 mutant embryo (73) and the antisense inhibition of the SSII expression in transgenic potato
tubers (52,53) also resulted in starch granule morphological alterations and in changes of the
chain length profiles of amylopectin. The maize Dull starch synthase (or SSIII in this chapter) (68,
74,75) and the potato SSIII (67,76) may be representatives of the major starch synthase that are
exclusively present in stroma of amyloplasts in cereal species. Analyses of starches from the dull
mutant endosperm (77,78) and from tubers of transgenic potato plants containing antisense SsII
cDNA constructs suggest that this group of isoforms make unique contributions to the synthesis
of amylopectin. Distinct impacts of various starch synthase isoforms on the chain length profile
of amylopectin have been well documented in a series of studies of mutants in higher plants and
Chlamydamonas sp. (reviewed in Refs. 4,15,16,59).
Three possible modes for multiple SS isoforms to synthesize amylopectin in cereal en-
dosperm can be speculated. First, they may act individually so that each of them synthesizes a
particular type of amylopectin molecule that differs slightly from others in its degree of poly-
merization, the clustered branching pattern, and the profile of branch chain length. By this mode,
elimination or reduction of one isoform by mutations or antisense inhibition could result in the
loss or reduction of a particular type of amylopectin but would not affect other types of amy-
lopectin. Addition of a foreign or modified isoform through genetic transformation may add a new
type of amylopectin but would not affect the synthesis of the original types of amylopectin. Sec-
ond, they may synthesize different parts of the same type of amylopectin molecules at various
biosynthetic stages, so that each isoform may act only on certain type of intermediates. By this
mode, the reduction or elimination of an isoform through antisense inhibition or mutations would
affect the synthesis of all types of amylopectin and result in accumulation of a particular type of
intermediate. The introduction of a foreign or modified isoform may, or may not, have an impact
on amylopectin synthesis. Both operating modes for different SS isoforms could be present at the
same time in cereal endosperm. Some SSs may act independently, others may act together with
other SSs for amylopectin synthesis. Finally, a mixture of both modes for a particular type of SS
could be present, too. Until we understand individual roles of each isoform in amylopectin syn-
thesis, genetic manipulation of SS for novel starch can be only a trial and error process.
The activity of at least some starch synthase isoforms may be redundant in the triploid ce-
real endosperm such as those of maize and rice, and more so in wheat because of the presence of
three homoeologous alleles coding for the same type of SS isoforms. Gene dosage studies of
maize dull mutants indicate that the normal du allele is completely dominant relative to the con-
tent and structure of amylopectin (15) and thus suggest the redundancy of the activity of the Dull
starch synthase in normal triploid maize endosperm. In other words, the activity of the Dull starch
synthase is not a limiting factor for amylopectin synthesis. Therefore, it may not be necessary to
overexpress any endogenous starch synthase isoform in cereal endosperm for modification of the
content and structure of amylopectin.
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At least three SBE isoforms belonging to two major groups, SBEI, SBEIIa, and SBEIIb,
may be present in endosperm of all cereal species as suggested by their presence in endosperm of
maize (reviewed in Refs. 48,57) and barley (79). Each of the three diploid donor genomes in hexa-
ploid wheat may code for counterparts of all three types of SBE isoforms ((80) and unpublished
data). In other words, nine SBE isoforms encoded by three groups of homoeologous alleles may
be present in endosperm of hexaploid wheat. The deduced amino acid sequences of SBEIIa and
SBEIIb in maize (81), barley (82), and wheat (unpublished data) are very similar, except for those
at their N termini, but are quite divergent from that of SBEI isoforms.
Individual roles of SBE isoforms in the formation of the clustered branch structure of amy-
lopectin are not well understood. The dramatic elevation of amylose content and the accumula-
tion of loosely branched amylopectin in maize ae mutant strongly suggest that each SBE isoform
may have a unique role in the formation of the clustered branching pattern in amylopectin. More-
over, their preference for different in vitro substrates also points to their unique roles in amy-
lopectin synthesis. The SBEI isoform prefers amylopectin as an in vitro substrate and tends to
transfer longer chains, whereas SBEIIa and IIb prefer long glucan chains as in vitro substrates and
are inclined to transfer shorter chains (83,84). The two types of SBE isoforms also require dif-
ferent minimal size of glucans as in vitro substrates (85). If this preference for different substrates
holds true for these SBE isoforms in vivo, the formation of branches of a particular type on amy-
lopectin molecules may involve all three SBE isoforms. A foreign or modified SBE introduced
into cereal endosperm through genetic transformation may alter the structure of all types of amy-
lopectin molecules or may produce a new type of amylopectin.
The SBE isoforms are not exclusively responsible for the clustered branching structure. De-
ficiency in a debranching enzyme in maize and rice su mutant endosperm and in the Chlamyda-
monas sp. mutant sta7 resulted in accumulation of a highly branched polysaccharide, phytogly-
cogen (reviewed in Refs. 4,15,51,86). This indicates that the debranching enzyme may play an
important role in the formation of the clustered branching structure.
The specific role of the debranching enzyme in the formation of the clustered branching
structure remains unclear. It has been proposed that the debranching enzyme may trim random
branches formed by SBE to form an ordered branch cluster on part of a growing amylopectin mol-
ecule (51). However, it is unclear how the specificity of debranching action could be determined
if the debranching enzyme is solely responsible for the clustered branching structure. The random
branches on restricted parts of a growing amylopectin molecule should not have much structural
difference to distinguish one from another for specific debranching. Moreover, the recombinant
maize debranching enzyme did not show a very high intrinsic specificity in debranching in vitro
substrates (87). Nonetheless, the debranching enzyme may play an essential role in the formation
of the clustered branch structure of amylopectin in maize and rice endosperm. On the whole,
amylopectin synthesis is a highly integrated process that may require coordinated action of three
types of enzymes.
Some evidence suggests that the three groups of enzymes, SS, SBE, and SDBE, may func-
tion as a multienzyme complex for the assembly of amylopectin molecules. The genetic lesion at
the maize Du locus encoding SSIII (74,75) also reduced the SBEIIa activity (60). This finding
strongly suggests that this particular SS may be physically associated with SBEIIa in vivo. Con-
sistent with this hypothesis is the observation that peak activities of this starch synthase and
SBEIIa, and SBEIIb and SSI coincide in the same anion exchange column fraction (60,88). Sim-
ilar tight association of peak activities of SS and SBE has been also observed in wheat (62).
The genetic interaction between the maize du mutation and various su alleles also suggests
that the soluble starch synthase may also interact physically with the debranching enzyme. Four
major mutant alleles at the maize su locus have been identified. However, three su alleles, su-am,
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178 Gao et al.
su-st, and su-bn2, give rise to near-normal kernel phenotype in a single mutant but result in more
obvious and synthetic phenotypes in combination with the du or su2 mutant alleles (15). The
unique synthetic mutant phenotype that resulted from the combination of the maize du and su-am
mutations implies that the starch synthase encoded at the Du locus may interact with the de-
branching enzyme encoded at the Su locus in direct physical association. The occurrence of three
su alleles may be best explained as mutations that may have interrupted interactions between the
SDBE and various SS or SBE isoforms. If multienzyme complexes containing all three types of
enzymes are indeed present for the amylopectin synthesis, that could post an obstacle for modi-
fication of amylopectin in cereal endosperm using foreign or modified enzymes. Some foreign
enzymes introduced by transformation may not have any impact on the amylopectin synthesis,
because they may not be able to interact with those endogenous SDBE and SBE isoforms.
In summary, genetic manipulation of starch synthetic enzymes for modification of cereal
starch is still a trial and error process. With the progress in our understanding of enzymatic mech-
anisms of starch biosynthesis and functional and structural property relationships of cereal starch,
we will be able to produce starches, not only with novel functional properties, but also with de-
sired structural modifications for specific functions. As a renewable and biodegradable natural
polymer, starch can yield many new and important dietary and industrial applications, which will
continue to be developed. Genetically modified starches with novel functionality could further
expand the spectrum of starch utilization.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Drs. Fawzy Georges (Plant Biotechnology Institute) and Christopher D’Hulst (University of
Lille, France) are gratefully acknowledged for their review of this manuscript.
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12
Improving Crop Performance Through
Transgenic Modification of Flowering
Pierre Fobert
I. INTRODUCTION 183
II. STRATEGIES FOR ISOLATING AND STUDYING GENES THAT
CONTROL FLOWERING 184
III. FLOWERS ON DEMAND 185
A. Genes That Control Flowering Time 185
B. Genes That Control Floral Meristem Identity 186
C. Possible Biotechnology Applications 187
IV. REDESIGNING PLANT ARCHITECTURE 188
V. MAKING DESIGNER FLOWERS 189
A. Floral Organ Identity Genes 189
B. Creating New Arrangements of Floral Organs 189
C. Producing Apterous Canola 190
VI. NEW SYSTEMS FOR SEED AND FRUIT PRODUCTION 191
A. Hybrid Seed Production 191
B. Seeds Without Fertilization 191
VII. PERSPECTIVES 192
REFERENCES 193
I. INTRODUCTION
The goal of most breeding programs is ultimately to increase crop yield. Given the wide range of
intrinsic (i.e., genetic) and extrinsic (i.e., environmental) factors that influence “yield,” it is not
surprising that many aspects of plant growth, development, and interaction with the environment
have been targeted for modification in an effort to achieve that goal. In particular, altering plant
size and shape has played an important role in the development of our current crop cultivars. One
only has to compare a crop with its wild relatives to witness the often dramatic changes achieved
by years of selection by humans. Manipulation of plant development continues to be an impor-
tant target for crop improvement in current breeding programs. For example, field peas are being
selected for better standing abilities to resist lodging (1), and Brassica cultivars with flatter, up-
right pods are being sought for more efficient interception of available light (2).
183
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184 Fobert
This chapter examines how transgenic technology may be used to modify plant develop-
ment for the purpose of enhancing crop performance, and hence yield. Unlike conventional
breeding, transgenic approaches require that the gene(s) controlling traits of interest first be iso-
lated as defined segments of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (i.e., cloned). Identification and isola-
tion of genes controlling plant development represent huge challenges to molecular biologists and
are currently areas of intensive study. Excellent progress is being made in several areas, with
flower development representing the best understood process at the present. Consequently, this
chapter focuses specifically on the manipulation of various aspects of flowering. Each section first
highlights what is known about the genes that regulate the relevant phases of flower development,
emphasizing information obtained from transgenic studies. Examples of how the information has
been, or may be, applied to produce novel transgenic crops is then considered. A common theme
emerging from current research is that transgenic technology not only provides a means to pro-
duce genetically engineered crops, but also represents an important research tool for the identifi-
cation and study of genes controlling plant development.
II. STRATEGIES FOR ISOLATING AND STUDYING

GENES THAT CONTROL FLOWERING
As stated, the availability of cloned genes is absolutely required for transgenic projects. One ap-
proach that has proved particularly effective for identifying and cloning genes that control flow-
ering is molecular genetics (3–6). First, relevant genes are identified through the analysis of mu-
tants (induced or naturally occurring). Characterization of mutant phenotypes provides important
information about the possible function of the affected genes. Because most mutations lead to
gene inactivation, those in key flowering genes may result in plants that produce abnormal flow-
ers or produce normal-looking flowers but at inappropriate times or places. Combining different
mutations in the same genetic background permits the study of gene interactions and allows the
relative positioning of different genes acting in the same pathways. Second, molecular genetics
allows cloning of the affected gene, simply based on the presence of the mutation, using molec-
ular tagging or positional cloning approaches (3). These methods are particularly powerful be-
cause no additional information about the biochemical function, structure, or expression of the
gene or gene product is required.
Although mutations affecting flower development have been known for centuries, strate-
gies for cloning the affected genes have only been developed recently. Two species that are well
suited for cloning genes solely in terms of the presence of mutations are the garden snapdragon
(Antirrhinum majus) and a small cruciferous weed, Arabidopsis thaliana (5–7). Consequently,
these species have emerged as model systems for studying the molecular genetics of flowering.
This chapter focuses on results obtained in Arabidopsis because most transgenic research has
been performed in this species or with genes isolated from this species. However, it is notewor-
thy that several of the Arabidopsis flowering genes were isolated by using sequence similarity to
that of previously identified genes from Antirrhinum.
Transgenic technology also provides a powerful tool for studying genes that control flow-
ering. In many ways, this technology complements that of molecular genetics. For example,
transgenics allow the introduction of genes isolated by molecular genetics into mutant plants to
test whether they can rescue the mutant phenotype, thus providing conclusive proof that the de-
sired gene has been cloned (for example, see Ref. 8). Transgenic approaches also permit certain
types of targeted gene manipulations that are more difficult, or impossible, to accomplish through
traditional mutagenesis approaches. Studies with so-called gain-of-function transgenes, which
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Transgenic Modification of Flowering 185
are expressed at higher levels or at times or places where the genes are not normally expressed,
have been particularly effective in cases in which gene function is difficult to ascertain, including
situations in which several genes share common or related functions or genes function as part of
a complex pathway. Another powerful research application of transgenic technology is the test-
ing of putative flowering genes in species in which the creation or isolation of mutants is difficult.
It is possible to suppress the expression of genes in transgenic plants using antisense or cosup-
pression methods (9), thereby simulating the effect of mutations, and allowing the assignment of
gene function. Because transgenic approaches allow the transfer of genes between species, they
also provide a means of testing evolutionary relationships between genes. For example, flower-
ing genes from conifers have been introduced into Arabidopsis and found to induce develop-
mental changes very similar to those of the related genes from Arabidopsis (10,11). This finding
suggests that the function of these genes has been well conserved between angiosperms and
conifers, even though the former produce true flowers and the latter produce cones. Finally, trans-
genic technology has permitted the transfer of well-characterized transposable elements, such as
those from maize, into heterologous plants in which transposons are uncharacterized (12,13).
This has made possible the generation and eventual cloning of insertional mutants in the heterol-
ogous hosts, using the transposons as molecular tags (13). In some cases, the Agrobacterium
transfer DNA (T-DNA) itself has served as an insertional mutagen and molecular tag for gene iso-
lation (14).
III. FLOWERS ON DEMAND
The time at which a crop initiates flowering can have a major impact on yield. Controlling when
in the growing season plants flower ensures that seeds develop and mature during the most fa-
vorable environmental conditions, while avoiding unfavorable risk factors such as drought and
frost. It follows that the optimal time to flower varies considerably, depending on geographic re-
gion and local environmental conditions. By manipulating the window of time during which
plants flower, cultivars adapted to different geographic regions have been developed for many
crops. Transgenic manipulation of two classes of flowering genes appears to have application in
this area and is discussed in the following sections.
A. Genes That Control Flowering Time

Genes controlling flowering time have been identified in many plant species. For example, ap-
proximately 80 loci affecting flowering time have been identified in Arabidopsis (4). Mutational
analyses indicate that these act in at least four pathways to control flowering time. Interactions
between different genes and pathways may be complex, as some genes have redundant functions.
More than a quarter of the Arabidopsis genes known to affect flowering time has now been cloned
(4). Transgenic plants in which expression of these genes has been changed all display altered
flowering time (15–17). The CONSTANS (CO) gene has been particularly well studied and is used
here as an example.
In wild-type Arabidopsis exposure to long days (16 hours light) promotes flowering (8).
Mutations in CO delay flowering under long days but have no effect under short days (10 hours
light). The CO protein contains zinc fingers and probably functions as a transcription factor, reg-
ulating the expression of other genes that promote flowering in response to long days (8). On the
basis of the observation that the CO messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is more abundant in
leaves of plants grown under long days (8), Coupland and coworkers decided to test whether lev-
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186 Fobert
els of CO were important for regulating flowering time. To this end, they produced transgenic
Arabidopsis plants containing a chemically inducible version of CO (CO:GR). In this instance,
the chemical inducer was a mammalian steroid hormone not normally found in plants. In the ab-
sence of the hormone, CO:GR protein does not enter the nucleus and therefore cannot regulate
the expression of its target genes. Addition of the hormone causes a large amount of the modified
CO rapidly to enter the nucleus, where it is active. Coupland’s group observed that transgenic
plants containing CO:GR flowered rapidly after addition of the steroid hormone (15). The earlier
the hormone was applied, the earlier the plants flowered. In some cases, plants flowered before
the time normally required by the wild-type plants. Furthermore, flowering was no longer regu-
lated by day length. Expression of high levels of CO:GR also caused the apical inflorescence
meristem to develop into a terminal flower (15). In untransformed Arabidopsis plants, the inflo-
rescence meristem does not develop into a terminal flower but grows indeterminately until it
senesces (18). Consequently, hormone-induced CO:GR plants produced fewer flowers than non-
induced transgenic plants or untransformed plants (15). Taken together, these results suggest that
although several genes normally interact to determine flowering time in Arabidopsis a sufficient
increase in the level of a key genetic regulator such as CO can “override” the normal control sys-
tems and trigger flowering at any point during development.
It is not known how well conserved CO function is among different plant species. At least
four CO-related genes have been cloned in Brassica napus (19). These map to two regions of the
B. napus genome, where quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting flowering time are localized. At
least one of the B. napus genes can complement a co mutation when transferred into Arabidopsis
(19), indicating that CO function is conserved in B. napus. It will be interesting to determine the
role of CO homologues in other plant species, especially those in which flower induction is dis-
tinct from the bolting strategy found in Arabidopsis and Brassica spp.
B. Genes That Control Floral Meristem Identity

Once a plant is induced to flower, a group of genes that specify the floral program is activated in
incipient meristematic cells (20,21). Loss-of-function mutations in these genes may not alter
flowering time but cause plants to produce structures characteristic of shoots instead of flowers.
For example, plants with mutations in both the LEAFY (LFY) and APETALA1 (AP1) genes com-
pletely fail to form flowers (22). In CO:GR plants, both LFY and AP1 are activated after hormone
application, although LFY activation is much more rapid (15). This suggests that LFY may be a
direct target of CO. Like CO, LFY and AP1 also encode putative transcription factors, although
the three proteins are structurally unrelated (23,24).
Plants containing gain-of-function transgenes of LFY and AP1 have been produced. In
these cases, the transgenes were not inducible but simply fused to a strong constitutive promoter
(the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter, or simply 35S) (25). These fusion genes were ex-
pressed at very high levels, and much earlier in the life cycle than the native genes, which are nor-
mally activated at high levels only in floral meristems (23,24,26). As observed with CO:GR
plants, transgenic plants expressing 35S:LFY or 35S:AP1 flowered precociously (27,28). How-
ever, 35S:LFY plants did not flower as early as CO:GR plants. Specifically, CO:GR was able to
induce flowering in very young plants grown under short days, whereas 35S:LFY was not (15,28).
Differences were also observed between 35S:LFY and 35S:AP1 plants: the latter developed the
terminal flower before all lateral flowers had developed, the former developed all axillary flow-
ers before the terminal flower (29).
Encouraged by results obtained in Arabidopsis Weigel and Nilsson (28) transferred the
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35S:LFY gene construct into an evolutionarily distant plant, aspen. Results obtained were dra-
matic. Although aspen trees do not normally begin to flower until they are 8–20 years old, some
transgenic lines expressing 35S:LFY initiated flowering after only 7 months. Tobacco plants con-
taining the 35S:LFY gene also flowered very early (29). In addition, putative LFY homologues
from Pinus radiata (10) and Eucalyptus sp. (30) were able to induce precocious flowering and
terminal flowers when fused to the 35S promoter and introduced into Arabidopsis. Taken to-
gether, these results demonstrate that LFY, when expressed at high levels, is capable of triggering
precocious flowering in distantly related plant species and that this function may be conserved
among LFY homologues. There is at least one exception to this hypothesis. A putative LFY ho-
mologue from rice (RFL) expressed from the 35S promoter did not induce early flowering in
transgenic Arabidopsis (31). This could suggest either that the ability to induce early flowering
may not be conserved in LFY homologues from monocots or alternatively that rice contains mul-
tiple LFY-like genes, and the RFL is not the true LFY homologue from this species.
In the case of AP1, it has been shown that related genes from Eucalyptus sp. fused to the
35S promoter can trigger flowering in Arabidopsis (32). However, the 35S:AP1 gene from Ara-
bidopsis does not appear to be able to induce early flowering when introduced into aspen (29).
Therefore, AP1 and LFY may differ in their ability to trigger early flowering in distantly related
plant species.
C. Possible Biotechnology Applications

1. Reducing Flowering Time
The precocious flowering of transgenic plants expressing high levels of different floral regulatory
genes suggests that a similar strategy could be exploited to reduce flowering time in crops. In par-
ticular, the short growing season found in Canada and other northern climates requires cultivars
that flower earlier than those grown in warmer climates. Adequate natural variation in flowering
time exists for many plant species, but there remain some crops for which additional reduction in
flowering time would be beneficial (e.g., Brassica carinata). Transgenic lines expressing differ-
ent levels of a floral regulatory transgene would be expected to flower at different times, and
therefore it should be possible to select lines having the appropriate flowering time for various
geographical locations. Even in crops in which earliness is not a problem, transgenic approaches
may be able to provide better control of when plants flower. One possibility would be to fuse
genes such as CO, LFY, or AP1 to a suitable chemically inducible promoter, thus permitting the
grower to trigger flowering in his crops by spraying fields with chemical inducers. The decision
of when or whether to spray would be based on environmental conditions and crop performance
during the growing season. In certain circumstances reducing flowering time by as little as a day
may have a significant impact on yield.
Reducing time to flowering may also be beneficial in plant species that have a prolonged
juvenile phase, such as trees. This would allow breeders to begin crossing material much earlier
than currently possible, thus accelerating their programs. In the event that early flowering is ulti-
mately an undesirable trait, the transgenes could be removed by site-directed recombination (33)
before the material enters commercial production.
2. Preventing Flower Production

In some situations, it may be desirable to eliminate flower production. For example, flowers are
aesthetically undesirable in turfgrass, and they reduce digestibility of forage grasses (34). In the
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188 Fobert
case of transgenic forest trees, eliminating flowering would prevent the possibility of uncon-
trolled cross-pollination from transgenic pollen into natural forest populations. Engineering
sterility is feasible in forest trees because seed formation is not required for the desired product
(wood) or for plant propagation (35). Engineering sterility by preventing flowering in conifers
may have the added benefit of increasing yield, by diverting energy that would normally be spent
on cone production into wood biomass (35). Most strategies for genetically engineering sterility
propose to exploit the promoters of flower-specific genes, such as LFY or AP1, rather than the
coding regions themselves. These promoters are active at high levels in floral meristems
(23,24,26) and therefore, if fused to genes that produce cytotoxic substances, such as the dipththe-
ria toxin A or ribonucleases (RNases), should cause cell death specifically in these tissues (for re-
view of use of cytotoxic genes in plants, see Ref. 36). Specifically, transgenic plants containing a
LFY promoter-RNase fusion have been produced (37). These plants developed normally until flo-
ral induction, at which time no flowers were produced, demonstrating the general feasibility of
the proposed approach. Cone-specific cDNAs have been identified (11), and the promoters con-
trolling the expression of these genes may useful for engineering sterility in conifers. It is note-
worthy that neither of two LFY-related genes isolated from P. radiata is expressed specifically in
reproductive cones (10,38). Consequently, the promoters of such genes are unlikely to be suitable
for cone-specific cell ablation purposes.
IV. REDESIGNING PLANT ARCHITECTURE
A mutation seemingly complementary to lfy has also been identified in Arabidopsis. Terminal
flower 1 (tfl1) mutants flower early and, as the name implies, produce a terminal flower after ini-
tiating a fixed number of lateral flowers (18). This phenotype is very similar to the one induced
by overexpression of LFY (28). In contrast, overexpression of TFL1 from the 35S promoter did
not produce a phenotype resembling the lfy mutation (39). Instead of producing flowers having
shootlike features (typical of lfy flowers), 35S:TFL1 plants produced normal flowers. However,
the switch from vegetative to reproductive phase was significantly delayed in these plants, re-
sulting in a more highly branched growth pattern and the production of many more flowers than
in wild-type controls (39). On the basis of these results, it was proposed that TFL1 regulates the
rate at which the plant shoot progresses through all the different phases of the life cycle (39). This
suggests a possible means of controlling plant shape by modulating TFL1 activity in transgenic
plants. As already demonstrated in Arabidopsis, constitutive higher expression of TFL1 leads to
highly branched plants that eventually produce a large number of flowers. Such plants also take
longer to complete their life cycle (39), a trait that may be undesirable in certain agricultural set-
tings. This problem may be circumvented by targeting TFL1 expression to specific cell types or
to specific times during development. For example, increased TFL1 activity in lateral meristems
would promote branching, whereas increased TFL1 activity in the shoot apical meristem, coupled
with reduced TFL1 activity in lateral meristems, may allow flower production along a single main
axis. It may also be feasible to synchronize flower production by inducing a pulse of TFL1 activ-
ity at the appropriate time in development.
The recent identification of the SELF-PRUNING (SP) gene of tomato as a TFL1 homologue
(40) offers an example of how modifying the expression of this class of genes in a crop plant has
had a beneficial agronomic impact. Loss-of-function sp mutants prematurely terminate the pro-
duction of inflorescence units, thereby limiting shoot growth and resulting in bushier plants (40).
This phenotype has been considered to be the “single most important genetic trait in the devel-
opment of modern agrotechniques (for tomato) . . . because it facilitates mechanical harvest”
(40). Expression of an antisense version of the 35S:SP transgene in plants with a functional SP
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gene produced a phenotype resembling the sp mutation, suggesting that it should be possible to
generate similar transgenic effects by modifying TFL1/SP genes in other plant species.
V. MAKING DESIGNER FLOWERS

A. Floral Organ Identity Genes
A typical angiosperm flower consists of four distinct types of organs positioned in four concen-
tric whorls (7). From the outermost whorl in, these are sepals (whorl 1), petals (whorl 2), stamens
(whorl 3), and carpels (whorl 4). An important first step toward the eventual manipulation of flo-
ral organs is to gain a better understanding of the genes responsible for specifying their identities.
To this end, several mutants that produce specific types of organs at inappropriate places (so-
called homeotic mutants) have been studied. For example, the Arabidopsis mutant apetala 3
(ap3) produces sepals in place of petals in whorl 2 and carpels in place of stamens in whorl 3; the
identities of organs in whorls 1 and 4 are not altered (41). ap3 is typical of mutations in a group
of genes known as the floral organ identity genes (FOIs). These characteristically affect the iden-
tity of organs in two adjacent floral whorls. Three classes of FOIs exist: class A (e.g., APETALA
2) control the identity of organs in whorls 1 and 2; class B (e.g., AP3) control the identity of or-
gans in whorls 2 and 3, class C (e.g., AGAMOUS) control the identity of organs in whorls 3 and
4. A simple model (the ABC model) has been formulated to describe how the identities of all four
types of floral organs are specified by FOIs (7). According to the model, there are three homeotic
functions or activities, termed A, B, and C, needed to specify the identity of the four different
organ types. Each of these activities is restricted to two adjacent whorls of a normal (wild-type)
flower, and the type of organ produced is determined by the sum of A, B, and C activities present
in any particular whorl. Activity A alone specifies sepal identity, the combination of A + B spec-
ifies petal formation, B + C specifies stamens, and C alone specifies carpel identity. It follows that
any type of organ is capable of being produced in any given whorl of a flower—the important fac-
tor is the sum of the A, B, C activities. An additional feature of the model is that the A and C ac-
tivities are mutually exclusive: if one activity is missing, the other spreads to all four whorls.
Mutations in FOIs alter the distribution of A, B, or C activities, resulting in novel combi-
nations of these activities in specific floral whorls and hence the production of novel organ types.
For example, the ap3 mutant described lacks the B activity and according to the model should
have the following distribution of homeotic activities in whorls 1 to 4: A, A, C, C. If A alone spec-
ifies sepals and C alone specifies carpels, the resulting flower would be expected to produce flow-
ers containing two outer whorls of sepals and two inner whorls of carpels, and this is what is ob-
served (41).
The model appears to explain the phenotypes of single, double, and triple mutants analyzed
to date accurately (7,42). Although the model was formulated independently of molecular infor-
mation on the FOI genes, it appears to be consistent with available molecular data. For example,
the AP3 mRNA is specifically expressed in whorls 2 and 3 (41), as would be expected of a B class
gene, and AGAMOUS (AG) mRNA is only expressed in whorls 3 and 4 (43), as would be ex-
pected for a C class gene. Furthermore, AG mRNA spreads to all four whorls of the flower in class
A mutants (44), as would be expected from the mutual exclusion feature of the model.
B. Creating New Arrangements of Floral Organs

Using the ABC model as a guide, it should be possible to produce transgenic flowers having novel
distributions of homeotic gene activity, and thus to alter the identity of organs in any given floral
whorl in a predictable manner. Results obtained to date suggest that this is in fact possible. For
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190 Fobert
example, the class C gene AG, which is normally expressed only in whorls 3 and 4, has been ex-
pressed throughout the Arabidopsis sp. flower by placing its coding region under the control of
the 35S promoter (45). According to the model, these transgenic flowers would be expected to
possess C activity in all four whorls and to have no A activity in any of the whorls because of the
A and C exclusion feature. The distribution of the B activity would not be expected to change
from whorls 2 and 3. Therefore, the predicted ABC activities from whorls 1 to 4 should be C, BC,
BC, C, specifying carpel, stamen, stamen, and carpel. This is the phenotype that was observed
(45). Similar phenotypes were produced in transgenic tobacco (46) and tomato (47) plants ex-
pressing 35S fusions of the homologous AG genes, as well as in tobacco plants expressing 35S
fusions of the Brassica napus (48) and rice (49) AG homologues, and Arabidopsis plants ex-
pressing 35S AG homologues from black spruce (11) and Norway spruce (50). Expression of AG
from the AP3 promoter, which is active in whorls 2 and 3, altered the identity of whorl 2 petals
to stamens but did not affect the identity of sepals in the first whorl (51).
Expression of the B class activity in all four whorls also induced organ identity changes pre-
dicted by the ABC model (52). From the outermost whorl in, the predicted distribution of
homeotic activities in these flowers would be AB, AB, BC, BC, specifying the expected (and ob-
served) sepal, sepal, stamen, stamen. However, in this case, plants had to express 35S fusions of
two genes, AP3 and PISTILLATA (PI), before the desired phenotype was observed, suggesting
that both genes are required and sufficient for full class B activity (52).
C. Producing Apetalous Canola

What are the potential applications of modifying floral organ identity? One often-mentioned ap-
plication is the production of new horticultural crops (53). Class C mutants lack sexual organs and
produce additional petals, resulting in an attractive doubled flower phenotype. Similar pheno-
types could readily be induced in horticultural crops using antisense or cosuppression technology
(9). Another possibility is the production of canola lines that lack petals. Anyone who has seen a
field of canola in bloom will have noticed its bright yellow color. This, of course, is caused by
sunlight reflecting from the petals. It has been estimated that the canola flowers reflect or absorb
around 50% of the total solar radiation and 20% of photosynthetically active radiation available
to the plant (2). Cultivars that do not produce petals allowed much more light through the canopy
(up to 70% more in one study) (54), increasing seed growth and overall yield (2). An additional
benefit of the apetalous character may be the reduction of Sclerotinia stem rot. Petals appear to
be an important infection site, and an apetalous mutant of B. napus was shown to be considerably
more resistant to stem rot (55).
The inheritance of useful sources of the apetalous trait appears to be complex (56) and can
be associated with undesirable agronomic traits (57), making it difficult to transfer into commer-
cial cultivars. In contrast, transgenic approaches offer straightforward strategies for creating
apetalous flowers. The simplest approaches involve expressing a cytotoxic gene in whorl 2, thus
eliminating the production of petals. A number of cytotoxic genes (36) and a whorl 2–specific
promoter (58) are available for this purpose. It is noteworthy that the whorl 2–specific promoter
is a derivative of the Arabidopsis ap3 promoter. Although the effect of linking this promoter to
cytotoxic genes has not been reported, tobacco and Arabidopsis plants containing the diphtheria
toxin A chain fused to a version of the ap3 promoter that is expressed in whorls 2 and 3 failed to
produce petals and stamens (59). Development in the second and third whorls was arrested early;
growth and development of first and fourth whorl organs were not affected. Therefore, it should
be possible to use the whorl 2–specific ap3 promoter to eliminate petal production with no nega-
tive effect on the rest of the flower. An alternative strategy could involve the addition of C activ-
www.taq.ir
ity in whorl 2, to replace petals with stamens, an alteration that may be desirable for increasing
pollen production.
VI. NEW SYSTEMS FOR SEED AND FRUIT PRODUCTION
The production of seeds and fruits is arguably the most important agricultural function of flow-
ers. In most cases, this requires sexual reproduction. Consequently, events leading to the forma-
tion of male and female gametes, fertilization, and embryo production represent prime targets for
molecular genetic manipulation. Two examples of how transgenic technologies can be applied are
considered. In both cases, success promises to have major impacts on yield and on the systems
used for seed production and distribution.
A. Hybrid Seed Production

Heterosis, or hybrid vigor, has been described in many plant species and has formed the basis for
producing high-yielding cultivars in several crops, notably maize (60). However, the high cost of
developing conventional hybrid systems, coupled with the fact that suitable systems do not exist
for some important crops, has prompted several efforts to develop transgenic-based molecular hy-
bridization strategies (61,62). Most of these strategies are based on the ability to inhibit pollen
production or release reversibly. In one approach, this is accomplished by the specific expression
of a cytotoxic RNase transgene called Barnase in the tapetal layer of cells that surround the de-
veloping pollen grain (62,63). Expression of Barnase results in the degradation of cellular RNA,
thereby shutting off protein synthesis and causing cell death. Plants expressing the pollen-specific
Barnase are male sterile. This ensures that the ovules will not be fertilized by self-pollen and per-
mits fertilization with the pollen donor of choice. Once the hybrid seed is produced, it is desir-
able to restore fertility to ensure good seed production in the growers’ fields. In the case of Bar-
nase, this is accomplished by transforming the plants with a second transgene that produces a
specific inhibitor of Barnase called Barstar (62,63). Plants expressing both Barnase and Barstar
produce normal pollen and are male fertile.
Several private companies are actively developing molecular hybridization systems. Trans-
genic canola containing a hybridization system similar to the one described has been available
commercially in Canada since 1996, under the name of Invigor. In coop trials (2 or 3 years), In-
vigor cultivars yielded 6.6–27.6% higher than check cultivars in the mid and long season zones
of the Canadian prairies (64). It was estimated that more than 2 million acres of Invigor canola
would be seeded in Western Canada in 1999 (Tom Schuler, AgrEvo Canada Inc., personal com-
munications).
B. Seeds Without Fertilization

Some plants have the ability to reproduce asexually through a process called apomixis (65). Re-
current apomixis, whereby seeds develop from sporophytic tissues of the ovules, generates prog-
eny that are genetically identical to the maternal plant. The ability to render crop plants apomic-
tic through transgenic approaches could lead to tremendous agricultural benefits. First, because
the progeny are clones of the maternal plant, apomixis offers the possibility of fixing hybrid vigor
(66). Because there is no need for pollination, male sterile lines can be grown, eliminating the
possibility of outcrossing from genetically modified pollen to wild relatives. Apomixis would also
simplify breeding schemes, since there would be no need to obtain homozygous material. Finally,
because meiotic sterility would no longer be a problem, it has been proposed that apomixis would
facilitate the production of new interspecific and intergeneric hybrids (66).
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192 Fobert
Although the molecular biology of apomixis is poorly understood at the present time, it is
an area of intensive study (67,68). Several groups are using genetic approaches in attempts to cre-
ate apomictic Arabidopsis. One strategy involves inducing mutations in plants defective in the FOI
gene PISTILLATA (69). These plants produce small siliques devoid of seeds. By selecting for
plants that produce larger siliques, mutants capable of limited seed development in the absence of
fertilization (FERTILIZATION INDEPENDENT SEED [FIS]) were identified (69). Two of these
genes have been cloned: FIS2 encodes a putative transcription factor belonging to the zinc-finger
family of proteins; FIS3 encodes a Polycomb group protein (70). The FIS3 gene was also cloned
independently as the F644 (MEDEA) gene (71). A second Polycomb-related gene involved in
fertilization-independent endosperm development, FERTILIZATION-INDEPENDENT ENDO-
SPERM (FIE), has also been isolated (72). The identification of genes such as FIS and FIE sug-
gests that sexually reproducing plants have the genetic potential for apomixis. In Drosophila and
mammals, Polycomb group proteins are involved in the long-term repression of homeotic genes
(73). The CURLY LEAF gene of Arabidopsis, which represses expression of the homeotic gene
AG in vegetative tissues, also encodes a Polycomb group protein (74). The identification of FIS2
and FIE as Polycomb group proteins suggests that these may repress early stages of endosperm
development until fertilization occurs.
By using a different approach, a gene capable of inducing embryo development in vegeta-
tive cells has also been cloned from Arabidopsis (75). Mutations in this gene, LEAFY COTYLE-
DON 1 (LEC1), have pleiotropic effects, suggesting that the gene is involved in several aspects
of late embryo development (76). The LEC1 gene is normally expressed only during seed de-
velopment in the embryo and endosperm (75). However, constitutive expression of LEC1 from
the 35S promoter resulted in the production of embryo-like structures on leaves of transgenic
plants (75).
Manipulation of genes such as FIS, FIE, and LEC1 may eventually allow the genetic engi-
neering of apomixis. One possibility could be to transform plants with a LEC1 transgene that is
specifically expressed at a critical time during embryo sac development to trigger embryo for-
mation without fertilization. A similar approach for inducing apomixis using a carrot receptor ki-
nase gene whose expression is linked with embryogenic competence has been proposed (77). In
this case, it is uncertain whether expression of the receptor kinase is sufficient to induce embryo
formation. Additionally, it is not known whether expression of either LEC1 or the carrot receptor
kinase by itself will induce other aspects of seed development (i.e., endosperm, seed coat).
VII. PERSPECTIVES
The age of modifying plant growth and development by transgenic means is still very much in its
infancy. Most transgenic material produced to date was generated primarily for research pur-
poses. Results obtained clearly demonstrate that modulating the expression of individual flower-
ing genes can have dramatic effects on development. However, many uncertainties and potential
problems remain to be addressed. For example, in addition to inducing early flowering, overex-
pression of genes such as CO and LFY is often associated with undesirable phenotypes, such as
reduced vegetative development, smaller leaves (15), and/or abnormal flower development in-
cluding the inability to form fertile pollen (29). Clearly, these effects will have to be overcome
before commercialization can be considered. In some cases, better control of gene expression or
the use of genes encoding variant proteins may solve the problem. It is also uncertain how results
obtained in the laboratory with Arabidopsis or other model plants will hold up in crops tested
under field conditions. Nevertheless, our ability to alter plant development radically in agricul-
turally beneficial ways will continue to increase as we gain a better understanding of the genes
currently cloned and continue to isolate and study new genes. These tasks will be greatly facili-
www.taq.ir
tated by the current thrust of genomics-based research (78) and the development of powerful new
methods for evolving protein function (79).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Drs. Ravi Chibbar, Raju Datla, and John Mahon for critical comments on
the manuscript. This publication is NRCC No. 43800.
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Progress in Arabidopsis genomics. Bioessays 21:110–120, 1999.
79. S Harayama. Artificial evolution by DNA shuffling. Trends Biotechnol 16:76–82, 1998.
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13
Genetic Technology in Peas for
Improved Field Performance
and Enhanced Grain Quality
Roger Leslie Morton, Stephanie Gollasch, Hart E. Schroeder,

Kaye S. Bateman, and Thomas J. Higgins
CSIRO Plant Industry, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
I. INTRODUCTION 197
II. PEA TRANSFORMATION PROTOCOL 198
A. Strains and Plasmids 198
B. Source Material 198
C. Agrobacterium Infection 198
D. Plant Regeneration 201
E. Expected Results 202
F. Other Pea Transformation Methods 202
III. PROGRESS TOWARD IMPROVED AGRONOMIC AND QUALITY
TRAITS IN PEAS BY TRANSGENESIS 203
IV. FUTURE RESEARCH 203
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS 204
REFERENCES 204
I. INTRODUCTION
The pea (Pisum sativum) crop is an important source of protein for animal and human nutrition.
The productivity of pea could be greatly increased by the introduction of pest and disease resis-
tance, improved protein quality, and herbicide tolerance traits. Plant genetic engineering provides
an opportunity to introduce such traits from previously unavailable sources. The first production
of fertile transgenic pea plants was reported in 1992 (1). Since then several improved methods of
pea transformation have been developed. In this chapter we provide a detailed protocol for effi-
cient pea transformation and review the current status of projects aimed at pea improvement by
the transgenic approach.
197
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198 Morton et al.
II. PEA TRANSFORMATION PROTOCOL
This protocol is based on our original published method (2) with some recently introduced im-
provements.
A. Strains and Plasmids

The binary vector pTAB10 (3) and a modified version of this plasmid (pKSB10.MCS.ori2) (Fig.
1a) have been used successfully for pea transformation. Both of these vectors contain the
bialaphos resistance (bar) gene from Streptomyces hygroscopicus, which allows selection of
transformed tissue on phosphinothricin (PPT; also called glufosinate ammonium). For selection
of transformed tissues on kanamycin a new vector (pRM58) (Fig. 1b) was constructed. pRM58
contains the Subclover Stunt Virus segment 7 promoter (SV7) (4) linked to the nptII gene. This
vector has three sites for cloning and replicates to high a copy number in Escherichia coli because
of the presence of the Co1E1 origin of replication. AGL1 (5), a RecA(–) supervirulent strain of
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, was used for the plant transformations. We found that this strain gave
approximately twofold higher transformation frequencies than strain LBA4404.
B. Source Material
Pisum sativum plants were grown in the glasshouse and immature pods containing seeds at 2 to
5 days beyond maximal fresh weight were harvested. At this stage the pod has begun to change
from bright green to yellow and the embryonic axis is uniformly beige in color. The pods were
sterilized in 70% (v/v) ethanol (1 min) followed by 1% (w/v) sodium hypochlorite (20 min) and
three washes with sterile distilled water.
We have also used mature pea seeds from hand-harvested plots as an alternative source of
explant material. We found that the level of microbial contamination of explants derived from
machine-harvested mature peas was unacceptably high. Presumably this was because the mate-
rial contained seeds with cracks harboring microorganisms that were not killed by the surface
sterilization procedure. Dry seed was placed in a 500-ml bottle such that it was half-full. The bot-
tle was filled with 70% (v/v) ethanol for 1 min, followed by 7.3M orthophosphoric acid, and in-
cubated at room temperature until the seed coat developed a wrinkled and loose appearance (1 to
2 h). The seeds were then washed with five changes of sterile water followed by three to four fur-
ther washes with sterile water over 3 to 4 hours. The seeds were left to imbibe in water at room
temperature for the next day. If the embryos did not show enlarged radicles through the seed coat
at this stage the seeds were incubated overnight at room temperature; otherwise they were left
overnight at 4°C. The total time from sterilization of dry seed to the start of the Agrobacterium
sp. cocultivation phase is 48 h.
C. Agrobacterium Infection
Under aseptic conditions, seeds were removed from the pods, and the testa were excised. Explants
for transformation were cut from the embryonic axes of these seeds. To facilitate manipulation,
the embryonic axis was left temporarily attached to one of the cotyledons (Fig. 2a). The root end
was cut off and the remainder of the axis was sliced longitudinally into three to five segments (Fig.
2b) with a scalpel blade that was wet with a suspension of A. tumefaciens containing the plant
transformation vector. Segments were then fully immersed in the bacterial suspension (approxi-
mately 3 × 109 cells ml–1; OD600 of 1:10 dilution = 0.1–0.2). After 30 to 40 min with shaking at
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Genetic Technology in Peas 199
Figure 1 Plasmids used in pea transformation. *Unique restriction sites; **, effectively unique sites;
Scale in kilobase pairs. LB and RB, left and right borders, respectively, of the Agrobacterium T-DNA;
CaMV35S, 35S promoter from CaMV; bar, bar gene from Streptomyces hygroscopicus; ocs 3⬘, 3⬘ untrans-
lated region from the octopine synthase gene of A. tumefaciens; tetR, region conferring tetracycline resis-
tance to bacteria; SV7 pro., promoter from segment 7 of the Subclover stunt virus; nptII, neomycin phos-
photransferase II gene; vic 3⬘, 3⬘ untranslated region from the pea vicilin gene; SpecR, region conferring
spectinomycin resistance to bacteria; oriColE1, origin of replication from the ColE1 plasmid; OriVrk2, ori-
gin of replication from the RK2 plasmid; oriT, origin of conjugal transfer of the RK2 plasmid.
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Figure 2 Pea transformation procedure. (a) Embryonic axis attached to one cotyledon; (b) explant seg-
ments derived from embryonic axis; (c) multiple shoots developing on P245 medium; (d) distinguishing
PPT-resistant (dark) and PPT-susceptible shoots (light) on P21 medium with 10 mgL–1 PPT; (e) Silicone ring
used for grafting (scale in mm); (f ) graft junction 1 month after grafting procedure. The rootstock is toward
the left and the scion toward the right. The ‘V’ shaped cut and the silicone ring are visible in the center of
the image (scale in mm); (g) leaf painting test: pea leaves 5 days after application of Basta at 0.6 gL–1 active
ingredient to the upper leaflet; the leaves on the left and center are from transformed plants, and the leaf on
the right is from a nontransformed line; (h) spray test for PPT resistance. Left to right: transgenic cv Rondo;
nontransformed cv Rondo; transgenic cv Greenfeast; nontransformed cv Greenfeast 14 days after spraying
plants with Basta at 1.4 g/L active ingredient.
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room temperature the excess Agrobacterium sp. was removed by tilting the plate and aspirating
with a Pasteur pipette. Wet segments were then plated on B5h medium (6) and cultured at 23°C
under fluorescent light with a 16-hour photoperiod.
D. Plant Regeneration
After 4 days the segments were removed and placed on P245 medium (table 1) and incubated at
23°C under fluorescent light with a 16-hour photoperiod for 15 days. At this time two thirds of
the callus was removed from the base of the clumps of green shoots (Fig. 2c) and the shoot clump
was incubated for a further 20 days on fresh P245 medium. At this stage green shoots were trans-
ferred as a clump of two or three to fresh P21 medium (Table 1). After 15–20 days multiple green
shoots were separated from each other and transferred to fresh P21 medium. During passaging on
P21 medium multiple shoots formed at the base of the plantlet. Some of these died as a result of
selection and others remained green (Fig. 2d). Every 15–20 days for five to six passages the green
shoots were cut away from the dead ones and transferred singly to fresh P21 medium. When the
developing shoots were more than 20 mm long and capable of surviving selection as a single
shoot they were grafted onto root stocks in the greenhouse.
The grafting procedure is modified from the method of Murfet (7). Pea seeds (cv. Green-
feast) were sown 25 mm deep to promote a suitably long shoot for grafting. After 6 days, when
the shoot was just emerging from the soil surface, the top layer of soil was removed to expose the
shoot. The shoot tip was cut horizontally under the lowest bract. A longitudinal 5 mm cut down
the length of the stock was made and a ring of silicone tube (2-mm bore × 1-mm wall × 1 mm
long) (Fig. 2e) placed over the cut stock and pushed to the base of the cut using hooked forceps.
A long V shape cut was made in the end of the transformed shoot, which was then inserted into
the cut stock. The silicone ring was slid up and around the graft and the pot covered with a plas-
tic bag and shade cloth. Any shoots that emerged below the graft were immediately removed with
a scalpel. After 10 days the plastic bag was loosened and at 14 days it was removed.
For transformation with nptII vectors, kanamycin sulfate was substituted for PPT in the
Table 1 Media Used
Medium Ingredients
P245 Murashige-Skoog macro- and micronutrients (17)

B5 vitamins (18)
4.5 mgL–1 6-benzylaminopurine
0.02 mgL–1 naphthalene acetic acid
3% (w/v) sucrose
100 mgL–1 myoinositol
0.7 gL–1 2-[N-morpholino]ethanesulfonic acid (MES)
150 mgL–1 timentin
10 mgL–1 phosphinothricin (PPT)
pH adjusted to 5.8
0.75% Difco agar
P21 As above but with
sucrose 2%
1 mgL–1 6-benzylaminopurine
0.2 mgL–1 naphthalene acetic acid
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202 Morton et al.
media at levels between 75 and 150 mgL–1. In other respects the transformation procedure is the
same.
E. Expected Results
The time from explants to grafting averaged 5 and 6 months for PPT and kanamycin selection,
respectively. Grafted plants produced mature seed within 4 months. Replacing the root induction
method we previously used (2) with the grafting technique decreases the time taken to produce
mature transgenic plants by 4 to 6 weeks. The grafting technique also has the advantage that it
does not suffer from the between-cultivar variation in efficiency observed for the root induction
method.
Between 0.5% and 2.5% of the starting embryo slices gave rise to transformed plants. Pu-
tative transformed plants were tested by a simple leaf-painting test. The upper surfaces of leaflets
were painted with Basta (a PPT herbicide with 200 g L–1 PPT) diluted (333-fold) to 0.6 g L–1 PPT
in water. After 5 days leaflets on untransformed plants showed complete necrosis (Fig. 2g, right),
whereas transformed plants had mild symptoms (Fig. 2g, middle) or were unaffected (Fig. 2g,
left). The results of leaf painting with Basta correlate well with measurements of phosphino-
thricin acetyl-transferase activity on leaf protein extracts (2).
We believe that multiple passaging of the green shoots with selection reduces the chances
that chimeric plants will be produced. Almost invariably, primary transgenic plants that were
PPT-resistant using the leaf painting test transmitted this trait to their progeny. The trait was usu-
ally inherited in a mendelian fashion in the first generation. However, in some lines, the bar gene
appears to have been subjected to gene silencing in subsequent generations.
Putative nptII transformed plants were screened by leaf painting with geneticin (G418). The
upper surface of the pea leaf was painted with a 0.3% or 1% (w/v) geneticin in a 0.3% (v/v) so-
lution of the surfactant Agrol600. Wild-type leaves wrinkle and die within 5 days, whereas trans-
formed tissue shows only minor damage. The lower geneticin level distinguishes nptII-express-
ing immature leaves from wild type. Higher levels of the antibiotic are required to genotype older
leaves. The results from leaf painting with geneticin correlated well with nptII enzyme activity
measured on leaf protein extracts (8).
The plant hormone regime described here differs from the one previously reported (2). We
have found that, in contrast to the previous protocol, the reported modifications allow transfor-
mation and regeneration of most cultivars of pea.
F. Other Pea Transformation Methods

Bean and Davies and coworkers have produced transformed peas, using dry pea seed as a start-
ing material and selection with kanamycin (9) or PPT (10). Their method also differs from the
one presented here in that they remove both the shoot apex and the root from the germinated pea
seeds. In their method, cells in the lateral cotyledonary meristem are the most likely targets of
transformation. In the transformation method described here both the apical shoot meristems and
the cotyledonary meristems are present and both are potential targets for transformation. How-
ever, from microscopic examination of the regenerating plant material, we believe that the trans-
formed tissue produced in our experiments is usually derived from the apical shoot meristem.
Grant and colleagues (11,12) have also developed a method able to produce fertile trans-
genic peas by using PPT selection or kanamycin selection. In common with our method, the ex-
plant source is immature pea seeds. However, they use the cotyledons of the seeds as the explant
material.
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III. PROGRESS TOWARD IMPROVED AGRONOMIC AND

QUALITY TRAITS IN PEAS BY TRANSGENESIS
Transformation of pea is now routine, and researchers have begun to introduce genes for new
traits into peas, by using this technology. New traits that have been successfully introduced into
peas by trangenesis include agronomically useful levels of herbicide tolerance by the use of the
bacterial bar gene, resistance to pea weevils by using the α-amylase inhibitor gene from kidney
bean, resistance to pea seed-borne mosaic virus by using the replicase gene from the virus, and
alteration of seed amino acid composition by using the 2S sunflower seed albumin gene (SSA).
See Table 2 for details.
IV. FUTURE RESEARCH
The most successful and reliable pea transformation systems have made use of the patented bar
gene as the selectable marker. Since we need “freedom to operate” in order to commercialize any
new pea varieties, we are optimizing our pea transformation system by using the nptII gene.
The weevil-resistant peas are undergoing field trials in preparation for possible commercial
release.
In order to have a useful improvement in seed quality a greater than 10% increase in the
level of sulfur amino acids will be necessary (Table 2). We are screening transgenic peas for lines
Table 2 Improving Agronomic and Quality Traits in Peas by Transgenesis
Trait Gene Progress
Herbicide resistance Bar Field trials indicate Basta at 3 L Ha–1 kills untransformed
plants, whereas transformed plants were unaffected by an
application at 7 L Ha–1 (2)
Insect resistance α-Amylase In αAI-containing peas none of 2300 weevil-infested seeds
inhibitor (αAI) developed adults. The weevil larvae did not develop past
the first instar stage. In contrast, on 1280 of 1620 weevil-
infested wild-type peas the larvae completed develop-
ment into adults (21). There are no adverse effects on rats
eating αAI-containing peas (19).
Improved seed quality Sunflower seed Pea seeds expressing the sulfur-rich SSA at 1% of total seed
albumin (SSA) protein have 10% more carbon-bonded-sulfur than wild-
type peas
Virus resistance Virus replicase Three lines containing pea seed-borne mosaic virus
(PSbMV) replicase gene were highly resistant to PSbMV
(20)
Virus resistance Virus coat protein Alfalfa Mosaic Virus (AMV) and pea seed-borne mosaic
virus (PSbMV) coat protein genes have been introduced
into peas (12), and these lines are being screened for
virus resistance
Ascochyta resistance Various We are engineering peas with various antimicrobial genes
and testing them for resistance to Ascochyta blight. So
far no lines have improved resistance.
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204 Morton et al.
with higher levels of SSA expression. We have data from other grain legumes indicating that
when SSA expression is high, the supply of sulfur amino acids to the seed may be a limiting fac-
tor controlling the level of sulfur amino acids in the seed protein. Consequently, future research
will be directed to manipulating sulfur amino acid biosynthesis in grain legume seeds. Certain an-
timicrobial transgenes act synergistically to protect plants from pathogens (13–16). We are trans-
forming peas with genes encoding three different antimicrobial proteins in order to test whether
this synergistic effect occurs in peas.
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Pea transformation is now routine in a number of laboratories around the world. The first com-
mercially useful pea produced by transgenesis may be the weevil-resistant peas, which have al-
ready been tested in two successful field trials. These plants have a bean seed protein expressed
in the pea seed using a seed specific promoter from beans. We have found that most transformants
containing this gene produce significant amounts of the bean protein. Similarly, most pea plants
transformed with the sunflower seed protein linked to a seed-specific promoter produce the sun-
flower protein at more than 0.5% of the seed protein. By contrast, attempts to express antimicro-
bial proteins in the leaves of peas produce many plants with no detectable expression, some with
low levels, and none with high levels. This variation may be due to the potentially phytotoxic na-
ture of the gene products, or it may be due to other factors such as the nature of the promoters or
the fact that seeds are natural protein storage organs. It may be possible to generate peas produc-
ing transgene-encoded proteins at high levels in the leaves by screening a large number of inde-
pendent transformants. However, considering the relatively low transformation frequency ob-
tained in pea transformation, this is a difficult task. We have never observed “silencing” of the
seed-specific genes in our pea lines, but we frequently encounter silencing of the strong constitu-
tive CaMV35S promoter. The other constitutive viral promoter we have tested (SV7) has shown
silencing in the third generation in the single transgenic line we have tested. These problems mean
that altering whole plant traits will be more difficult than altering seed traits. More sophisticated
approaches will be required, such as the use of inducible promoters or the subcellular targeting
of expressed proteins.
REFERENCES
1. Puonti-Kaerlas, T Eriksson, P Engstrom. Inheritance of a bacterial hygromycin phosphotransferase

gene in the progeny of primary transgenic pea plants. Theor Appl Genet 84:443–450, 1992.
2. HE Schroeder, AH Schotz, T Wardley-Richardson, D Spencer, TJV Higgins. Transformation and re-
generation of two cultivars of Pea (Pisum sativum L.). Plant Physiol 101:751–757, 1993.
3. LM Tabe, T Wardley-Richardson, A Ceriotti, A Aryan, W McNabb, A Moore, TJ Higgins. A biotech-
nological approach to improving the nutritive value of alfalfa. J Anim Sci 73:2752–2759, 1995.
4. P Boevink, PWG Chu, P Keese. Sequence of subterranean clover stunt virus DNA: Affinities with the
geminiviruses. Virology 207:354–361, 1995.
5. GR Lazo, PA Stein, RA Ludwig. A DNA transformation-competent Arabidopsis genomic library in
Agrobacterium. BioTechnol 9:963–967, 1991.
6. DCW Brown, A Atanassov. Role of genetic background in somatic embryogenesis in Medicago. Plant
Cell Tissue Org Culture 4:111–122, 1985.
7. IC Murfet. Flowering in Pisum: Reciprocal grafts between known genotypes. Aust J Biol Sci 24:1089–
1101, 1971.
8. RE McDonnell, RD Clark, WA Smith, MA Hinchee. A simplified method for the detection of
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neomycin phosphotransferase II activity in transformed plant tissues. Plant Mol Biol Rep 5:380–386,
1987.
9. DR Davies, J Hamilton, P Mullineaux. Transformation of peas. Plant Cell Rep 12:180–183, 1993.
10. SJ Bean, PS Gooding, PM Mullineaux, DR Davies. A simple system for pea transformation. Plant Cell
Rep 16:513–519, 1997.
11. JE Grant, PA Cooper, AE McAra, TJ Frew. Transformation of peas (Pisum sativum L.) using imma-
ture cotyledons. Plant Cell Rep 15:254–258, 1995.
12. JE Grant, PA Cooper, BJ Gilpin, SJ Hoglund, JK Reader, MD Pither-Joyce, GM Timmerman-Vaughan.
Kanamycin is effective for selecting transformed peas. Plant Sci 139:159–164, 1999.
13. QZ Maher, S Masoud, RA Dixon, CJ Lamb. Enhanced protection against fungal attack by constitutive
co-expression of chitinase and glucanase genes in transgenic tobacco. Bio technology 12:807–812,
1994.
14. PJM van den Elzen, E Jongedijk, LS Melchers, BJC Cornelissen. Virus and fungal resistance: From
laboratory to field. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 342:271–278, 1993.
15. G Jach, B Gornhardt, J Mundy, J Logemann, E Pinsdorf, R Leah, J Schell, C Maas. Enhanced quanti-
tative resistance against fungal disease by combinatorial expression of different barley antifungal pro-
teins in transgenic tobacco. Plant J 8:97–109, 1995.
16. E Jongedijk, H Tigelaar, SC Roekel, SA Bres-Vloemans, I Dekker, PJM van den Elzen, JC Cornelis-
sen, LS Melchers. Synergistic activity of chitinases and beta-1,3-glucanases enhances fungal resis-
tance in transgenic tomato plants. Euphytica 85:173–180, 1995.
17. T Murashige, F Skoog. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures.
Physiol Plant 15:473–497, 1965.
18. OL Gamborg, RA Miller, K Ojima. Nutrient requirements of suspension cultures of soybean root cells.
Exp Cell Res 50:151–158, 1968.
19. A Pusztai, G Grant, S Bardócz, R Alonso, MJ Chrispeels, HE Schroeder, LM Tabe, TJV Higgins. Ex-
pression of insecticidal bean α-amylase inhibitor transgene has minimal detrimental effect on the nu-
tritional value of peas in the rat at 30% of the diet. J Nutr 129:1597–1603, 1999.
20. AL Jones, IE Johansen, SJ Bean, I Bach, AJ Maule. Specificity of resistance to pea seed-borne mosaic
potyvirus in transgenic peas expressing the viral replicase (Nlb) gene. J Gen Virol 79:3129–3137,
1998.
21. RL Morton, HE Schroeder, KS Bateman, MJ Chrispeels, E Armstrong, TJV Higgins. Bean α-amylase
inhibitor 1 in transgenic peas (Pisum sativum) provides complete protection from pea weevil (Bruchus
pisorum) under field conditions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:3820–3825, 2000.
www.taq.ir
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14
Genetic Engineering for Levels of Select
Phytonutrients Affecting Human Health
I. INTRODUCTION 207
II. FOOD CROPS AND HUMAN NUTRITION 208
A. Plant Micronutrients and Metabolites 209
B. Plant Micronutrients and Human Health 210
C. Engineering of Micronutrient Content 211
III. MINING OF PLANT GENOMICS FOR HUMAN HEALTH FACTORS 212
IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS 212
REFERENCES 213
I. INTRODUCTION
Food is fundamental to human life and maintenance of optimal health. Improving nutritional
quality of food and its ingredients is one of the high-priority areas of research worldwide. Sig-
nificant strides in improving the quality and volume of food grade substrates, ingredients, or prod-
ucts have been made through microbial biotechnology (1). Connected to these advances are a
large number of microbial products and processes contextual to applied microbiology and
biotechnology that have had a positive impact on the economics of food and beverage industries.
One of the highest-priority areas of research in the United States is improvements in the
population health through diet, nutrition, and foods (2,3). Strategically important issues in this re-
gard are the value of plant nutrients or phytonutrients and micronutrients and the role that genetic
engineering can play. This chapter focuses on the nature and activities of some of the phyto- and
micronutrients of plants and the record of genetic engineering of food plants for human health.
The term phytonutrients refers to those secondary compounds in plant foods that are gen-
erated through complex biosynthetic pathways known to be controlled by genetic and environ-
mental factors. Phytonutrients and classically defined nutrients can provide benefits beyond the
prevention of dietary deficiencies (4). Plant leaves, fruits, seeds, tubers, and roots can be valuable
sources of nutrients, foods, and medicinals. There are three groups of materials (a) macronutri-
ents (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins); (b) some 17 minerals (Ca, P, Cl, K, S, Mg, Na, Se, Fe,
207
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208 Khachatourians
Cu, Zn, Co, Cr, Mn, Mo, I, and F) and fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins (respectively; A, D,
E, and K and vitamins B1, thiamin; B2, riboflavin; niacin; pantothenic acid; B6, pyridoxine; bi-
otin; folic acid; B12, cobalamin; and C), which make up the micronutrients or organic and inor-
ganic compounds; and (c) essential ingredients (fiber, carotenoids, bioflavenoids) that can pro-
foundly affect our well-being or risk of disease throughout our lives from pregnancy to lactation,
childhood, adolescence, and old age (5).
Carbohydrates and proteins or amino acids make up the bulk of foodstuff and are used pri-
marily as an energy supply. Embryonic development of the nervous system is regulated in part by
retinoids and cobalamin. Vitamin A controls cell differentiation. Vitamins C and E, selenium- and
sulfur-containing amino acids, β-carotene, zinc, and copper help with the prevention of oxidative
damage and free radical accumulation. Throughout life we need antioxidants, or substances that
when present at low concentrations compared to those of an oxidizable substrate significantly
delay or prevent oxidation of that substrate (6). Antioxidants are not strictly required in the diet,
yet they are linked to the promotion of good health, longevity, and vitality. Some plant chemicals,
such as phenolic compounds, are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Plant tissues synthe-
size the phenolic compounds’ resveratrol, flavonoids, and furanocoumarins. Some of these phe-
nolic compounds are toxic to humans (7). Others have beneficial effects, for example, on low-
density lipoproteins and aggregation of platelets, because they reduce the risk of coronary heart
disease (4).
There is a wide range of pharmaceutically and medically valuable compounds that plant
cells produce in culture or in whole plants and that are extracted for use from large volumes of
material (8). In these situations quality assurance and reasonable price are not guaranteed. Re-
search into the biochemical genetics of these micronutrients suggests that we can enhance or in-
crease production through genetic manipulation of plant metabolism. The recent attention fo-
cused on genetic engineering of micronutrients therefore should produce no surprise (6,7,9).
Plant genetics and genetic engineering can enhance nutritional quality and composition and nu-
tritionally and medically important material within plants. By learning about the finer aspects of
biosynthetic pathways and modifying gene expression levels or transmission of other genetic con-
trols into such host plants we can enhance the production of these metabolites. This should have
a direct impact for both overfed and underfed populations whether in the developing world or in-
dustrialized countries.
II. FOOD CROPS AND HUMAN NUTRITION
Nutritional composition of food crops for human consumption and its modification are being
viewed as urgent worldwide health issues (9). Therapeutic levels of many essential nutrients
needed for health and those that could be a part of our diet could be obtained through additional
food fortification or direct genetic modification of micronutrient levels in food crops. This issue
arises because the basic nutritional needs of much of the world’s population are unmet. The di-
etary composition of foods consumed by people in developing countries resides mostly in a few
staple foods, such as cassava, wheat, rice, and corn, which are poor in both macro- and micronu-
trients. A large gap in the quality of diets for over 800 million people includes 250 million chil-
dren with vitamin A deficiency that can lead to blindness, 2 billion people at risk for iron defi-
ciency, and 1.5 billion people at risk for iodine deficiency. To improve this huge nutritional
deficiency problem, vitamin A and iron deficiency has been addressed by fortification of rice seed
by soybean ferritin gene and vitamin A precursor synthesis (9–13). Even in industrialized nations,
where both food abundance and variety are present and daily caloric intake is often excessive, mi-
cronutrient deficiencies are surprisingly common as a result of poor eating habits.
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Genetic Engineering and Phytonutrients 209
Today not only in the United States but in many nations the concentrations of essential vita-
mins and minerals are defined in terms of the recommended diet allowance (RDA) (14). Over the
past 50 years, some of the RDA values have changed and others have remained constant (15). How-
ever, RDAs may not reflect the optimal levels of micronutrients for health. Indeed the University
of California Berkeley Wellness Letter and other authorities recommend much higher levels of mi-
cronutrients. It is a practice for some processed foods to be fortified with additional macro- or mi-
cronutrients. Indeed to alleviate specific nutritional disorders there is growing support for in-
creased intake of some micronutrients, for example, vitamins B and C, carotenoids, and selenium.
Greater intake of this group significantly reduces the risk of certain cancers, cardiovascular dis-
eases, and chronic degenerative diseases associated with aging (16–20). Cruciferous vegetables
such as cabbage, cauliflower, Brussel sprouts, and broccoli, and oilseed plants, e.g., mustard, are
rich sources of micronutrients. Selenium after conversion to organic selenium compounds and at
least 15 glucosinolates that modify the activity of enzymes affecting carcinogen clearance, estro-
gen metabolism, and estrogen-related concerns of aging women and men, increase the apoptosis
in cancerous cell lines (21,22). A 1998 report by Orser and associates (23) indicates that Brassica
juncea, or Indian mustard, grown under hydroponic cultivation can contain 2000 ppm selenium.
Certainly all three, culturing technology, metabolic engineering, and transgenic food crop con-
structs, or combinations thereof, should present new means of production of food crops that will
enhance health.
A. Plant Micronutrients and Metabolites

Food crops’ micronutrients and their levels should be important features of balancing micronu-
trient nutrition and enhancing human health. This is because several micronutrients are specifi-
cally involved with gene expression mechanisms (24). Both traditional plant breeding and mo-
lecular approaches to increasing the micronutrient density in edible portions of food crops are
useful (25,26). However, a great deal more could be learned from manipulation by molecular ge-
netic techniques. Applications of this knowledge could be used to after micronutrient density, ac-
cumulation, and uptake in edible portions of food crops. Schachtman and coworkers (11) suggest
two approaches: first, the use of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) markers as genetic tags for the in-
trogression of desired traits, and second, the introduction of defined genetic material, which is the
process of genetic engineering.
Plants, as much as fungi and certain bacteria, are unique in that after their exponential
growth a high level of production of various primary metabolites and synthesis of a large number
of secondary metabolites, such as hormones and drugs, including antibiotics and toxins, occur
(27). These metabolites are made in response to development, various environmental stress re-
sponses, and defense against wounding and phytopathogenic microorganisms. Phytochemicals
are often specific to species or genera. Notwithstanding the role of phytochemicals for plants,
many have important consequences for animals and humans, including medicinal or health-pro-
moting value (28,29).
Macronutrients and health-promoting compounds are associated with seeds, roots, bark,
leaves, glandular tissue, and pollen (30). Qualitative improvements of many of these nutrients,
e.g., storage proteins, amino acid composition, production of novel carbohydrates, changes in
fatty acid composition, and reduction in antinutrients, although complex in terms of genetic ma-
nipulations, nonetheless are being actively pursued (31,32). Medicinal properties of garlic (Al-
lium sativum) arise from at least 15 biologically active compounds, the best known of which are
allicin, diallyl disulfide, and diallyl trisulfide (33). Although the chemical and botanical aspects
of garlic and its nutritional and medicinal aspects are well documented (34), its genetics is less
studied. With some prerequisite genetic knowledge of a large number of target-specific actions in
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210 Khachatourians
relation to particular constituents—allicin, DADS, and DAS, among others—it should be possi-
ble to construct transgenic food crops with antimicrobial, antihypertensive, lipid-lowering, anti-
cancer, and fibrinolytic activities. Hop plant (Humulus lupulus L.) cones’ contribution to their
characteristic bitterness is due to the α- and β-bitter acids (e.g., humulone, colupomulone) of
beer-brewing process. These secondary metabolites and their novel polyketide synthase, phlo-
risovalerophenon synthase, have been characterized and should lead to its genetic characteriza-
tion and manipulation (35).
Seeds are a rich source of macronutrients, carbohydrates, proteins, and oil, but also miner-
als and vitamins. Molecular dissection and improvements of the nutritional and functional prop-
erties are yielding specific knowledge of development and genetics, as well as solutions to the
problems often associated with their underutilization (36). Plant seeds such as those from
legumes and cereal make up over 50% of the per capita energy and protein intake worldwide and
63–65% in the developing countries. We now have a better understanding of specific forms of
starch and oil body development and control of partitioning of carbon among the starch-, oil-, and
protein-storage components (37–40). Because of our understanding and manipulative technolo-
gies of Brassica sp. oil production and oleosins, in the oil storage bodies of seeds, many useful
products, including recombinant proteins and other pharmaceutically important materials such as
hirudin and interlukins, can be engineered and extracted economically (38–41).
Leguminous plants, especially the pea, present problems related to incomplete protein and
starches and low protein digestibility. These problems have been addressed with mutants for seed-
specific starch-branching enzyme. Here the ratio of amylose to amylopectin and, hence, the prop-
erties of the isolated starch have been greatly influenced. Biochemical genetics and convenient
and sensitive isozyme assays have revealed the role of specific isozymes in maize, potato, and pea
starch biosynthesis (42). Microstructure and ingredients of starch seed have profound effects on
the flour and dough produced and their handling and baking properties (43). Introduction into po-
tato of a mutant Escherichia coli adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-glucose pyrophosphorylase en-
zyme, thought to be a rate-limiting enzyme for starch biosynthesis, enhanced the amount of starch
accumulated. Changes in the starch biosynthesis enzymes should influence the physical struc-
tures and properties of the extracted starch of the starch grains. These changes are valuable to
many industries (44). Likewise the roles of specific desaturases, thioesterases, and hydroxylases
in Arabidopsis and Brassica spp. and soybean fatty acid biosynthesis could be modified by alter-
ations in these genes (45). Insertion of genes encoding new fatty acid desaturases under the con-
trol of seed-specific promoters in canola produces new oil constituents. A whole series of culti-
vars containing low and high levels of oleic, palmitic, linolenic, and linoleic acids are emerging
(46, 47). Griffiths and coworkers (48) found that sesamin, a lignan present in sesame (Sesamum
indicum) oil, specifically inhibits D5 desaturation and formation of arachidonic acid from dihomo
γ-linolenic acid in cell free extracts and reduced cell proliferation in cell cultures derived from ca-
nine prostatic tissues of epithelial origin from neoplastic and nonneoplastic tissues. Genetic en-
gineering of oil plants to contain vitamins and other factors to prevent proliferation of cancerous
cells or tissues including metastatic cells should be a significant step.
The ability to create transgenic food plants offers the opportunity to program plants to ac-
cumulate macronutrients and energy sources for humans. Native and foreign proteins in seeds,
roots, or leaves enhance their quality and value and provide a new source of valuable medicinals
(36). There seems to be little reason why plants should not be adopted as sources for human ther-
apeutic metabolites, enzymes, vaccines, and other compounds (49–51).
B. Plant Micronutrients and Human Health

Micronutrients account for up to 30% of a tissue’s dry weight, whereas individual micronutrients
are generally much less then 0.1% of a tissue’s dry weight. Micronutrients including vitamins are
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involved in modulation of transcription, translation, and posttranslational modification of certain

proteins (24). In addition micronutrients can be anti- and coantimutagenic or mutagenic and
comutagenic (52). The question becomes whether or not significant increases in micronutrient
levels are possible. The answer in part depends on (a) the particular compound(s) under consid-
eration and (b) whether excessive dietary intake could have unintended negative health conse-
quences. The positive effects of select micronutrients, e.g., iron, calcium, selenium, iodine, and
the vitamins folic acid and vitamins E, B, and A, are in optimal human health (9). However, these
micronutrients are present in limited quantities in foods or diets worldwide. In micronutrient-rich
diets an upper safe level of intake for these minerals and vitamins is possible. Mechanisms of ac-
tion, significance, multiple side effects, and levels of tolerance of the antioxidant vitamins A, E,
and C are well known (53–58). Fortuitously, plants only synthesize provitamin A carotenoids,
which are used as substrates for retinol synthesis by humans (9). The overall process is highly reg-
ulated, and as a consequence the upper safe intake level for β-carotene (the most active provita-
min A carotenoid in plants) is 20 times that of retinol or 100 times the RDA for vitamin A. On
this basis, ideally manipulating provitamin A carotenoid synthesis in plants, rather than attempt-
ing to introduce retinol synthesis, has become the target for engineering of plants for human
health.
Certain plant metabolites are known for their anticarcinogenic properties and their other
biochemical and nutritional effects (58). At least 100 distinct glucosinolates are present in plants
(58). The glucosinolates of cruciferous vegetables increase carcinogen detoxification and lower
carcinogen–deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) interactions (59,60). The phytoestrogens, such as
genistein and daidzein, are isoflavones that are particularly abundant in soybeans and have health-
promoting attributes. Individuals with soy-rich diets have significantly lower occurrences of some
cancers, osteoporosis, and coronary heart disease when compared to individuals with-low-soy
diets (61). However, Lappe and associates (62) report that phytoestrogen levels in transgenic her-
bicide-tolerant soybeans are lower. Intake of carotenoids (both pro– and non–provitamin A) is
shown to reduce the risk of a number of health problems, e.g., certain types of cancers, cardio-
vascular disease, and age-related macular degeneration (9,63). Although the benefits of glucosi-
nolates, isoflavones, and carotenoids to human health are recognized, Western diets are generally
poor in foods containing the highest levels of these compounds.
C. Engineering of Micronutrient Content

Food crop micronutrient contents have been modified by traditional and modern genetics (11).
Traditional crop breeding has increased productivity, yields, and occasionally and unexpectedly
micronutrient composition, yet similar successes through molecular breeding have not occurred.
Efforts in breeding food crops for ease of processing, malting, baking, and extruding, which de-
termine industrial utility, must accompany efforts to enhance nutritional qualities for human con-
sumption (61). However, the strategy for and selection of these traits have not had a strong bio-
chemical genetic basis nor an explanation of phenotypic differences (63), with the result that
limited progress has been made in engineering of micronutrient levels for human health by mo-
lecular techniques.
The last decade has shown rapid progress in the identification of developmental and bio-
chemical genetics for the biosynthesis of precursors to vitamin A, E, and C of the model plant Ara-
bidopsis thaliana (64–68). Vitamins C and E and the vitamin A precursor carotinoid have impor-
tant functions as antioxidant vitamins, and successful results have been obtained in engineering
vitamin biosynthesis genes in rice (69) and other plants (9). Oxidative reactions to lipids in stressed
tissues and cells are defended by antioxidants through both enzymatic (e.g., superoxide dismutase,
GSH-peroxidase, and -reductase) and nonenzymatic (micronutrient and vitamin) mechanisms
(54,55). As a result the reduction of free radicals through multiple effects of antioxidant vitamins
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212 Khachatourians
becomes significant in dietary intake and protection against oxidative stress (53,57). Determina-
tion of the biochemical genetics of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway, iron uptake, and biotin,
thiamin, and vitamin E synthesis has made significant strides, including gene cloning, sequencing,
and heterologous expression systems (69,70).
III. MINING OF PLANT GENOMICS FOR HUMAN HEALTH FACTORS
Recent developments in plant genomics, proteomics, and bioinformatics have made significant
and rapid headway in the identification of metabolically and biosynthetic important sequences
and comparisons with those of other organisms (36,71–73). Because of sequence homology and
conservation and structure-function similarity, certain micronutrients (essential vitamins and
minerals) and primary and secondary metabolic genes are identifiable. New research methodol-
ogy, gene probes, high-throughput screening (microarray), and automated DNA sequencing are
making the dissection of nutritional genomics a certainty (74). Genomic and proteomic databases
and use of bioinformatics should make the establishment of metabolic pathways attainable (75).
Further, because of plant gene resources, comparison of gene and DNA sequence differences can
be developed in the short term. An alternate approach is the use of the genomic data from mi-
croorganisms and the universality of certain biosynthetic systems, e.g., from lower eukaryotes,
filamentous fungi, and yeasts or bacteria. This strategy was used for the α-tocopherol (vitamin E)
biosynthetic pathway in Arabidopsis sp. (76). Genetic data for the first step of the 10-gene path-
way were isolated from Arabidopsis sp. and the photosynthetic bacterium Synechocystis sp.
(PCC6803). Because the genomes of both A. thaliana and the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp.
(PCC6803) have been sequenced (77,78) it has been shown that the two have a 35% amino acid
identity (76). Although α-tocopherol content within the plant oils is low, using the strategy of
cloning of γ-tocopherol methyltransferase (γTMT) from either Synechocystis or Arabidopsis sp.,
Shintani and DellaPenna (76) used carrot seed–specific promoter to overexpress the γTMT in A.
thaliana and increase the α-tocopherol 80-fold and that of vitamin E 9-fold when compared to
those of wild type (76).
The preceding examples demonstrate the power of applying genomics to dissect vitamin
biosynthesis and its content. It should be possible to apply the same strategy for other food crop
constructions. Further use of technologies such as bioinformatics and microarray expression sys-
tems, expressed sequence tags, and other automated systems for isolation and elucidation of path-
way, specific genes for many phytochemicals and their gene mapping and orthologues in a vari-
ety of food crops, e.g., corn and soybean, should become a reality (9,71,73,79).
IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS
A UNICEF report on the state of the world’s children (80) discusses in detail the prevalence and
causes of worldwide child malnutrition and recommends steps that must be taken. According to
this report malnutrition is implicated in more than 6 million or half of all deaths of children below
5 years of age worldwide. This tragedy in terms of magnitude is unmatched by any infectious dis-
ease since the Black Death (80). In many instances, the report cites examples of micronutrient de-
ficiencies that can be remedied by increasing levels of phytonutrients. To remedy this situation
coordinated efforts for research on five major staple food crops—rice, wheat, maize, beans, and
cassava—are needed.
Research to improve the nutritional quality of plants has historically been limited by a lack
of basic knowledge of plant metabolism and the often daunting task of selection of levels of nu-
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trients for increased micronutrients. Therefore, improvement in the levels of phytonutrients will
require an interdisciplinary approach and collaboration of professionals in the natural, agricul-
ture, food, and health sciences (4,81). The use of both conventional and modern genetic tech-
niques and biotechnology, associated with the arrival of genomics, proteomics, and informatics,
should allow greater integrative approaches to plant-based foods and phytonutrients. In addition,
new goals for the production (both pre- and post harvest), handling, and storage of the phytonu-
trient content of foods and food economics and policy programs (4,82,83) must be identified, re-
searched, and implemented (80). This type of food production will cross barriers of species, fam-
ily, and phylum (9,26).
As a result of the increase in our basic knowledge of microbial contributions and phytonu-
trients and their genetic basis, the opportunities in food production during the coming decade will
be truly unparalleled (1). Furthermore, these developments will place plant and food science
researchers in the position of being able to modify the nutritional content of major crops to im-
prove aspects of human health. For essential minerals and vitamins that are limited in world
diets, the need and way forward are clear, and improvement strategies should be pursued with at-
tention to the upper safe limit of intake for each phytonutrient (56,82). However, for many other
health-promoting phytochemicals, decisions will need to be made regarding which crops to mod-
ify to achieve the precise compound(s) and their metabolites for nutritional impact and health
benefits (84).
Decisions regarding genetic engineering of plants for types and levels of phytonutrients
will require strong interdisciplinary collaborations among scientists and communication profes-
sionals. We have learned that emerging information, requires communication, discussions, and
dialogue with the broader audience of consumers, decision makers, and decision influencers. In
short, biotechnology of food will be the new paradigm for ensuring a safe and healthful food sup-
ply to serve our needs in this century.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am thankful for my reviewers, Lorraine M. Khachatourians, Dr. Robert Tyler, and Dr. Adrienne
Woytowich.
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83. IL Goldman, AA Kader, C Heintz. Influence of production, handling, and storage on phytonutrient
content of foods. Nutr Rev 57:S46–S52, 1999.
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229.
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15
Genetic Engineering and
Resistance to Viruses
Marc Fuchs
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Colmar, France
Dennis Gonsalves
Cornell University, Geneva, New York
I. INTRODUCTION 217
A. Background 217
B. Objectives and Scope of the Review 218
II. PATHOGEN-DERIVED RESISTANCE 218
A. Concept 218
B. Application to Virus Resistance in Plants 218
C. Characterization of Engineered Resistance to Viruses 218
D. Probable Mechanism(s) Underlying Engineered Resistance Against Viruses 219
E. Factors to Consider in Developing Virus-Resistant Transgenic Plants 221
III. APPLICATIONS: A FEW SUCCESS STORIES 222
A. Field Evaluation 222
B. Commercialization 222
C. Benefits to Agriculture 223
IV. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ISSUES 223
A. Potential Impact 223
B. Opposition to Transgenic Plants 224
C. Risk Assessment Studies: Scientific Facts 224
V. DISCUSSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 226
REFERENCES 227
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Background
There has been tremendous progress in agricultural biotechnology in recent years. For example,
transgenic plants resistant to insects, herbicides, and diseases have been produced, field-tested,
and commercialized. In the case of viruses, significant breakthroughs opened new avenues to en-
217
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218 Fuchs and Gonsalves
gineering resistance in crops. Resistance to viruses has been achieved by transforming suscepti-
ble plant varieties with genes or gene sequences derived from viral genomes. This approach is
known as pathogen-derived resistance (PDR) (1). Advances continue to be made in understand-
ing the cellular and molecular mechanisms of PDR, identifying effective virus-derived gene con-
structs, and developing virus-resistant transgenic crops.
B. Objectives and Scope of the Review

Many reviews have been written recently on engineered resistance against viruses in plants (2–9).
Here we describe how the concept of pathogen-derived resistance has been applied to engineer
resistance to plant viruses in crops. Then we summarize our current knowledge on the mecha-
nisms underlying engineered resistance. We will also highlight progress on the commercializa-
tion of virus-resistant transgenic crops and address issues related to their potential environmental
impact. Finally, future prospects of engineered resistance against plant viruses are discussed.
II. PATHOGEN-DERIVED RESISTANCE
A. Concept
The majority of virus-resistant transgenic plants result from the application of the concept of PDR
(1). This concept is based on the use of virus-derived genes and gene segments as the source of
resistance. Various constructs, including full-length, untranslated, and truncated coding and non-
coding complementary deoxyribonucleic acids (cDNAs), in sense or antisense orientation, have
been employed to engineer resistance to viruses in plants. Virus genes that confer resistance in-
clude constructs encoding coat proteins (CPs), replicases, movement proteins, proteinases, de-
fective interfering ribonucleic acid (RNA), and satellite RNAs (5–7).
B. Application to Virus Resistance in Plants

The success of PDR in conferring resistance was first demonstrated with bacteriophage (1).
Beachy and colleagues were the first to report on the application of PDR to engineer resistance
against viruses in plants (10). These authors showed that transgenic tobacco that accumulates CP
of Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is protected from infection by TMV, and by closely related to-
bamoviruses. Subsequently, PDR has been applied against a wide range of viruses in many plant
species (5,6).
C. Characterization of Engineered Resistance to Viruses

The degree of engineered resistance to viruses varies among plant lines. In some cases there is no
detectable accumulation of the target virus(es) anywhere in the inoculated plants. This extremely
high level of resistance, often defined as immunity, is of practical use.
In other cases the resistance in slightly weaker and virus(es) can accumulate on inoculated
leaves but subsequent movement of the virus seems to be blocked. Also, plants can be initially
susceptible to the virus; however, symptoms are attenuated or absent in the upper leaves and there
is little or no virus accumulation (11). This resistance phenotype is referred to as recovery. This
type of resistance is also of practical importance.
Resistance has also been described as delay in the onset of disease symptoms. Transgenic
plants are symptomatic and accumulate the challenge virus(es) after some delay compared to
nontransgenic controls. This type of resistance can also have, although limited, practical value.
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Genetic Engineering and Resistance to Viruses 219
D. Probable Mechanism(s) Underlying Engineered

Resistance Against Viruses
There are at least two distinct types of mechanisms underlying engineered resistance against
viruses: one requiring expression of the transgene-derived protein (2–4,8,9) and the other de-
pendent only on the presence of transgene-derived messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) (2,12,
13). Protein-mediated resistance seems to confer resistance to a broader range of virus strains and
species (14), whereas RNA-mediated resistance seems to provide higher levels of resistance to a
specific virus strain (15).
Protein-mediated resistance was first reported for TMV in tobacco (10). The resistance is
greater to TMV than to tobamoviruses that have CP genes more distantly related to the transgene
(14). Accumulation of CP in transgenic plants is indispensable for protection against TMV. It ap-
pears that the CP of TMV expressed by transgenic plants interferes with disassembly of TMV
particles (16,17). It may also interact with a host component or directly with the viral RNA to pre-
vent replication, translation, or assembly into virions (2–4). A correlation is proposed between CP
subunit-subunit interactions and CP-mediated resistance against TMV. Indeed, when using mu-
tants of the CP of TMV that affect subunit-subunit interactions in transgenic Nicotiana tabacum,
an increased resistance is achieved compared to that of wild-type CP as a result of strong inter-
action between CP subunits expressed by transgenic plants and challenge virus CP subunits (18).
Sometimes, protein-mediated resistance confers protection only to the virus from which the trans-
gene is derived, whereas in other cases it provides protection against related viruses. It is unclear
why some CP provides broad and strong degrees of resistance whereas other CP provides only
narrow or weak resistance.
On the other hand, evidence shows that RNA-mediated resistance occurs through a post-
transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) process. This phenomenon was first observed with trans-
genic plants not carrying viral genes (19,20). PTGS leads to a marked reduction in the accumu-
lation of the transgene mRNAs and the degradation of the RNA of challenging virus. Dougherty
and colleagues were the first to show a relationship between virus resistance in transgenic plants
and PTGS involving a RNA turnover (11). Transcription run-on experiments with isolated nuclei
from transgenic plants established that silencing of virus-derived transgenes occurs posttran-
scriptionally. In virus-resistant transgenic lines, relatively low and undetectable steady-state ac-
cumulation of transgene RNA, along with little or no protein product, is observed. The mecha-
nisms of PTGS are not fully understood, although there is strong evidence of targeted degradation
of RNA in the cytoplasm. Indeed, it appears that PTGS suppresses in trans the accumulation of
viral RNA which have homology in the coding region of the transgene, thereby conferring ho-
mology-dependent virus resistance.
Silencing of the viral transgene can occur prior to virus infection but can also be activated
only after virus infection. If silencing occurs prior to virus infection, plants do not accumulate the
challenge virus. On the other hand, if silencing occurs after infection, it becomes active in upper
leaves after infection of the lower leaves. In this case, the transgene is initially expressed at a high
level and accumulation of transgene mRNA is suppressed in asymptomatic tissue, thereby pro-
viding resistance to secondary infection if the challenge virus is homologous to the transgene
mRNA.
PTGS requires transgene expression (21), and its apparent strength increases with the tran-
scriptional state and copy number of the transgene. Goodwin and colleagues (22) showed that
transgenic N. tabacum expressing multiple copies of an untranslated CP gene of Tobacco etch
virus (TEV) are highly resistant to TEV, whereas transgenic plants expressing single copies of the
same transgene express the recovery phenotype. Correlation between copy number of the trans-
gene and virus resistance is, however, not observed in all cases of PTGS.
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Methylation of the transgene has been associated to some extent with PTGS (23–26).
Methylation is usually concentrated at the 3⬘ end of the transgene coding region (21) and may be
responsible for the production of prematurely terminated transgene mRNAs (aberrant RNAs) or
transgene mRNAs that are truncated or improperly processed. In 1999 Guo and coworkers (27)
showed that methylation, which was found all along the transgene sequence, is associated with
establishment and maintenance of PTGS, and therefore with virus resistance. These authors pro-
posed that PTGS involves RNA signals, either from the silenced transgene and/or from the chal-
lenge virus, which activate a specific cytoplasmic RNA degradation pathway and induce changes,
DNA methylation in particular, in homologous transgenes (27). These changes switch transgene
from an active to a silenced status.
The role of RNA signals as target and initiator of PTGS is becoming more compelling (28).
The target RNA may be transgene mRNAs or viral RNAs that have sequence homology to the
sense RNA product of the transgene. Accumulation of transgene and viral RNA could reach a cer-
tain RNA threshold, thus suppressing RNA accumulation in a sequence-specific manner and me-
diating specific degradation (2). What triggers the RNA turnover is not known, but an overpro-
duction of RNA such that a threshold concentration is overcome has been implicated. Also, the
synthesis of aberrant transgene mRNAs could play an important role (29). PTGS has been shown
to correlate with abundant RNA degradation intermediates (30). The RNA target of PTGS is par-
ticularly the 3⬘ region (24,25,31); however, it can also be located in the central coding region (32)
or in the 5⬘ region of the transgene (31,33).
To account for the activation and specificity of PTGS, it seems that RNA products of the
transgene are important. The sequence requirements for triggering gene silencing may differ from
those involved in the degradation process in PTGS (34). Ruiz and associates (35) showed that ini-
tiation of virus-induced silencing is dependent on the challenge virus and maintenance of virus-
induced silencing is virus-independent.
PTGS is influenced by the development stage of the plants (31,36,37). Even highly resis-
tant—previously considered immune—transgenic lines may accumulate a high level of transgene
RNA at early times in development and are susceptible to TEV infection (31). Thus, it appears
that a common mechanism of gene silencing and virus resistance occurs in transgenic lines ex-
hibiting high resistance and recovery resistance phenotypes.
In the majority of examples of PTGS sense RNA is a target of homology-dependent si-
lencing (11,24,26,37–41); however, the negative-strand RNA was also shown to be the target
(32). Is the mechanism of PTGS RNA strand-specific? It does not seem the general rule; however,
there are examples of resistance that has been achieved although an abundance of transgene RNA
is produced (42). In this case, it appears that homology-dependent resistance and PTGS are
not related. Overall the sense RNA transcript of the transgene could act as mediator of the resis-
tance mechanism eventually by annealing to complementary RNA in viral replication intermedi-
ates and promoting degradation of duplexed RNA (43). The silence state is characterized by re-
duced levels of full-length mRNA and the appearance of specific low-molecular-weight RNA
fragments (22,31). These low-molecular-weight RNA fragments consist of both the 5⬘ and 3⬘ por-
tions of the CP transgene that could emerge through endonucleolytic cleavages. These low-mo-
lecular-weight RNA fragments that result from degradation of mRNA and aberrant RNA could
trigger silencing.
Looking at the silencing effects and variants that have been observed in virus-resistant
transgenic plants, it seems that virus-derived transgenes become inactivated as a result of diverse
defense systems that are designed to neutralize invasive viruses. Similarities exist between PTGS
and natural virus defense mechanisms. PTGS has been described as a natural resistance to Cau-
liflower mosaic virus (CaMV) in nontransgenic brassicas (44). Similarly, Tomato black ringspot
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virus infection in nontransgenic plants induces a resistance similar to transgene-induced silenc-

ing (45). In these two studies, nontransgenic plants inoculated with viruses were able to overcome
infection by initiating turnover of replicating viral genomes in the cytoplasm. It is hypothesized
that virus-derived transgenes subject to PTGS may produce RNA resembling replicating viruses,
such as double-stranded features (45). It seems that viral genomes can undergo alterations that
give rise to RNA susceptible to degradation in a manner identical to what is occurring in trans-
genic plants. The extent to which plants have adapted these defense mechanisms to control ex-
pression of genes and viruses in not yet known. However, Ratcliff and coworkers (46) in 1999
demonstrated that PTGS of transgenes is functionally the same as PTGS-like defense response to
virus infection and that the latter is a manifestation of a natural defense mechanism that is also
induced by Tobacco rattle virus. Determining the molecular basis of triggering, maintaining, reg-
ulating, and turning off silencing is a major challenge with direct application in engineered virus
resistance in crops.
In 1998 the P1-HC-Pro polyprotein of TEV was shown to suppress PTGS (47,48). Thus,
plant viruses may enhance susceptibility within a host through inhibition of a potent defense re-
sponse (49). Similarly, Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) counteracts PTGS (50), indicating that
CMV can inhibit cellular factors involved in the RNA degradation step of PTGS or inhibit the sys-
temic spread of the silencing signal. Also, PTGS is suppressed by the HC-Pro of Potato virus Y
(PVY) and the 2b of CMV but not by Potato virus X (PVX) (51). This effect is protein-rather than
RNA-mediated. The 2b protein of Tomato aspermy virus (TAV) but not of CMV has been shown
to induce hypersensitive cell death and virus resistance in N. tabacum, whereas in N. benthami-
ana the TAV 2b protein suppresses PTGS (52). The dual functionality of the TAV 2b protein in-
dicates that plants may react to virus-encoded suppressor of PTGS by inducing an independent
resistance mechanism.
Plant mutants impaired in the triggering of PTGS have been obtained (53). Such plants
should help in identifying genetic loci governing gene silencing mechanisms in plants. Two loci,
sgs1 and sgs2, have been shown to be affected in PTGS and silencing-related transgene methyla-
tion (53).
E. Factors to Consider in Developing Virus-Resistant Transgenic Plants

Since the first report of engineered resistance to a plant virus (10), PDR has been applied to nu-
merous viruses and crops. A number of transgenic crops have been tested in the field, and some
of them have even been commercialized (5,54).
Several factors need to be considered when developing virus resistance in plants. Since the
cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying engineered resistance are not well understood, it
is almost impossible to design virus-derived genes that induce predictable phenotypes. In other
words, it is difficult to predict how a given transgene will affect the level of resistance.
Among the driving forces for our work on engineered resistance against viruses are a strong
interest in identifying resistant lines as early as possible in the plant development process and the
desire to test for resistance under natural conditions of virus infection and plant growth. There-
fore, once putative transformed plants are established in the greenhouse and their transgenic sta-
tus assessed, resistance screening experiments are undertaken. If resistant lines are identified,
they are further propagated and analyzed under field conditions. Field trials are often more ef-
fective than greenhouse evaluation for examining disease symptoms, and identifying and elimi-
nating plants with undesirable phenotypes (55).
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III. APPLICATIONS: A FEW SUCCESS STORIES
A. Field Evaluation
A number of transgenic plants with virus-derived gene constructs have been extensively evalu-
ated under field conditions and shown to be valuable to control viral diseases. For example, trans-
genic tomato, potato, squash, melon, cucumber, and papaya provide practical resistance to viruses
under natural exposure (5,54,56). More recently, resistance to Potato leafroll virus (PLRV) was
observed in transgenic potato plants expressing the PLRV CP gene through 5 years of field trials
(57). Also, Thomas and coworkers (55) showed that aphid-mediated spread of PLRV was re-
stricted in fields of transgenic potato plants expressing the PLRV CP gene. The markedly reduced
secondary transmissions of PLRV are likely explained by lower virus titer in transgenic plants,
thus decreasing virus content of aphid vectors and reducing transmission efficacy. Field resistance
of transgenic potato plants to mechanical inoculation by several strains of PVY has also been
demonstrated (58). More field tests of transgenic crops engineered for virus resistance are under
way.
A number of transgenic crops exhibit a high degree of resistance under greenhouse condi-
tions (5). It was shown in 1999 that transgenic rice plants expressing the CP genes (CP1, CP2,
and CP3) of Rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) are protected from leafhopper-mediated inocu-
lation (59). Resistance was expressed as a reduction in RTSV accumulation and a significant
delay in RTSV infection in transgenic lines that accumulated transgene mRNA. The delay in in-
fection by RTSV may be sufficient to allow rice to develop enough to escape disease by a late in-
fection.
Several reports showed that transgenic tomato plants expressing the CP gene of CMV are
resistant to natural spread of CMV by indigenous aphid populations (60–62). Similarly, trans-
genic tomato plants expressing an ameliorative satellite RNA of CMV exhibited resistance to
CMV infection in the field (63). Transgenic plants had mild or no symptoms, low virus titer, and
up to 83% higher marketable fruit yield than nontransgenic plants. In addition, risk assessment
studies showed low levels of satellite RNA transmission within the test site and no evidence of
damage caused by the satellite RNA on surrounding plants. Similarly, transgenic plants of hot
pepper expressing the CMV satellite RNA showed symptom attenuation upon mechanical inoc-
ulation by CMV (64).
Other transgenic crops have been engineered with virus-derived gene sequences and shown
to be protected from virus infection. For example, transgenic pea plants expressing the Pea ena-
tion mosaic virus (PEMV) CP gene display attenuated symptoms and delayed PEMV multipli-
cation upon mechanical inoculation (65). Also, transgenic peas resistant to Pea seed-borne mo-
saic virus have been developed (34). Transgenic rice plants expressing the replicase gene of Rice
yellow mottle virus (RYMV) are resistant to mechanical inoculation by RYMV (66). Transgenic
plum trees expressing the CP gene of Plum pox virus (PPV) are resistant to aphid inoculation and
chip budding challenge by PPV (67). Transgenic sugarcane resistance to Sorghum mosaic virus
was developed in 1999 (68). It will be interesting to see whether the resistance of these plants
holds in the field.
B. Commercialization
Virus-resistant transgenic plants have been commercialized in the United States. These comprise
a vegetable and a fruit crop. The first commercial virus-resistant transgenic crop was a summer
squash line resistant to Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV) and Zucchini yellow mosaic virus
(ZYMV). This line expresses the CP genes of WMV and ZYMV and is highly resistant to mixed
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aphid-vectored infection by these two viruses (69,70). It was commercially released as Freedom
II in the spring of 1995 by Asgrow Seed. Transgenic papaya containing the CP gene of Papaya
ringspot virus (PRSV) and resistant to PRSV (71) was the second virus-resistant transgenic crop
commercially released in 1998 (54).
Outside the United States, virus-resistant transgenic plants, including tomato, pepper, to-
bacco, potato, and soybean, are also deployed on a large scale in the People’s Republic of China.
Given the efficacy of the PDR strategy to control viral diseases and the number of virus-re-
sistant transgenic crops showing excellent performance in small-scale field experiments, more of
them will likely reach the market in the near future.
C. Benefits to Agriculture
Virus-resistant transgenic plants offer many benefits to agriculture (5). Benefits are of agronom-
ical importance in particular when other sources of resistance have not been identified and when
host resistant genes cannot be easily transferred into elite cultivars by classical breeding. In this
case, engineered resistance may be the only approach to develop virus-resistant varieties. Also,
the development of varieties with multiple-virus resistance has been facilitated by the PDR strat-
egy. Benefits are of economic importance when transgenic crops increase yield and improve crop
quality. This can be critical for subsistence farmers who rely on a limited food supply. Benefits
are of epidemiological importance since transgenic plants do not serve as a virus source for sec-
ondary spread, thereby reducing epidemics to neighbor fields. For example, reduced PLRV in-
fection rate and lower virus titers have been achieved in transgenic potato plants (55). Lower lev-
els of PLRV should reduce acquisition frequencies and transmission within and between potato
fields. Also, lower levels of PLRV should reduce the use of insecticides to control aphid vectors.
Benefits are also of environmental importance since the use of insecticides to control vectors is
highly reduced. Thus, chemical residues in food and water supplies should be limited and the pro-
tection of pesticide applicators improved.
IV. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ISSUES
A. Potential Impact
Considering the novelty of the PDR strategy to engineer resistance to viruses, the large-scale use
of virus-resistant transgenic crops has raised legitimate concerns about their potential incidence
in the environment. The potential environmental impacts of virus-resistant transgenic plants has
been extensively reviewed (5,72–76).
One potential risk involves the encapsidation of the genome of challenge viruses within the
CP subunits expressed by transgenic plants (77). This phenomenon is called heterologous en-
capsidation. Since the interaction between a virus and its vector is often dependent on the prop-
erties of the CP, newly encapsidated virions may be acquired by other vectors than those that nat-
urally transmit the challenge virus. For example, heterologous encapsidation may assist the
spread of a virus that is defective in transmission by its vectors. However, since heterologous en-
capsidation does not alter the genome of the challenge virus, changes in virus-vector specificity
should be a single-generation event with temporary consequences. Therefore, heterologous en-
capsidation should not cause long-term environmental problems.
A second potential concern is that transgene mRNAs may be involved in RNA recombina-
tion with the RNA genome of challenge viruses (78,79). This process involves the exchange of
RNAs during virus replication and the development of chimeric species that combine two origi-
nally distinct RNAs. In other words, all or a portion of the viral transgene may be incorporated
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into the genome of challenge viruses. Chimeric RNA molecules may arise with new biological
properties. Since recombination alters the genome of challenge viruses, virions with new biolog-
ical properties, including expansion of host range, increased pathogenicity, and changes in vec-
tor specificity, could emerge.
Complementation is another potential concern. Virus-resistant transgenic plants could
serve as reservoirs of functional proteins for challenge viruses. Consequently, challenge viruses
that are deficient in the synthesis of some proteins or are producing dysfunctional proteins may
acquire new properties through complementation. For example, transgenic plants expressing a
functional movement protein could complement the cell-to-cell diffusion of a virus with a defec-
tive movement protein. Complementation occurs at the plant level; therefore, it may cause more
severe infections and eventually economic losses. However, since complementation does not alter
the genome of challenge viruses, it is expected to have limited environmental impact.
Synergism between virus-derived transgene products and challenge viruses may increase
virus titers and symptom severity. Thus, economic losses are potential consequences of syner-
gism. This process does not affect the genome of challenge viruses. Therefore, it is not envisioned
to cause environmental hazard.
Gene flow between virus-resistant transgenic plants and wild relatives can lead to the move-
ment and establishment of virus-derived transgenes in populations of wild species (80). Wild
plants that acquire the transgenes could have a competitive advantage and exhibit increased weed-
iness potential. Thus, wild plants could become invasive in natural habitats.
Most of the potential risks associated with transgenic plants are similar to those of non-
transgenic plants that are subjected to mixed virus infection (5,76,78). Thus, the baseline for risk
assessment studies is the current situation in the absence of transgenic plants. An appropriate
issue to be addressed is, Do the potential risks associated with transgenic plants occur beyond
those of background events? In other words, do recombination, heterologous encapsidation, com-
plementation, synergism, and gene flow in transgenic plants present additional risks compared to
those in nontransgenic plants?
B. Opposition to Transgenic Plants

Biotechnology and virus-resistant transgenic crops can impart environmental benefits through re-
duced pesticide use and increased productivity; however, they pose potential environmental risks.
Along with uncertainties regarding long-term health and environmental impacts, increasingly
moral and economic concerns have been advanced. Such concerns have reached a point where in-
tense antibiotechnology crusades are frequent. Also, in an alarming number of events opponents
of biotechnology advocate and practice illegal means of physical attack on property, especially in
Europe.
The current climate of opposition highlights the need for a wide range of consultation, di-
alogue, and exchange of ideas. Such consultations should be guided by research results. There-
fore, science-based risk assessment studies are timely for national and international policy-
making agencies and organizations that are engaged in formulating issues, opinions, and recom-
mendations. Where do we stand regarding risk assessment studies? Is there a clear line between
facts generated by scientifically sound studies and emotional science fiction scenarios?
C. Risk Assessment Studies: Scientific Facts

Risk assessment studies have been conducted to evaluate the potential impact on the environment
of virus-resistant transgenic plants (5). These studies have been performed mainly in the labora-
tory. Laboratory studies are valuable to identify potential hazards, examine their frequency of oc-
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currence, and understand their mechanisms. Subsequently, they can help design trangenes with
maximized resistance and limited environmental impact. For example, Lecoq and colleagues (81)
demonstrated that the CP gene of PPV is able to mediate the spread of an aphid-nontransmissi-
ble strain of ZYMV by heterologous encapsidation. Subsequently, Jacquet and associates (82)
showed that a truncated CP gene of PPV, which was unable to form viruslike particles because of
a deletion in the 5⬘ end, confers resistance to PPV but does not assist the spread of the aphid-non-
transmissible strain of ZYMV. One has to remember that heterologous encapsidation has also
been documented when nontransgenic plants are coinfected (5).
Greene and Allison (83) showed that the 3⬘ untranslated region of Cowpea chlorotic mottle
virus (CCMV) is involved in recombination with deletion mutants of CCMV, thus restoring sys-
temic spread. These authors also demonstrated that transgenes without the 3⬘ untranslated region
are less likely to be involved in recombination events (79,84).
Also, recombinant viruses developed in transgenic N. bigelovii expressing CaMV gene VI
upon CaMV infection (85). The challenge virus was gradually replaced with a recombinant virus
that acquired the transgene. Double recombination between the CP transgene of Tomato bushy
stunt virus (TBSV) in transgenic N. benthamiana and a TBSV mutant with a defective CP gene
was shown to restore wild-type virus (86). Recombination has also been shown when transgenic
N. benthamiana expressing the CP gene of African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) are challenged
with a CP deletion mutant of ACMV (87). It is noteworthy that recombination also occurs in the
case of mixed infection of nontransgenic plants (5,88,89).
Complementation has been shown to occur in transgenic plants (5). More recently, trans-
genic N. benthamiana expressing the p51 gene of the triple gene block of Peanut clump virus
(PCV) that is involved in cell-to-cell movement complements deletion mutant PCV RNA2 tran-
scripts that are deficient in p51, thereby restoring systemic virus multiplication (90). This com-
plementation acts exclusively in cis since a defective mutant of Beet necrotic yellow vein virus,
another pecluvirus, did not cause systemic symptoms on transgenic plants with the p51 protein
of PCV. Similarly, tobacco plants expressing RNA1 of CMV complement RNA2 and RNA3 in
viral movement, thereby promoting long-distance movement, systemic infection, and virus mul-
tiplication (91,92). Complementation for movement is known also in the case of nontransgenic
plants (5).
Synergism has also been reported for transgenic plants expressing the 5⬘ terminal region of
potyviruses and for nontransgenic plants subject to mixed infection with a potyvirus (5).
So far, limited information on risk assessment is available from field experiments. Field ex-
periments, however, are paramount to evaluate potential risks to the environment because they re-
late to agricultural practice and to natural dynamics of vector population. Also, field studies can
be carried out under conditions of little to no selection pressure, which are critical when assess-
ing environmental risks. In 1998 several transgenic lines of potato plants expressing either the CP
gene or the replicase gene of PLRV were exposed to virus infection in the field over a 6-year pe-
riod and tested for potential impact on transmission characteristics, serological properties, host
range, and symptoms of challenge viruses (93). Results show that modified viruses with altered
characteristics or novel viruses with new properties were not detected in field-exposed plants.
Also, transgenic melon and squash expressing CP genes from aphid-borne viruses failed to me-
diate the transmission of an aphid-nontransmissible strain of CMV over a 2-year field study (94).
Virus-derived gene constructs can be transferred from virus-resistant transgenic crops into
wild species as are any other conventional or engineered genes. We monitored the dispersal of CP
genes from virus-resistant transgenic squash into a free-living relative that is commonly known
as Texas gourd (95). Field experiments showed that the CP genes can provide a selective advan-
tage to the wild squash if they are grown under intense disease pressure (Fuchs and Gonsalves,
unpublished results).
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These studies and others (96) suggest so far that transgenic crops expressing CP genes of
aphid-transmissible viruses are likely to have little, if any, detectable environmental impact be-
yond those of natural background level (5).
V. DISCUSSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
The past decade has witnessed an explosion in the development of virus-resistant crops. To a large
extent these advances have been made possible through the application of the concept of PDR.
The PDR strategy is a powerful approach to develop virus-resistant plants. A variety of PDR
strategies (CP, replicase, movement protein, proteinase, satellite RNA, defective interfering
RNA) have been used to develop virus resistance. The large majority of transgenic plants engi-
neered for virus resistance express CP genes. A number of transgenic crops have been tested for
virus resistance under field conditions. Some of them have even been commercialized and are de-
ployed on a large scale in the United States and in the People’s Republic of China.
Tremendous progress has been made toward understanding the underlying mechanisms of
PDR in relation to viruses in plants. CP-mediated resistance is observed in some viral species, but
recent evidence suggest that RNA-mediated resistance is the form of PDR. Further research is
necessary to gain insights into the complexity of PTGS and engineered resistance to viruses. It
will be interesting to identify features of RNA signals that influence the triggering of PTGS, its
efficacy, and its maintenance. Such information will be valuable in designing virus-derived gene
constructs that induce predictable resistance phenotypes and increased levels of sustainable re-
sistance.
An approach for durable and effective pathogen-derived resistance against viruses is to
combine different types of engineered resistance. To achieve broad resistance against different
viruses or different virus strains, multiple-virus-derived gene constructs have been combined and
used in a single plant line. For example, genes encoding nucleoproteins from three different
strains of Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) were combined in a single construct to engineer re-
sistance against the three strains of TSWV (97). Similarly, the CP of PVY and PVX was used to
engineer resistance to mixed infections by PVY and PVX (98). Also, the CP genes of WMV and
ZYMV were combined to engineer resistance against these two viruses in squash (69). And the
same approach was used to engineer resistance against CMV, WMV, and ZYMV in squash (69).
To improve the degree and breadth of resistance, combining host-derived genes and virus-derived
transgenes seems to be a strategy of choice (99).
A few virus-resistant transgenic crops have been commercially released. Given their effi-
cacy at controlling viral disease, more virus-resistant transgenic crops are likely to reach the mar-
ket in the near future. Virus-resistant transgenic crops offer numerous benefits to agriculture and
the environment. Legitimate concerns have been expressed about the large-scale use of virus-re-
sistant transgenic plants. Identifying potential risks and assessing their impact are necessary for
the safe deployment of virus-resistant transgenic crops. Thus, science-based risk assessment stud-
ies are important to ascertain benefits versus risks and help regulatory agencies make decisions
for the safe release of transgenic crops. So far, risk assessment studies performed in the field sug-
gest that virus-resistant transgenic crops have limited detectable environmental impact. For ex-
ample, there seems to be consensus that the benefits offered by virus-resistant transgenic plants
outweigh negative consequences of evolution of novel hybrid viruses with destructive disease po-
tential (5,100). The proper introduction and monitoring of virus-resistant transgenic crops, after
due consideration and evaluation of potential environmental risks, are the safest approach to pro-
tect the environment. Should more risk assessment experiments be carried out with virus-resis-
tant transgenic crops? Is there a point when broad conclusions can be drawn on their safety? Can
www.taq.ir
consensus be achieved among countries on environmental safety issues? Focusing our efforts on
understanding selection processes in nature should help extend our knowledge on the potential
impact of virus-resistant transgenic crops.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. L. M. Yepes for critical reading of the manuscript and to Dr. C. Schmitt for
consideration.
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16
Genetic Engineering for
Resistance to Nematodes
Daguang Cai, Urs Wyss, Christian Jung, and Michael Kleine

University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
I. INTRODUCTION 233
II. LIFE CYCLE AND INFECTIOUS PROCESS OF NEMATODES 234
A. Cyst Nematodes 234
B. Root Knot Nematodes 235
III. NATURAL RESOURCES OF RESISTANCE GENES 236
A. Natural Resistance 236
B. Marker Assisted Selection and Gene Cloning 236
C. Structure and Function of Nematode Resistance Genes 242
IV. ARTIFICIAL NEMATODE RESISTANCE SYSTEMS 242
A. Effector Genes 242
B. Disrupture of Feeding Cells 244
V. CONCLUSION 244
REFERENCES 244
I. INTRODUCTION
Nematodes play an important role as parasites of humans, animals, and plants. In agriculture the
economic losses caused by plant-parasitic nematodes worldwide are estimated to amount to
⬃U.S.$77 billion a year (1). Typically, plant-parasitic nematodes have a highly diversified range
of plant parasitism (2,3). Some spend their whole life cycle outside the root, feeding on the sur-
face (browsing ectoparasites) or deeper tissues (sedentary ectoparasites); others have evolved the
capability to invade the root and to feed from cortical (migratory endoparasites) or stelar cells
(sedentary endoparasites). Economically most relevant are sedentary endoparasites of the genera
Heterodera and Globodera (cyst nematodes), and of the genus Meloidogyne (root-knot nema-
todes). They represent the most advanced level of root parasitism as they induce and maintain spe-
cific nurse cell structures as a continuous source of food for development and reproduction. Agro-
nomically important species of the cyst nematodes, common mainly in temperate regions of the
world, are G. rostochiensis and G. pallida on potato, H. glycines on soybean, H. schachtii on
sugar beet, and H. avenae on cereals. In contrast, root-knot nematodes, with M. incognita as one
233
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234 Cai et al.
of the most important representative, have a very broad host range and are adapted to warm and
hot climates.
Nematodes can be controlled by crop rotation, by fumigation with nematicides, or by grow-
ing of resistant crops. Wide crop rotation is difficult to achieve and chemical control, because of
its environmental and toxicological hazards, is opposed by increasing limitations. Therefore,
breeding of resistant varieties offers the most promising alternative. In the past, breeders have
successfully introduced nematode resistance into crop species, often by species hybridization
with wild relatives. New genetic variability is needed because of the lack of resistance genes in
crop species (e.g., sugar beet) and also because of pathotypes that break commonly used mono-
genic resistance. Molecular markers have gained increasing importance for the introduction of re-
sistance genes into valuable breeding material and for positional cloning of resistance genes. Re-
cent progress in molecular cloning of nematode resistance genes will promote our understanding
of host-pathogen interaction and plant-specific defense. In addition, this will open new avenues
to the genetic engineering of resistance to nematodes by using either natural or artificial resistance
genes.
Here, we present a description of the life cycles of cyst and root-knot nematodes. Further-
more, a summary of molecular cloning procedures of naturally occurring nematode resis-
tance genes is given and alternative approaches for the generation of artificial resistance are
discussed.
II. LIFE CYCLE AND INFECTION PROCESSES OF NEMATODES

A. Cyst Nematodes
Cyst nematodes invade plant roots as infective second-stage juveniles (J2) that hatch from eggs
retained in the protective cyst of the dead female. These juveniles are equipped with a robust
stylet, by means of which they invade the root and migrate to the differentiating vascular cylin-
der, where they finally induce and maintain multinucleate syncytia that arise from expanding
cambial cells whose protoplasts fuse after partial cell wall dissolution. Fully developed syncytia,
maintained by egg-producing females, can contain more than 200 integrated cells representing a
large nurse cell unit with metabolically highly active cytoplasm (4–7).
The majority of cyst nematode species reproduce by cross-fertilization. Sex determination
is most likely controlled by the amount and quality of food available after syncytium induction
(5,7). Much more food is required by a female than by a male juvenile; consequently the volume
of syncytia maintained by males is considerably smaller than that by females (Fig. 1). Male
nematodes feed only until the end of the third developmental stage (Fig. 1). They become ver-
miform again while they molt to the J4 stage, and after the last molt they emerge through the
juvenile cuticles in search of females that attract them with sex pheromones for copulation
(Fig. 1).
The molecular triggers involved in feeding-site induction are not yet known. It is, however,
generally believed that secretory proteins released through the nematode’s stylet orifice play a de-
cisive role in the induction process. Obviously, nematodes use their stylets not only to cut slits
into the cell walls, through which they pass into neighboring cells (8), but also to assist hatching
and root penetration. Smant and coworkers (9) reported for the first time that the J2 of the potato
cyst nematodes synthesize β-1,4-endoglucanases in the two subventral glands that are secreted
through the stylet. These cellulases are thought to soften root cell walls and thus facilitate intra-
cellular migration.
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Resistance to Nematodes 235
Figure 1 Schematic representation of the life cycle of a cyst nematode.
B. Root-Knot Nematodes
Most root-knot nematodes reproduce by mitotic parthenogenesis (10). In contrast to cyst nema-
todes with generally a restricted host range, root diffusates are not involved in the hatching
process of the infective root-knot J2 juveniles, which are retained in a gelatinous egg sac pro-
duced by the females (11). However, as in cyst nematodes, these compounds attract and direct the
J2 juveniles to the root tip of their host plant, where they generally enter the root. Inside the root
the juveniles migrate intercellularly to the vascular cylinder, where they become sedentary after
nurse cell induction. In Meloidogyne species these cells develop by the rapid expansion of about
half a dozen cambial cells that develop a multinucleate state by repeated synchronous mitoses in
the absence of cytokinesis. Mature giant cells are metabolically highly active, increased deoxyri-
bonucleic acid (DNA) content of their nuclei is caused by alterations during the cell cycle (12,13).
Differentiation of giant cells is accompanied by a pronounced galling of the surrounding
root tissue (Fig. 2) while pericyle and cortex cells enlarge and divide. The J2 feed for several days
from the expanding giant cells, become saccate, and finally stop feeding at the end of the J2 stage.
After that they enter an expanded molting cycle (Fig. 2), in which they molt three times in suc-
cession to adult females. The females resume feeding from the giant cells, which now function as
xylem-related transfer cells and are also supplied with nutrients from the phloem (14). They are
metabolically highly active to provide the females with sufficient food to produce many hundred
Figure 2 Schematic representation of the life cycle of a root-knot nematode.
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236 Cai et al.
eggs. Under adverse nutritional conditions, feeding J2 of mitotically parthenogenetic species un-
dergo complete or partial sex reversal and develop as males.
The behavior of M. incognita J2 from root invasion until giant cell induction has been doc-
umented inside roots of Arabidopsis thaliana with the aid of video-enhanced contrast light mi-
croscopy and time lapse studies (15). Hatched J2 usually invade in the region of elongation close
to the meristematic zone. The walls of epidermal and subepidermal cells are weakened and finally
destroyed by continuous head rubbings and stylet movements followed by metacorpal bulb
pumpings of a few seconds in duration. This behavior indicates that wall degrading enzymes
might be involved in root invasion. Support is provided by the detection of a novel cellulose bind-
ing protein (MI-CBP-1), immunolocalized in the subventral glands and secreted through the
stylet of preparasitic and parasitic J2s of M. incognita (16).
III. NATURAL RESOURCES OF RESISTANCE GENES

A. Natural Resistance
Resistance to nematodes is described as the ability of host plants to restrict or prevent nematode
reproduction. Host-parasite-specific defense reactions often follow the “gene-for-gene” relation-
ship. However, in nematology it is difficult to locate and to characterize virulence genes because
of the parasitic features of the nematode, which completes its life cycle within the host, making
controlled crosses and analysis of progeny functionally impossible.
Different mechanisms of plant-specific defense responses conferring resistance to root-
knot and cyst nematodes have been reported. One principle is based on a hypersensitive response
of the root tissue during nematode invasion that leads to the death of the nematode (17). The sec-
ond feature of resistance against nematodes that does not protect the plants from nematode inva-
sion is that the induction of the feeding site inside the root is inhibited or that initially established
feeding structures desintegrate in early stages of nematode development. Resistance to root-knot
nematodes of the genus Meloidogyne, mediated by a single dominant gene Mi that was introduced
into cultivated tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) from its wild relative L. peruvianum, is char-
acterized by an immediate, localized necrosis or hypersensitive response of the cells serving as
feeding structures for the nematode (18). In contrast, H1-mediated resistance in potato against the
cyst nematode Globodera rostochiensis is accomplished by necrosis of cells surrounding the in-
duced feeding structure, which leads to the isolation and final breakdown of the feeding site
(19,20). A third type of feeding cell disruption can be observed in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) con-
ferring resistance to the beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii. The resistance gene Hs1pro-1
(21) had been introduced into sugar beet from the wild beet B. procumbens (22). The resistance
response has been studied on the cellular and ultrastructural levels. J2 juveniles are able to invade
the root of resistant plants and proceed to the vascular cylinder to induce formation of syncytia.
However, syncytia do not develop regularly, suffering from the formation of specific membrane
aggregations that condense to distinct bodies filling large parts of the syncytium, consequently
causing the degradation of the syncytia and the death of the juveniles (23).
B. Marker-Assisted Selection and Gene Cloning

Genes for nematode resistance have been introduced into elite breeding lines either from the gene
pool of the cultivated species or from related wild species. Molecular markers with tight genetic
linkage to the gene provide a means to accelerate the selection procedure (Table 1). In addition,
molecular markers have been used as tools to identify and isolate resistance genes by the appli-
cation of positional cloning strategies. The subsequent transfer of isolated resistance genes to
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Table 1 Mapping and Cloning of Genes for Nematode Resistance from Crop Species
Plant species Nematode Resistance gene Marker systema Cloning strategy Refs.
Potato Globodera rostochiensis Gro1 RFLPa, AFLPb, and PCR-based resistance 24

RAPDc gene tagging 25
G. rostochiensis H1 RFLP and SCARd 26
Resistance to Nematodes
G. pallida Gpa2 RFLP and AFLP Positional cloning (the 61

gene has been cloned)
Soybean Heterodera glycines rhg1 RFLP Positional cloning 27
H. glycines Rhg4 RFLP Positional cloning 28
Barley H. avenae Ha2, Ha3 RFLP 29
Ha4 RFLP 30
Wheat H. avenae Cre1 RFLP, RAPD, and STSe 31
32
Cre3 RFLP Positional cloning 33
Rye H. avenae CreR RFLP 34
Peanut Meloidogyne arenaria Mae, Mag RAPD, SCAR, and RFLP 35
Sugar beet H. schachtii Hs1pro-1 RFLP, RAPD, and AFLP Positional cloning (the 21
Hs2 RFLP 36
Tomato M. incognita Mi-1 RFLP, RAPD, and AFLP Positional cloning (the 37
Mi-3 RAPD and RFLP 38
G. rostochiensis Hero RFLP Positional cloning 39
Tobacco M. incognita Rk RAPD 40
a
RFLP, restriction fragment length polymorphism; AFLP, amplified fragment length polymorphism; RAPD, random amplified polymorphic DNA; SCAR,
sequence characterized amplified region; STS, sequence tagged site; PCR, polymerase chain reaction.
Source: Modified from C. Jung et al., 1998 (80).
237
238 Cai et al.
breeding lines will enlarge the genetic base for the breeding material and open new ways in the
breeding procedure, e.g., the combination of different resistance genes to generate durable resis-
tant crops. Until now, three genes for nematode resistance have been cloned from their chromo-
somal position and further characterized by genetic complementation (Table 1).
1. Sugar Beet
The beet cyst nematode is a major pest of sugar beet. Genes for nematode resistance are lacking
in the gene pool of cultivated beet species; however, complete resistance has been reported from
the wild beet species B. procumbens, B. patellaris, and B. webbiana (41). A single dominant gene
Hs1pro-1 was introduced into sugar beet from B. procumbens chromosome 1 via species hy-
bridizations and backcrossing (42,43). Evidence was given from isozyme (27) and molecular
marker (44) analysis that at least one more resistance gene is present on chromosome 7 of B.
procumbens. Meanwhile, a virulent pathotype of H. schachtii was found that is able to overcome
the resistance from chromosome 1 (Hs1pro-1) but not from chromosome 7 of B. procumbens (45),
indicating a gene-for-gene relationship. The Hs1pro-1 gene has been mapped to a complex wild
beet translocation at the end of sugar beet chromosome IX (36).
For cloning of the gene a novel approach has been applied by the use of genome-specific
satellite markers and chromosomal breakpoint analysis. A YAC-contig spanning the Hs1pro-1
locus has been generated (46) and three different complementary deoxyribonucleic acids
(cDNAs) were isolated with the aid of the YAC clones. Finally, one cDNA (1832) corresponding
to the Hs1pro-1 gene was identified by genetic complementation in roots of susceptible beet under
the control of the CaMV35S promotor. The same incompatible reaction as in resistant plants was
observed (Fig. 3A,21), demonstrating for the first time the potential of natural resistance genes
for breeding resistant crops. Southern analysis revealed that only one copy of the Hs1pro-1 se-
quence was present in the wild beet genome and this sequence was completely absent from the
genome of cultivated beet species (Fig. 3B). The gene was found to be active in root tissue only
with a slightly enhanced expression upon nematode infection (Fig. 3C). Sequence analysis of the
Hs1pro-1 gene revealed an open reading frame of 846 base pairs encoding a gene product of 282
amino acids. The predicted polypeptide can be dissected into different subdomains (Fig. 4) with
motifs common to resistance gene products recently cloned (Fig. 5).
2. Tomato
The second nematode resistance gene that has been cloned is Mi, which had been introduced from
the wild species L. peruvianum into cultivated tomato by conventional breeding. It is responsible
for the hypersensitive reaction of tomato root cells after infection with Meloidogyne spp. (M.
incognita, M. javanica, and M. arenaria). This resistance proved to be durable and is present in
all modern tomato cultivars. The gene has been tightly linked to restriction fragment length poly-
morphism (RFLP) (37), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), and amplified fragment
length polymorphism (AFLP) marker loci and cloned from its position on tomato chromosome
6. Genetic complementation using either whole cosmids or the genomic DNA, including the en-
tire Mi-coding sequence and its own regulatory region, resulted in resistant plants (47,48). Sur-
prisingly, Mi also confers resistance to a totally unrelated parasite, the potato aphid Macrosiphum
euphorbiae (49). The gene is located within a cluster of at least eight genes and has features typ-
ical of previously cloned disease resistance genes, such as a nucleotide binding site and a leucine-
rich region. However, there is little similarity in the gene products of Mi and Hs1pro-1. Another
candidate for positional cloning is the Hero gene from Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium, a wild rel-
ative of tomato. It confers resistance to G. rostochiensis and was mapped in tomato with tightly
linked RFLP markers. Meanwhile, YACs have been isolated from the gene-bearing region. This
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Figure 3 Functional analysis of the Hs1pro1 sequence. (A) To identify the resistance gene, genetic com-
plementation was performed in susceptible sugar beet hairy roots by use of A. rhizogenes–mediated trans-
formation: I, 3–4 Weeks after inoculation with H. schachtii a compatible reaction as indicated by a fully de-
veloped female on the susceptible control line 93161p; II, incompatible reaction 6 weeks after inoculation
as indicated by stagnating female on the resistant control line A906001; III, the transgenic line containing
cDNA 1832 exhibited the same resistance reaction as the resistant line. (B) Southern and (C) Northern
analysis of cDNA 1832 (21).
gene is also of interest for potato breeding because its resistance mechanism is different from that
of any of the previously described genes of potato (39).
3. Potato
Breeding for nematode resistance in potato has a long tradition. Major loci as well as quantitative
trait loci (QTL) for polygenic resistance have been mapped with molecular markers (50,51). The
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240 Cai et al.
Figure 4 The predicted amino acid (aa) sequence of cDNA 1832. The aa sequence of the Hs1pro-1 gene
corresponds to a 33-kDa (282-aa) protein. Numbers indicate aa position. The polypeptide can be dissected
into eight domains (A–H): (A) putative signal peptide, (B) a subdomain of no specified features, (C) a
leucine-rich region consisting of 24% leucines/isoleucines arranged into seven imperfect repetitive units
(LRRs) of 20 aa contributing to 63% of all leucines in the predicted protein, (D) a hydrophilic region, (E) a
subdomain of no specified features, (F) a hydrophobic region (24) with a predicted α-helical secondary
structure suggestive of a transmembrane span. The charged aa (Lys, Glu) flanking the hydrophobic domain
is typical for transmembrane segments. (G) A subdomain with no specified features and (H) a basic C-ter-
minal tail with a putative N-glycosylation signal (underlined).
Figure 5 Comparison of plant nematode resistance gene products with the plant resistance gene products
of Cf 9 and prf. LZ, leucine zipper; NBS, nucleotide binding site; LRR, leucine-rich repeat; TMD, trans-
membrane domain; CM, conserved region.
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gene Grol, conferring resistance to all pathotypes of the root-cyst nematode Globodera ros-
tochiensis, has been fine-mapped with RFLP, AFLP, and RAPD markers (24,52). There is evi-
dence that Grol is among those sequences that have been amplified with the help of primers de-
rived from sequence motifs conserved between different resistance genes that have been
previously cloned (25). At least five copies of these sequences carrying a nucleotide binding site
(NBS) motif are located at the Grol locus. However, the final proof will be given by genetic com-
plementation experiments with transgenic potato, which are on the way (C. Gebhardt, personal
communication). For use in breeding programs, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays diag-
nostic for RFLP marker alleles closely linked to alleles of Grol and H1, a second resistance locus,
have been developed (26). The function of H1 occurs according to the gene-for-gene model of re-
sistance, leading to necrosis around the feeding site.
The third nematode resistance gene (Gpa2) has recently been cloned (61). This gene con-
fers resistance to certain pathotypes of the the potato cyst nematode G. pallida and was mapped
to the same 6 cM genetic interval on chromosome 12 of potato as the virus resistance gene
Rx (53,54). A PCR-based screening of four overlapping BAC clones spanning the Rx/Gpa2
interval led to the identification of four candidate resistance gene homologues (RGH1–4),
which were selected for complementation analysis in a susceptible potato genotype. Plants trans-
formed with one of the four homologues showed the same incompatible interaction with G. pal-
lida as the resistant control plants. This particular homologue was therefore designated as Gpa2.
The Gpa2 polypeptide consisting of 912 amino acids is a member of the leucine zipper, nu-
cleotide binding, leucine-rich repeat family of plant genes. Gpa2 and Rx share a high degree of
homology (61).
4. Other Important Crop Species

The soybean cyst nematode (SCN), (Heterodera glycines) is economically the most important
pathogen of soybean. Different types of resistance to H. glycines were mapped with molecular
markers (28,55). A major partial resistance locus (rhg1) is located on chromosome G of soybean,
explaining up to 50% of the genetic variation (27). A BAC contiguous segment of DNA (contig)
was constructed around this locus with the help of tightly linked markers (56), making rhg1 a can-
didate as the first nematode resistance gene to be cloned from this species. Closely linked mark-
ers are also available for the second resistance gene, Rhg4, on linkage group A of soybean, and
these were used to identify clones from a BAC library (B. F. Matthews, unpublished). The South-
ern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) also belongs to the major group of pathogens of
soybean, but resistance is inherited in a quantitative manner. Two major QTLs for resistance to
this nematode have been mapped with RFLP markers (57).
In some regions of the world, such as Australia, wheat and barley crops suffer heavily from
infection with the cereal cyst nematode (CCN) Heterodera avenae. In barley, the nematode re-
sistance loci Ha1 and Ha2 (allelic to Ha3) have been mapped to chromosome 2 (29), a new gene,
Ha4, was mapped to chromosome 5 (30). In wheat, two loci were mapped with RFLP, RAPD,
and sequence tagged site (STS) markers: the Cre1 locus on chromosome 2B (31) and Cre3 (Ccn-
D1) from Triticum tauschii (32). In 1997 a gene originating from the Cre3 locus that has similar
domains to known resistance genes was isolated (33).
In peanut (Arachis hypogaea), the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne arenaria causes major
problems. Two dominant genes, Mae and Mag, from Arachis cardenasii—reducing nematode egg
number or restricting galling—have been tightly linked to RAPD, sequence characterized ampli-
fied region (SCAR), and RFLP loci (35). A marker-based selection program was started for in-
trogression of these genes into elite lines. In Arabidopsis sp., which serves as a model system for
studying the interactions between beet cyst nematode and its host (58), no resistance genes have
been found in spite of intense screening studies.
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242 Cai et al.
C. Structure and Function of Nematode Resistance Genes

The cloning of different nematode resistance genes demonstrated that host-parasite-specific de-
fense reactions fit into the gene-for-gene model. But the molecular mechanisms responsible for
the nematode resistance of the gene-for-gene type function more broadly than expected. The
cloned nematode resistance genes Mi and Gpa2 belong to the cytoplasmically located R genes
sharing some common structural motifs, such as a nucleotide-binding site and a leucine-rich re-
peat region, that are characteristic of a family of plant disease-resistance genes against viruses,
bacteria, and fungi (Fig. 5). Mi shares considerable sequence homology to the prf gene of tomato
and to the Rpm1 gene from Arabidopsis sp., both required for resistance to Pseudomonas sy-
ringae, and to two fungal resistance genes I2C-1 and I2C-2. The Mi gene is able to trigger resis-
tance to two unrelated parasites, a nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) and an aphid (Macrosiphum eu-
phorbiae). Although Gpa2 and Rx confer resistance to unrelated pathogens, G. pallida and potato
virus X, they seem to have a common ancestral gene as they are members of the same gene clus-
ter with a high degree of homology. It seems reasonable that these genes, although conferring re-
sistance to different pathogens, might share components of downstream reactions in the resis-
tance response, e.g., the signal transduction pathway. In contrast, the Hs1pro-1 gene encodes a 282
protein with a putative N-terminal extracellular leucine-rich region (LRR), followed by a mem-
brane-spanning domain and a C-terminal region, assuming that the protein may be anchored in
the cell membrane and act as a receptor binding elicitors from the nematode (Fig. 5). Alterna-
tively, it may be located within the cytoplasm, binding exudates of the nematode delivered into
the cell via the stylet. However, the protein domains of the Hs1pro-1 gene product described here
share only weak homologies to other consensus features often found in plant R genes. In addi-
tion, Hs1pro-1 is not a member of a gene family, with only one copy present in the haploid wild
beet genome. Homologues were identified only in two resistant wild species, B. patellaris and B.
webbiana, with 93% and 96% sequence homology, respectively (44). Related sequences are also
identified in cultivated beet and A. thaliana. However, the function of these sequences is un-
known. These findings imply that Hs1pro-1 probably represents a new class of a disease-resistance
gene.
IV. ARTIFICIAL NEMATODE RESISTANCE SYSTEMS
Transgenic approaches offer the opportunity to pursue alternative strategies for establishing nem-
atode resistance in plant species. The aim of artificial resistance (59,60) is to generate a durable
and efficient system that controls a broad range of plant-parasitic nematodes. This can be
achieved by introducing effector genes into the host plant that have a direct nematicidal impact
or substances that cause the breakdown of specific feeding structures (Fig. 6).
A. Effector Genes
The efficient application of antinematode genes to generate artificial resistance in the plant relies
on the specificity for the nematode, proper and sufficient expression at the target site, and non-
phytotoxicity to the host. Thus, the employment of compounds produced by the plant itself will
be the most promising. In this respect, proteinase inhibitors (PIs), often found in plants in re-
sponse to wounding or herbivory, have been investigated for their nematicidal activity. Cysteine
proteinases are involved in protein metabolism and digestion of dietary protein and could be
shown to be present in nematodes (62,63). They are known to be inhibited by cystatins, which are
small PIs. Therefore, the oryzacystatin I gene from rice was modified by mutagenesis to improve
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Figure 6 Schematic presentation of the root tissue invaded by infective juveniles of stage J2 showing the
impact of different effectors against root parasitic nematodes of the genera Heterodera, Globodera, and
Meloidogyne. Hatched cells indicate feeding sites selected by the nematode (61).
the efficacy of the inhibitor and was subsequently introduced and expressed, under the control of
the CaMV35S promotor, into tomato hairy roots and Arabidopsis sp. plants. The expression of
cystatin in the transgenic plants prevented female nematodes from developing properly, causing
reduced size and fecundity (64). In addition, dual proteinase inhibitor constructs have been de-
signed to enhance resistance (65). The advantage of this type of approach is that because the PIs
are nontoxic, they can be expressed in every cell—leading to the control of a broad range of nem-
atode species. However, the evolution of PI-tolerant nematodes has to be taken into consideration.
Lectins are another class of putative antinematode proteins. These carbohydrate-binding
proteins could be targeted to interact with the nematode at different sites: within the intestine, the
surface coat (66), or with amphidial secretions (which would mean that the chemosensory per-
ception of the nematode and therefore the ability to orientate within the root was disturbed) (67).
The gene encoding the snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) lectin GNA was introduced into potato
plants and expressed at a maximum of approximately 0.5% of total root protein; a reduction of G.
pallida females of up to 80% resulted. In contrast, a higher expression of GNA resulted in an in-
creased number of females, indicating that only a critical level of GNA expression might have an
effect on the nematode (68).
The nematotoxic properties of Bt toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis strains were thor-
oughly studied with the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, revealing a different mode
of action when compared with insecticidal strains (69). A preliminary study with transgenic
tomato plants expressing the Bt endotoxin CryIab after inoculation with Meloidogyne resulted in
a reduction in egg mass per gram of root of about 50% (70). Further studies and subsequent field
trials have to be performed to corroborate the impact of Bt toxin on plant-pathogenic nematodes.
Expression of monoclonal antibodies within the plant that are directed against nematode-
specific proteins should lead to a specific inhibition of nematode parasitism. This concept has
been tested by expressing a monoclonal antibody specific to stylet secretions of M. incognita in
tobacco plants (71) and by transiently expressing single-chain antibodies in tobacco protoplasts
(72). However, although the antibody was expressed in the appropriate plant tissue, it appeared
to have no influence on the parasitism by the nematode, indicating that antibodies might not be a
sufficient means of controlling nematodes (71).
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244 Cai et al.
B. Disrupture of Feeding Cells

The breakdown of the specific feeding structures is the second target for engineering an artificial
resistance system. Therefore, an approach aiming at the introduction of genes encoding phyto-
toxic compounds that disrupt and desintegrate these specialized cells has been developed. This
can only be realized by selecting promoters exclusively induced in the cells of the feeding struc-
ture, thus limiting the expression of “suicide” genes to the target tissue. Therefore, the promoter
trapping technique has been applied to detect up- and down-regulation of genes within, or in the
vicinity of, feeding cells (73). In 1998 the first nematode-responsive DNA sequences related to
differentiation of feeding structures in A. thaliana were isolated by using a T-DNA-tagging ap-
proach based on the expression of a randomly integrated promoterless β-glucuronidase gene (74).
However, such regulating elements are difficult to find, because except for natural resistance
genes a plant might not have evolved genes specific for a pathogen-induced tissue. To circumvent
this problem, a two-component system consisting of a plant-toxic gene under the control of a
nematode-responsive promoter and a second detoxifying gene under the control of a constitutive
promoter has been developed (75). Thus, “leaky” expression of the cytotoxic gene can be neu-
tralized by the antagonistic gene. This system makes use of the barnase and barstar genes, first
applied to generate and subsequently to restore male sterility in plants (76). Meanwhile different
strategies have been applied in the search for nematode-responsive promoters that are up-regu-
lated in the feeding tissue. Differential cDNA screening led to the identification of Lemmi9, a
tomato gene that is up-regulated in giant cells after M. incognita infection (77). The tobacco gene
TobRB7 is up-regulated, and deletion analysis of the promoter revealed that a 300-bp fragment
conferred high GUS expression solely in giant cells, but not in syncytia (78). GUS fusion analy-
sis of hmg2, which encodes a key enzyme of isoprenoid metabolism, indicated that the promoter
of the gene might be up-regulated in tobacco giant cells (79). However, employment of this sys-
tem with the specific promoters described here remains a challenge.
V. CONCLUSION
The molecular identification of natural nematode resistance genes provides the opportunity to un-
derstand the basic biological characteristics of plant resistance to a parasitic animal and the rela-
tionship to other pathogen resistance genes (R genes). On the other hand, the R genes and the
genes involved downstream of the resistance response could be directly transferred into crop
species for which no genetic resources have been identified so far. Further understanding of nat-
ural plant resistance genes, their products, and the molecular interactions responsible for both
early recognition and activation of resistance will have a major impact on both classical breeding
and genetic engineering. The combination of resistance genes with artificial resistance mecha-
nisms in one plant offers the opportunity to breed varieties with a broad resistance, a process that
is still a challenge because nematode populations often display variation of virulent pathotypes.
Nematode-resistant varieties that will be available in the near future open new alternatives for
crop production and will help to increase yields on heavily infested soils. The aim is cost-effec-
tive, durable, and environmentally friendly disease control.
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17
Genetic Engineering and
Resistance to Insects
Dwayne D. Hegedus, Margaret Y. Gruber, and Lorraine Braun

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
I. INTRODUCTION 249
II. OVERVIEW OF PLANT DEFENSE MECHANISMS 250
III. ANTIBIOSIS 252
A. Microbial Protein–Based Antibiotic Strategies 253
B. Plant Protein–Based Antibiotic Strategies 256
IV. ANTIXENOSIS 258
A. Plant Morphological Characteristics 258
B. Phytochemical Profiles 259
V. TOLERANCE 262
VI. PEST MANAGEMENT 262
A. Multitrophic Considerations 262
B. Crossover Strategies: Transgenic Insect Resistance and Integrated Pest Management 263
REFERENCES 265
I. INTRODUCTION
In determining the most appropriate “solution” to an insect problem, diverse but inextricably in-
terrelated factors must be taken into consideration. These factors range from the relative impor-
tance of the affected crop to the economic viability and security of a region’s agriculture indus-
try to how specific details of insect or plant biochemical and physiological characteristics might
be exploited to provide effective and durable insect resistance. In this chapter, we review trans-
genic pest control strategies currently under investigation or implementation and attempt to ad-
dress their overall compatibility in relation to each other and to integrated management systems.
Several comprehensive reviews of this subject matter are also available (1–6).
The interactions that occur between plant and pest are highly dynamic and evolved and can
span multiple trophic levels. At a primary level, plants constitutively produce a plethora of chem-
icals that serve to attract, stimulate, or deter insects, be they beneficial or antagonistic. Once the
249
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250 Hegedus et al.
insect begins feeding, the plant responds by synthesizing inhibitory and antinutritional com-
pounds and proteins to make itself as unpalatable as possible. Predatory and parasitic insects may
then be attracted to their respective prey or hosts by the “scent” emanating from a wounded plant
or pest excreta. However, predators and parasites in turn may be affected by any of the inhibitory
substances consumed by their prey. Other features such as color, spectral patterns, and morpho-
logical characteristics also greatly influence the degree to which these insect/host plant interac-
tions occur.
From the perspective of developing host plant resistance, additional factors that are re-
quired for an insect to complete its life cycle may be considered. For example, carbohydrate,
amino acid, sterol, and elemental needs vary greatly among different insect developmental stages.
In some cases it may be better to reduce the pest’s reproductive ability rather than target the stage
that is causing the most damage; the latter usually corresponds to the period when the insects are
most robust and difficult to injure. Such an approach would require a concerted effort by produc-
ers within a given geographic area to prevent infestation from adjacent unprotected fields. This
example clearly underlines the need to develop socially acceptable, responsible strategies that
will undoubtedly involve organic, biological, agrochemical, and transgenic approaches.
The contextual framework of this article relates to the complex interactions among plants,
pests and predators and is divided into three broad categories that are being investigated to de-
velop insect resistance in crop plants. They are based on the general mechanisms used by plants
to withstand insect attack. Three mechanisms are cited: Antibiosis refers to the vast array of mol-
ecules and macromolecules (proteins) that plants produce to reduce the fitness of the pest. An-
tixenosis relates to mechanisms, both phytochemical and morphological, that serve to deter insect
attraction or feeding. Tolerance is the ability of the plant to withstand and overcome a limited de-
gree of damage. The choice of which type of strategy to employ is best made only after consid-
ering all of the final uses of the crop, including its use as animal or human food.
II. OVERVIEW OF PLANT DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Plants are under constant threat of attack from pathogens as well as vertebrate and invertebrate
herbivores. To cope with this onslaught, they have evolved elaborate mechanisms to perceive the
attack and a responsive “signalling language” to tie the reception of information to defense strate-
gies in a coordinated fashion. The mechanisms by which plants respond to threats, be they patho-
gen, pest, or mechanical wounding, overlap to a large degree but also exhibit significant differ-
ences (Fig. 1). Plants resist attack from pathogens if they possess specific receptors that recognize
ligands, in the form of metabolites, proteins and specific carbohydrates, secreted or shed by the
pathogen (7,8). This interaction initiates a signal transduction cascade and gives rise to both lo-
calized and systemic responses. The key primary response in pathogen-affected cells is a self-de-
structive, hypersensitive reaction involving the release of toxic oxygen species. This process
eventually leads to cell apoptosis and lysis, serving to block the replication of intracellular patho-
gens, such as viruses, and preventing movement of pathogens to adjacent uninfected tissue (9,10).
Damage to plant tissues from herbivory, or other forms of mechanical wounding, causes the
release of cell wall pectic fragments. These polygalacturonides are powerful activators of sys-
temic wound responses when applied exogenously either alone (11) or in the form of insect re-
gurgitate (12). Tissues within the localized area are signaled of the attack and generate a response
consisting of physiological changes in cell wall architecture and the induction of defense proteins,
hyperoxidized chemicals and secondary metabolites at the wound site (13).
Induction of a secondary systemic response is mediated by signaling molecules, such as
jasmonic acid (14), abscisic acid (15), ethylene (16), systemin (17), and salicylic acid (18). The
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Resistance to Insects 251
Figure 1 Overview of plant defense responses to insect pests and pathogens. (Adapted from Ref. 13.)
concentration of these compounds increases greatly in locally affected tissues, and they are ex-
ported throughout the plant via the phloem (19). Electrical signals passed through the continuous
network of plasmodesmata may also play a role in long-distance signaling (20). Volatile deriva-
tives of the octadecanoid pathway, methyl jasmonate and ethylene, act synergistically to sensitize
other plant tissues (21–23) and may induce defense responses in adjacent plants (24). There is
some evidence suggesting that signaling of mechanical trauma tends to be associated with the jas-
monic acid pathway and that salicylic acid serves as the intermediary for pathogen-associated in-
teractions (25). Indeed, a significant degree of interaction (synergism and antagonism) and coor-
dination exists between the various pathways (26,27).
There is also new evidence indicating that two pathways, either jasmonate- or salicylate-
dependent, are responsible for pathogen resistance. Each pathway appears to be used for a dis-
tinct group of microbial pathogens (28). A subset of defense proteins, the pathogenesis-related
(PR) proteins, exhibit activity toward both insects and pathogens and are synthesized primarily in
response to salicylic acid and its analogues (29). A larger and more diverse group of proteins re-
sponding to jasmonic acid, as well as to other signaling intermediaries, include: antimicrobials
(defensins/thionins, ribosome-inactivating proteins); enzymes that generate phenolic derivatives;
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252 Hegedus et al.
protease, amylase, and polygalacturonidase inhibitors; and enzymes that either generate or de-
grade toxic compounds. Some of these proteins that have been examined for their ability to con-
fer insect resistance in plants are discussed later.
Another emerging area of study with potential to develop insect resistance is the relation-
ship between insect behavior and alterations in the plant’s phytochemical profile. Clearly, the
plant itself has much to offer in terms of providing researchers with alternatives to develop pest
control strategies. However, the inherent intricacy of plant-pest relationships, combined with the
amazing ability of insects to adapt rapidly to changing environments, calls into question the prac-
tice of relying on single-gene strategies (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis δ-endotoxin) for pest control.
III. ANTIBIOSIS
Antibiosis results in an antagonistic situation in which one organism produces a compound or

metabolite that functions to the detriment of another. A common theme when developing antibi-
otic pest control strategies using transgenic plants has been to disrupt insect midgut physiologi-
cal features or digestive biochemical traits (Fig. 2). Here only a thin, porous membrane, termed
the peritrophic matrix, protects the midgut epithelial cells while serving to compartmentalize di-
gestion and allow nutrients and some proteins to pass through. Small molecules, viruses, and
pathogens are able to penetrate this barrier and gain access to the underlying exposed cells (30).
Others molecules affect insect health indirectly by limiting its ability to digest plant macromole-
cules. Although the outcome of ingestion of relatively large amounts of the various toxins is death
of the pest, lower doses may simply impair the ability of the insect to sequester and assimilate nu-
Figure 2 Bisect of typical lepidopteran insect midgut showing the sites of action of and potential for syn-
ergism between various transgenic pest control strategies.
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trients. Thus, the definition of resistance needs to include reducing insect fitness, growth rate, and
development. The following subsections review microbial and plant-derived proteins that are
being used to develop insect resistant transgenic plants.
A. Microbial Protein–Based Antibiotic Strategies

1. Bacillus thuringiensis Toxins
An increasing number of insect-pathogenic microorganisms have been registered for use as bio-
logical control agents; however, few have been successfully incorporated into integrated insect
management systems for insect pests. The insect pathogenic bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
is the most widely used and successful biological insecticide; products containing some form of
Bt constitute 80–90% of the microbial pesticides purchased and used worldwide (31). Bacillus
thuringiensis is a ubiquitous gram-positive soil bacterium found in habitats ranging from tropical
jungles to the Arctic tundra (32). Strains of this bacterium were first registered in the United States
in 1959, however, the isolation of the HD-1 strain in 1970 provided a commercial strain with a
marked increase in activity against the larval stages of a wide variety of lepidopteran pest species
under field conditions. The HD-1 type is the basis of numerous commercial products and is still
the strain most often used in topically applied products. It produces a variety of insecticidal pro-
teins, the most important of which form the insecticidal crystal protein (ICP). These crystals con-
tain protoxins that are converted by proteolytic enzymes in the midgut of susceptible insects to
form smaller toxic peptides. Activated toxins bind to specific receptors on midgut epithelial cells,
creating pores in cell membranes leading to cell lysis and eventually insect death (33).
The most effective method for delivery of insecticidal proteins is that used by the plant it-
self since the toxin directly affects only those herbivorous insects causing damage. To date, the
only commercial insect-resistant transgenic plants express genes encoding various forms of the
B. thuringiensis δ-endotoxin, termed cry (Table 1) (34–77). At least 10 such genes have been in-
troduced into various plants, including those encoding proteins specific for lepidopteran and
coleopteran insects (5). Plants so far transformed include major crops (tobacco, cotton, canola,
alfalfa, soybean, maize, and rice), specialty crops (tomato, sweet corn, potato, petunia, peanut,
white clover, rutabaga, cabbage, and broccoli), and trees (poplar, white spruce, and walnut). Es-
timates from 1997 indicate that more than 6 million acres of Bt-corn, 3 million acres of Bt-cotton
and 40,000 of Bt-potatoes were planted in the United States (78).
Initially while both full length and truncated cry genes could be introduced into tobacco and
tomato by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation, reliable insect resistance was not
achieved until expression levels were increased through the use of modified genes possessing op-
timized plant codon usage (67,42). The first generation of transgenic plants containing cry genes
provided high levels of δ-endotoxin in all plant tissues. Through replacement of constitutive pro-
moters, such as the CaMV 35S promoter, with wound-inducible (63), chemically-inducible (66)
and tissue-specific promoters (42), the second generation Bt-crops will incorporate some aspects
required to address resistance management (79). Development of resistance to Bt toxins is one of
the main concerns related to use of Bt-expressing transgenic plants. Laboratory selection for re-
sistance to Bt δ-endotoxin has been demonstrated for lepidoptera (80–81), coleoptera (82), and
diptera (83). However, to date the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella, a pest of cruciferous
plants, is the only insect reported to have developed high levels of resistance in the field (84–85).
Transgenic plants expressing active toxins directly remove requirements for specific gut condi-
tions required to activate the protoxin; this could potentially expand the range of non-target hosts
(86). In addition, transformed plants containing single, or even multiple, cry genes lack the ad-
vantages provided by the entire, intact bacterium, such as spores and other Bt toxins that contribute
to insect mortality, including β-exotoxin, α-exotoxin, and phospholipase C (lecithinase).
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Table 1 Commercial Insect-Resistant Transgenic Plants
Host plant Gene Target insect Reference
Alfalfa cry1Ca Spodoptera sp. 34

Apple cry1Ac Cydia pomonella 35
Arabidopsis cry1Ca Lepidoptera 34
Broccoli cry1Ac Lepidoptera 36
Cabbage cry1Ac Lepidoptera 36
Canola cry1Ac Plutella xylostella, Heliothis zea, Trichoplusia ni, 37
Spodoptera exigua
Cotton cry1Ab Lepidoptera 38
cry1Ab, cry1Ac H. zea, S. exigua, T. ni 39
Maize cry1A Ostrinia nubilalis 40
cry1A H. zea 41
cry1Ab O. nubilabis 42
cry1H Lepidoptera 43
cry9C Lepidoptera 44
Peanut cry1Ac Lepidoptera 45
Petunia cry1Ac S. exigua, Manduca sexta, T. ni 46
Poplar cry1Aa Lymantria dispar 47
cry1Aa L. dispar, Malacosoma disstria 48
cry3A Chrysomela tremulae 49
Potato cry1Ab Phthorimaea operculella 50
cry1Ab P. operculella 51
cry3A Leptinotarsa decemlineata 52
cry3A L. decemlineata 53
Rice cry1Ab Chilio suppressalis, Scirpophaga incertulas, C. suppres- 54
salis
cry1Ab Marasmia patnalis, Cnaphalocrosis medinalis 55
cry1Ab, cry1Ac Stem borers 56
cry1Ab S. incertulas 57
Rutabaga cry1Aa Lepidoptera 58
Soybean cry1Ab H. zea, H. virescens, Pseudoplusia includens 59
cry1Ac H. zea, H. virescens, P. includens 60
Sweet corn cry1Ab H. zea, Spodoptera frugiperda 61
Tobacco cry1Aa M. sexta 62
cry1Ab M. sexta 63
cry1Ab H. virescens, M. sexta 64
cry1Ab M. sexta, H. virescens 65
cry1Ab M. sexta 66
cry1Ab, cry1Ac M. sexta 67
cry1Ac M. sexta 68
cry1Ac H. zea 69
cry1Ac H. virescens, H. zea, S. exigua 70
(chloroplasts)
cry1C Spodoptera littoralis 71
cry1Ca Spodoptera sp. 34
cry2Aa H. virescens, H. zea, S. exigua 72
(chloroplasts)
Tomato cry1Ab H virescens 73
Pinworm 74
Walnut cry1Ac C. pomonella 35
White clover cry1Ba Wiseana spp. 75
cry1Ab Lepidoptera 76
White spruce cry1Ab Choristoneura fumiferana 77
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Concomitant with the introduction of Bt crops has been concern about the adverse effects
of Bt plants on nontarget and beneficial insects (87–88). It is generally accepted that the benefits
arising from the judicious use of Bt crops far surpasses the severe negative impact of chemical in-
secticides on non-target insects. However, reports of potential detrimental effects, such as those
described very recently for monarch butterfly larvae feeding upon Bt-corn pollen (89), highlight
the need for continued refinement of the technology (90). For example, use of a chloroplast pro-
tein expression system resulted in expression levels of 2 to 3% of total soluble protein (72). This
would provide sufficient toxin to satisfy a high-dose strategy to delay resistance development
(91), would avoid expression in pollen, and would reduce the potential for out-crossing of genes
to other plants as a result of maternal inheritance of the chloroplast genome.
2. Vegetative Insecticidal Protein

Despite access to thousands of isolates and hundreds of genes the assumption that traditional Bt
toxin genes would be a panacea for all pest-associated problems has simply not held true. Screen-
ing efforts continue in a fervent effort to identify additional genes and novel toxic activities. A
screen of bacterial isolates for activity against two root-associated corn pests, the corn rootworm
and the black cutworm, revealed that some strains of Bacillus cereus and B. thuringiensis pro-
duce insecticidal protein toxins during the vegetative growth phase, quite unlike Bt δ-endotoxin,
which is synthesized during sporulation. Two classes of proteins and their corresponding genes
have been characterized, the vegetative insecticidal protein 1 and 2 (Vip1-Vip2) binary complex,
which encode proteins of 52 kDa and 100 kDa, respectively, and Vip3, an 88-kDa protein (92).
The relative toxicity of Vip3a exceeds that of δ-endotoxin and exhibits broad-spectrum activity
against lepidopteran insects (93). Similarly to that of δ-endotoxin, the primary mode of action of
Vip3a is to disrupt and lyse midgut cells; thus specificity is determined by the ability of the toxin
to recognize receptors and bind to these cells (94). To date, there are no published reports that
these genes have been expressed in transgenic plants.
3. Photorhabdus luminescens toxins

The ability of certain nematodes to infect and kill insects has been known for many decades and
numerous unsuccessful attempts have been made to develop these organisms as biological con-
trol agents. Recently, it was discovered that the insecticidal activity was attributable to toxins re-
leased from Photorhabdus luminescens, a bacterial symbiont that is released by the nematode
upon penetration into the hemocoel. The toxic activities were found to be associated with at least
four large protein complexes, tca-d, each approaching 1,000,000 kDa. Insects administered the
toxin, either orally or via injection into the hemocoel, exhibited histopathological symptoms af-
fecting the midgut that were surprisingly similar to that produced by Bt δ-endotoxin (95,96).
Fractionation of the complexes revealed an assortment of 10–14 protein subunits ranging in size
from 30 to 200 kDa. Smaller complexes consisting of only a few of these proteins retained in-
secticidal activity (97). Both tca and tcb are tetramers of a 280-kDa monomer that are processed
by P. luminescens metalloproteases to provide broad-spectrum activity. The genes for all of the tc
proteins have been cloned (98), and it is only a matter of time before their effects in transgenic
plants are determined.
4. Lipid Disrupting Proteins

Other bacterial and plant-derived proteins also target the insect midgut epithelium, although gen-
erally in a less insect-specific manner. Cholesterol oxidase, first discovered in Streptomyces, sp.,
filtrates causes lysis of midgut epithelial cells, possibly through the disruption of integral mem-
brane sterols (99). This enzyme has been expressed in plants (100) and is effective against a wide
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256 Hegedus et al.
variety of lepidopteran insects as well as the boll weevil (101). In addition, plant-derived lipid
acyl hydrolases disrupt midgut membrane phospholipid architecture, leading to epithelial cell dis-
ruption. They also possess broad-spectrum activity against most orders of insect pests, but to date
there are no reports of introduction into transgenic plants (102).
B. Plant Protein–Based Antibiotic Strategies

1. Protease Inhibitors
Plants accumulate reserves of carbohydrate and nitrogen in the form of protein and starch. To pro-
tect these reserves and prepare for attack, plants often compartmentalize massive amounts of in-
hibitors in their storage organs, seeds, and roots to reduce the activity of insect digestive enzymes
required for the breakdown of plant macromolecules (103–105). In this regard, protease and amy-
lase inhibitors have proved effective against diverse insect pests when expressed in transgenic
plants. For example, protease inhibitors confer resistance when expressed in transgenic tobacco
(106), rice (107), cotton (108), alfalfa (109), strawberry (110), poplar (111), canola (112), and
other plants.
Protease inhibitors can also act to reinforce the action of Bt toxins (113,114); however, the
specific nature of insect protease/protease inhibitor/Bt toxin interactions must first be considered.
All Bt δ-endotoxins are “activated” in the insect midgut by a combination of high pH and serine
protease-mediated cleavage of the propeptide (115). Thus, synergistic interactions can occur
when the protease inhibitor and toxin work in concert and activation of Bt toxin is not affected
(113), for example, when protease inhibitors prevent the degradation of Bt toxin by midgut pro-
teases (116,117). The key to achieving synergism lies in the ability to design protease inhibitors
that do not affect the efficacy of Bt toxin but are still capable of inhibiting digestive processes.
This is clearly exemplified by contradictory reports that the action of Bt toxin is potentiated by
protease inhibitors in the Colorado potato beetle (113) but not by either susceptible or resistant
diamondback moth larvae (118). Attempts are now under way to increase protease inhibitor speci-
ficity by using site-directed mutagenesis of the protease binding domain (119,120) in combina-
tion with phage display selection of novel variants (121).
Unfortunately, the utility of protease inhibitors is complicated by the observation that in-
sects compensate for the loss of proteolytic activity by increasing the synthesis of affected pro-
teases and by expressing novel proteases insensitive to the inhibitor (122–125). This epigenetic
regulation is thought to be responsible for the curious finding that insect growth and development
are stimulated when they are exposed to low doses of seemingly toxic proteases inhibitors
(126,127). In other instances, high levels of gut proteolytic activity result in protease inhibitor
degradation and inherent resistance of some insects to these compounds (128,129). The regula-
tion of insect digestive proteases may also have consequences for Bt δ-endotoxin efficacy, since
altered proteolytic processing of the toxin has been implicated in the specificity of (130) and re-
sistance to the toxin (131). For example, Plodia interpunctella, has developed resistance to Bt
toxin through loss of a toxin-activating gut serine protease (132). It is possible that the regulation
of protease activity by protease inhibitors could be exploited to resensitize Bt toxin–resistant in-
sects by inducing the production of new proteases that would activate the toxin.
2. Amylase Inhibitors
Plant seeds contain high concentrations of starch that can be rapidly mobilized to provide the en-
ergy required for germination and growth prior to root and shoot development. Consequently,
many insects feed almost exclusively on this rich source of nutrients. Bruchid beetles, common
pests of stored grains, feed on the seeds of leguminous plants and are particularly susceptible to
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amylase inhibitors (133). Seeds of the common bean, Phaseolus vulagaris, contain a multisub-
unit 45-kDa glycoprotein, the α-amylase inhibitor (α-AI). When larvae of the Callosobruchus
beetle, a pest of azuki bean, were fed seeds expressing α-AI, development was completely in-
hibited. Conversely, Zabrotes subfasciatus, a bruchid pest of the common bean, has developed re-
sistance to this protective mechanism of its natural host and was not affected by ingestion of the
transgenic seeds (134).
Several species of weevil also rely on starch as a primary source of carbohydrate and bur-
row into the seedpod to feed upon the soft tissue of immature seeds. Incorporation of α-AI into
pea weevil diet increased larval development time (135), although there is some controversy as
to whether the bean lectin, phytohemagglutinin, may also be involved in the inhibitory mecha-
nism (136). When expressed at high levels in transgenic peas, α-AI completely prevented weevil
development on seeds and neutralized the effects of weevil damage on seed yield (137).
3. Lectins
Over two decades ago lectins, which are proteins having affinity for distinct carbohydrate moi-
eties, were shown to possess insecticidal properties (136). Lectins are thought to exert their toxic
effect by interacting with glycoproteins embedded within the peritrophic matrix, in turn disrupt-
ing digestive processes and nutrient assimilation. The peritrophic matrix is a highly organized,
semipermeable array of chitin, proteins, and aminoglycans lining the insect midgut. It serves sev-
eral vital functions, including facilitating nutrient adsorption, protecting underlying epithelial
cells from digestive enzymes, regulating water and ion movement, and protecting the insect from
pathogenic bacteria (toxins), viruses, and fungi (30). The mannose-specific lectin GNA, derived
from the snowdrop, Galanthus nivalis, is highly toxic to sap-feeding insects such as aphids when
incorporated into diet (138) or expressed in transgenic plants (139). Insect toxicity of GNA has
also been reported for the lepidopteran Lacanobia oleracea (tomato moth): larval growth was re-
duced by 50% when reared upon transgenic potato (140). However, it is difficult to draw broad
conclusions about the efficacy of any specific lectin for a particular type of pest without prior test-
ing. Lectin toxicity was shown to correlate with differences in midgut carbohydrate profiles (141)
and with susceptibility to proteolytic degradation (142); these factors that can vary greatly even
between closely related insect species.
4. Chitinases
Since the peritrophic matrix plays such an important role in insect digestion, plants have evolved
mechanisms in addition to lectins that impair its function or actively destroy it. The scaffold un-
derlying the peritrophic matrix consists mainly of chitin, making it susceptible to attack by the
actions of chitinases. Several distinct classes of chitinases from all kingdoms have been charac-
terized biochemically; Kramer and Muthukrishnan (143) in 1997 reviewed their utility as pest
control agents. Brandt and coworkers (144) were the first to demonstrate that perforations in the
peritrophic matrix were formed upon treatment with chitinase; this effect was later confirmed in
vivo (145). Mosquitoes that had fed upon blood containing Streptomyces griseus chitinase were
unable to complete formation of the peritrophic matrix upon feeding. Transgenic tobacco ex-
pressing an insect-derived chitinase gene from the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, was
shown to be effective in reducing larval weight gain approximately sixfold (146). Some reports
show that chitinases of insect origin may be more effective than plant or bacterial enzymes (146,
147), although more evidence is required to support such generalizations.
Chitinases can act in synergy with other toxins to induce insect resistance. This is evident
from the observation that bean endochitinase I expressed alone in transgenic potato was unable
to reduce feeding by the tomato moth (148), but in concert with GNA was able to decrease aphid
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258 Hegedus et al.
fecundity (149). There are also indications that chitinase may potentiate the action of Bt toxins.
For example, a sixfold increase in toxicity toward Spodoptera littoralis occurred when Cry1C
δ-endotoxin was combined with bacterial endochitinase (150). In addition, both growth rate and
feeding of the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens, and the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta,
were reduced when they were fed transgenic chitinase-expressing plants that were topically
treated with sublethal doses of Bt toxin (146).
IV. ANTIXENOSIS
Plants are held in specific partnerships with insects as a result of physical and chemical attributes
that elicit insect behavior and plant responses. These interactions offer opportunities to alter plant
cues in order to deter insect attraction or feeding behavior; this is termed antixenotic resistance.
As more detailed information of this nature becomes available, strategies that involve inducing
feeding and egg-laying deterrents and eliminating feeding stimulants will become more promi-
nent in the “toolbox” of resistance traits available to the molecular breeder. Conversely, removal
of the large spectrum of volatile compounds that attract an insect to a host plant may prove im-
practical (151). However, reducing the window of opportunity that a pest has to interact with a
host plant reduces the potential for development of resistant insect populations. Strategies may be
tailored to a specific insect pest, reducing the potential to harm innocuous or beneficial organisms,
such as birds or insect pollinators. As with all resistance strategies, though, development of an-
tixenosis may potentiate or alter interactions to create new pests and, thus, should be accompa-
nied by an in-depth assessment of its potential to promote ecological change.
A. Plant Morphological Characteristics

1. Trichomes
Trichomes (plant hairs) prevent an insect from grasping a plant and detecting its surface shape
and chemical features or from positioning its feeding and egg-laying apparatuses close enough to
the plant to carry out their respective activities. The stiffness and frequency of trichomes as well
as the excretion of glandular chemicals control how these organs will affect insects. The effect of
trichomes on insects and the variation in trichome structure have been documented for many plant
species, but only a few plant systems that are being dissected genetically are discussed here.
Potatoes have two types of glandular secretory trichomes, the short S type, containing oxi-
dases that cause a “browning” reaction when in contact with phenolics (152), and the taller B
type, which continuously produce droplets of sucrose ester (153). Glandular trichomes are re-
sponsible for resistance to Colorado potato beetle and leaf aphids in the wild potato, Solanum
berthaultii, and in cultivated hybrids (154,155). In potato, quantitative trait loci analysis of tri-
chome type and abundance revealed a large number of independent loci (156).
In contrast, crucifer trichomes are simple but do offer some resistance to flea beetles, leaf
hoppers, and diamondback moth larvae (157,158). However, egg laying by some lepidopteran
species is higher on trichome-bearing (pubescent) crucifer lines than on smooth (glabrous) lines.
Several Arabidopsis sp. genes that control trichome development have been isolated or geneti-
cally characterized. These include three positive regulatory genes termed glabrous (gl) (159–
162), the cell cycle regulatory gene tryptycon (try) (163–165), and cotyledon trichome (COT1),
an initiator of trichome production in late leaf formation (164). Transparent testa glabrous (ttg)
is an unusual gene that simultaneously stimulates the expression of trichomes, anthocyanins, and
seed mucilage in Arabidopsis sp. (162).
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Several trichome regulatory genes are now available; however, their behavior in heterolo-
gous crop plants is only now being examined. Nonetheless, several nontrichome regulatory genes
have the potential to affect trichome production when inserted into plants. The myb gene, mixta,
that controls conical cell formation in Antirrhinum majus, resulted in excess trichomes on leaves
and floral organs when introduced into tobacco under control of a constitutive promoter (166).
These experiments indicate that conical cells and trichomes are produced by a common develop-
mental pathway that is sensitive to the time of expression of the regulatory gene. The Arabidop-
sis ttg mutant has been complemented with a maize anthocyanin myc-like regulatory gene, Lc, to
produce both trichomes and leaf anthocyanins (167). A more extreme version of this phenotype
was obtained when Lc alone was inserted into a wild-type Arabidopsis sp. line and into Brassica
napus (167,168). In contrast, the gl1 gene requires downstream genes such as try to function
(160,169). However, the concept of insect resistance based on producing a plant with a dense sur-
face of trichomes still requires further evaluation.
2. Surface Characteristics
Waxes, surface secretions, and surface texture combine to form a physical barrier that can inhibit
insects from coming into direct contact with a plant; however, not all insects are deterred by these
types of surface modifications. For example, low wax (glossy) lines of cabbage, Brassica ole-
racea, or lines in which the wax bloom is physically disturbed, are more susceptible to flea bee-
tle damage than cabbage with an undisturbed wax bloom (glaucous) (170,171). However,
changes to surface chemical features can result in the production of feeding deterrents in low-wax
lines. This is likely the case with low-wax cabbage phenotypes that are less susceptible to feed-
ing damage by diamondback moth and imported cabbageworm larvae (170,172).
More than 25 complementation groups for altered wax layers, termed eceriferum (cer),
have been identified in Arabidopsis sp. (173–178). Unfortunately, introduction of several of these
cer genes into B. napus has not generated any altered wax phenotypes and did not inhibit flea bee-
tle feeding (S. Gleddie, personal communication). These include cer 2, a potential regulatory
gene for stem wax, and cer 3, a gene regulating the release of fatty acids from elongase com-
plexes. In contrast, large morphological changes in the wax layer were observed when the Ara-
bidopsis sp. cut1 gene, which encodes an enzyme involved in the condensing step of very long-
chain fatty acid biosynthesis, was expressed in Arabidopsis sp. (179).
B. Phytochemical Profiles
Typically, but not exclusively, plant chemical deterrents and stimulants that affect insect behav-
ior include secondary metabolites and hyperoxidized compounds. The complex biochemical
pathways that produce this diverse spectrum of chemicals are developmentally regulated in con-
cert with the responses to the many different kinds of stress the plant encounters. Specific elici-
tation mechanisms and the responsive chemical signaling mechanisms tie the reception of infor-
mation from the surrounding environment to these pathways in a highly dynamic fashion. This
inherent complicity causes the behavior of plant genes involved in these interactions to be some-
what unpredictable, particularly when a member of a multigene family or a regulatory gene is in-
serted into heterologous plants (180,181). In addition, only a few genes are available for second-
ary metabolite-generating enzymes that divert chemical precursors at points near the end of a
branch pathway to form new structures where a more controlled outcome could be predicted
(182). Enzymes functioning at earlier steps of a pathway, that feed metabolites into pathways or
display broad substrate specificity, increase the potential for production of a diverse spectrum of
chemicals (183,184).
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260 Hegedus et al.
1. Wounding and Oxidative Stress

Hyperoxidative responses underlie many types of plant stress and involve the production of free
radicals and the induction of oxidizing enzymes, such as lipoxygenase, peroxidases, nicoti-
namide-adenine dinucleotide– (NAD-) and nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate–
(NADP-) dependent oxidases, and polyphenol oxidases. Insect-associated wounding of soybean,
tomato, wheat, and barley has been shown to induce lipoxygenase, ascorbate oxidase, peroxi-
dases, and polyphenol oxidases (185–188). In addition to its role in the production of reactive
oxygen and reactive lipid radicals, lipoxygenase stimulates the biosynthesis of jasmonate. Plants
respond to this hyperoxidative state in such a way that resistance is achieved with as little overall
negative consequence to the host plant as possible.
Hyperoxidation and other wounding responses can be exploited as a means to develop in-
sect resistance by presensitizing plants to induce these responses (189,190). As well, common
features of hyperoxidative responses highlight the potential for achieving cross-protection to sev-
eral types of stress. For example, prior treatment of plants with chemical and biological elicitors
of systemic acquired resistance (SAR), such as paraquat and aciflurfen, substantially improved
resistance to both copper and paraquat (191). Parallel experiments have shown that transforma-
tion of potato plants with the “oxidative burst” gene, glucose oxidase, resulted in protection from
the potato soft rot fungus; this effect was neutralized by the addition of the antioxidant enzyme,
catalase (192).
The effect of presensitization on plant biochemical characteristics is pattern-specific, and
the manner in which it is achieved can have diverse effects on an insect community. For example,
prior feeding by aphids on tomatoes induced peroxidase and lipoxygenase, but not polyphenol
oxidase and proteinase inhibitors, causing them to become a better host for noctuids such as
Spodoptera exigua (193). Conversely, prior feeding on tomato by the corn earworm, Helicoverpa
zea, had the opposite effect, resulting in increased resistance to a wider community of insects in-
cluding aphids, mites, noctuids, and the phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae. Addition of soy-
bean lipoxygenase to insect diets resulted in significant antimetabolic effects on rice brown plan-
thopper, Nilaparvata lugens, nymphs and H. zea larvae (185,194). Under the same conditions, no
effect was observed on the rice green leafhopper, Nephotettix cinciteps (194). Although these ex-
periments tie insect behavior to plant toxicity after presensitization, the effect of presensitization
on long-term plant fitness requires further investigation, particularly since growth and develop-
ment converge with wound response signals in plants (195). This was highlighted by the obser-
vation that jasmonate induction of plant defenses in tobacco lowered seed production (196).
The few transgenic plants that have been generated by using a presensitization strategy
have, for the most part, not exhibited spectacular results and underscore our lack of knowledge in
this area. For example, introduction of the gene encoding allene oxide synthase led to increased
jasmonic acid levels in transgenic potato, but jasmonate-responsive genes were not induced
(197). Sweetgum, Liquidambar styraciflua, transformed with tobacco anionic peroxidase devel-
oped leaves resistant to caterpillars and beetles, but was more susceptible to H. zea (198). The re-
sistance was more effective with smaller insects when either tobacco and tomato plants were
transformed with the same peroxidase gene.
2. Secondary Metabolites
Secondary metabolite that have been described as insect deterrents include a wide variety of com-
pounds broadly classified as phenolics, terpenes and their cyclic derivatives, alkaloids, glucosino-
lates, cyanogenic compounds, and nonprotein amino acids. A large body of literature exists to doc-
ument secondary metabolite interactions with specific insect pests in both in vitro and in planta
feeding studies. For example, sesquiterpene lactones have been shown to protect against stored
product pests (199), and coumarins (phenolics) inhibit feeding of adult sweet potato weevil, Cylas
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formicarius elegantulus, in vitro (200). Flavonoid phenolics are known to confer resistance to H.
zea (201) and glycoalkaloids provide protection to potato tubers from the wireworm, Agriotes ob-
scurus, and from the Colorado potato beetle (202,203). Levels of hydroxamic acids in cereals
(wheat, rye, and barley) are correlated with resistance to the aphid Metopolophium dirhodum
(204).
The action of insect feeding can release deterrents that are present in derivatized nonin-
hibitory forms in plants. For example, Sorghum bicolor accumulates a sufficient amount of hy-
drolases and phenolic acid esters in separate organelles in mature leaves such that when they are
mixed by grasshopper feeding the esters are hydrolyzed and reduce feeding (205). Presensitiza-
tion with wounding signals can also induce secondary metabolites in a manner described for hy-
peroxidized metabolites. For example, jasmonate induces nicotine production in wild tobacco,
Nicotiana attenuata, improving resistance to the grasshopper Trimerotropis pallidipennis, as well
as other insect herbivores (196).
Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and flavonoid biosynthesis are the best characterized of all
the secondary metabolite pathways, with biochemical and regulatory genes available from sev-
eral plant species (181,206–208). Other secondary metabolite pathways, such as the isoprenoid
pathway, have also been studied but to a lesser extent (183,209–214). In addition, a wide range of
recombinant plant lines and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) insertion mutants are available in in-
dustrial and public laboratories to assist in gene isolation (215–217). Although transgenic plants
developed by using genes involved in secondary metabolite synthesis are becoming more com-
mon, few accounts record their effects on insects. Still, expression of a tryptophan decarboxylase
gene in tobacco was correlated with reduced whitefly fecundity (218,219). As well, cytokinin-re-
sponsive secondary metabolites may be the mechanism underlying resistance to the tobacco horn-
worm, M. sexta, larvae and the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, when tobacco was trans-
formed with the bacterial isopentenyl transferase gene (220).
Other types of plant metabolites have been shown to affect insect growth and development.
For example, depletion of δ5-phytosterols, such as sistosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol, in
B. napus by using the fungicides genpropimorph and tridemorph followed by replacement by 4α-
methyl and 4-desmethyl sterols, severely affected the growth, pupal development, morphological
features, and survival of the Bertha armyworm, Mamestra configurata (221).
The successful exploitation of plant secondary metabolism as a strategy to alter insect be-
havior or plant toxicity requires a detailed understanding of insect-host plant interactions. Insects
are often more responsive host plant chemical signals after prior exposure to the host during rear-
ing (151,222). Also, young larvae are usually more susceptible to chemicals than older larvae
(223). As well, a secondary metabolite can act as a feeding stimulant at low concentrations or as
a specific derivative, but act as a deterrent in high concentration, or act as a closely related struc-
ture, or exhibit altered activity in the presence of other chemicals (224,225). Chemical transfor-
mations that may occur within an insect or soil must also be considered.
3. Insect Biochemical Characteristics and Plant Resistance

The impact of insect biochemical processes on the toxicity of plant chemicals is often neglected
when assessing the effect of secondary metabolites on insects. It is important to recognize that re-
sistance to insects is often a function of chemical oxidation that occurs when oxidizing enzymes
are mixed with plant chemicals in the insect gut during digestion (226). A prime example of this
is found in tomato, where 40% of the chlorogenic acid present in leaves is oxidized by leaf phe-
nolic oxidases to form the potent antinutritive alkylator chlorogenoquinon, in the moderately al-
kaline gut of H. zea and Spodoptera exigua (227). When covalently bound to dietary protein,
chlorogenoquinone can chemically degrade essential amino acids in the insect gut, subsequently
starving the insect. However, phenol oxidases are unlikely to be a useful source of resistance to
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262 Hegedus et al.
the Colorado potato beetle since alkylatable groups of proteins (NH2 and SH2) are in a nonreac-
tive, protonated state in the acidic environment of the coleopteran gut (228). The effect of chloro-
genic acid content on Manduca sexta was also reduced by the extreme alkalinity of this larval gut
(229).
Baculovirus and Bt δ-endotoxin were both inactivated by chlorogenic acid–rich tomato leaf
extracts, clearly indicating the consequences that plant food sources and insect biochemical
process can have on other control agents (230,231). Insect adaptation over the longer term can
also reduce the effectiveness of a particular metabolic strategy. For example, some insects have
adapted to feeding on seemingly toxic plants by constitutively producing antioxidative enzymes
in their gut and salivary fluid (232). Hence, the role of salivary enzymes in reducing toxic reac-
tions is also important when evaluating the damage done by insects.
V. TOLERANCE
The overall health and vigor of a seedling play a major role in the successful establishment of the
crop and in the ability of a plant to produce enough biomass to tolerate wound damage and to un-
dergo adequate regrowth after insect feeding. Plant hormones play a major role in the establish-
ment of seedlings and in overall growth and development. However, the manipulation of plant
growth hormones can have very broad effects (233,234), and the overall outcome may be too dif-
ficult to control to result in an agriculturally useful plant.
In 1999, the expression of the iron-binding protein ferritin in transgenic tobacco plants con-
ferred tolerance to viral and fungal necrotic lesions (235). Sequestration of intracellular iron and
protection against reactive hydroxyl radicals through a Fenton reaction were proposed to be the
primary mechanisms by which tolerance was achieved in these plants. Although these results ap-
pear to contradict the presensitization strategy with hyperoxidation genes, they highlight the im-
portance of developing plants with moderate, rather than dramatic changes in chemical charac-
teristics to achieve durable insect resistance.
VI. PEST MANAGEMENT

A. Multitrophic Considerations
Insects are exceedingly sensitive to volatile compounds and exploit this sensory function to lo-
cate mates, host plants, and prey. However, the relationships between a given host plant and its
associated insect complex are often multifaceted and have likely evolved to stabilize
plant/pest/predator interactions. In some cases these interactions benefit only the plant; for ex-
ample, certain volatile terpenes serve to attract predatory mites (236) and parasitic wasps (237)
to their respective prey and can also repel aphid pests (238). In other situations the overall bene-
fit is not so easily defined. Many cruciferous plant species release volatile thio- and iso-thio-
cyanates that attract as well as deter pests (239–241).
A discussion of any pest control strategy would not be complete unless problematic “side
effects” that impact on registration safety or efficacy of engineered plants are considered. Most
concerns center on potential deleterious effects on beneficial insects, such as pollinators, para-
sites, and predators, and on the consumers of the crop, whether humans or animals. Schuler and
colleagues (242) reviewed many of the more recent studies that attempted to determine the ill ef-
fects of transgenic plants on natural insect enemies and concluded that the potential exists for cer-
tain strategies to influence this natural balance. Overall enemy fitness could be reduced as a di-
rect result of ingesting toxins first consumed by the insect host or when a host is no longer able
to provide sufficient nutritional sustenance for complete parasitic larval development. For exam-
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ple, ladybirds fed aphids reared upon GNA-expressing potato exhibited a reduction in fecundity,
egg viability, and longevity, although no acute toxicity was observed (243). Conversely, para-
sitism of the aphid Myzus pericae by the parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae was not affected when
reared upon transgenic oilseed rape (244). Similarly, neither olfactory learning behavior nor
longevity was affected by long-term, low-dose ingestion of protease inhibitors (245), and detri-
mental effects were only observed at doses 100 times higher than that which could be generated
in transgenic plants (246).
In addition to the insect and animal community directly associated with the plant, the rele-
vance of external trophic interactions needs to be considered. In 1999 it was reported that
monarch butterfly larvae were adversely affected when fed milkweed tainted with an unspecified
amount of corn pollen expressing Bt δ-endotoxin (89). Although actual pollen levels on milkweed
growing adjacent to transgenic corn crops, which are an important parameter in determining the
outcome, were not established, this report contributed to immediate reactions by importers of
these commodities (247). It was reported in 1999 that pink cotton bollworm larvae resistant to Bt
δ-endotoxin exhibited delayed development. This effect could skew the expected ratio of suscep-
tible versus resistant alleles in the population if resistant insects become sexually mature later in
the season and mate predominantly with other resistant insects. As a result, the overall benefit of
refugia in preventing resistant homozygous insects from arising could be reduced (248).
B. Crossover Strategies: Transgenic Insect Resistance

and Integrated Pest Management
In this chapter, we have cited several examples of certain proteins, enzyme inhibitors, and lectins,
that have a protective role within storage tissues and seeds, that have insecticidal properties. How-
ever, in only a few cases have the genes for such traits been cloned and transferred to other plants
to show insect resistance. In other cases transgenic plants based on insecticidal toxic proteins can
also be a useful strategy in combating insect pests of plants. The basic research and discovery of
toxins of entomopathogenic fungi should also contribute genetic material for strategies to gener-
ate insect-resistant transgenic plants (249–251). Other natural resistance mechanisms involving
secondary metabolism, physical structures of plant tissues, and plants engineered to contain in-
sect pest–specific feeding deterrents are among options yet to be developed. Also awaiting con-
textual exploitation is the perspective that engineering of the pest itself (252) has a place in the
practice of plant-injurious-insect management. Overall, genetic engineering to increase indige-
nous resistance of plants to insect attack has matured from theory to commercial reality.
These examples of transgenic plants could complement other forms of crop protection.
Paradoxically, however, these technologies, in spite of their potential, have not moved farmers or
the practice of farming closer to ecologically sustainable practices, whether in developed or de-
veloping countries. In part the reason for the paradox is that single-gene transgenic plant strate-
gies have had their own limited success when compared to prior pest management practice. A
classic example is the Bt transgenic crops, which under monoculture and repeated cropping prac-
tices generate Bt-resistant insects.
An alternative strategy to the use of single genes has been the use of gene combinations,
whose products are targeted to different biochemical and physiological processes within the in-
sect. The so-called pyramiding genes for a strategy that allows a multiple mechanistic form of in-
sect control to provide more durable resistance is a rather recent concept (253). This concept re-
lies on the ability of plant biotechnologists/breeders to overlay agriculturally desirable traits in
the form of packages of different genes into crops. It is conceivable that such a package intro-
duced into crops will increase the protective efficacy, spectrum of activity, and durability of re-
sistance to insects and will be designed to treat different crops and particular insect pests at any
one place.
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264 Hegedus et al.
As indicated (in Sec. III.B.1) protease inhibitors should be particularly valuable because, in
addition to having insecticidal effects, they could protect other introduced gene products from
premature digestion in the insect gut. Gene pyramiding by the introduction of both cowpea
trypsin (serine protease) inhibitor (CpTI) and pea lectin (P-Lec) into tobacco represents one of
the first examples of this concept (252). Here, transgenic plants were obtained by cross-breeding
plants derived from the two primary transformed lines (254). The insecticidal effects of the CpTI
and the P-Lec in the transgenic tobacco plants were additive, not synergistic. Insects feeding on
the double expressed transgenic tobacco plants showed a biomass reduction of approximately
90% compared with the figure of 50% from those feeding on plants expressing either CPTI or
P-Lec alone. Also, leaf damage was least on the double expressing plants. Gatehouse and cowork-
ers (149) generated potato plants expressing the snowdrop lectin, GNA, and bean chitinase
(BCH) that exhibited enhanced aphid resistance, as evidenced by a 95% reduction in fecundity
when compared with control plants. Fecundity on plants expressing GNA alone was reduced by
about 70%, whereas reduction in fecundity on those expressing BCH alone was small and statis-
tically insignificant. These findings clearly demonstrate the gains from gene pyramiding in which
two compatible traits can display a synergistic insect control effect.
We can put the threat of insects to our food crops in a historical context. Farmers ever since
recorded history of farming and cropping practices have found insects, diseases, and weeds to be
their constant companions. Whether they attributed them to the anger of gods or occurrence of
natural events, farmers have had to protect their agricultural practices and products against these
elements of nature. Shared collective experiences helped people to understand some cause-and-
effect relationships; that understanding along with articulation of the fundamentals of agrology
led to the development of control and prevention of insect pest damage to crops. The introduction
and intensive use of synthetic chemical pesticides were the next major achievements in agricul-
ture. This euphoria was short-lived as negative consequences of the practice, most significantly
the development and rise of insecticide-resistant insects, became evident. A different thought and
approach to the pest management gave rise to the impetus for integrated pest management (IPM)
and its rooting in global agriculture (255). IPM and its ecological approach to the pest problem
have remained the unmatched and dominant paradigm in crop protection against pests. A central
tenet of IPM relies on reducing or even eliminating the use of pesticides by management of pests
based on the time when the pest populations have reached certain practical or economic thresh-
olds. The practice of IPM is based on a thorough and extensive knowledge of the agroecosystem,
that is, technical and socioeconomic research founded on the science of applied ecology (255).
IPM is a philosophy created by people living within a particular social context.
Practice of IPM in its relationship to biotechnology of microbial pesticides is complex both
in its nature and in its implementation (256,257). Few people understand the distinctions between
pest “control” and pest “management.” In traditional insect pest management, we practice con-
trol including the annihilation of the pest. In management, a reduction of pest numbers and hence
their effect on cropping can be achieved through understanding of the role of pesticides, mea-
surement of pest population through sampling, understanding of the economic threshold phe-
nomenon, and integration of pest management in relation to effects on nontarget organisms, ben-
eficial insects, and other means. It is clear to the practitioner of IPM that the ideal conditions
under which its implementation is to be attempted can and do differ.
How IPM and transgenic insect-resistant plants can contextually relate to each other is a
question that we are just beginning to answer. There are significant differences in the trends in in-
dustry needs for profit from transgenic seeds in the developed world, the practicality of IPM in
heavily capitalized industrial agroecosystems, and that in resource-poor farming systems in de-
veloping countries. Nonetheless, we can offer some observations as a starting point for address-
ing the role of transgenic insect-resistant plants within IPM.
www.taq.ir
There are complex relationships between different stores of knowledge and how they are in-
fluenced by their social context (255). It is these relationships that are the key to the consideration
of transgenic plants as a part of IPM practice. An IPM program that contains transgenic insect re-
sistance(s) traits must be considered from the perspective of farmers’ awareness. Historically, the
process of knowledge transfer has been based on a goal of the “public good” and has supported
agricultural scientists to develop the “technology” or knowledge of practice, which through ex-
tension services was provided to farmers. Transfer of technology (TOT), which is a linear approach
to technology (knowledge) transfer, has become the dominant norm. Here, knowledge or research
products (from technologically advanced nation or point) are disseminated through a number of
intermediary steps (such as extension services to extension officers) to farmers.
Present day agriculture research and transfer of the information have shifted to generation
of knowledge or technology for “private good,” although and arguably the boundaries of public
vs. private good are tightly bound with the notion of return on the investment. The rules have
changed! Where once the traditional TOT had neither a contract nor a source of huge profit for
the seed producer, today a seed with transgenic traits, such as insect control, has either or both a
significantly higher price (and a high profit) and a contract that defines terms of reference for seed
use. Researchers developing new transgenic insect-resistant plants nowadays do this under a
grant, contract in academe, or government labs, often in collaboration of one kind or another with
strong agriculture biotechnology companies. The idea, the technique, the process, or the product
is the technology, which intellectual property law and patents protect. Extension plays a dimin-
ishing role, increasingly replaced by education of farmers through corporate marketing and sales,
neither of which is free. Most growers who are older, nearing retirement, are used to traditional
TOT via extension. Progressive or younger farmers who are more likely to be receptive to new
ideas, on the other hand, accept both the traditional and the commercial TOT. As a result there is
a bifurcation of source of information and its audience. The sources and manners of adoption of
new technology or information will have their own consequences, such as helping or hindering
of trust building relations with its providers. The same practice occurred in human medicine as
more and more pharmaceutical companies entered the business of “drug education.” In this in-
stance, initially the physician’s advisory role diminished, only to return after several incidents of
questionable media releases.
As suggested by Altieri (258), there is a lack of training in “holistic thinking” so far as crop
protection is concerned; those in the profession are trained too narrowly and with a focus within
disciplines. Plant protection research tends to depend on the use of component technologies.
There is much research on pesticides, biological control, and pest-resistant varieties but relatively
little research on linking these components. It is this linking that is needed both in IPM research
and in transfer of know-how. Most researchers and scientists working in crop protection are quite
specialized and work on components. IPM programs require extensive crosscutting knowledge
and research skills. Sociologists and economists who focus on agronomic practice will have to
work with narrowly trained molecular geneticists in order to consider the more difficult issues of
IPM in the context of transgenics, TOT in practice, and the site- and time-specific context that
IPM requires. The powers and promises of transgenic insect control strategies are congruent with
the powerful but unrealized IPM strategies. The two should cross-feed and cross-cut to create a
remarkable synergy in the production of food crops worldwide.
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18
Intellectual Property Protection for
Transgenic Plants
Brain G. Kingwell and Joy D. Morrow

Smart and Biggar/Fetherstonhaugh and Co., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
I. INTRODUCTION 279
II. PATENTS 280
A. International Framework 280
B. General Patent Principles 280
C. The Claims Define the Invention 281
D. Patentability of Plants: United States Versus European Union 283
E. Inventorship 284
F. Patent Infringement 285
G. Plant Patents in the United States 286
III. PLANT VARIETY PROTECTION 287
IV. CONCLUSION 290
BIBLIOGRAPHY 290
NOTES 291
I. INTRODUCTION
An important objective of intellectual property law is to provide a reliable framework of rules, so

that important commercial decisions about investments in research may be made with a degree of
certainty about how the products of the research will be protected. In keeping with this require-
ment for predictability, intellectual property laws are typically drafted in general terms and ap-
plied to new technologies on the basis of established principles.
This chapter sets out to describe the established principles governing various forms of in-
tellectual property and tells the not-yet-complete story of how those principles are expected to be
applied to transgenic plants. The historical context of ever-increasing protection for plant inno-
vations, coupled with ongoing efforts to achieve international harmonization, provides an opti-
mistic backdrop to some of the uncertainties that surround present efforts to obtain strong intel-
lectual property protection for the full scope of innovations in the area of transgenic plants.
279
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280 Kingwell and Morrow
II. PATENTS
A. International Framework
The harmonization of patent protection across jurisdictional boundaries has been pursued through
various initiatives in international law over a considerable period of time. The Paris Convention
for the Protection of Industrial Property1 has been the subject of a number of revisions since
its initial text was agreed to in 1883. The impetus to harmonize international patent laws is
often seen today in the efforts of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) (http://
www.wipo.org), an agency of the United Nations.
Under the Paris Convention, member states (convention countries) are entitled to maintain
independent criteria with respect to patentability, and the principle of national treatment operates
to make patent rights available to foreign applicants and nationals equally. This national treatment
is augmented by a system that allows applicants to claim foreign priority in convention countries
for up to 1 year after the filing of their first application in a convention country. The intended ef-
fect of a claim to foreign priority is that any application filed in a convention country within the
convention year will be treated for most purposes as if it had been filed on the date when the first
application was filed in a convention country.
Although the Paris Convention marks the beginning of what is now a long-standing trend
in the internationalization of intellectual property, its lack of uniform standards for patentability
leaves open the possibility that different jurisdictions may adopt dissimilar standards for assess-
ing the patentability of inventions. Further efforts toward the harmonization of patent systems
have resulted in more recent regional and international agreements, such as the European Patent
Convention (EPC), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Trade-Related As-
pects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) component of the Uruguay round of the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and the Patent Cooperation Treaty, under which WIPO
administers an international patent application system.
Under the TRIPs agreement, as an exception to a general rule that patents are to be made
available without discrimination as to the field of the technology, Article 27 permits member
countries to exclude from patentability, among other things, plants and essentially biological
processes for the production of plants (other than microbiological processes). Article 27 does,
however, also provide that members must ensure the protection of plant varieties either by
patents, by an effective sui generis system, or by any combination of such systems. In many ju-
risdictions, the implementation of the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of
Plants (UPOV) Convention (discussed later) provides such a sui generis system for the protection
of plant varieties.
The language of the TRIPs agreement leaves considerable room for its implementation ei-
ther as a broad bar to patenting plants or as a narrow exclusion from patentability of plants that
are protectable under a sui generis system. Mexico, for example, has changed its laws to allow
patenting of plant varieties while excluding plants per se—an approach that is essentially the op-
posite of the approach suggested in the recent European Biotechnology Directive (discussed
later).
B. General Patent Principles

The generally recognized criteria for patentability, as for example set out in Article 33 of the
Patent Cooperation Treaty, are that an invention must
1. Be novel
2. Involve an inventive step (i.e., it must not be obvious)
3. Be useful or industrially applicable
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Intellectual Property Protection 281
In addition, an invention must be within the categories of subject matter deemed patentable
in a particular jurisdiction. There is also a generally recognized requirement that the description
of an invention in a patent must be enabling, in the sense that sufficient information must be pro-
vided to allow a skilled technical person to make and use the invention, without the need for fur-
ther innovation.
C. The Claims Define the Invention

The requirements for patentability are generally judged with respect to the claimed invention2. A
patentee is free to define the invention broadly in the claims and to cover various aspects of the
invention, provided the requirements for patentability can be met with respect to each claimed as-
pect of the invention. For example, aspects of transgenic plant innovations may include the fol-
lowing:
1. The plant itself

2. A species, genus, or other range of plants, transformed to include the new trait
3. Progeny of the transformed plant
4. Plant parts (plant cells, protoplasts, cell tissue cultures, plant calli, embryos, pollen,
flowers, kernels, tubers, etc.)
5. Plant products, such as oils or fibers
6. Methods of making (transforming) the plant (or plant cells)
7. Methods of making a product by using the plant
8. Methods of reproducing the plant.
Genomic innovations in the field of transgenic plants may include genes that are novel in
the sense that they have not previously been identified; genes that are novel only in the sense that
their function has not previously been identified; new combinations of genetic material, such as
a recombinant gene made up of a tissue-specific promoter and a coding sequence with which it
would not normally be associated; newly identified alleles of known genes; expressed sequence
tags; and vectors for transforming plant cells.
In some circumstances, a transgenic plant may be broadly defined in claims using functional
language, rather than specific sequence limitations. For example, U.S. Patent No. 5,639,947 in-
cludes a claim to
a transgenic plant comprising: (a) plant cells containing nucleotide sequences encoding im-
munoglobulin heavy- and light-chain polypeptides that each contain an immunoglobulin
leader sequence forming a secretion signal; and (b) immunologically active immunoglobulin
molecules encoded by said nucleotide sequences.
Alternatively, a plant may be more narrowly defined by reciting a specific nucleotide sequence.
For example, where the novelty resides in a new promoter, the promoter may be recited in com-
bination with an undefined sequence of interest, such as “a transgenic plant containing a chimeric
gene comprising: (a) a raspberry drul promoter, and (b) a DNA sequence encoding a product of
interest, where said DNA sequence is heterologous to said promoter and said DNA sequence is
operably linked to said promoter to enable constitutive expression of said product3.”
1. Novelty
To be new, an invention generally must not previously have been made available to the public, ei-
ther through human activities or by virtue of its occurrence in nature. Some jurisdictions provide
grace periods, during which an inventor’s own disclosure of the invention will not act as a bar to
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patentability, such as the 1-year grace periods provided by the United States and Canada. In other
jurisdictions, such as in European member states of the EPC, any disclosure of an invention be-
fore filing of a patent application may act as a bar to patentability.
Typically genetic inventions must be carefully characterized in claims in ways that distin-
guish them from a naturally occurring product. An agronomically important allele, for example,
may be discovered in an existing variety and claimed as an “isolated” sequence, or as a compo-
nent of a vector, or as a recombinant component of a transgenic plant, all of which may be em-
bodiments of the allele that did not previously exist in nature. The allele itself may be narrowly
defined in terms of its entire sequence, or more broadly characterized as requiring only certain
functionally important portions of its sequence.
2. Obviousness/Inventive Step
Whether an innovation involves an inventive step, or, on the contrary, is obvious, is typically as-
sessed by determining whether each of the components of the invention may be found in the prior
art, either as identifiable pieces of publicly available information or as part of the common gen-
eral knowledge of someone skilled in the art of the invention. Typically, to support a finding of
obviousness there must be some reasonable basis for combining the prior art references to obtain
the invention. Many inventions are combinations of preexisting knowledge in a way that yields
an unexpected, and hence patentable, result. For example, the transformation of a known plant
species with a known gene may give rise to unexpected phenotypic changes in the transgenic
plant that provide a basis for patentability.
In biological systems, often the consequences of a particular genetic transformation are not
obvious until the transformation is carried out. In the context of U.S. law, for example, this prin-
ciple is reflected in decisions to the effect that an invention is not considered obvious merely be-
cause the prior art suggests that the claimed composition or device should be made without re-
vealing a reasonable expectation of success in making the claimed invention.4
3. Utility/Industrial Applicability
The requirement that a claimed invention must be useful gives rise to the practice of reciting in a
claim all of the component parts of an invention that are required for operation, even though the
essence of the invention may lie in only some or one of the parts. As a result, even a claim that
claims an invention broadly may recite a significant number of components, where those compo-
nents are defined primarily in functional terms, for example5:
1. Transgenic Brassica species cells and progeny thereof comprising an expression cassette,
wherein said cells are characterized as oncogene-free and capable of regeneration to morpho-
logically normal whole plants, and wherein said expression cassette comprises, in the 5⬘-3⬘ di-
rection of transcription:
1. a transcription initiation region functional in Brassica species cells;
2. a [deoxyribonucleic acid] DNA sequence comprising an open reading frame having an ini-
tiation codon at its 5⬘ terminus or a nucleic acid sequence complementary to an endogenous
transcription product; and
3. a transcription termination region functional in Brassica species cells;
wherein at least one of said transcription initiation region and transcription termination region
is not naturally associated with said DNA sequence or said nucleic acid sequence; and wherein
said expression cassette imparts a detectable trait when said Brassica species cells are grown
under conditions whereby said DNA sequence or said nucleic acid sequence is expressed.
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4. Disclosure
The requirement that a patentee must provide an enabling disclosure of the claimed invention cre-
ates a link between the breadth of allowable claims and the extent of disclosure. In general, a suf-
ficient number of examples must be presented to provide a reasonable basis for concluding that
an invention has been enabled across its entire scope. For example, the disclosure of a single
working example, in which a gene has been introduced into a single plant species, may be inad-
equate to support a claim to the transformation and expression of that gene in any plant.6 On the
other hand, where an applicant is able to establish that a transformation method is generally ef-
fective in a particular species, it may be possible to obtain broad claims to transgenic plants of
that species without limitation as to the nature of the transforming gene.7
In circumstances in which it may be difficult to provide a written description that enables
others to make and use a transgenic plant, a biological deposit may be made in a recognized de-
pository to provide others with materials that may be necessary to practice the invention. In many
jurisdictions, such deposits are recognized through the implementation of the Budapest Treaty on
the International Recognition of the Deposit of Micro-Organisms for the Purposes of Patent Pro-
cedure (the Budapest Treaty). In most jurisdictions, deposits must be made prior to filing an ap-
plication. In the United States, it may be possible to rely upon a deposit made after the filing date
of the application provided the deposit is made before the patent issues. Deposits of biological
material for patent purposes are maintained by recognized depositories such as the American
Type Culture Collection (ATCC) under terms designed to ensure that the deposit remains viable
so that the public can practice the invention after the expiration of the patent term.
D. Patentability of Plants: United States Versus European Union

1. United States
In the United States, a full range of patent protection is available for plants, from extremely
broadly defined groups of transgenic plants (exemplified by U.S. Patent No. 5,159,135, reading
on transgenic cotton) to narrow coverage somewhat comparable in scope to a breeder’s right (ex-
emplified by U.S. Patent No. 5,602,318). Narrow patent claims, like breeder’s rights, typically
refer to the variety itself to define the scope of the subject matter. For example, the subject mat-
ter of U.S. Patent No. 5,602,318 is defined in part as follows:
1. Seed of a maize inbred line, designated PHDG1, and having ATCC Accession No.
97663.
2. A maize plant and its parts produced by the seed of claim 1 and its plant parts.
For several years after a seminal 1980 U.S. Supreme Court decision in which patents on life
forms were approved (Diamond v. Chakrabarty8) the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office restricted
applicants to claiming hybrid plants, because hybrids could not be protected as varieties under the
Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA)9. This changed as a result of a 1985 administrative decision
in the Patent Office, which held that the existence of an overlap in protection with the PVPA was
not a bar to the patentability of plants per se10. Despite the now long-established practice of grant-
ing patents in the United States on both transgenic and nontransgenic plants, the patentability of
plants was only confirmed by a court in 199811. The patents in issue in that case relate to hybrid
corn plants developed by Pioneer HI-Bred, and the defendant asserts that the patents are invalid
because the plants are improper subject matter for utility patents, arguing in essence that plants
are to be protected exclusively by the Plant Patent Act12 or by the Plant Variety Protection Act13.
At the trial level, the U.S. court applied the Chakrabarty decision and found that plants were
among the very broad range of subject matter that was appropriate for utility patents. It remains
to be seen what the results will be of the appeal from this trial level decision.
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2. European Union
In Europe, there are differing national patent laws, as well as the umbrella of the regional patent
system under the European Patent Convention (EPC). In member states of the EPC, the EPC takes
precedence over national laws, and national laws must be harmonized with the EPC. Further Eu-
ropean regional complexities arise through legislation enacted by the European Community or
Union through directives or regulations. For example, the Directive on the Legal Protection of
Biotechnological Inventions (the “Biotechnology Directive”) was passed by the European Par-
liament on June 16, 1998, and went into force on July 30, 1998.
Article 15 of the Biotechnology Directive obliges member states to put it in force by no
later than July 30, 2000. Although the Biotechnology Directive is applicable to member states of
the European Union, not all contracting states of the EPC belong to the European Union. The un-
certainty with respect to how the European Patent Office would implement the Biotechnology Di-
rective has to a certain extent been alleviated with the adoption of new regulations under the
EPC.14
The patentability of transgenic plants in Europe rests in principle upon the interpretation of
Article 53(b) of the EPC, which excludes from patentability “plant or animal varieties or essen-
tially biological processes for the production of plants or animals; this provision does not apply
to microbiological processes or the products thereof.” The purpose of the exception in the first
clause of Article 53 was to prevent double protection of plant varieties with both patents and plant
variety rights.15 Interpretation of this provision was the subject of extensive analysis in a case in-
volving Novartis’ European Patent Application 91810144.5.16 In simple terms, the result of this
case may be taken as establishing that claims to transgenic plants are in principle patentable, pro-
vided specific plant varieties are not individually claimed (and irrespective of the way in which
the varieties are produced). Claims to processes for producing transgenic plants are also consid-
ered patentable subject matter, and will be evaluated without regard to the fact that such claims
are deemed to cover products (plants) obtained by such processes.
E. Inventorship
In most jurisdictions, patents are granted to the first applicant to file a patent application. In the
United States, however, the entitlement to a patent is based on priority of invention, i.e., a first-
to-invent system. The practice in the United States of granting patents to the first inventor gives
rise to a uniquely American procedure called an interference, within the United States Patent &
Trademark Office, for determining priority of invention.
In general terms, invention in the United States has two components: (a) conception and (b)
reduction to practice. Conception involves the formulation in the inventor’s mind of a complete
idea for an operative invention and a method of making the invention, together with disclosure of
the idea. Reduction to practice involves either constructing a working embodiment of the inven-
tion or filing a patent application that fully describes a working embodiment. Typically, the first
person to conceive of an invention will be the first inventor, provided that person is diligent in re-
ducing the invention to practice.
This focus on inventorship in the United States makes it important for inventors to retain
clear records of the inventive process, particularly dates of conception and reduction to practice.
The evidentiary rules that are typically applied in the United States in assessing inventorship gen-
erally favor documentary evidence of inventorship corroborated by noninventors. These peculi-
arities of U.S. practice became more relevant outside the United States with the changes to U.S.
law that accompanied the implementation of NAFTA and the Uruguay round of GATT. These
changes have made it possible for Canadian and Mexican inventors to prove dates of invention
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with reference to activities that occurred outside the United States as early as December 8, 1993.
For other World Trade Organization member countries, the right to prove a date of invention with
reference to acts occurring outside the United States has been extended back to January 1, 1996.
Inventors in WTO countries now have good reason to document the innovation process carefully,
to provide evidence that may be necessary to establish priority in the United States.
F. Patent Infringement
The exclusive right conferred by a patent in most jurisdictions includes the right to exclude oth-
ers from making, using, and selling the invention defined by the claims for the term of the patent.
Generally, patents have a term of 20 years from the filing date of the patent application17. The
remedies available for a patentee against an infringer typically include an injunction (an order that
a party discontinue acts of infringement), damages (the monetary measure of the patentee’s loss
as a result of the infringement), and/or the recovery of the infringer’s profits. A punitive award
may be available in circumstances in which the infringement is particularly egregious, as for ex-
ample is available in the United States through an award of triple damages in cases in which in-
fringement is willful.
In the context of transgenic plants, there are several interesting questions with respect to
what will constitute infringement of certain claims. For example, claims to genetic material may
be considered to be infringed by the reproduction, use, or sale of plants containing that genetic
material. This raises difficult issues in jurisdictions where plants are not per se patentable. On the
one hand, there is an argument to the effect that the exclusion from patentability of plants should
not be subverted by the enforcement of claims to genetic material. On the other hand, the logical
application of the traditional analysis of infringement suggests that the reproduction, use, or sale
of a plant also constitutes the reproduction, use, and sale of the plant’s genetic material, includ-
ing patented genetic material. It is entirely possible that different jurisdictions will resolve these
competing points of view in different ways. In Europe, Article 9 of the Biotechnology Directive
addresses this point as follows:
The protection conferred by a patent on a product containing or consisting of genetic informa-

tion shall extend to all material, save as provided in Article 5(1) [i.e., excluding the human
body and its parts], in which the product is incorporated and in which the genetic information
is contained and performs its function.
Even in jurisdictions where plants per se are not patentable, claims may generally be ob-
tained to processes for making a novel plant. It is well established in many jurisdictions that
process claims may be infringed by making, using, or selling the product of a patented process,
even where claims for the product itself are not granted. In the past, this principle has been ap-
plied in the chemical and pharmaceutical fields to prevent the importation and sale of a compound
made abroad using a patented process. This principle is, for example, enshrined in the European
Patent Convention as follows: “If the subject matter of the European patent is a process, the pro-
tection conferred by the patent shall extend to the products directly obtained by such a process”18.
A further issue arises with respect to whether subsequent generations of a genetically mod-
ified plant will be considered to be products of the initial process of genetic modification. In Eu-
rope, the directive answers these questions in the affirmative in Article 8, which also provides
similar protection to the propagated products of patented biological materials, as follows:
1. The protection conferred by a patent on a biological material possessing specific charac-
teristics as a result of the invention shall extend to any biological material derived from that
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biological material through propagation or a multiplication in an identical or divergent form

and possessing those same characteristics.
2. The protection conferred by a patent on a process that enables a biological material to be
produced possessing specific characteristics as a result of the invention shall extend to bio-
logical material directly obtained through that process and to any other biological material
derived from the directly obtained biological material through propagation or multiplica-
tion in an identical or divergent form and possessing those same characteristics.
In most jurisdictions, relief is available to a patentee to prevent the importation of a prod-

uct made abroad by a patented process. For example, in the United States, the International Trade
Commission is empowered to issue an exclusion order of a product made, produced, or processed
abroad if the product was made by a claimed process19, and infringement includes the act of im-
portation into the United States of a product that was made by a process patented in the United
States20. The burden of proving that a product is foreign-produced by a patented process has been
shifted in many jurisdictions, in some cases as a result of Article 34 of the TRIPs agreement,
which in effect states a presumption that a product is made by a patented process, where a de-
fendant is unable to prove otherwise.
The principle of patent infringement extending to the propagated products of a patented
plant or a patented process for producing a plant may be contrasted with the doctrine of exhaus-
tion of rights. In general, under the exhaustion doctrine, the rights of the patentee cease, or are ex-
hausted, by the first sale of the product embodying the invention. In Europe, the Biotechnology
Directive enshrines the principle of exhaustion throughout the European Community in Article
10 and further provides a form of farmer’s exemption in Article 11, as follows:
Article 10
The protection referred to in Articles 8 and 9 shall not extend to biological material obtained
from the propagation or multiplication of biological material placed on the market in the terri-
tory of a Member State by the holder of the patent or with his consent, where the multiplica-
tion or propagation necessarily results from the application for which the biological material
was marketed, provided that the material obtained is not subsequently used for other propaga-
tion or multiplication.
Article 11
By way of derogation from Articles 8 and 9, the sale or other form of commercialization of
propagating material to a farmer by the holder of the patent or with his consent for agricultural
use implies authorization for the farmer to use the product of his harvest for propagation or
multiplication by him on his own farm.
With respect to patenting of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and other genetic information,
the directive indicates that “a mere DNA sequence without indication of a function does not con-
tain any technical information and is therefore not a patentable invention,” and the “industrial ap-
plication of a sequence or partial sequence must be disclosed in the patent application as filed”21.
G. Plant Patents in the United States

The 1930 Plant Patent Act made intellectual property protection available for a distinct subset of
new and distinct plant varieties in the United States, namely, asexually reproducible plant vari-
eties. The reason for the restriction of plant patent protection to this kind of subject matter was
the prevailing notion that sexually reproduced plants could not be reproduced true to type through
seedlings22. Through amendments in 1954, the subject matter of plant patent protection was clar-
ified to include “a distinct and new variety of plant, including cultivated sports, mutants, hybrids,
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and newly found seedlings, other than a tuber propagated plant or a plant found in an uncultivated
state”23. Legislative reports at the time of the enactment of the Plant Patent Act are clear in indi-
cating that it was not intended to cover “varieties of plants which exist in an uncultivated or wild
state, but are newly found by plant explorers or others”24. The exclusive right granted by a plant
patent corresponds to its restrictive scope of subject matter, inasmuch as a patentee may exclude
others from asexually reproducing the plant or selling or using the plant that has been asexually
reproduced. It is not an infringement to reproduce the plant sexually or to breed a similar variety
independently.
The exclusive right granted to plant patents has recently been expanded to include “the right
to exclude others from asexually reproducing the plant, and from using, offering for sale, or sell-
ing the plant so reproduced, or any of its parts, throughout the United States, or from importing
the plant so reproduced, or any parts thereof, into the United States”25. Because of the different
novelty requirements, it may be possible to obtain a plant patent on an asexually reproduced plant
that is discovered growing in an area under cultivation, whereas a regular U.S. patent would not
generally be available for such a “product of nature.”
The innovation protectable under a plant patent can be seen as the combination of a three-
step process: (a) cultivation or discovery of the plant, (b) identification of the new and distinct
characteristics of the plant, and (c) asexual reproduction of the plant. However, only the second
and third of these steps are required to establish the right to a plant patent. A person who carries
out the first step, without participating in the other two, is not an inventor26. The proof of actual
distinctness through asexual reproduction, prior to filing an application, is a requirement for plant
patent protection27. Where asexual reproduction of a plant is routine, the person who merely car-
ries out this third aspect of the innovation, without participating in the recognition of the distinct
characteristics, may not be even a joint inventor of the new plant28.
III. PLANT VARIETY PROTECTION
In jurisdictions outside the United States, in the years following the enactment of the Plant Patent
Act in 1930, a number of forms of intellectual property protection were introduced to provide pro-
tection for plant varieties as an incentive for systematic plant breeding. Some patents were also
granted under the preexisting patent systems of some countries. The desire for a uniform ap-
proach to granting intellectual property rights to plant breeders, as well as an interest in seeing
that rights would be respected across jurisdictional boundaries, led a number of European states
to enter into discussions between 1957 and 1961 that led to the adoption of the International Con-
vention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, signed in Paris on December 2, 1961. The
parties to that convention make up the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of
Plants, generally known by the abbreviation UPOV (based on the initials of its name in French,
Union pour la Protection des Obtentions Végétales; see http://www.upov.int).
The protection available for plant varieties has been harmonized to a certain extent under
the UPOV Convention. There are, however, significant differences (discussed late) in the provi-
sions in the amended 1978 UPOV Convention to which many member states still adhere29, and
the most recent 1991 amendments that have been adopted in a growing number of member
states30. In UPOV member states, applicants are entitled to national treatment and a right of for-
eign priority for plant variety rights applications filed within a year of the filing date of the first
application within a member country31.
What constitutes a protectable plant variety under the UPOV Convention involves four pre-
conditions:
1. Novelty. The variety must be new in a commercial sense, inasmuch as it must not have been
offered for sale in the jurisdiction where protection is sought. Member states are permitted to
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allow an exception for prior sales within the jurisdiction for up to one year prior to filing an ap-
plication. The 1991 version of the UPOV Convention makes the one year grace period manda-
tory and further defines the requirements by indicating that “propagating or harvested material
of the variety” must not have been “sold or otherwise disposed of to others” outside of the stip-
ulated grace periods. The variety must also not have been on sale for more than four years in
any other state (a period which is extended to six years in the case of grape vines and trees, in-
cluding rootstocks).
2. Distinctiveness. The variety must be clearly distinguishable by one or more defined char-
acteristics from any other variety whose existence is a matter of common knowledge. This
standard of course leaves open the possibility of protection for plants which have previously
existed in nature as “unrecognized” varieties.
3. Uniformity. The variation between individual plants within the variety must be limited, typ-
ically with respect in particular to the characteristics which make the variety distinct.
4. Stability. The variability in the relevant characteristics of the variety through repeated prop-
agation must be limited. As with uniformity, this will typically be assessed with respect in par-
ticular to the characteristics which make the variety distinct.
What constitutes a plant that is protectable under varietal rights may vary. For example, in
the United States, under the Plant Variety Protection Act, fungi and bacteria are excluded. As an
example of how the requirements of uniformity and stability may be applied, in the United States
first-generation hybrids are generally ineligible for protection because they are deemed to be in-
herently genetically unstable and thereby unable to contain sufficient uniformity and stability to
qualify for plant variety protection.
The requirements for plant variety protection are typically assessed through examination
establishing that the variety for which protection is sought is sufficiently distinct, homogeneous,
and stable. Examination is typically based on growing tests carried out by public authorities or by
the breeder seeking protection. UPOV has promulgated guidelines for examination, in an effort
to harmonize international standards. Nevertheless, it generally remains the case that an applicant
must carry out growing trials in each jurisdiction in order to satisfy the national authorities that
their requirements for plant variety protection are met.
Protection is available to the breeder of a new variety, or an entity that has acquired rights
from the breeder. In the 1991 convention breeder is defined to include a person who breeds or dis-
covers and develops a variety or the employer of that person. Under this definition, the 1991
UPOV Convention differs from the 1978 convention by requiring the development of a variety,
rather than the mere discovery of a variety.
According to the 1978 UPOV Convention, the minimum period of protection is 18 years
for grape vines and trees, including rootstocks, and at least 15 years for all other plants. Under the
1991 convention, these periods are extended to a minimum of 25 years for grape vines and trees,
including rootstocks, and at least 20 years for all other plants.
The genera and species of plants that may be protected in each member state under its par-
ticular implementation of plant variety rights may vary. However, member states may not make
the protection granted to a given plant variety dependent upon the protection of the same variety
in any other state. In the United States, for example, amendments in 1994 made plant variety pro-
tection available to any sexually reproduced or tuber propagated plant. The 1978 convention spec-
ified that plant variety protection may be made available to all genera and specie but did not re-
quire member states to implement such expansive protection. The 1991 convention requires
member states to provide protection for all plant genera and species.
The 1991 changes to the UPOV Convention introduced substantial changes to the scope of
protection afforded by plant variety rights. Under the 1978 UPOV Convention, rights are only
granted to a breeder in respect of the reproductive or vegetative propagating material32 as such,
i.e., only when such material is to be used for reproductive reproduction or vegetative propaga-
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tion. The 1991 UPOV Convention extends the plant variety rights to harvested material, includ-
ing whole plants and parts of plants (provided that the harvested material has been obtained
through the unauthorized use of propagating material and that the breeder has had no reasonable
opportunity to exercise the right in relation to the propagating material). The 1991 UPOV Con-
vention also specifies as an optional class of protectable material the products made directly from
harvested material33.
In addition to expanding the nature of the material protected by plant variety rights, the
1991 UPOV Convention broadens the range of acts in respect of such material that are the exclu-
sive right of the breeder. Under the 1978 UPOV Convention, there are three exclusive rights
granted to the breeder in respect of the reproductive or vegetative propagating material:
1. The production for the purposes of commercially marketing such material
2. The offering for sale of such material
3. The marketing of such material
The rights under the 1978 UPOV Convention do not prevent others from using a new vari-
ety as the initial source of variation for creating other new varieties, or marketing the new vari-
eties. Also, the breeders’ authorization is not required under the 1978 UPOV Convention for the
production of propagating material that is not for commercial marketing, as such, thus in effect
creating the “farmers’ exemption” for the repeated use of farm-saved seed. The categories of ac-
tivities reserved to the breeder in the 1991 UPOV Convention are considerably broader:
1. Production or reproduction (multiplication)
2. Conditioning for the purpose of propagation
3. Offering for sale
4. Selling or other marketing
5. Exporting
6. Importing
7. Stocking for any of the foregoing purposes
The 1991 UPOV Convention extends the breeders’ rights well beyond the limited right
granted in the 1978 UPOV Convention to prevent others from repeatedly using a variety for com-
mercial production of another variety. In the 1991 UPOV Convention, right are extended beyond
the protected variety itself, to cover
1. Varieties that are essentially derived from the protected variety
2. Varieties that are not clearly distinguishable from the protected variety
3. Varieties whose production requires the repeated use of the protected variety
Under the 1991 UPOV Convention, a variety is considered to be essentially derived from
an initial variety when the new variety is predominantly derived from the initial variety and re-
tains the expression of the essential characteristics of the initial variety, even where the derived
variety is clearly distinguishable from the initial variety. As examples of methods of derivation,
the 1991 UPOV Convention recited selection of natural or induced mutants, somaclonal variants,
selection of variant individuals from the initial variety, backcrossing, or transformation by genetic
engineering of the initial variety. Given the definition of an essentially derived variety, it would
appear that in most circumstances a transgenic plant developed through the use of a gene obtained
from an initial variety will not be considered to have been essentially derived from the initial va-
riety.
The 1991 UPOV Convention specifies three compulsory exceptions to the breeders’ rights:
1. Acts done privately and for noncommercial purposes
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2. Acts done for experimental purposes

3. Acts done for the purposes of breeding and exploiting other varieties (provided such
other varieties are not essentially derived varieties)
The 1991 UPOV Convention also includes as an optional exception a permission to farm-
ers to use farm-saved seed for propagating purposes, on their own holdings. In implementing the
1991 UPOV Convention, the United States has, for example, continued to allow farmers to save
seed for replanting on their own farm, while eliminating an exception that allowed farmers to sell
or share saved seed in certain circumstances.
The 1991 UPOV Convention has removed the prohibition that existed in previous versions
of the treaty against concurrent protection of a variety under a patent and a plant breeder’s right.
This change to the UPOV Convention is especially interesting in light of the interpretation of Ar-
ticle 53(b) of the European Patent Convention, where great difficulties have been encountered in
defining a variety eligible for plant variety rights as distinct from plant innovations that are eligi-
ble for patent protection.34
Both the 1978 and 1991 UPOV Convention protect the denomination of a variety as the
generic designation of the variety. The denomination must be sufficiently distinctive to allow a
variety to be identified, while not misleading with respect to the characteristics of the variety. Be-
cause a denomination must be generic, it cannot also be the proprietary trademark of any party.
A party is by definition distinctive of the commercial source of a product or service, and trade-
marks in general become invalid if they become the generic name applied to a particular product.
The UPOV Convention permits a trademark to be used in association with varietal denomina-
tions. In making any such association, a trademark owner should be careful to ensure that its mark
does not become, like the denomination, a generic term for the variety.
IV. CONCLUSION
A fundamental distinction between patent rights and plant variety rights arises in part from the
way in which the subject matter of these rights is defined. In a patent, the patentee uses the claims
to capture the abstract idea of an invention as broadly as is possible in view of the prior art. Patents
thereby afford innovators an opportunity to define for themselves the full scope of their monop-
oly, as discussed. In contrast, plant variety rights are generally based upon a narrative and/or pic-
torial description of a variety that is itself a physical embodiment of the innovation. As such, the
variety in a sense defines itself with only limited leeway given to a breeder to characterize the dis-
tinctive features of the variety.
Patents clearly offer the most flexible form of intellectual property protection for transgenic
plants. Even in jurisdictions where patent claims to plants per se are not available, patents offer
an important form of protection for other aspects of inventions in this field. Nevertheless, the 1991
changes to the UPOV Convention lend strength to plant variety rights, and this form of intellec-
tual property protection should not be overlooked as a mechanism for securing meaningful pro-
tection. Similarly, plant patent protection in the United States is a unique form of protection that
should be considered for asexually reproduced plants.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HJ Aenishen, The European Patent Office’s Case Law on the Patentability of Biotechnology Inventions. Carl
Huimanns Verlag, 1997.
DS Chism, Chism on Patents. Release 71. Matthew Bender & Company, 1999.
Intellectual Property Rights in Agricultural Biotechnology. Erbisch, Maredia, eds. CAB International, 1998.
www.taq.ir
NOTES
1. March 20, 1883, as rev. at Brussels, December 14, 1900; at Washington on June 2, 1911; at The Hague
on November 6, 1925; at London on June 2, 1934; at Lisbon on October 31, 1958; and at Stockholm
on July 14, 1967.
2. The claims are typically found as the numbered paragraphs at the end of the text of the patent.
3. U.S. Patent No. 5,783,394.
4. Amgen Inc. v. Chugai Phamzaceutical Co., 18 USPQ 2(d) 1016.
5. U.S. Patent No. 5,463,174.
6. See, for example, In Re Goodnian et aL, 29 USPQ 2(d) 2010 (Fed. Cir. 1993).
7. See U.S. Patent Nos. 5,159,135 and 5,463,174, relating, respectively, to cotton and Brassica.
8. 206 U.S.P.Q. 193 (1980), establishing the patentability of life-forms in principle, and categorizing the
scope of subject matter broadly as “everything under the sun made by man.”
9. The PVPA, which is in effect the implementation of the UPOV Convention in the United States.
10. Ex part Hibberd (1985), 227 U.S.P.Q. 443, a decision of the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences.
11. Pioneer HI-Bred Intemational Inc. v. J.E.M. Ag. Supply Inc., 49 USPQ 2d 1813 (N. District Iowa,
1998).
12. 35 USC 161–164.
13. 7 USC 2321 at seq.
14. Decision of the Administrative Council of June 16, 1999, amending the Implementing Regulations to
the European Patent Convention.
15. A fact that is reflected in the decision of Ciba Geigy, O.J. EPO 1984, 112/T49/83.
16. Trangenic Plant/Novartis II G0001/98.
17. Harmonized internationally under the TRIPs agreement.
18. EPC Article 64(2).
19. U.S.C. 1337 (1991).
20. 35 U.S.C. § 271 (g).
21. Preamble Clauses 22 and 23, as well as Article 5(3).
22. Diamond v. Charabarty, (1980) 206USPQ (United States Supreme Court): “[S]exually reproduced
plants were not included under the 1930 Act because new varieties could not be reproduced true-to-
type through seedling.”
23. 35 U.S.C. Section 161.
24. S. Rep. No. 315, 71st Cong. 2d Sess. (1930).
25. 35 U.S.C. Section 163; Plant Patent Amendments Act of 1998, H.R. 1197.
26. Ex parte Moore (1957) 115 U.S.P.Q. 145 (Pat. Off. Bd. App. 1957).
27. Dunn v. Ragin (1941) 50 U.S.P.Q. 472 (Pat. Off. Bd. of Int’f. 1941).
28. Ex parte Kluis (1946 70 U.S.P.Q. 165) (Pat. Off. Bd. App. 1945).
29. Such as Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, France, Italy, Mexico, New Zealand,
Poland, Portugal, South Africa, and the Ukraine (as of June 29, 1999).
30. Such as Denmark, Germany, Israel, Japan, Netherlands, Russian Federation, Sweden, United King-
dom, and the United States (as of June 29, 1999).
31. The concepts of national treatment and foreign priority are discussed earlier.
32. Under the 1978 UPOV Convention, vegetative propagating material is deemed to include whole plants,
and to extend to ornamental plants or parts thereof normally marketed for purposes other than propa-
gation when they are used commercially as propagating material in the production of ornamental
plants or cutflowers.
33. As with harvested material, this optional protection is available provided the products have been ob-
tained through the unauthorized use of harvested material and the breeder has had no reasonable op-
portunity to exercise his or her right in relation to the products made directly from the harvested ma-
terial.
34. The subject of the Plant Genetic Systems case before the Technical Board of Appeals in decision
T35693 (O.J. EPO 1995, 545), and the corresponding decision of the Enlarged Board of Appeal re-
ported as G3/95 (O.J. EPO 1996, 169).
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19
Public Perceptions of Transgenic Plants
Thomas Jefferson Hoban

North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
I. INTRODUCTION 293
II. PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS OF TECHNOLOGY 294
III. OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH PROJECTS 295
IV. BIOTECHNOLOGY AWARENESS AND KNOWLEDGE 296
V. PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY 298
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 301
REFERENCES 303
I. INTRODUCTION
Since the late 1990s a very rapid diffusion of transgenic plants has occurred throughout much of
North America. Farmer acceptance of these crops has been phenomenal. Given today’s agricul-
tural economy, farmers are looking for any competitive edge they can get. The early products of
biotechnology offer that edge to many farms. Transgenic plants will continue to be developed and
grown in the future—provided that a number of social and political constraints can be overcome.
We have recognized for a number of years that consumer acceptance is the ultimate deter-
minant of the success of transgenic plants (1). There have been a number of efforts in North Amer-
ica to ensure that acceptance. However, we also now realize that products must be acceptable in
the international marketplace. The situation in Europe has proved to be much more difficult for
transgenic plants. Some activist groups have been able to build widespread fear and opposition to
transgenic plants. That makes it vital that we understand the level of public awareness and ac-
ceptance in the different world markets (2,3).
Education is very important, but it must be based on an accurate understanding of public
knowledge and public attitudes. This article reviews trends of public awareness and consumer ac-
ceptance of biotechnology as we have been tracking them since the early 1990s (4,5). The chap-
ter also presents a comparative assessment of the latest available information about consumer at-
titudes and awareness around the world (3,6,7). First, it will be useful to put the issue of public
perceptions of transgenic plants into a broader conceptual framework.
293
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294 Hoban
II. PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS OF TECHNOLOGY
To understand public perceptions of transgenic plants, it is helpful to understand public percep-

tion of technology more generally. Scientists, public policymakers, and educators have long been
interested in how people perceive and understand risks associated with health and environmental
issues (8,9). This interest has continued to grow along with the controversies over new technolo-
gies (10,11).
Risk perception must be considered in its social and cultural context (12,13). In fact, the
widespread public concern over risks appears to be a relatively recent phenomenon, as are many
of the technological risks themselves (14). In fact, even the idea that we deserve a risk-free life is
a relatively localized and recent attitude that is most common in the Western industrialized world.
Risk perceptions tend to be very personal (12,14). People have different and values. Factors such
as early experiences, education, and personality affect individual perceptions of risk.
Scientists, government officials, and industry spokespersons often lament the lack of pub-
lic understanding about risk (15). Disagreements between scientists and the public represent
problems for each side. Scientists often become frustrated in their attempts to communicate with
the public about technical risk assessment and management. Technical experts feel the public
misunderstands the “real” nature of different risks. It is true that many people minimize some im-
portant risks (e.g., high levels of dietary fat or alcohol consumption) and exaggerate less impor-
tant risks (e.g., flying in commercial airplanes or eating produce with trace levels of pesticide
residue). However, experts often adopt the arrogant and counterproductive attitude that they are
right and the public is wrong and use complex arguments and technical jargon that tend to alien-
ate the lay public further.
Members of the general public are often angered by technical experts who appear cold and
impersonal in their use of complex statistical probabilities and bureaucratic jargon (8,16). The
majority of citizens rely on intuitive risk judgments, typically called risk perceptions. Their ex-
perience with hazards arises largely from indirect sources (i.e, the news media), rather than direct
experience. Most people are convinced they face more risk today than in the past. They also ex-
press concerns that future risks will be even greater. These views contrast sharply with those of
most professional risk assessors (17).
The lay public’s definition includes a variety of qualitative and subjective factors (e.g.,
ethics, control, or the involuntary nature of exposure). In fact, the public generally doesn’t un-
derstand technical risk assessments (16). The common public response to an unknown or new risk
is “I’m not sure what it is about that stuff; but I know I don’t like it!” Sandman concludes that the
public has a broader and more relevant conception of what is meant by risk than the technical ex-
perts because technical assessments cannot incorporate the types of concerns the public expresses
(16).
Many problems associated with risk management and communication result from the
differences between scientists and the public (13,15). The technical concept of risk is too narrow
and ambiguous to serve as the crucial yardstick for policy-making. Public perceptions, however,
are the product of intuitive biases, economic interests, emotions, and cultural values. All of these
are hard to measure and evaluate. Technical risk must, therefore, be viewed in combination with
psychological, social, and cultural processes that can heighten or reduce public perceptions of
risk.
It is important to understand the types of factors that are most important to the lay public
when a particular risk is evaluated (13,16). For the most part, these factors are largely ignored by
risk assessment professionals in their calculations of technical hazard. For example, some factors
make the potential risks of transgenic appear more serious and therefore, less unacceptable to the
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Public Perceptions 295
public. One of the major factors that make a risk unacceptable is the extent to which people feel
they face a risk involuntarily. Genetically modified ingredients in food are perceived as more risky
because they are considered to pose an involuntary risk. Many people believe they have very lit-
tle control over food production and processing. They may doubt that the government or indus-
try is willing or able to control food safety or environmental risks.
Risks that are perceived to be unfair are also considered to be less acceptable. For example,
people who think they will bear the potential risks of transgenic plants (e.g., European con-
sumers) may feel they are not receiving the benefits from these technologies (which go to U.S.
farmers). People find known risks (i.e., those that are understood) generally more acceptable than
those that are unknown. The public will find little comfort in the fact that the government and sci-
entific community cannot assure them about the level of risks with 100% certainty. Likewise, peo-
ple will be worried if they are told that the “experts” do not agree about the long-term risks asso-
ciated with transgenic plants. That clearly is one reason why all the opponents must do is raise
doubt in order to promote opposition to biotechnology.
As can be seen from this discussion, many factors may cause the average citizen to become
fairly alarmed about the perceived risks of transgenic plants. They base their perceptions on
intuition, emotion, and selective perception of uncertain information. Furthermore, people are
often concerned with secondary effects (e.g., impacts on quality of life, wildlife, and future
generations) that the experts are unable to evaluate. Because political leaders have many of the
same perceptions as other citizens, they are likely to base policy decisions on subjective factors,
as well.
Public perception of risk is also influenced by public attitudes toward science and technol-
ogy in general (12,15). Public confidence in science and technology has diminished in recent
years, especially in Europe. More people distrust new and unfamiliar technologies than in the
past. Many people have low levels of scientific literacy. These problems are particularly serious
as related to agriculture, because many people are no longer personally familiar with farming.
Most have little understanding of how food is produced. They have little appreciation for the his-
toric role of science in assuring an abundant and relatively low cost food supply. All these vari-
ous factors combined make for shaky ground on which to grow transgenic plants.
III. OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH PROJECTS
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) was the sponsor of the first study we did in 1992
(1), a national telephone survey in the United States of over 1200 people. Eight focus groups were
also conducted. Then I had a chance to follow up a couple of years later with another national
telephone survey of 1000 U.S. consumers for the Grocery Manufacturers of America, focusing
on what, at the time, was a hot topic, bovine somatotropin (18). The Food Marketing Institute in-
cluded some questions on biotechnology on their U.S. surveys (19,20) and included the same
biotechnology questions on their survey in Europe during 1995 (21).
Then in March 1997, the International Food Information Council did another survey of
American consumers’ attitudes (5). In fact, that survey was repeated in February 1999 (22). There
is also some relatively recent information from a comparative international study. A team of Eu-
ropean researchers conducted a survey in Europe of over 16,000 consumers (7). Another re-
searcher conducted the same survey with 1000 Canadian consumers (6). Jon Miller and I recently
conducted a survey in the United States of over 1000 consumers that included most of the same
questions (3). This is some very interesting information, particularly given the fact that we have
common questions in all these countries.
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296 Hoban
Figure 1 American consumers’ awareness of biotechnology.
IV. BIOTECHNOLOGY AWARENESS AND KNOWLEDGE
Surveys in the United States have been tracking public awareness over time (3,4,5,20,22). Re-
spondents have been asked, “How much have you heard or read about biotechnology?” (Fig. 1).
Two thirds of U.S. consumers had heard little or nothing about biotech between 1992 and 1996.
In fact, awareness seemed even to have gone down a little in 1996. In March 1997, almost half of
all respondents reported “a lot” of or “some” awareness. Awareness in the United States had in-
creased with all the news on cloning and Dolly. However, awareness dropped again in early 1999.
It is likely that awareness rose again later that year as a result of the expanded media coverage.
Respondents to the 1996–1998 surveys in the United States, Canada, and Europe were
asked, “Have you heard or read anything about biotechnology in the past three months?” (3,6,7).
In the United States and Canada just over half the people said they had (Table 1). Awareness was
highest in Austria and Finland; most other countries were about the same as North America. This
was likely due to relatively low levels of media coverage. This coverage does determine the ex-
tent to which biotechnology is an issue at any particular time.
If people are genuinely interested in a subject, such as biotechnology, they talk about it.
That could be a family member, friend, physician, or even a scientist. Table 1 also shows how
many claimed to have ever talked to someone about biotechnology in each of the countries. If they
have not discussed biotechnology, chances are they are not all that concerned with or interested
in it. There are some major differences. Denmark does tend to be highest, followed by Germany,
Sweden, Austria, and Finland. When an issue becomes a social controversy, there is a tendency
to talk about it more. Some of the countries (such as Ireland and Spain) had not had much con-
troversy or discussion over biotechnology (at least at the time of the survey).
Several knowledge questions were asked on the recent European, Canadian, and U.S. sur-
veys (Table 2). These also reflect the types of impressions people have of biotechnology. Con-
sumers need a basic understanding of how food is produced. Respondents were asked whether it
was true or false that “Yeast for brewing beer consists of living organisms.” Remember this is a
random sample of consumers, not scientists. In the United States and Canada, three out of four
people got the “right” answer. There is more variation in Europe. For example, in Spain and Por-
tugal, less than half of the people recognized this as true. Consumers in several Scandinavian
countries and the United Kingdom tend to be among the highest in terms of their understanding
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Table 1 Extent of Consumers’ Awareness of Modern Biotechnology
Read or heard anything Talked with someone

about biotechnology about biotechnology
United States 55% 55%

Canada 54% 56%
Austria 74% 54%
Belgium 45% 40%
Denmark 61% 74%
Finland 72% 54%
France 54% 45%
Germany 60% 61%
Greece 30% 28%
Ireland 37% 34%
Italy 51% 41%
Luxembourg 60% 52%
Netherlands 52% 44%
Portugal 39% 31%
Spain 40% 33%
Sweden 61% 58%
United Kingdom 55% 48%
Table 2 Indicators of Respondents’ Understanding of Biology and Biotechnology
Yeast is living Only GMO plants GMO fruit can

organisma have genesb change humansc
United States 75% 45% 61%

Canada 76% 52% 62%
Austria 58% 34% 29%
Belgium 71% 31% 51%
Denmark 90% 44% 57%
Finland 77% 44% 54%
France 66% 32% 52%
Germany 75% 36% 38%
Greece 50% 20% 36%
Ireland 70% 20% 34%
Italy 65% 35% 58%
Luxembourg 67% 40% 48%
Netherlands 64% 51% 74%
Portugal 42% 27% 32%
Spain 46% 28% 40%
Sweden 86% 46% 62%
United Kingdom 85% 40% 55%
a
Percentage recognizing the following as true: “Yeast for brewing beer consists of living organisms.”
b
Percentage recognizing following as false: “Ordinary tomatoes do not contain genes while genetically modified ones do.”
c
Percentage recognizing following as false: “By eating a genetically modified fruit, a person’s genes can be changed.”
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298 Hoban
of basic biological principles. Knowledge levels in Austria on this question and the others were
relatively low.
The questions got more difficult, as well as more specific to biotechnology. Consumers
were asked whether the following statement was true or false: “Ordinary tomatoes do not contain
genes, while genetically modified ones do.” As shown in Table 2 there is a lot of misunderstand-
ing on this particular question. Not many people gave the correct answer. In fact, many claimed
they did not know, including almost half the Americans. This has important implications because
if people think genetically modified tomatoes have something “different” in them, that idea is
going to raise some concerns. It is necessary to address such misperceptions early in the educa-
tional process. Again major differences can be noted among European countries.
Another question is also quite interesting. Scientists would tend to agree that eating genet-
ically modified food will not change a person’s genes. Table 2 shows a great amount of variation
in response to this statement. There tends to be better understanding in some countries (like the
Netherlands, Sweden, Canada, and the United States). On the other hand, over 70% of the people
in Austria believe it to be true or said they did not know. That impression would explain some of
the perceived risks and fears people have about transgenic plants.
One of the key issues about education is to identify and use sources of information that con-
sumers trust (1,3,18). U.S. consumers have been asked several times whom they would trust to
give them information about biotechnology. There is a very encouraging pattern, which repre-
sents part of the reason why the United States has been so calm regarding food biotechnology.
The American Medical Association, Food and Drug Administration, American Dietetics Associ-
ation, and university scientists (which are third-party scientific groups) tend to be the most
trusted. Groups like TV news reporters, biotech companies, food manufacturers, chefs, activist
groups, and grocery stores tend to have lower credibility. In the European countries, this pattern
is basically reversed (7). The environmental and consumer groups are at the top of the list; gov-
ernment and industry are both quite low in credibility. This is not surprising in light of the “mad
cow” controversy and other problems that have occurred recently.
V. PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Next, we turn our attention to public attitudes about biotechnology. First is a comparison of re-
sults from 1992, 1994, and 1998 in the United States (1,3,18). A very interesting trend through-
out this and other data is the remarkable stability of people’s opinions on biotechnology in the
United States. These results are as close to identical as you can find on a series of surveys. In all
3 years, the interviews included the question “Tell me whether you support or oppose the use of
biotechnology in agriculture and food production.” It was asked toward the end of each interview,
as a summary comment. In 1992, 70% said they supported it, a few did not know, and less than
20% were opposed. We repeated this question in 1994, during the height of the U.S. controversy
over bovine somatotropin (BST). In that year, 72% said they supported it. Then in 1998 we again
found 72% support.
It is important to determine whether there are differences among demographic groups (23).
There are a couple of key influences that stand out. One involves a gender gap. Men are clearly
more positive than women in their evaluation of biotechnology. We have found that tendency over
the years on a variety of questions. This difference is important because when it comes to food,
women continue to set the family food policy. They serve as food gatekeepers in our society as
far as what is acceptable or not to feed the family. There are also significant differences in terms
of formal educational level. Respondents with college degrees tend to be more likely to support
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biotechnology. College tends to provide an opportunity to be exposed to a variety of different

ideas. However, not all people who graduate from college have a good understanding of science.
There are several other sets of findings that show results over time in the United States
(5,19,20,22). These surveys clearly show that three of four people would be willing to buy pota-
toes or tomatoes developed through biotechnology to be protected from insect damage and re-
quiring fewer pesticides (Fig. 2). This finding has also stayed remarkably consistent over time.
On another application (produce that tasted fresher and better) we also found acceptance to be
fairly high. Another question asked whether people thought they or their families would benefit
from the use of biotechnology over the next 5 years (1,5,18,22). As shown in Fig. 3, between two
thirds and three quarters of U.S. consumers are optimistic about future benefits.
The surveys in Europe, Canada, and the United States asked consumers to evaluate six dif-
ferent applications of biotechnology along four dimensions (3,6,7). Two applications related to
Figure 2 American consumers’ willingness to buy produce developed through biotechnology.
Figure 3 American consumers’ belief that biotechnology will provide benefits in next 5 years.
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300 Hoban
food, two involved animals, and two related to human health care. As expected, human health care
is acceptable to and seen as valuable by about 85% of people. The insect-protected crop plants
were seen as third most acceptable, right after human medicine. Animal biotechnology was much
less acceptable.
Table 3 presents details on how consumers from the different countries rated the insect-pro-
tected plants along each of the four dimensions. The table also provides a bottom line summary
by asking whether or not consumers agreed or disagreed that insect-protected crops developed
through biotechnology should be encouraged. The results are actually quite encouraging. Cana-
dian and U.S. consumers were very positive, as were respondents from the Netherlands, Italy, the
United Kingdom, and Finland. Even half the German citizens agreed that these products should
be encouraged. That is a very different story from the perception that all of Europe is negative on
biotechnology. In fact, the data show that Austria was the only country predominantly very neg-
ative at the time of these surveys.
It is important to put attitudes about biotechnology into a comparative perspective. Fig. 4
shows how U.S. consumers rated the risks of biotechnology compared to five other concerns
(19,20). The topic that gets the most attention in the media now (and probably the one most con-
sumers should worry about) is microbial contamination. Three of four people said that it is a se-
rious hazard, followed by pesticide residues, a proportion that actually has declined in recent
years. Antibiotics and hormones, irradiated foods, additives, and preservatives are next in line. In
the United States, foods developed through biotechnology have consistently been the lowest on
the list of potential public concerns.
When we turn our attention back to the European consumers they were also putting biotech-
nology into a reasonable perspective (Fig. 5). In fact, “genetic engineering” was seen as slightly
more risky than artificial coloring, nitrites, cholesterol, and fat (21). This is certainly well below
some of the other issues that were of most concern to the European consumers. So again, it is im-
portant to keep these issues in perspective. If you only listen to Greenpeace, you would probably
Table 3 Respondents’ Agreement That “Using Biotechnology to Insert Genes

from One Plant into a Crop Plant” Has Certain Characteristics
Useful to Risky to Morally Should be

society society acceptable encouraged
United States 74% 40% 68% 66%

Canada 82% 38% 79% 77%
Austria 36% 49% 28% 23%
Belgium 71% 39% 68% 62%
Denmark 70% 62% 54% 48%
Finland 80% 31% 70% 72%
France 71% 52% 65% 67%
Germany 62% 44% 54% 50%
Greece 68% 38% 59% 60%
Ireland 66% 45% 57% 53%
Italy 76% 44% 70% 70%
Luxembourg 57% 49% 52% 44%
Netherlands 80% 64% 73% 66%
Portugal 76% 47% 72% 73%
Spain 65% 43% 59% 56%
Sweden 62% 55% 59% 54%
United Kingdom 75% 54% 64% 59%
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Figure 4 American consumers’ perceptions of food attributes as a “serious risk.”
Figure 5 European consumers’ perceptions of food attributes as a “serious risk.”
think that genetic engineering is the major concern of European consumers, but it is not. Again it
is interesting to note the country-by-country differences (Fig. 6). There are some striking differ-
ences; Sweden, Austria, and Germany tend to have the higher level of concern. In most other
countries, less than half the consumers saw biotechnology as a serious hazard.
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The majority of North American consumers have positive attitudes about biotechnology. They
perceive benefits and will buy the products. Market tests have also reflected that trend. The Na-
ture Mark potato did quite well in market tests when they were labeled and placed next to others.
Consumers perceived a benefit of the reduced use of pesticides. Also, there had been a very clear
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302 Hoban
Figure 6 Perception of genetic engineering as a serious food risk.
preference among British consumers for tomato paste from genetically modified tomatoes. How-
ever, when faced with activist pressure the UK supermarkets felt compelled to remove the con-
sumers’ choice to buy that successful product.
It is important to keep in mind that transgenic plants are not a top-of-mind issue for the vast
majority of consumers. When studies ask, “What is the major problem facing our country?” no
one says, “Biotechnology,” maybe 2% will say, “The environment,” and nobody even says “food.”
The major concerns are generally issues such as crime, the economy, and breakdown of moral
values. Scientists, politicians, and others read books like this and attend conferences because they
are interested in the subject. However, average consumers are really not so interested or con-
cerned.
Consumers’ attitudes about biotechnology are closely related to their general beliefs about
science, technology, and food. In the United States, there has always been strong public support
for and appreciation of science. People recognize that they have gained a lot of benefits from sci-
ence and technology. Consumers may feel there is a potential downside, but overall they are very
supportive of new developments. In fact, North American consumers are generally quite prag-
matic about food. With any food product, consumers mainly want to know about taste, nutrition,
convenience, safety, and price. Those are the main questions a consumer will want answered
about food produced through biotechnology or any means. How the seed was produced will gen-
erally be of little relevance for most people (unless they are scared into thinking about it).
The future prospects for Europe are much less positive, at least in the short term. Farmers
and food companies in the United States and Canada want to make sure something is done to sta-
bilize the situation over there. The U.S. government is probably not going to mandate segregation
of transgenic crops. That would be a logistical nightmare. The Europeans had a chance to buy
elsewhere in 1996 when the crops came in. Now, South American farmers and others are starting
to raise crops developed through biotechnology. In fact, more products are going to arrive on the
market from around the world. European companies and consumers will soon have few options
except to pay a premium price for a negligible, psychological benefit.
When we examine awareness in Europe, there is an apparent contradiction. Results re-
viewed earlier showed that the country that was least likely to find biotechnology acceptable was
Austria. However, Austrian consumers also report relatively high awareness. This does not, how-
ever, mean that education does not work. It depends a lot on what people have heard or read. Peo-
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ple who have done media analysis in Austria saw mostly negative reports, so consumers may have
read more about biotechnology, but what they had heard or read was very negative. The oppo-
nents of biotechnology in Europe have had the chance to tell their side of the story for several
years without much balance. There is some evidence that this has changed in the last year or so
in terms of more positive media coverage (in some countries). However, the news coverage did
become much more negative in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.
Educational efforts will continue to be very important. Such efforts are starting to take hold
among European leaders and consumers. We had a meeting in Washington several years ago
sponsored by the Georgetown Center for Food and Nutrition Policy. Leaders were invited from
the European Union. They were hungry for information. These were some of the top European
officials, but most of what they had heard about biotechnology had come from Greenpeace. Eu-
ropean leaders expressed serious concerns about lost jobs, increasing food prices, and other eco-
nomic costs that are going to result from rejection of biotechnology.
Statistical analysis has helped evaluate what influences people’s acceptance of biotechnol-
ogy (1,23). At the top of the list are awareness and knowledge. People should have at least some
level of knowledge about biotechnology. They also need to recognize a societal benefit or feel
there is something in it for them personally. They need to view it as ethically acceptable. Ulti-
mately acceptance comes down to confidence in government and trust in information sources.
There certainly are groups of consumers within each country (including the United States and
Canada) who are negative. But these types of surveys represent a random sampling of citizens,
not the opponents who get all the media attention.
The educational opportunities and challenges are very important. There still is a lot of work
to do in Europe. In the United States, we have so far been able to reach consumers effectively by
educating opinion leaders, including scientists and government officials. Through groups like the
International Food Information Council (22) the media are provided with new, factual informa-
tion on biotechnology. Finally, farmers and the food industry need more education. It is very im-
portant that food retailers and others who have direct contact with consumers have enough infor-
mation.
Education needs to explain the benefits and the uses of biotechnology, to give people a bet-
ter basis for evaluating products. We must address consumer concerns, including labeling, aller-
genicity, and other questions that are on people’s minds. It is also important to tell consumers
about third-party oversight and regulations. Consumers want to know that the government is reg-
ulating biotechnology. In the United States the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and USDA
have done a good job of keeping public confidence high. Europe has been a much different story.
Finally it is important to put biotechnology into a historical context. We need to tell people
that we have been breeding plants for years. Some consumers seem surprised to learn that scien-
tists and farmers have already changed plants. Overall, we need to increase consumer under-
standing of food production and processing. Most consumers simply think that food comes from
the grocery store, or increasingly from restaurants. These are all part of the educational challenges
and opportunities with biotechnology.
REFERENCES
1. TJ Hoban, PA Kendall. Consumer Attitudes About Food Biotechnology. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina
Cooperative Extension Service, 1993.
2. TJ Hoban. Consumer acceptance of biotechnology: An international perspective. Nat Biotechnol 15:
232–234, 1997.
3. TJ Hoban. International acceptance of agricultural biotechnology. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting
of the National Agricultural Biotechnology Council, Ithaca, NY: National Agricultural Biotechnology
Council, 1999, pp 59–73.
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4. TJ Hoban. Trends in consumer attitudes about biotechnology. J Food Distrib Res 27:1–10, 1996.
5. TJ Hoban, L Katic. American consumers’ views on biotechnology. Cereal Foods World 43:20–22,
1998.
6. E Einsiedel. Biotechnology and the Canadian Public. Calgary, Alberta: University of Calgary, 1997.
7. European Commission. European Opinions on Modern Biotechnology. Luxembourg: European Com-
mission, 1997.
8. National Research Council (Committee on Risk Perception and Communication). Improving Risk
Communication. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1989.
9. R Wilson, EA Crouch. Risk assessment and comparisons: An introduction. Science 236:267–270,
1987.
10. D Lupton. Risk. London: Routledge, 1999.
11. B Glassner. The Culture of Fear: Why Americans Are Afraid of the Wrong Things. New York: Basic
Books, 1999.
12. CA Heimer. Social structure, psychology, and the estimation of risk. Annu Rev Sociol 14:491–
519, 1988.
13. RE Kasperson, O Renn, P Slovic, HS. Brown, J Emel, R Goble, JX Kasperson, S Ratick. The social
amplification of risk: A conceptual framework. Risk Anal 8:177–187, 1988.
14. HW Lewis. Technological Risk. New York: WW Norton, 1990.
15. WR Freudenburg. Perceived risk, real risk: Social science and the art of probabilistic risk assessment.
Science 242:44–49, 1988.
16. PM Sandman. Explaining Environmental Risk: Some Notes on Environmental Risk Communication.
Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986.
17. P Slovic. Perception of risk. Science 236:280–285. 1987.
18. TJ Hoban. Consumer Awareness and Acceptance of Bovine Somatotropin. Washington, DC: The Gro-
cery Manufacturers of America, 1994.
19. Food Marketing Institute. Trends in the United States, Consumer Attitudes and the Supermarket.
Washington, DC: Food Marketing Institute, 1996.
20. Food Marketing Institute. Trends in the United States, Consumer Attitudes and the Supermarket.
Washington, DC: Food Marketing Institute, 1997.
21. Food Marketing Institute. Trends in Europe. Washington, DC: Food Marketing Institute, 1995.
22. International Food Information Council. Washington, DC: International Food Information Council.
Available at http://ificinfo.health.org
23. TJ Hoban, E Woodrum, R Czaja. Public opposition to genetic engineering. Rural Sociol 57:476–493,
1992.
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20
Industry Perspectives
Katherine A. Means
Produce Marketing Association, Newark, Delaware
I. INTRODUCTION 305
II. PRODUCERS AND AGRONOMIC BENEFITS 306
III. CONSUMERS AND CONSUMER BENEFITS 306
IV. MARKETPLACE ISSUES 307
V. CONCLUSION 308
I. INTRODUCTION
Marketers of any product begin seeking a newer, better, different version of their product as soon
as it hits the marketplace. This is no less true of produce marketers. Outside the modern discus-
sion of genetically modified fruits and vegetables, breeders have sought enhanced product quali-
ties since the beginning of agriculture as an occupation. They seek what they need for the mar-
ketplace—better taste, longer shelf life, improved appearance, enhanced shipping qualities, traits
that allow production in hostile environments, greater per-acre or per-tree production, and more.
Biotechnology offers the allure of faster and more precise trait changes or enhancements that
move this centuries-old practice of breeding forward. It also has the potential for consumer re-
sistance.
The success of GMOs in the fresh produce marketplace in North America hinges on sev-
eral factors:
• The existence of a benefit from any GMO that is evident or can be made evident to the
buyer
• The education of the buyer (whether a trade buyer or a consumer) about the develop-
ment (process) and benefits of GMOs (this includes the labeling debate)
• Successful interaction with opponents of GMOs (even though they were not vocal in
North America through the 1990s)
At its simplest, the produce marketplace is an offer and an acceptance. For whatever reason, a
buyer wants what a seller has, and a transaction takes place. The seller gets something of value
from the buyer in exchange for this thing that the buyer wants. The buyer sees some benefit in
making this exchange for the item. The greater the benefit, the greater the exchange may be.
But the marketplace is rarely that simple. Sellers surround their wares with marketing to
305
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306 Means
make those wares more attractive to buyers. Buyers may become skeptical about the marketing
efforts and want more information. What exactly is this product? Where did it come from? How
was it produced? Is there anything objectionable in its history? What are the benefits of this prod-
uct? Buyers want to know what they are buying, and they want to see some benefit from the pur-
chase: i.e., it must satisfy a need. Take food as an example. It can satisfy the most basic need for
survival. Or it may satisfy a more complex need, relating to quality of life, social interaction, or
pleasure.
The ultimate buyer is the consumer, but there are many buyers along every distribution
chain. In the food business, seed companies buy materials they need to produce their seeds. Grow-
ers buy seeds and plants from the seed companies. They also buy inputs they need to produce
commodity crops. Manufacturers buy crops to produce value-added foods. Wholesalers and re-
tailers buy those foods, or the commodity crops, to offer the consumer. The fresh produce indus-
try is a very complex chain of distribution links and diverse channels (retail, food service, etc.).
Although many distinctions can be made about the buyers of genetically engineered foods,
it is simplest to break them down into two groups: producers and consumers. Wholesalers, dis-
tributors, and retailers act as agents for consumers. They are likely to offer for sale the things their
customers have indicated that they want or new things that they believe their customers will want.
Certainly, any benefit to one group may cross over or be viewed as a benefit to another
group, but one can look at discrete benefits to producers and consumers.
II. PRODUCERS AND AGRONOMIC BENEFITS
Genetic engineering offers many potential benefits to the producer—the ability to grow a crop in
hostile conditions, time savings (reduced on-farm work of crop protection efforts or tillage), eco-
nomic savings (reduced spending on crop/weather protection tools), economic gain (longer grow-
ing season, ability to grow high-revenue crops in previously hostile environments), and environ-
mental benefit (fewer inputs into the environment). Where the grower sees that the benefit of a
GMO is worth it, he will pay more for it. Take just four examples:
• Genetically engineered frost resistance would allow crops to be grown in areas previ-
ously inaccessible because of cold weather. It could extend the growing season in other
areas.
• Genetically engineered drought resistance would allow production in hostile climates
as well.
• Genetically engineered pest resistance can permit production in areas infested with a
given pest (insect, disease, weed) and can reduce crop protection inputs, saving the
grower money, time, and environmental impact.
• Chemical resistance genetically engineered into a given plant [to certain crop protec-
tion tools] allows its pests to be eradicated more easily without damage to the crop
being grown.
III. CONSUMERS AND CONSUMER BENEFITS
Like growers, consumers pay for benefits they find attractive—the more attractive, the more they
are likely to pay. Consumers are not always the ones to call for any given benefit; they may see a
benefit only after it is presented. Did consumers ask manufacturers to fortify foods with nutrients
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Industry Perspectives 307
(e.g., calcium-fortified orange juice)? Or did manufacturers research consumer trends to deter-
mine likely benefits for which consumers would pay?
Consumers may see some of the on-farm benefits as beneficial to society at large, and a cer-
tain percentage of them might pay more for a product that can be grown with fewer crop protec-
tion chemicals. These same consumers would respond positively to consumer marketing of pro-
duce grown through integrated pest management or organic production methods. In the
mainstream, however, consumers react to benefits that specifically affect them. These might in-
clude improved taste (e.g., a peach that always tastes like a ripe, just-picked peach), better nutri-
tion (e.g., a carrot with enhanced beta carotene), or greater convenience (e.g., easier peeling
citrus).
The produce industry, as any other industry, reacts to its customers’ actual or potential de-
sires. The desire for greater availability of produce led to breeding varieties that can be trans-
ported great distances, sometimes at the expense of flavor. It also led to harvesting practices that
permit some crops to be harvested early, shipped more conveniently, then ripened at the end of
the distribution chain.
Growers and researchers have worked to bring value-added items to the marketplace, such
as seedless watermelon or seedless grapes. Those breeding pioneers who produce crops that have
value-added benefits to consumers often reap the financial rewards. Patents protect the value, and
brands or marketing information draws the value-added item to the attention of the consumer.
IV. MARKETPLACE ISSUES
Genetic engineering allows breeding to take a huge step toward specificity in trait exchange. It
permits quicker, effective development of new products with either agronomic or consumer ben-
efits. It also raises concerns in the minds of some consumers and is a rallying point for some con-
sumer advocacy groups.
For the fresh fruit and vegetable industry in the United States and Canada, genetic engi-
neering or biotechnology was a hot topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The Flavr Savr™
tomato developed by Calgene caused a big stir for several reasons. It promised a value-added
tomato that would allow it to remain firm (for shipping) while tasting great—like a backyard
tomato. Consumers would like this trait because one of the greatest complaints about produce is
that tomatoes shipped in from other places do not taste as good as local tomatoes grown in the
summer. The Flavr Savr also held promise as a consumer testing ground. It would be one of the
first genetically engineered products marketed under a brand name with consumer benefits. How-
ever, progress ran behind, and production never reached the level to provide answers to the con-
sumer acceptance question.
After that, into the mid- and late 1990s, most talk about genetic engineering involved agro-
nomic benefits. On the consumer benefit side, biotech became a secondary topic on industry pro-
grams, incidental to some other topic such as improved nutrition or better taste. Later in the
decade, test marketing of genetically modified produce showed promise, including consumer ac-
ceptance of products offering agronomic benefits and consumer benefits.
When genetic engineering was the darling of the industry conference circuit, labeling was
discussed as part of the overall issue. The industry understood the regulatory implications—that
labeling would be required at the consumer level if a food was significantly changed or if a known
allergen was introduced by genetic engineering. There was certainly some resistance to labeling
as a burden to business, but there was a sense that no one would substantially change a food or
introduce an allergen, so labeling from that perspective became a nonissue.
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308 Means
Labeling on the marketing side was something else entirely. Some in the industry saw ed-
ucating the consumer as the way to go; others thought this was too complex an issue for industry
to tackle, and perhaps it was government’s role to educate. But because the Flavr Savr tomato was
such an integral part of the biotech discussion at the time, the advantages of labeling were obvi-
ous. If a marketer wanted to sell a value-added product, such as the Flavr Savr, she or he certainly
would want to label it in some way to convey the added value and induce the consumer to choose
that product.
The crux of the labeling issue as it related to marketing was this: If you’re going to spend
lots of money on a better product, shouldn’t you tell your customer about it? This certainly ap-
plied to the consumer benefits, such as taste, nutrition, and storage. There was less consensus
about communicating agronomic benefits to consumers. Some in the industry believed that telling
consumers that a special variety permitted the grower to use fewer chemical inputs would be a
selling point. Others believed that communicating an agronomic benefit (e.g., drought resistance
that cut the grower’s irrigation costs) would not help the consumer make a decision to purchase
that product.
Through the decade of the 1990s genetically engineered produce with consumer benefits
was practically nonexistent, and the issue faded into the background. However, outside North
America the labeling issue raged. In Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Asia and
Africa, consumers and consumer advocacy groups were calling for mandatory labeling of genet-
ically modified organisms. They perceived health threats and believed consumers needed to know
what products had been genetically modified so they could have a choice. Whether the genetic en-
hancement benefited the industry or consumers, labeling was an issue. It became a major con-
sumer issue (consumer issues are treated in Chapter 19), and any major consumer issue usually
surfaces as a major trade issue.
Outside the fresh produce arena, many genetically modified crops are marketed. One U.S.
grain grower said of his crops: “I don’t think that at this point we are using anything that hasn’t
been genetically modified. We’d have to label everything.” Yet on the other side of the Atlantic,
consumers were calling for just that—mandatory labeling of all GMOs. They went further than
just calling for labeling—some called for a ban on production, import, or marketing of GMOs.
World trade groups began to be involved in trying to develop policies for international trade. Their
issues range from perceived danger to the environment to perceived danger to their domestic pro-
ducers. For many, the labeling goes beyond a sign in the retail store—it goes to declaring GMOs
on menus in restaurants. Even in the United States, where acceptance of GMOs seems stronger
than elsewhere, the government received many objections to allowing any GMO food to be la-
beled “organic” even if it meets all other requirements for the “organic” label.
V. CONCLUSION
As the industry enters the new millennium, the following issues, among others, will continue to
affect the marketplace as it relates to genetically modified foods.
1. Consumer resistance in the United States through the 1980s and 1990s was not notice-
able. However, when the issue of GMOs and organics arose, comments showed significant oppo-
sition to considering GMOs “organic,” regardless of production method. Also, consumer activism
on the GMO issue was dormant in the United States at that time.
2. Labeling and consumer choice will continue to be debated. Whereas it might be obvi-
ous to label a product that offers an added value (especially if it is offered at an increased price)
to convince consumers to purchase that item, labeling of all GMOs regardless of obvious con-
sumer benefit will become an issue in North America, where it has not been before.
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Industry Perspectives 309
3. International trade will be affected by differing views among nations—views not just
about labeling but also about acceptability of the GMOs at all. And those views will be translated
into trading policies and perhaps trading barriers.
4. The role of educator will also be debated as groups look to biotech firms, growers, mar-
keters, retailers, government, and researchers to fill it.
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21
Political and Economic Consequences
Peter W. B. Phillips and George G. Khachatourians

I. INTRODUCTION 311
II. ECONOMIC IMPACT 313
A. The Economics of Innovation 313
B. Scale and Scope Economies 314
C. The Economics of Agrifood Industrial Structures 315
D. Trade and Regional Growth 316
E. Economic Winners and Losers 316
III. POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES 317
A. Politics of Intellectual Property Rights 317
B. Politics of Agrifood Policy 319
C. Politics of Regulation 320
D. Politics of International Problems 321
IV. A NEW FRAMEWORK FOR MANAGING COMPLEX POLITICAL
AND ECONOMIC ISSUES 323
V. CONCLUSIONS 324
REFERENCES 324
I. INTRODUCTION
Some 40% of the world’s market economy is based upon biological products and processes (1).
Biotechnology is increasingly affecting the competitive base for much of that industry. As with
most revolutionary technological changes, biotechnology has generated both economic and po-
litical responses.
The impact of biotechnology in the agrifood world can be examined in two relatively dis-
tinct periods. Gestation spanned the period from 1973, when the Cohen-Boyer utility patent on
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) cloning technology marked the beginning of modern biotechnol-
ogy, to 1994, which marked the first year of widespread commercialization of food products mod-
ified with biotechnology. Most of the economic changes precipitated by biotechnology can be
traced to this gestation period. The new technology has significantly altered the innovation
process itself by converting it from a supply push to demand pull system, has changed the
311
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312 Phillips and Khachatourians
economies of scale and scope in the industry, and has generated significant new value, precipi-
tating massive industrial restructuring. Thus, the comparative advantages of research and pro-
duction have changed, resulting in a shift of the location of research and production. In short, the
new technologies have created both winners and losers. Meanwhile, the political system adapted
and responded to these changes. Governments moved to capitalize on the opportunities by ex-
tending private property rights into the sector and by beginning to redirect public research and de-
velopment in support of private effort. Governments also either modified their existing regulatory
systems or began to develop new special-purpose systems to manage the potential risks involved
with using and commercializing biotechnology-based products.
In the mid-1990s the adoption phase began; it has not gone smoothly. In 1994 widespread
commercial introduction of genetically modified (GM) agrifood products began, first with Mon-
santo’s Posilac bovine somatotropin and Calgene’s Flavr Savr tomato and now with GM corn,
cotton, soybeans, canola, potatoes, and a wide variety of other products. By 2000, more than 40
transgenic modifications involving 13 products were approved and produced in 1 or more of 12
countries. James (2) estimates that total world production rose from less than 1 million acres in
1995 to approximately 100 million acres in 1999 (Table 1). Coinciding with the introduction of
these products, regulatory systems came under increasing pressure and parts of the system failed.
Although the European Union (EU) developed a special-purpose regulatory system for biotech-
nology, it has ceased to function because of uneven capacity at the national level. The United
Kingdom suffered a regulatory meltdown in 1996 after the discovery that bovine spongiform en-
cephalopathy (BSE, or “mad cow disease”) was linked to a new human variant of Creutzfeldt-
Jakob disease. As a result, the UK government has been unable to assuage consumer concerns
about genetically modified foods. Similar regulatory failures in France and Belgium have grid-
locked the regulatory system in Europe. In 1999 the European Commission was actually prose-
cuting France for not implementing a European Directive related to GM canola. Although regu-
lators in other parts of the world have greater support from their citizens, their control remains
tenuous. Given distrust in regulators everywhere, many consumers and opponents of biotechnol-
ogy are demanding labels to identify GM foods in order to enable individuals to act on decisions
they make by themselves with regard to their consumption of them. The resulting uncertainty of
market access and consumer acceptance has raised doubts about the immediate future for biotech-
nology in the global agrifood system.
The next decade will be the critical period for the technology. Although many of the eco-
nomic changes have begun, the transformation in the agrifood sector is far from complete. As new
technologies are introduced and new products are commercialized, the impact of biotechnology
will widen. To date the focus has been on introducing new varieties or technologies that improve
the agronomic performance in mostly developed country agriculture (first-generation products).
Already the research focus has expanded to include adding differentiable product attributes (sec-
ond generation) and to developing new niche products (third generation). There is also significant
potential for biotechnology to influence agriculture in developing countries; James (2) estimated
that 18% of total transgenic crop production was in developing countries. More closely linking
consumer and producer interests in both producing and consuming countries through second- and
third-generation products, may actually diminish the current antagonism in the marketplace. If,
on the other hand, consumer and citizen concerns are not addressed, adoption of the new tech-
nology could slow or reverse.
Over and above the future for any specific biotechnology products, this new technology has
precipitated a new and much more complex framework for managing technological change,
which will likely influence technological development in many other areas.
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Political and Economic Consequences 313
Table 1 Worldwide Distribution of 98.6 Million Acres of

Planted Transgenic Crops as a Percentage of the Total by
Country, Crop, and Traits
Distribution Percentage of total
By country
United States 74
Argentina 15
Canada 10
China <1
Australia <1
South Africa <1
Mexico <1
Spain <1
France <1
Portugal <1
Rumania <1
Ukraine <1
By crop
Soybean 52
Corn 30
Cotton 9
Canola 9
Potato <1
Squash <1
Papaya <1
Flax <1
Rice <1
Tomato <1
Sugar beet <1
Melon <1
By trait
Herbicide tolerance (HT) 71
Insect resistance (Bt) 22
Stacked HT/Bt 7
Virus resistance <1
Nutritional change Trace
Source: Adapted from Ref. 2
II. ECONOMIC IMPACT
The introduction and use of biotechnology in the agrifood industry globally have caused a num-
ber of economic impacts. It is worthwhile to examine them separately to determine their long-run
influence on the industry and society.
A. The Economics of Innovation

The new technologies have fundamentally altered the innovation process itself. In the agrifood
sector, the innovation process has historically been quite linear. It often started with curiosity-
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based research and moved through the development, production, and, ultimately, marketing of the
new product. As a result, the research process was relatively narrowly defined and self-contained.
The advent of biotechnology did two things: First, it created the potential to target the research
more finely to specific market needs. Second, it made the research process far more complex, with
no one individual or small group of individuals able to undertake the entire process. The innova-
tion process has become more like a “chain-link model.” The structure still involves a basically
linear process moving from potential market to invention, design, adaptation, and adoption, but
now it involves feedback loops from each stage to previous stages and opportunities for the in-
novator to seek out existing knowledge or to undertake or commission research to solve problems
in the innovation process (3).
In this context, it is possible to identify four types of knowledge (4). “Know-why” knowl-
edge (the understanding of scientific principles and laws of nature) is developed almost exclu-
sively by universities and government research institutes. It is usually codified and published in
academic or professional journals, which provide the base for all the rest of the research effort.
“Know-what” knowledge involves facts and techniques, which usually can be codified, protected
by intellectual property rights (e.g., patents), and exploited or transferred to others in the market-
place. “Know-how” refers to the skills or practical capacity to put the know-why and know-
what knowledge together. This capacity is often learned by doing, making it more difficult to cod-
ify and transfer to others. Finally, “know-who,” or knowing who knows what and who knows how
to do what, is increasingly important as collaboration now is necessary to develop new products.
Know-who knowledge is seldom codified but accumulates often within an organization or, at
times, in communities where there is a cluster of public and private entities that are all engaged
in the same type of research and development. Know-how and know-who provide the vital con-
nective tissue that makes knowledge flow, which is a necessary ingredient to convert know-
why knowledge into commercial applications. This new model of innovation has led to much
greater specialization in the research business and a rise in the importance of networking and
alliances.
B. Scale and Scope Economies

The fragmentation of the innovation system into different structures of knowledge development
and use has fundamentally affected the economies of scale and scope in the industry. Basic know-
why research does not appear to exhibit any significant economies of scale, and, given that most
research universities and labs are collaborating with others outside their home base, the economies
of scope appear to be limited (5). Similarly, few biotechnology centers appear to exhibit signifi-
cant economies of scale in the development of know-what knowledge. Most of the fundamental
patentable technologies developed have come from disparate research programs around the world
and have then been assembled and commercialized by private companies.
In contrast, there do appear to be significant economies of scale and scope in the know-how
and know-who stages of development. At the most basic level, imperfect markets make smaller
ventures invest relatively more of their resources in price discovery and contracting to undertake
research; that tends to favor larger, more integrated firms. In this knowledge-based industry, firms
also must invest heavily in “learning by doing” in order to enter the research business. This in-
vestment is a real barrier to entry as there is significant uncertainty that the resulting output from
the research effort will have any commercial value. The entry problem is compounded by the in-
vestment required to satisfy regulators that the product is safe and conforms to industry standards.
As a result of these relatively high fixed costs, firms face declining average costs over the feasi-
ble operating range. Thus, each unit of input yields successively higher volume of output. In the
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canola industry, for example, the global research budgets have risen more than 10-fold in real
terms over the past 30 years, but the real average cost per variety has dropped sharply since the
early 1980s and the marginal cost has remained relatively small.
Beyond the basic economies of scale in the industry, there is significant potential for exter-
nalities or economies of scope to influence the industry. On the positive side, the sharp drop in the
average cost per variety is at least partly due to “mysteries being in the air” (6) as advancements
are disseminated throughout the research community. A survey in early 1998 of all firms under-
taking research into canola suggests that the flow of knowledge has a real impact on their opera-
tions. The survey asked companies about the proximity of competitors and/or collaborators as
factors in locating their research efforts. Half of all the respondents, who represented the major-
ity of larger private companies responding, acknowledged the importance of proximity to either
collaborators or competitors. About 40% recognized the importance of being close to their col-
laborators, particularly the National Research Council and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada re-
search centers in Saskatoon.
There has been extensive research in other countries and in other product areas to determine
the elements that influence the creation and capture of these economies of scope. Metcalfe (7) as-
serts that an innovative system comprises
that set of distinct institutions which jointly and individually contribute to the development and
diffusion of new technology and which provides the framework within which governments
form and implement policies to influence the innovation process. As such it is a system of in-
terconnected institutions to create, store and transfer the knowledge, skills and artifacts which
define new technologies.
Zucker, Darby, and Brewer (8) showed that the location of research “stars” also positively influ-
ences the location and clustering of private commercial efforts.
C. The Economics of Agrifood Industrial Structures

The introduction of biotechnology has precipitated a major industrial restructuring in the agrifood
sector. The opportunity presented by biotechnology to manage the research process to deliver cus-
tom products has created investment potential for some private companies while creating a threat
or risk to many existing businesses. The first-generation biotechnology innovations (e.g., herbi-
cide tolerance and Bacillus thuringiensis [Bt] resistance) lowered the cost of production, and the
second- and third-generation products (which change the value to the end consumer) create sig-
nificant overall returns to the industry and society. Just and Hueth (9) point out that the chemical
companies were quick to realize that the new ability to manipulate the genetic coding of crops
changed both their markets and their concept of their business. The new technologies created the
opportunity for them to develop new varieties tolerant to their patented herbicides and thereby ex-
tract greater rents from new markets for their product. At the same time, some companies decided
that biotechnology-based activities had the potential to produce significantly higher profits than
other activities. Some of the companies that were upstream or downstream of the farmer in the
food system have restructured to capture this business, often divesting themselves of lower-return
activities and replacing those activities with direct investments in, or acquisitions of, knowledge-
based parts of the production system. Two trends are spurring further consolidations. The pres-
ence of significant economies of scale and scope in the product development end of the business
has encouraged firms and research facilities to merge or ally themselves into larger “life science”
enterprises. The difficulties in protecting and transferring technologies among partners, combined
with the imperative to quality-assure the product through the production and marketing chain,
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have also driven those firms to integrate vertically. As a result, the production system from basic
genetics right through to the consumer is increasingly tightly managed within a small group of
industrial networks.
D. Trade and Regional Growth

The share of produce that is traded is increasing because the new technologies are changing na-
tional and regional comparative advantages. Whereas agrifood production has been relatively
capital-intensive for almost a generation, the sharp rise in private investment in the sector since
1990 has now made it relatively research-intensive. Economic theory suggests that production
will tend to locate in regions of the world where the local factor endowments favorably match the
factor requirements. Although in theory technology should flow as easily as products, in practice
technologies do not disperse rapidly or completely. An increasing technology or productivity gap
between low-technology countries and research-intensive countries is developing (10). In addi-
tion, the trade barriers that have impeded the redistribution of agrifood production to the most ef-
ficient sites are, with the World Trade Organization (WTO) agreement in 1995, being dismantled;
that dismantling will allow agricultural production to be determined by factor endowments. As a
result, production of research-intensive products is tending to concentrate in and around those re-
search centers that provide economies of scope, which are mostly in developed countries. Canola
production, for instance, is now significantly more concentrated in research-endowed countries
than it was in the 1960s (5). Two other related trends are increasing the dependence on trade.
Many of the new products being developed are superior goods, with rising per capita consump-
tion strongly positively correlated with per capita income. At the same time, many second- and
third-generation biotechnology innovations exhibit “product” attributes. These products in many
cases will be manufactured only in one country (near the research center), then traded globally.
Other countries will concentrate on other products, which also may be niche products. As a re-
sult, there is increasing potential that traditional net exporters may both export and import. All of
these trends in economies of scale and scope, product attributes, and consumer demand increase
the dependence of the industry on international trade.
E. Economic Winners and Losers

The fundamental economic changes under way in the agrifood sector are creating both winners
and losers. Economic studies done over the years show that research in agriculture has yielded
relatively high private returns and even higher public returns (11), but that farmers tend to get a
smaller share of the returns on innovations that improve yield rather than quality and their share
is depressed when the related processing sector is imperfectly competitive. When the trend is jux-
taposed with biotechnology-based products, four conclusions can be drawn. First, although a
wide variety of economic studies of public research in the agrifood sector have estimated the in-
ternal rate of return ranges between 20% and 95% (11), it is likely that the returns are lower for
biotechnology-based developments. Although some selected projects to breed high-value attrib-
utes into plants and animals may still have high returns, in aggregate the action of competitive pri-
vate research “races,” often subsidized by public programs, is likely to lead to excessive invest-
ment, accelerated creative destruction, and relatively low social returns. For example, the overall
rate of return for canola research is estimated to have dropped by the end of the 1990s into the
single-digit range (12). If the developments seen in the canola sector are repeated in other agri-
food areas, similar results can be expected. Second, past studies have shown that the gains from
yield-enhancing innovations are often bid away by competitive farmers, thereby translating into
lower retail prices and higher consumer welfare. Hence first-generation biotechnology products
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are not expected to benefit farmers over the long term. Nevertheless, early adopters will often gain
a “first mover” benefit and some individual farmers may gain as their specific agronomic and
management circumstances allow them to profit from the new technologies (13). This will be-
come even more relevant as new input and output traits are stacked in individual crops, making
seeds more tailored to specific agronomic circumstances.
Meanwhile, many studies suggest that high concentration ratios (i.e., oligopolistic market
structures) in the input and output sectors enable some firms to capture a higher share of the re-
turn (14). Given that many of the first-generation innovations link chemical products to plants,
some individual chemical companies will certainly gain market share and profits. Although Mo-
schini, Lapan, and Sobolevsky (15) conclude that intellectual property rights enable Monsanto to
capture about half of the value created by Roundup Ready soybeans (leaving producers worse off
and consumers with the rest of the benefit), there are compelling arguments that they may not be
able to do as well as that. Incomplete property rights ensure that at least part of the benefit is not
captured. Monsanto has estimated that approximately 25% of their benefit would be lost to the
bin-run or brown-bagged seed markets without technology use agreements (TUAs). Even with
TUA contracts, they estimate they still lose 10% of the benefit (16). In aggregate, it is also not
clear that industry is gaining. Given the high usage of chemicals even before herbicide-tolerant
and Bt crops were developed, gains by one company may simply be offset by the lost market share
of others. Thus, the chemical industry may have gained little from these innovations when re-
search expenses were deducted. Furthermore, Green (17) argues that the relatively short life cy-
cles of the new varieties and products force the innovators to share some of the returns to ensure
rapid market adoption. Finally, a variety of studies conclude that quality-enhancing innovations
benefit the production system relatively more than yield improvements because they enable pro-
ducers to segment the market and increase demand for their product, thereby offsetting the price-
dampening effects of greater production. Second- and third-generation biotechnology products
could therefore yield a higher return to the production system, some of which could accrue to
farmers because they will need to be paid to produce and market in such a way that protects the
quality of the product.
One could conclude with the adage “It was the best of times and it was the worst of times,”
Biotechnology has significant potential to continue to transform plants in many desirable ways.
The economic base of the global agrifood industry has been fundamentally changed by the intro-
duction of biotechnology. The ability to breed and grow crops with targeted traits selectively has
opened the door for new innovation structures, a rapidly industrializing agriculture, and shifting
production within and between countries. As a result, there are major winners and losers. As with
any industry in which participants face either major gains or losses, there is increasing pressure
for the state to respond and intervene in the market.
III. POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES
Economic change often is precipitated by or compels political responses. This is especially true
for changes in the agrifood sector, which is traditionally viewed as a politically important con-
stituency that produces a strategic good of value as a geopolitical tool. Some have argued that
agriculture is at least 50% politics. That relationship continues in the biotechnology-based agri-
food industry.
A. Politics of Intellectual Property Rights

The most significant government response to the introduction of biotechnology was the extension
of intellectual property rights to processes and products of biotechnology. The main impetus for
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change came in the United States. As the single largest source of new innovations and the single
largest market for those innovations, the United States plays a vital role in almost all innovation-
based sectors. In 1970 the United States made the first substantive move to encourage increased
private investment in agricultural research. Although the 1935 Plant Variety Protection Act
(PVPA) had granted breeders 18 years exclusive rights to new asexually produced plant varieties
(e.g., hybrid corn), it was only in 1970 that the U.S. government renewed the PVPA and granted
the same property rights to sexually reproduced varieties such as open- or self-pollinated varieties
(these rights were limited by both a farmers’ exemption to save and reuse seed and a research ex-
emption).
On the technology front, the U.S. Patent Office granted the Cohen-Boyer utility patent on
DNA cloning technology in 1973, thereby starting the race to privatize agronomic technologies.
Over the succeeding years, virtually all of the main technologies required to manipulate a plant
or animal genetically have been patented in the United States and other prime markets. Those
technologies that have not been patented globally still receive some effective protection from U.S.
patents because any products incorporating unlicensed technologies can be blocked from enter-
ing the United States. This was followed in the 1980s with a number of landmark rulings related
to patenting living organisms. In 1980 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Diamond vs. Chakrabarty
that the U.S. patent law provides for patenting life-forms, in that case an oil-eating bacterium. In
1985 the first patent for a living plant was issued. Since then a wide variety of plants have been
patented. Plant patents provide additional protection over plant variety protection rights in that
plant patents do not provide exemptions for either researchers or farmer-saved seed.
These moves in the United States precipitated a response in most other developed countries.
The International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), 1961, was re-
vised in 1972, 1978, and 1991 to extend rights internationally. The convention requires member
states to provide protection for new varieties of plants, including for plants bred in other member
states. The agreement and the corresponding national laws grant breeders exclusive rights to mar-
ket varieties for a set period (usually 15–20 years), often with exemptions to allow producers to
save and reuse their seed and to permit breeders to use protected varieties as genetic resources in
further breeding. As of 1999, 48 countries had some form of plant breeders’ rights, representing
25% of the world. Of those, 38 had adopted UPOV standards; the other 10 had national policies.
As intellectual property rights (IPRs) were being developed both nationally and interna-
tionally, the agrifood sector increasingly came under the aegis of the World Intellectual Property
Office (WIPO) and relevant treaties. As WIPO had 175 members as of September 1, 2000, the
commitments to the fair and equal treatment of intellectual property had expanded. Even so, de-
livery was somewhat spotty because only a few countries have acceded to all of the agreements.
Furthermore, although WIPO offers conciliation services, there are no formal dispute settlement
systems within the various treaties. More recently, in the 1995 round of multilateral trade negoti-
ations, the Trade-Related Intellectual Property (TRIPs) Agreement was developed to address the
deficiencies of national, UPOV, and WIPO systems. The agreement, which came into effect on
January 1, 1995, and has been ratified by 139 nations, covers a number of areas relevant to
biotechnology, including trademarks; geographical indications, including appellations of origin;
patents, including the protection of new varieties of plants; and undisclosed information, includ-
ing trade secrets and test data. The TRIPs Agreement provides for certain basic principles, such
as national and most-favored-nation treatment; sets out general rules to ensure that procedural dif-
ficulties in acquiring or maintaining IPRs do not nullify the substantive benefits that should flow
from the agreement; and provides for appeal to the binding WTO disputes settlement process. The
obligations under the Agreement will apply equally to all member countries but developing coun-
tries will have a longer period to phase them in.
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Even with the apparent international expansion of property rights to intellectual property,
the system is certainly not simple. As with the WTO trade rules, the absence of Russia and China
from the agreement leaves a major hole in its coverage. In addition, many of the countries have
yet to address the commitment to extend patent rights to whole organisms or to implement an ef-
fective sui generis (purpose-built) system. Although the United States and EU now patent living
organisms, Canada and many other countries have so far failed to do so. Nevertheless, the domi-
nant U.S. role in the trade system has tended to discourage private companies hoping to trade their
products from using unlicensed intellectual property. The U.S. system of intellectual property
rights is thereby effectively extended to nonconforming countries.
Both public and private breeders have expressed some concern that their “freedom to oper-
ate” is being narrowed by the increasingly proprietary nature of fundamental biotechnology and
breeding technologies, genes, gene constructs, and germplasm. The fear is that corporate owner-
ship of all of the technologies could shut down public or shut out private competing breeding pro-
grams, especially those targeted on agronomic improvements or smaller crops. Many public sec-
tor scientists suggest that the state should invest in the development of duplicate technologies or
germplasm in order to provide an accessible base of technologies for smaller private and public
breeders. Alternatively, some have advised that the state should use the powers vested in its in-
tellectual property rights regimes or antitrust laws to encourage greater dissemination of nonri-
val, patented innovations in order to generate more access and, hence, greater positive spill-over
effects (18).
B. Politics of Agrifood Policy

Governments have been challenged to refashion their role in agrifood research and development.
Agriculture has been one area in which the public sector historically has contributed a significant
share of research resources and has directly undertaken a large share of the research effort. Except
for those agrifood products with effective hybrids (e.g., maize corn), most of the effort has been
undertaken by governments, publicly funded universities, or private companies funded by public
grants. That relationship held until the 1980s in most product markets. Since then, however, new,
proprietary technologies have been developed and most of the resulting crop innovations have been
commercialized by private companies. As the germplasm, technologies, genes, and seeds indus-
tries have been privatized, the public sector’s historical role as proprietor or lead innovator has been
challenged. Now, the state acts more often as a partner and promoter, creating the basic economic
structure for public and private investment in research and development (R&D) through direct in-
vestment and through a selection of fiscal measures targeted on the industry. This has involved a
shift away from doing all of the varietal development in public or university labs toward doing
more custom work and collaborations, often on precommercial or noncompetitive projects.
Although it is next to impossible to determine the exact impact of these policies on private
research, industry competitiveness, and industrial location, there are a number of examples that
demonstrate that, at least at the margin, these policies can and do influence private decisions about
location of research effort. The benefits for governments are significant. If knowledge spillovers
(e.g., know-how related to genetic transformations) are limited to a specific location (perhaps be-
cause the diffusion of the knowledge requires face-to-face interactions), then any scale or scope
economies that result will be captured by the region that undertakes that activity. That creates the
possibility that countries engaging in technological competition may endogenously generate
comparative advantage. In short, “comparative advantage evolves over time” (19). If the final
product of biotechnology is tradable but the innovation-based knowledge is a nontransferable in-
termediate factor of production, then the fact that innovation begins or is supported in one juris-
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diction could indefinitely put that site on a higher trajectory of R&D and new product develop-
ment (19). As a result, the high-technology share of gross domestic product (GDP) and of exports
will be higher than otherwise, and society will be better off. Although the R&D benefits would
thereby be captured in discrete jurisdictions, the spillovers and resulting accelerated innovation
should ultimately benefit consumers wherever they are.
C. The Politics of Regulation

Governments around the world have been urged to regulate biotechnology-based research and
production. Some governments have regulated their domestic research, production, and market-
ing systems in an attempt to provide a set of rules and norms that ultimately determine the extent
and scope of private initiative. States use a mix of research and development policies, tax incen-
tives, intellectual property rights, competition policy, environmental laws, and various regulations
to achieve their goal. In each case, the state attempts to balance the public interests of the general
citizenry with the private interests of both domestic and foreign firms. Two basic approaches to
regulating biotechnology have evolved (20). The United States and a wide variety of other coun-
tries have developed regulatory systems that focus on the potential risks of biotechnology in the
resulting agrifood products. They have adopted the essential equivalency standard such that if a
biotechnology product has the same molecular structure as a conventional product, then no in-
cremental labeling or regulatory restrictions are necessary. Because the focus is on products, these
countries have for the most part been able to use or extend existing legislation, regulation, and
agencies to manage biotechnology. This has yielded relatively efficient and generally accepted
regulatory decisions. In contrast, the European Union (EU) and some other nations focus their
regulatory energies on the technological process and not on the end product attributes. In this con-
text, the EU has adopted the precautionary principle, whereby products using biotechnology are
assumed to be risky until proved otherwise. In addition, as of 1999 all products containing more
than 1% genetically modified materials required labeling indicating their presence. Because the
EU has chosen to regulate the technology and not the product, it has been forced to develop en-
tirely new legislation and regulation, yet it leaves much of the review and compliance system in
the hands of traditional national regulatory agencies. Initially, decisions were delayed because the
system was incomplete. With the regulatory meltdown in the United Kingdom and problems in
other EU member states, however, the review system has come to a complete standstill. Although
18 genetically modified products were provisionally approved for use as of April 1998, the four
most recent applications were rejected. In addition, Denmark, Britain, and France have imple-
mented temporary halts on GMO approvals in their countries, Austria, Luxembourg, France, and
the United Kingdom have all imposed unilateral bans on certain new crops and the EU is not ex-
pected to approve any new GMOs before 2002 (21). Most of the other Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries have adopted one of the two models for regu-
lating their industries, whereas virtually no developing country has any effective system. This in-
complete and at times conflicting regulatory system has created some pressures for change.
Almost all domestic regulators are faced with rising consumer concern about the health,
safety, environmental, economic, and ethical implications of biotechnology in the agrifood sys-
tem. From a public policy perspective, environmental and food safety assessments should help
public perception. However, such assessments are not perceived to adequately deal with a broad
range of secondary, unintended effects that could affect allergenicity, the environmental and plant
nutrient and toxicant levels (22). Already there is evidence that some transgenic material does not
maintain itself but instead must be controlled by specific plant selection techniques (23). This
simply contributes to the large information gap that exists between producers and consumers, es-
pecially for biotechnology-based products, and creates a market failure that opens the way for
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government action. Whenever governments intervene, they have tried to address the information
gap but have often ended up inserting noneconomic public objectives into the market. Although
all of the currently operating domestic regulatory systems use objective, science-based criteria,
there is significant pressure for subjective criteria to be formally incorporated in domestic regu-
latory systems. In the first instance, this has involved many nongovernmental organizations’ call-
ing for either outright bans or stringent regulations based on strict interpretation of the precau-
tionary principle. Especially in the EU, where citizens have lost faith in their regulators, there has
been significant pressure for compulsory labeling of genetically modified products. In addition to
the national bans and embargoes, many European retailers and food processors have responded
to consumer concerns and have developed “GM-free” own-label products. Seven large super-
market chains have joined forces to eliminate GM ingredients in their own-label products: J.
Sainsbury and Marks and Spencer in the United Kingdom, Carrefour in France, Migros in
Switzerland, Delhaize in Belgium, Superquinn in Ireland, and Effelunga in Italy (24). The UK re-
sponse has been greater, as Tesco and Sainsbury, Britain’s two largest chains, have been joined by
Marks and Spencer, ASDA, and Iceland in adopting similar GM-free strategies. Meanwhile,
Unilever and Nestle in the United Kingdom, both large food processors, announced in 1999 that
they would remove genetically modified elements from their products (25). This has extended to
other markets. In 1999 Japan introduced proposals for a new labeling system, Australia and New
Zealand announced they would have compulsory labeling by 2001, and South Korea planned to
have a system by the end of 1999. Meanwhile, the agrifood industry in the United States and
Canada began in late 1999 to develop voluntary labeling standards for GM foods. This move to
labeling poses a conundrum for companies wishing to place new products in the market because
market acceptance requires market access and regulatory approval, which in turn appears in-
creasingly to require market acceptance (20). Governments everywhere are pondering how to
manage this challenge to the system.
D. Politics of International Problems

Both opponents and supporters of agricultural biotechnology have increasingly looked to inter-
national organizations for solutions to concerns that either cannot be or are not being addressed
within domestic systems (Table 2). Seven international organizations are currently involved in-
ternationally in regulating to some degree aspects of biotechnology (26). These bodies are in two
categories: those that are science- and health-based, and those that have objectives of facilitating
international trade, environmental considerations, or various other social and political goals. The
three science-based institutions are the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), which
regulates plant health; the International Office of Epizootics (IOE), which manages animal health
issues; and the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex), which establishes common standards
for food safety and labeling. The key broad-based institution is the World Trade Organization,
which provides for national and most-favored-nation treatment for trade among its 139 members.
The 1995 agreement also establishes common procedures for handling issues related to sanitary
and phytosanitary standards, by drawing on the technical standards developed at the IPPC, the
IOE, and Codex and technical barriers to trade, such as labeling standards. Meanwhile, the 29-
member Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development has been working over the
past decade to develop consensus documents for use in national regulatory systems, various re-
gional processes are seeking technical resolutions (e.g., the U.S.-EU Trans-Atlantic Economic
Partnership and Canada-U.S. bilateral negotiations on agricultural biotechnology), and more than
170 countries negotiated a BioSafety Protocol to protect the environment from risk of biotech-
nology by regulating transborder movements of living modified organisms.
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Table 2 The Main Distinguishing Features of the Regulatory Systems
Biotechnology Marketing
Country IPR system Production system regulations regulations
United Process, utility, PVPA; conform to UPOV Product-based; no No labeling re-

States and life patents 1978; no seeds registra- special legisla- quired
tion tion
Canada Process and util- PBR Act, 1990; conform to Product-based; no No labeling re-
ity patents; no UPOV 1978; Seeds Act special legisla- quired
life patents regulates registration tion
European Process, utility, Conform to UPOV 1978 or Process-based; spe- Mandatory GMO
Union and life patents 1991; have seeds regis- cial legislation labeling rules
tration systems
Japan Process and util- Conform to UPOV 1978 Process-based; spe- Mandatory GMO
ity patents; no cial legislation labeling rules
life patents
India Weak process and Not currently a member of None None
utility patents; UPOV
no life patents
Australia Process, utility, Conform to UPOV 1978 as Product-based Mandatory label-
and life patents of 1989; seeds registra- ing rules
tion
China No effective Entered negotiations to join None None
patent protec- UPOV; seeds registration
tions
The detail of each institution is beyond the scope of this chapter. Suffice it to conclude that
there currently is no one particular institution created for the explicit purpose of regulating inter-
nationally the products of biotechnology. Similarly, there does not appear to be an obvious choice
for fulfilling this role, at least among the seven existing institutions. In the absence of any over-
arching international agreement on regulating products of biotechnology, differing national stan-
dards provide the minimum standard. Nevertheless, the EU and many countries in the developing
world are looking to various international negotiations to address the wide array of social con-
cerns around biotechnology (e.g., ethics and political concerns). Some saw the attempted Seattle
Round of the WTO as an ideal instrument to manage biotechnology trade issues because of its
binding dispute settlement mechanism, which helps to equalize power between large and small
member states. In addition to gaining access to the dispute settlement process, many of these
countries seek amendments or new agreements that directly address their subjective ethical, en-
vironmental, social, and consumer concerns. Essentially, they are asking other member states to
bargain away their existing rights either to retaliate or to seek compensation when another coun-
try impedes trade for subjective purposes. Failure to launch new WTO negotiations in Seattle in
1999 shifted most of the attention to the BioSafety Protocol, which was unable to resolve the issue
so the search continues.
The future international structure for regulating biotechnology is unclear. The existing in-
ternational regulatory system relating to biotechnology still has some problems, as many coun-
tries just, if at all, comply with their commitments. In addition, China, the first country to com-
mercialize a biotechnology-based crop and potentially one of the largest users of biotechnology,
and potential key markets like Russia are waiting to join these international agreements. Although
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negotiations for accession have begun, it will take years for them to conclude and an even longer
time for adjustments to be completed.
Partly because all of the existing domestic and international regulatory systems were
largely designed to nurture and support development of biotechnology-based commerce, citizens
and consumers have challenged governments to consider and respond to subjective concerns. It
is too early to say how governments and international institutions will respond.
IV. A NEW FRAMEWORK FOR MANAGING COMPLEX

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ISSUES
One might be tempted to argue that the traditional institutions and disciplines could handle the
challenges of biotechnology, just as they handled the green revolution. Biotechnology has, how-
ever, irrevocably complicated an already complex system. In the 1940–90 period, the green rev-
olution entered a market that was dominated by the U.S. economy and U.S. surplus food produc-
tion. Farmers, executive governments, and a handful of international institutions largely managed
the impact. That manageable world is gone forever: many commodity markets have been dereg-
ulated; decolonization has led to a rapid proliferation of sovereign states; international trade,
labor, and capital markets have been liberalized by international agreement; many markets are
now linked by multinational corporations; and public interest groups have become transnational.
Now, along come biotechnology and an array of transgenic plants, animals, and microbes,
which raise a whole new set of issues. Stonehouse (27) has postulated that some issues require
broad, comprehensive, and integrative thinking, which involves consideration of spatial, tempo-
ral, scale, quantitative, and qualitative factors. In our view, transgenic food plants present one such
case. Biotechnology challenges consumers, producers, industry, markets, and governments to
handle and resolve a large number of complex issues. In short, one can argue that since 1990 the
rules and terms of reference for agricultural politics and economics have changed. These new is-
sues cannot be addressed by the same approaches used in traditional cases (i.e., before the 1990s).
Isolated academic disciplines’ and single-purpose institutions’ inability to handle the array of is-
sues jeopardizes their reputation. Both the disciplines and the institutions fail because they con-
struct artificial and partial models, reducing their relevance and usefulness to the agrifood indus-
try and policymakers. Instead, they need to develop new approaches to handle complex societal
problems and issues. The problems of biotechnology (as is true of many problems today) cannot
be adequately addressed by single disciplines: they cross over multiple disciplines. Today’s eco-
nomic-political analyses require a much broader theoretical understanding of underlying and com-
plex social problems. Therefore, there is need for broadening the terms of disciplinary reference.
Most of those involved in the policy debate (e.g., academics, analysts, managers, scientists, and
bureaucrats) must learn to position their work and commentaries in context with the multidimen-
sional and complex mixture of science, society, the environment, and the market. This will be a
real challenge because most social or natural scientists are not well grounded in the complemen-
tary and multidisciplinary sciences and as a result do not have any common concepts, vocabular-
ies, or working knowledge to handle modern food science issues.
Certainly no one approach can solve the present issues related to GM and transgenic food
plants. A toolbox is required. The important transgenic food crops issues reach beyond the bounds
of one, two, and even three disciplines. Stonehouse (27) argues for linking specialists from many
disciplines to develop meaningful policies and cautions that this is a complex process, requiring
a great many balancing acts, e.g., (a) anthropocentricity with ecocentric approaches; (b) tempo-
ral, shorter-term imperatives against longer-term needs; and (c) short-term economic efficiency
against long-term sustainability.
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V. CONCLUSIONS
The pendulum in economic or political debates swings at different speeds and for durations. Old
constraints will have to be reconsidered and discarded if necessary. As with any evolving system,
technologies and the rules of the game can and will change. This makes prediction difficult. Nev-
ertheless, a number of trends likely have some time before they are exhausted.
Biotechnology will continue to alter the economic foundation of the agrifood industry. It
has already accelerated the industrialization of the food system, relocated production among re-
gions of the world, and created winners and losers. So far most of the existing regulatory and mar-
keting systems have encouraged market forces to prevail. If trends continue, production of trans-
genic food plants will continue to rise in North America and Argentina as new crop varieties enter
the market, with total transgenic production peaking at something less than 100% of the total
acreage. The rest of the world is more difficult to forecast. Already we are seeing some adoption
of the technology in the EU (three member states reported some GM crop production in 1999)
and beachheads in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Australia. There are a number of potential
trends. If the regulators and industry fail to address consumer and citizen concerns, production
could come to a halt in many of these markets. If industry and the regulators are able to muddle
through (or even do better), then production in those areas could grow. Given the level of concern
in many of those markets, one could expect the adoption rates to lag those observed in North
America, with peak production 5–10 years from now.
The biggest uncertainty about the future is that consumer and citizen concerns have not
been adequately accommodated. As the value of these products ultimately lies with consumers,
industry and governments will need to find some way to bridge the gulf. So far consumers do not
believe any benefit will flow to them from the new technologies and believe they bear all the risks
(i.e., economic, environmental, health, and safety). Some in the industry have responded with in-
formation campaigns, which so far have failed. Unlike for many products, greater awareness does
not appear to translate into greater acceptance and willingness to buy. In fact, greater awareness
is strongly negatively correlated with acceptance (20). The industry will need to engage more
constructively in the debate. For the first 5 years of commercial production, Monsanto was syn-
onymous with the new technology. The recent restructuring of companies in the industry may
help to broaden the base of companies engaged in the public debate, and should provide better
perspective on the issues and opportunities. If the conflict between producers and consumers is
not resolved, political processes and consumer choices may limit the use of the technology in the
agrifood sector. Under somewhat similar circumstances, during the 1970s food irradiation tech-
nologies were effectively mothballed in most developed countries because of poor political
choices and widespread consumer concern. Alternatively, if adequate market-based or political
responses to citizen and consumer concerns can be found, then this unease may only be a tem-
porary problem. Ultimately, the challenge is to rebuild trust in our agrifood systems. This requires
both managing and being seen to manage the objective, science-based risks of the new technol-
ogy and providing mechanisms for handling more subjective concerns. Only then will the agri-
food sector be able to address the subjective uncertainties and concerns many consumers, citi-
zens, and governments have raised. In the meantime, conflict will be the order of the day.
REFERENCES
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CO: Westview Press, 1990.
2. C James. ISAAA Briefs: Global Review of Commercialized Transgenic Crops: 1998, 1999. Available
at http://www.isaaa.org/frbrief8.htm.
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3. OECD. The Knowledge Based Economy. Paris: OECD, 1996.

4. E Malecki. Technology and Economic Development: The Dynamics of Local, Regional and National
Competitiveness. Toronto: Longman, 1997.
5. PWB Phillips, GG Khachatourians. The biotechnology revolution in global agriculture: Innovation, in-
vention and investment in the global canola sector. London: CAB International, 2001.
6. A Marshall. Principles of economics. London: Macmillan, 1890.
7. J Metcalfe. Technology systems and technology policy in an evolutionary framework. Camb J Econ
19:25–46, 1995.
8. L Zucker, M Darby, M Brewer. Intellectual human capital and the birth of U.S. biotechnology enter-
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9. RE Just, DL Hueth. Multimarket exploitation: The case of biotechnology and chemicals. Am J Agric
Econ 75:936–945, 1993.
10. R Lucas. On the mechanics of economic development. J Mon Econ 22:30–42, 1988.
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Paper No. 38. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1998.
12. RS Gray, Malla, PWB Phillips. Gains to Yield Increasing Research in the Evolving Canadian Canola
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spective, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 1999.
13. ME Fulton, L Keyowski. The producer benefits of herbicide-resistant canola. AgBioForum 2:2, 1999.
Available at http://www.agbioforum.missouri.edu.
14. J Alston, G Norton, P Pardey. Science Under Scarcity: Principles and Practice for Agricultural Re-
search Evaluation and Priority Setting. New York: CAB International, 1998.
15. G Moschini, H Lapan, A Sobolevsky. Trading technology as well as final products: Roundup Ready
soybeans and welfare effects in the soybean complex. Proceedings of the ICABR Conference on the
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proaches from an Economic Perspective, University of Rome, Tor Vergat, 1999.
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Economics of Strategy and Policy in Washington, DC June 24–25, 1999.
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http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/SSG/ca00913e.html.
18. W Lesser. Global interdependence and the private sector. In: NBAC Report 6: Agricultural Biotech-
nology and the Public Good. New York: NBAC, 1994.
19. M Grossman, E Helpman. Innovation and Growth in the Global Economy. London: MIT Press, 1991.
20. G Isaac, PWB Phillips. Market access and market acceptance for agricultural biotechnology products,
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formation: Strategic Investment and Policy Approaches from an Economic Perspective. University of
Rome, Tor Vergata, June 17–19, 1999.
21. GMO familiarity may breed comfort. Western Producer, Saskatoon, April 22, 1999.
22. O Kappeli, L Auberson. How safe is safe enough in plant genetic engineering? Trends Plant Sci
3:276–28, 1998.
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R Scorza, YH Hui, eds. Transgenic Plants and Crops. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2001.
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group.com/index.html/index2.htm.
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Ethics 3:55–67, 1997.
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22
Introduction and Expression of
Transgenes in Apples
Abhaya M. Dandekar
University of California, Davis, California
I. INTRODUCTION 327
II. TRANSFORMATION OF APPLE 328
III. ALTERNATIVES TO CHEMICAL PESTICIDES: GENES ENCODING
INSECTICIDAL PROTEINS 329
IV. RESISTANCE DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 331
V. ENGINEERING DISEASE-RESISTANT APPLES 332
VI. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM IN APPLES 332
VII. ETHYLENE BIOSYNTHESIS IN APPLES 334
VIII. OTHER QUALITY TRAITS 336
REFERENCES 337
I. INTRODUCTION
The development of a variety of horticultural practices and the application of plant breeding tech-
niques over the last several millennia have resulted in the domestication and production of a wide
range of valuable tree fruit and nut crop species. This has created opportunities for nurseries and
growers and a demand for their products by consumers. Interest in fruit and nut crops has been
heightened in recent times by a variety of findings that link various macro- and micronutrients
with beneficial effects on human health. There now seems to be good evidence for the old adage,
“An apple a day keeps the doctor away.”
The 21st century will likely pose a new set of challenges for growers and nurseries, as an
increased demand for tree fruit products will require novel production practices that sustain yield
and quality while minimizing damage to the environment and the food chains vital to human
health. Additionally, the rising cost of land and increasing cost of labor will provide an incentive
to grow high-value crops like the fruit and nut tree crops. Sustaining both supply and demand in
the future will depend more heavily on the development and deployment of a range of new tech-
nologies, including biotechnology. The technology to produce transgenic plants will have an im-
portant and powerful impact on some of the immediate problems of tree crops, such as disease
327
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328 Dandekar
and pests, and could reduce dependence on chemical pesticides and fungicides. However, com-
mercial success in the long term will depend upon the impact that this technology will have on
improving various quality and nutritional traits. This review focuses on apple, with an emphasis
on the transgenic technology being developed and the potential areas of impact.
The apple belongs to the genus Malus of the Rosaceae family, which includes some of the
most prominent fruit crop species (pear, plum, peach, nectarine, prune, cherry, apricot, straw-
berry, raspberry, and blackberry). The genus Malus consists of at least 20 to 30 different species;
most of the domestic cultivars are derived from interspecific hybridization because of self-in-
compatibility. The generally accepted scientific name for apple is Malus × domestica. The culti-
vation of apple dates back to a few centuries b.c. and was practiced by the Greeks and Romans,
who in turn spread the cultivation of apples through Asia and Europe. Many horticultural prac-
tices, such as budding, grafting, hedging, and selection, were developed in medieval times when
apples were grown around religious houses. The first scientific breeding efforts with apple date
back to Thomas Andrew Knight (1759–1835).
On the basis of most recent estimates apple is one of the four most widely grown fruit in
the world, with citrus, grapes, and bananas (citrus, 102,822,056 metric tons; grapes, 57,397,
245 metric tons; bananas, 58,618,083 metric tons; apple, 56,059,564 metric tons). The annual
worldwide production of apple is about 56,059,564 metric tons (125,573,420,000 pounds). This
production occurs in a total area of 7,088,233 hectares and is worth over $20 billion (grower re-
turn based on average U.S. 1997 figures). The total production in the United States is worth about
$1.7 billion, of which the majority is accounted for by just a handful of cultivars, such as ‘Red
Delicious’ and ‘Golden Delicious,’ ‘Granny Smith,’ ‘McIntosh,’ and ‘Rome Beauty.’ The produc-
tion in the United States over the past 10 years has been steady, with reasonably good consumer
acceptance of individual apple cultivars including a variety of new cultivars. This trend would
support the transfer of particular traits, e.g., pest resistance; disease resistance; and improved
quality, color, and nutritional quality of fruit, into leading apple cultivars. The success of apple
varieties like ‘Fuji’ indicates that new varieties of apples with moderate appearance but superior
quality can compete with apple varieties that have superior appearance/color but variable quality.
II. TRANSFORMATION OF APPLE
Apple transformation was first reported by James and coworkers (James et al., 1989), who used
the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of leaf disks from the apple cultivar ‘Greensleeves’
with the binary vector pBin6. A detailed procedure for the transformation of apple was subse-
quently published for the transformation of ‘Greensleeves,’which is an excellent experimental sys-
tem for apple (James and Dandekar, 1991). Genes incorporated via Agrobacterium–mediated
transformation were found to be stably incorporated and inherited in a simple mendelian fashion
(James et al., 1994, 1996). Transformation was possible because key tissue culture procedures such
as micropropagation and adventitious bud formation had been previously developed in apple. Ad-
ventitious bud formation on leaf disks is a vital component of any apple transformation system be-
cause it maintains clonal identity of the cultivar being transformed. Unfortunately, in the case of
apple, regeneration is highly variable among different cultivars. Factors that appear to affect re-
generation frequencies include medium (inorganic content), presence of phytohormone (both type
and amount), physiological traits of the explant source, and cultivar of apple used. Regeneration
has been reported in several different apple cultivars and rootstocks, including ‘McIntosh,’ ‘Triple
Red Delicious’ (Fasolo et al., 1989), ‘M26,’ ‘M25,’ ‘M9,’ and ‘Greensleeves’ (James, 1987; James
et al., 1988). Transgenic apple plants have now been regenerated in several cultivars and root-
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Transgenes in Apples 329
stocks, including ‘Delicious’ (Maximova et al., 1998; Puite and Schaart, 1996; Sriskandarajah and
Goodwin, 1998; Sriskandarajah et al., 1994), ‘Elstar’(Puite and Schaart, 1996), ‘Gala’(Maximova
et al., 1998; Puite and Schaart, 1996; Yao et al., 1995), ‘Greensleeves’ (James et al., 1989; 1996;
Maximova et al., 1998), ‘M26’ (Holefors et al., 1998; Lambert and Tepfer, 1992; Maheswaran et
al., 1992; Norelli et al., 1994), ‘McIntosh’ (Bolar et al., 1997), and ‘Pink Lady’ (Sriskandarajah
and Goodwin, 1998).
A significant problem is the low efficiency of transformation observed in apple (James et al.,
1989; James and Dandekar, 1991). Studies from the late 1980s and the 1990s indicate that several
factors can influence the transformation efficiency of apple, including the type and physiological
characteristics of explant tissue used, the strain of Agrobacterium sp., and the design of plasmid
vectors (James et al., 1988; James and Dandekar, 1991; Dandekar et al., 1990; De Bondt et al.,
1994; Sriskandrajah et al., 1994; and Sriskandrajah and Goodwin, 1998). Agrobacterium sp.
strains containing pTiBo542 or pTiC58 and their derivatives were found to be most virulent on
apple (Dandekar et al., 1990; De Bondt et al., 1994; Martin et al., 1990). Virulence of the Agrobac-
terium strain could be enhanced either genetically by introducing additional copies of the viru-
lence genes (Dandekar et al., 1990) or physiologically by growing the bacterium under conditions
that induce the virulence genes (James et al., 1993). Addition of sugars like glucose to the cocul-
tivation medium were stimulatory (De Bondt et al., 1994). Transformation was found to be highly
variable among different apple culivars, possibly because of differences in infectability or inte-
gration of deoxyribonucleic acid (T-DNA) (De Bondt et al., 1994; Puite and Schaart, 1996). Phys-
iological status of the explant and its source is important for transformation, i.e., leaves from rooted
shoots (James et al., 1990), age of explant (De Bondt et al., 1994), type of leaf wounding (Norelli
et al., 1996), explants from etiolated shoots (Liu et al., 1998), and conditioning of explants in liq-
uid medium (Sriskandarah and Goodwin, 1998). Genetic selection of transformed tissue is another
critical stage, with the amount of antibiotic varying with the apple cultivar and type of gelling agent
being used during the selection phase are critical factors. The antibiotic kanamycin has been the
major selective agent used in most if not all studies, and the gelling agents were agar, gelrite, or a
combination of the two (James et al., 1989; Maheswaran et al., 1992; Norelli and Aldwinckle,
1993; Yepes and Aldwinckle, 1994). Different antibiotic combinations need to be tested to opti-
mize selection of transformants as well as to remove persistent Agrobacterium sp. (Hammerschlag
et al., 1997; Norelli and Aldwinckle, 1993; Yepes and Aldwinckle, 1994)
The first field trial of transgenic apple plants was conducted in California in spring 1992
(Dandekar et al. permit no. 91-218-03 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Animal Plant
Health Inspection Service). Subsequently, many more have been conducted in the United States
and a few in the United Kingdom and New Zealand. These trials indicated no adverse effects of
the transformation process and normal fertile plants were produced. Yield and quality trials have
as yet to be conducted. It will be important to demonstrate via field testing that the introduction
of a single new trait by transformation does not alter the quality or productivity of the enhanced
apple cultivar.
III. ALTERNATIVES TO CHEMICAL PESTICIDES:

GENES ENCODING INSECTICIDAL PROTEINS
Insects are a significant problem in leading apple production areas like the Pacific Northwest in
the United States. Colding moth (CM) (Cydia pomonella) is the major pest and could be regarded
as the number one insect pest worldwide in apple-producing areas. It attacks fruit at the 1- to 2-
cm stage hence the name codling (“young one/baby”). Codling moth is a lepidopteran insect that
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330 Dandekar
lays eggs on fruit or leaf clusters near fruit. Larvae that emerge feed on fruit and cause consider-
able economic damage. CM larvae do not feed on the surface but burrow into the apple fruit, thus
making them difficult to control with chemical pesticides. The key pesticides azinphos methyl
(Guthion) and methyl parathion (penncapN) used to control CM have now been banned in the
United States under a 1996 law inspired to protect children who have been shown to be particu-
larly vulnerable to the poisonous pesticide residues (Doyle, 1999). Clearly, alternatives are
needed that will kill the pests and avoid chemical pesticides. One such approach in tree crops is
to use genes that encode resistance to insect pests from a variety of sources (Escobar and Dan-
dekar, 2000)
A predominant strategy to engineer resistance to CM in apple has been the expression of
genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that encode insecticidal proteins. The insecticidal activity
of Bacillus thuringiensis resides in the bacterium as a parasporal crystalline inclusion body con-
taining one or more insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs) (previously referred to as delta-endotox-
ins) (reviewed in Whiteley and Schnepf, 1986; Schnepf et al., 1998; Höfte and Whiteley, 1989).
The insecticidal properties of crystal/spore suspensions of Bacillus thuringiensis have been ex-
ploited commercially for more than 40 years in products such as Dipel (Abbot Laboratories),
Javelin (Sandoz), and Thuricide (Sandoz). When the ICP crystal is ingested by the target insect it
is solubilized in the alkaline pH of the insect midgut and acted upon by midgut protease(s), re-
leasing the active N-terminal fragment of the insecticidal crystal protein (ICPF) and killing the
insect (Höfte and Whiteley, 1989). In vitro studies have shown that the ICPF binds to specific cell
receptors on the brush border membrane of midgut epithelial cells with high specificity and high
affinity (Hofmann et al., 1988a, 1988b; Van Rie et al., 1990; Schnepf et al., 1998). In vivo, this
binding correlates with the formation of pores and membrane lesions that lead to swelling, leak-
age, and lysis of the epithelium, ultimately causing in the death of the insect through starvation
and septicemia (Knowles and Ellar, 1987; Schnepf et al., 1998). Nontarget organisms presumably
do not possess the specific cell receptors and as a result are unaffected by this protein.
The genes encoding ICPs from different Bacillus species can be categorized into different
groups on the basis of the host range of their activity and DNA sequence homology (Crickmore et
al., 1998; Höfte and Whiteley, 1989). The cryI family of genes are specific for lepidopteran species,
and cryIAc and cryIAb have been shown to be toxic to CM larvae (Vail et al., 1991). Initial stud-
ies on the expression of cryIAc in apple were performed by using unmodified gene sequences ob-
tained from Bacillus thuringiensis. This approach was based upon the success achieved in tobacco
(Vaeck et al., 1987) and tomato (Fischoff et al. 1987) against the tobacco hornworm and the to-
bacco budworm. However, transgenic apple plants containing wild-type cryIAc sequences from
Bacillus thuringiensis expressed levels of ICP insufficient to cause a significant mortality rate of
CM larvae (Dandekar et al., 1992). Similar results were obtained in walnut against CM larvae
(Dandekar et al., 1994). The cryIAc sequences from Bacillus thuringiensis were found to have sev-
eral problems that interfered with their expression in plants. The most significant problem was a
strong codon bias needed for expression in Bacillus thuringiensis. This bias involves a preference
for A/T in the third position rather than the G/C preferred in plants (Murray et al., 1989; Campbell
and Gowri, 1990). Many of the codons within the sequence also contain CG or AT in the second
and third positions, and in most eukaryotes there is an absence of XCG and XAT codons (Beutler
et al., 1989). In addition to the incompatibility observed at the codon usage level, the gene se-
quences from Bacillus thuringiensis contained many sequences that cause messenger ribonucleic
acid (mRNA) instability, including killer sequence, ATTTA (Shaw and Kamen, 1986); polyA-like
signals, AATAA (Dean et al., 1986); T-rich regions, e.g., TTTPTR or >TTTT; and A-rich regions,
e.g., >AAAA (Goodall and Filipowicz, 1989). A strategy to circumvent these problems was re-
ported by Perlak ad coworkers (1991); it involved making alterations of this gene through chemi-
cal synthesis. The gene product has the identical amino acid sequence; the major differences are
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at the nucleic acid level. This altered gene functioned very well in plants, having levels of expres-
sion >500-fold higher than the wild-type coding region from the bacteria (Perlak et al., 1991).
Chemically synthesized versions of cryIAc have been successfully introduced into apple, where
they confer high levels of mortality to CM larvae (Dandekar et al., unpublished). These trees are
currently being field-tested (USDA/APHIS permit no. 97-028-02r). Similar experiments have also
been done in walnut (Dandekar et al., 1998) and persimmon (Tao et al., 1997), where excellent ef-
ficacy has been observed against target insect larvae by using chemically synthesized versions of
cryIAc. Transgenic tissues expressing the cryIAc protein at levels as low as 0.02% of total cellu-
lar protein produced a 100% mortality rate for CM larvae (Dandekar et al., 1998).
The genes encoding ICPs of Bacillus thuringiensis can be used against some of the other
commercially significant lepidopteran pests that plague apple orchards everywhere. These in-
clude orange tortrix (Argyrotaenia citrana), apple pandemis (Pandemis prysuana), oblique
banded leafroller (Chroistoneura rosaceana), fruittree leafroller (Archips argyrosphila), omniv-
orous leafroller (Platynota sultana), western tussock moth, fruit worms (Orthosia hibisi, Am-
phipyra pyramidoies), and leafminers (Phyllomorycter spp.). Typically these lepidopteran insects
are taken care of by chemical pesticides and are more of a problem with organically grown ap-
ples. However, the ICPs of Bacillus thuringiensis display a strong differential toxicity and there-
fore it would be important to check, in addition to CM, that these other caterpillars are also sus-
ceptible. All apple orchard locations are different and may have a range of pests in addition to
CM. Aphid mite and scale problems are usually associated with the use of chemical pesticides be-
cause they kill the predators for these insects. One of the great benefits of a transgenic orchard ex-
pressing ICPs would be the greatly enhanced opportunity to integrate biocontrol strategies. The
predators for mites, aphids, and scale would flourish in a transgenic apple orchard because no
chemical pesticides would be sprayed, and this would mean less aphid, mite, and scale problems
and less chemical used to control them.
IV. RESISTANCE DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Given their persistence and stability in the ecosystem, trees expressing a single resistance gene
that may have a strong potential to induce the selection of resistance in an insect populations
(Raffa, 1989). The biopesticides containing the Bacillus thuringiensis–encoded ICPs have en-
joyed a spotless 30+ year commercial record and safe history of usefulness in the field with no
evidence of resistance development. However, this situation has changed since the early 1990s
with several findings of resistance development (Ferré et al., 1991; Sims and Stone, 1991;
Tabashnik et al., 1990, 1991). Reports have appeared on the development of resistance under
postharvest conditions of extreme selection pressure in stored grain products (McGaughey, 1985;
McGaughey and Johnson, 1987 and McGaughey and Beeman, 1988), and under deliberate se-
lection conditions in the laboratory (Sims and Stone, 1991; Stone et al., 1989). Studies on the
mechanism of resistance indicate that it may be due to a decrease in the binding affinity between
the insect’s midgut brush border membrane and the insecticidal protein (Van Rie et al., 1990;
MacIntosh et al., 1991; Ferré et al., 1991). In most cases resistance was recessive, suggesting that
strategies involving the presence of refugia would be useful to prevent the development of resis-
tance. In these strategies, untransformed plants serve as refugia and are planted within the trans-
genic population to help maintain a viable susceptible population that would breed out resistance
(Gould, 1998; Roush, 1998). Another resistance management strategy is to have plants express-
ing high levels of ICP that will kill not only the susceptible insects but also the heterozygous re-
sistant insects. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1998 defined the high dose as 25
times the level required to kill 99% of susceptible insects (Gould, 1998). In 1999 an incompletely
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332 Dandekar
dominant resistance allele was reported in Ostrinia nubilalis (European corn borer) (Huang et al.,
1999). This is the first report of a dominant ICP resistance allele, and this type of resistance will
be difficult to manage with the two strategies described. Dominant resistance to ICPs could be
controlled by expressing additional insecticidal genes that do not share the same mode of action,
gene pyramiding. Clearly, research is needed to clarify the mechanism of resistance and then de-
velop and deploy a resistance management strategy for codling moth in apple.
V. ENGINEERING DISEASE-RESISTANT APPLES
Among the most significant diseases in apple are scab, caused by the fungus Venturia inaequalis,
and fire blight, caused by the bacteria Erwinia amylovora. Both diseases are spread in cool, moist
conditions and cause significant losses worldwide. The two general strategies to obtain resistance
to pathogens are (a) to clone disease resistance genes from resistant varieties and (b) to test indi-
vidual genes that directly affect growth and multiplication of the pathogen. Resistance genes trig-
ger a plant defense response through a gene-for-gene interaction (reviewed in Maleck and Law-
ton, 1998; Staskawicz et al., 1995). Resistance to apple scab, referred to as the Vf gene, is present
in Malus floribunda and has been introgressed into several apple varieties, such as ‘Prima.’ In
1998 the map position of the Vf gene was determined in a mapping population that included prog-
eny from a cross between the apple cultivars ‘Prima’ and ‘Fiesta’ (Maliepaard et al., 1998). Di-
rect genetic approaches using simple sequence repeats to identify markers that will link the Vf
gene to unique DNA fragments are also being investigated (Gianfranceschi et al., 1998). About
16 markers have been identified from a molecular genetic analysis of 19 Malus × domestica
(Borkh.) cultivars or selections each that have germplasm from Malus floribunda (Gianfranceschi
et al., 1996, 1998). Tightly linked random amplified polymorph DNA (RAPD) markers have also
been developed for a Vf gene that gives resistance to five races of Venturia inaequalis (Hemmat
et al., 1998). Once the Vf gene is cloned, transformation experiments can be used to introduce this
into apple cultivars of choice and to verify resistance to Venturia inaequalis. Alternative ap-
proaches to engineer resistance have involved the expression of exochitinase (Bolar et al., 1998)
and endochitinase (Bolar et al., 1997). Transgenic apple plants expressing high levels of endo-
chitinase show resistance to Venturia inaequalis; however, the growth and development of the
transgenic plants are stunted (Bolar et al., 1997). Approaches to obtain resistance to the fire
blight–causing organism Erwinia amylovora in apple have involved expression of genes encod-
ing lytic peptides. Success was obtained with the expression of the lytic peptide attacin E in the
apple rootstock Malling 26, providing good resistance to the pathogenic bacteria (Norelli et al.,
1994). In addition to scion cultivars, rootstocks are particularly sensitive to Erwinia amylovora.
Unfortunately, the transgenic Malling 26 turned out to be Malling 7, which are naturally resistant
to fire blight. Additional genes are currently being tested.
VI. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM IN APPLES
In addition to sucrose and starch, apple plants accumulate sorbitol. Sorbitol, the sugar alcohol of
glucose, is a predominant sugar found in apple. It is synthesized in mature leaves and translocated
to fruit, where it is converted to fructose. The sugar alcohol sorbitol appears to be widely distrib-
uted in nature, where it can be found in species of bacteria, insects, animals, yeasts, algae, fungi,
and higher plants (Touster and Shaw 1962; Bieleski 1982). However, certain woody members of
the Rosaceae family, including Malus, Pyrus, Prunus, and Sorbus spp., appear to be unique in the
entire plant kingdom with respect to their ability to synthesize, accumulate, and degrade sorbitol
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(Bieleski 1982; Loescher 1987). In apple trees, sorbitol is believed to be the major photosynthetic
product, translocated from the mature leaves to growing tissues such as fruits and young leaves
(Bieleski 1969; Webb and Burley 1962; Zimmermann and Ziegler, 1975).
At the biochemical level, as shown in Fig. 1, sorbitol metabolism occurs as a result of two
significant reactions that represent the rate-limiting steps in this pathway. One results in the for-
mation of sorbitol 6-phosphate from glucose 6-phosphate by aldose 6-phosphate reductase (EC
1.1.1.200) in photosynthetic tissues (mature leaves), referred to here as sorbitol 6-phosphate de-
hydrogenase (S6PDH). The second results in the conversion of sorbitol to fructose by sorbitol de-
hydrogenase (SDH) in sink tissues (fruit and young developing leaves). These two enzymes ap-
pear to be the critical steps in sorbitol metabolism, and this view is supported by the following
pieces of evidence: (a) The labeling pattern of photosynthates in mature apricot leaves suggests
that sorbitol synthesis occurs through the intermediate sorbitol 6-phosphate (Bieleski and Redg-
well, 1977, Negm and Loescher 1981; Ridgwell and Bieleski, 1978). (b) The purification of
S6PDH from leaves of apple (Kanayama and Yamaki, 1993) and loquat (Hirai, 1981) and the de-
tection of the enzyme in leaves of pear, peach, apricot (Negm and Loescher, 1981) and eight other
species of plants from the three subfamilies of Rosaceae (Hirai, 1981) show this enzyme is wide-
spread in plants synthesizing sorbitol. (c) Unlike mature leaves, which mainly produce [14C] sor-
bitol from 14CO2, very young apricot leaves mainly produce [14C] sucrose and no [14C] sorbitol.
The young apricot leaves, however, apparently import sorbitol by translocation from older leaves
(Bieleski and Redgwell, 1985). (d) Seasonal changes in sorbitol level coincide with the amount
of S6PDH (Hirai, 1983; Sakanishi et al., 1998; Yamaki and Ishikawa 1986). (e) The S6PDH from
apple was purified, and the complementary DNA (cDNA) coding for this enzyme was cloned
(Kanayama et al., 1992, Kanayama and Yamaki, 1993). Expression of this cDNA in tobacco was
sufficient for the synthesis of sorbitol (Tao, et al., 1995). Expression of sense and antisense cDNA
encoding S6PDH in apple results in the suppression of sorbitol accumulation in transgenic apple
plants (Dandekar et al., USDA-APHIS permit no. 97-037-02r), indicating that S6PDH is the key
enzyme involved in sorbitol biosynthesis. (f) SDH was detected in apple fruit (Negm and
Loescher, 1979; Yamaki, 1980) and was purified and cDNA-identified (Kanayama and Yamaki,
Figure 1 Sorbitol metabolism in apple (Rosaceae).
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334 Dandekar
1994; Yamada et al., 1998). The levels of SDH are highly regulated during the development of
apple fruit (Yamaguchi et al., 1996). (g) Very young apple leaves contain SDH but no S6PDH ac-
tivity, whereas the mature leaves mainly have S6PDH (Negm and Loescher, 1981); this was re-
lated to leaf carbohydrate levels and net photosynthesis, indicating that sorbitol metabolism in
apple is tightly controlled and may be related to mechanisms regulating partitioning of source and
sink activity (Loescher et al., 1982). (h) A phosphatase enzyme (sorbitol 6-phosphatase) removes
the phosphate moiety from sorbitol 6-phosphate to form the translocated sorbitol (Grant and Ap
Rees, 1981). (i) In 1998 the genomic sequences of S6PDH characterized from Malus domestica
cv. Greensleeves’ (apple) revealed that they are highly conserved among various members of the
family Rosaceae (Bains et al., 1998). Taken together, these data provide evidence that in many of
the Rosaceae the sorbitol produced as a result of photosynthesis occurs exclusively through
S6PDH, whereas the utilization is primarily through SDH. These observations support the idea
that the anabolic and catabolic pathways for sorbitol accumulation are different and under sepa-
rate genetic and metabolic control.
The partitioning of assimilated carbon limits both rate and pattern of vegetative and repro-
ductive growth in plants. One of the genetic approaches currently being used to study carbon par-
titioning in apple involves using transgenic plants expressing antisense/sense S6PDH or SDH
(Dandekar et al., USDA-APHIS permit no. 97-037-02r). The results of these experiments could
help link genetically the key carbon metabolic pathways with the regulatory enzymatic steps. In
turn this information will help provide a better understanding of the relationship in apple between
source organs involved in partitioning assimilated carbons like sucrose and sorbitol and various
sink organs utilizing these translocated sugars. Additionally, learning more about these pathways
and developing the means to manipulate them will have an impact not only on the yield of bio-
mass but also on the yield of important quantitative traits of the apple crop.
Sorbitol may play a role in the ability of apple plants to respond to environmental stress.
Several physiological roles have been proposed for sugar alcohols in general in higher plants; they
may act as compatible solutes, protectants to stabilize membranes, and carbon storage com-
pounds (Lewis, 1984; Schobert, 1977). The most important role reported is that sugar alcohols
serve as osmolytes in response to water, salt, and other abiotic stress (Tarczynski et al., 1993;
Wang et al., 1995; Wang and Stutte, 1992). The accumulation of sugar alcohols helps the cell gain
more water through osmotic adjustment (Turner and Jones, 1992; Morgan, 1984). Much attention
has been given to mannitol and its involvement in salt tolerance, but relatively little information
exists on the importance of the sugar alcohol sorbitol in higher plants. So far it has also been im-
plicated in the process of osmotic adjustment to overcome decreasing water potential created by
environmental stress in cherry (Ranney et al., 1991), apple leaves in response to drought stress
(Wang et al., 1995; Wang et al., 1996; Wang and Stutte, 1992), cold hardiness (Raese et al., 1978;
Whetter and Taper, 1966), increased photosynthesis via elevated CO2 level (Pan and Quebedeaux,
1995), and protein stabilization during dessication (Wimmer et al., 1997). In 1997 Moing and
coworkers suggested that sorbitol variability is related to the geographical origin of Prunus
species. The study of transgenic apple plants expressing antisense transgenes that inhibit the syn-
thesis or degradation of sorbitol will provide genetic approaches to study some of these issues.
VII. ETHYLENE BIOSYNTHESIS IN APPLES
Ethylene is an important plant growth regulator that affects diverse plant processes, including
fruit ripening, senescence, and response to biotic and abiotic stress (Ecker, 1995; Ecker and
Davis, 1987; Kieber and Ecker, 1993; McKeon and Yang, 1987; Reid, 1987). At a molecular level
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ethylene has been shown to mediate the expression of specific genes involved in ripening (Fluhr
and Mattoo, 1996; Theologis, 1994) and stress (Ecker, 1995; Kieber and Ecker, 1993, Jackson
1997).
The physiological and biochemical characteristics of apple ripening have been reviewed
comprehensively by Hulme (1958, 1971). Much of the classical work on fruit ripening was done
with apple. Kidd and West (1922) observed the characteristic rise in respiration when apples are
detached from the tree and stored at normal ripening temperatures. They called the phenomenon
climacteric (Kidd and West, 1925). In 1932, Kidd and West (1933) showed that vapors produced
from ripe apples caused unripe apples to go through the characteristic climacteric rise in respira-
tion and to ripen. Gane (1934, 1935) demonstrated that the active component of the vapors was
ethylene. The gaseous hormone ethylene plays an important role in the ripening of apples, with
an excellent correlation between the level of ethylene in the apple fruit and the extent of its shelf
life and eating quality. Selections with inherently low ethylene production can be generated in
progeny of a cross that involves a low ethylene producer as one of the parents (Stow et al., 1993).
1-Amino cyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of ethyl-
ene and the rate-limiting step (Adams and Yang, 1979; McKeon and Yang, 1987). The biosyn-
thetic pathway from methionine involves the enzyme ACC synthase, which converts SAM to
ACC. ACC is then converted to ethylene by the ethylene-forming enzyme (EFE) or ACC oxidase,
as shown in Fig. 2.
Complementary DNA corresponding to messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) of both ACC
synthase (Sato and Theologis, 1989; Van Der Straeten et al., 1990; Huang et al., 1991) and EFE/
ACC oxidase (Hamilton et al., 1991; Spanu et al., 1991) has been cloned. The cDNA from these
genes expressed in the antisense orientation causes a decrease in the biosynthesis of ethylene and
a delay in ripening (Hamilton et al., 1990; Oeller et al., 1991; Theologis, 1994). The ACC syn-
thase enzyme has been purified from apple (Yip et al., 1991), and the cDNA encoding its mRNA
has also been isolated (Dong et al., 1991). The EFE or ACC oxidase has been characterized from
apple (Fernandez-Maculet and Yang, 1992), and the cDNA encoding the mRNA has also been
isolated (Dong et al., 1992). Alternative approaches to control the level of ethylene are through
Figure 2 Metabolic conversion of methionine to ethylene: key steps for the control of ethylene biosyn-
thesis.
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336 Dandekar
the expression of an enzyme that metabolizes ACC via expression of an enzyme from bacteria
called ACC deaminase (Klee et al., 1991) or through the tissue-specific expression of the enzyme
SAM hydrolase (Good et al., 1994) or SAM decarboxylase (Metha et al., 1997, 1999), which me-
tabolizes SAM (see Fig. 2). The latter approaches render the precursor, SAM or ACC, unavail-
able for ethylene biosynthesis (Fluhr and Mattoo, 1996; Theologis, 1994).
Many physiological, genetic, and developmental factors influence the storability and eating
quality of apples. Two types of indices are used to determine eating quality. One is visual appeal,
the other is physiological maturity, which includes acidity, ethylene or CO2 concentration, solu-
ble solids, flesh firmness, and starch level. These have been standardized for each cultivar and are
also used to predict harvest dates and to determine storage time. The concentration of ethylene is
key to all and has a profound influence on all the maturity indices. Therefore, the control of eth-
ylene biosynthesis in apple could be the key to control not only shelf life but also eating quality.
This is being investigated through the expression of antisense mRNA or through the expression
of other genes that interfere in the synthesis of ethylene as explained (Fig. 2). Currently, trans-
genic apple plants with alteration in ethylene biosynthesis are being field-tested using the fol-
lowing approaches: (a) expression of antisense/sense ACC synthase (Dandekar et al., USDA-
APHIS permit no. 97-037-02r) and (b) expression of antisense/sense EFE (Dandekar et al.,
USDA-APHIS permit no. 97-037-02r). It will be some time before the impact of these approaches
on apple shelf life and quality can be fully determined.
VIII. OTHER QUALITY TRAITS
Skin color in apples is an important trait, as a deep red color is preferred commercially and aes-
thetically. The skin color of apple is a blend of a variety of different components that include an-
thocyanins/flavanols, carotenoids, and chlorophyll. The yellow/green color is due to the synthe-
sis of chlorophyll and carotenoids in the plastids. However, the red color is due to the synthesis
of anthocyanins and flavonols that accumulate in the vacuole. The anthocyanins are highly regu-
lated by the environment (Saure, 1990). There is good information available on the exact bio-
chemical nature of the pigments present in apple (Lancaster and Dougall, 1992). Engineering skin
color may be possible, as the basic pathways for pigment biosynthesis have been worked out in
flowers (Meyer et al., 1987; Mol et al., 1989). However, more specific aspects of the pathways
need to be worked out in apple, for example, the possible pathways for the synthesis of cyanidin
glycosides, proanthocyanidins (like catechin), and flavonols (like quercetin glycoside). Some of
this information has been accumulated (Lister et al., 1997). Additionally, skin color is highly reg-
ulated during fruit development and ripening (Lister et al., 1996). Therefore, modifications in
apple skin color will need to be engineered in a tissue-specific and developmental stage–specific
pattern, and this process would require the identification of specific regulatory sequences.
Changes in texture are an important feature in the eating quality of apple; a firm breaking
texture is desirable. Understanding the softening process could lead to better control against
“mealiness.” In many climacteric fruits dramatic changes in texture and cell wall structure take
place during the ripening process, dominated by the autocatalytic synthesis of ethylene. There-
fore, some of the changes in texture and quality can be attributed to the direct action of ethylene.
The regulation of endopolygalacturonase in apple has been studied and may be involved in soft-
ening (Wu et al., 1993).
Controlling metabolic activity during storage is especially important to control a variety of
abiotic problems in apple such as watercore, bitter pit, and storage scald. It will be interesting to
study antisense S6PDH apple plants that have very low levels of sorbitol in their fruit to see
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whether their potential to develop watercore has been altered. Watercore areas are high in sorbitol,
and it is thought that the accumulation of sorbitol leads to cellular damage by osmotic lysis of
cells accumulating sorbitol. Metabolic activity caused by stress in storage fruit can lead to the for-
mation of reactive oxygen species (ROIs), leading to problems like storage scald. Oxidative stress
has been implicated in causing cellular damage when tissues are exposed to a variety of stressful
conditions, including high light intensity, extremes of temperature, salinity, heavy metals, herbi-
cides, and a variety of toxins. One of the important ROI scavenging systems in plants is the en-
zyme superoxide desmutase (SOD). Transgenic plants expressing elevated levels of SOD were
protected from the damaging effects of ROIs (Allen et al., 1997). SODs are a class of metallo-
proteins that catalyze the dismutation of the superoxide radical to hydrogen peroxide and oxygen
and are present as various isoenzyme forms in different fruit, including apple (Manganaris and
Alston, 1997).
Studies in 1997 showed that polyphenol constituents derived from fruits like apple are more
effective antioxidants in vitro than vitamins C and E and thus may be more valuable for protec-
tion in vivo. Therefore, the active ingredient in “an apple a day keeps the doctor away” may well
be the phytochemical component of the apple fruit. The phytochemical components include
flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, and phenolic acids and have been highlighted as important con-
tributing factors in the antioxidant activity in our diet (Rice-Evans et al., 1997). In apple, flavonols
like quercetin and flavones like rutin may be important (Rice-Evans et al., 1997). As more is
learned about the pathways for the synthesis of these compounds their amounts can then be mod-
ulated. Some of these compounds are responsible for color, so modification of their levels may
also influence fruit appearance.
A significant problem with “fresh cut” or “juice” processed apples is enzymatic browning,
a widespread problem in the food industry. This is a readily observable problem in bruised and
wounded fruit. The browning reaction is due to enzymatic action and not a Maillard-type nonen-
zymatic browning. The enzyme involved is polyphenol oxidase (PPO; EC 1.10.3.1), also referred
to as catechol oxidase, phenolase, and o-diphenol oxygen oxidoreductase, it is widely distributed
among terrestrial and aquatic plant species (Sherman et al., 1991). Another enzyme, tyrosinase
(monophenol, dihydroxyphenalanine: oxygen oxidoreductase, EC 1.14.18.1), also catalyzes both
the orthohydroxylation of monophenols and the oxidation of o-diphenols to o-quinones (Lerch,
1981). This copper-containing enzyme is also widely distributed in nature, where it is responsi-
ble for the formation of melanin pigments (Bell and Wheeler, 1986; Walker and Ferrar, 1998).
Whereas several important functions and properties can be ascribed to melanin pigments (Bell
and Wheeler, 1986), biological and physiological studies have provided few answers toward the
understanding of PPO function and expression in plants. Evidence from the 1990s suggests that
these enzymes may have a role in disease (Walker and Ferrar, 1998) and pest resistance (Steffens
et al., 1994). What is known is that PPO mRNA is highly regulated both developmentally and
temporally in plants (Hunt et al., 1993), and different forms are present in the skin and flesh of
apple fruit (Robinson SP, personal communication). Antisense expression of the PPO in apple is
a potential approach to reduce the enzymatic browning of apple flesh. Antisense expression will
need to be targeted to fruit tissue to prevent interference with PPO expression elsewhere in the
plant that may be important for disease/pest resistance.
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23
Genetic Transformation of Avocado
Richard E. Litz and Witjaksono

University of Florida, Homestead, Florida
I. INTRODUCTION 345
A. Taxonomy 345
B. History of the Crop 346
II. GENETICS AND BREEDING 347
A. Scion Cultivars 348
B. Rootstock Cultivars 350
III. SOMATIC CELL GENETIC MANIPULATION 351
A. Somatic Embryogenesis 351
B. Genetic Transformation 352
IV. CONCLUSION 353
REFERENCES 353
I. INTRODUCTION
The avocado Persea americana Mill. (family Lauraceae) is a major fruit crop of the tropics and
subtropics. World production is nearly 2,000,000 metric tons, and the avocado ranks 10th in total
production among fruit crops after Musa spp. (banana and plantain), Citrus spp. (all types), grape,
apple, mango, pear, plum, peach, and papaya (1). The major production areas are in the Western
Hemisphere, with the exception of Australia, South Africa, Israel, and Indonesia. The most im-
portant producing countries are Mexico, the United States, Brazil, Dominican Republic, and In-
donesia. In the United States, annual production of avocado ranks after that of Citrus spp. (all
types), grape, apple, peach, and pear (2) with an annual value of ca. $210 million. There are two
major production areas of avocados in the United States: Southern California and Miami-Dade
County, Florida. Mexico, the United States, Israel, South Africa, and Australia are the leading av-
ocado exporting countries. Although most avocados are consumed as fresh fruit, there is also a
limited demand for fruit for processing.
A. Taxonomy
The genus Persea consists of species in two subgenera, Eriodaphne and Persea (3). The avocado
and most of the large-seeded Persea spp. are included in the subgenus Persea. Central America,
345
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346 Litz and Witjaksono
most probably the area that includes Guatemala, Honduras, and the southernmost part of Mexico,
e.g., the state of Chiapas, is considered to be the probable center of origin of the avocado (3).
There are three horticultural varieties of avocado, Mexican, Guatemalan, and West Indian, and
they appear to have evolved under different ecogeographical conditions (4). The Guatemalan type
is a native of the highlands of Guatemala; the Mexican type possibly originated in the highlands
of south central Mexico; the West Indian avocados, despite the name, may have originated in the
Pacific lowlands of Central America (4). Williams (5,6) considered that the West Indian avocado
might have evolved from the Mexican type, becoming adapted to a warmer, tropical climate.
B. History of the Crop

The avocado was first domesticated in Mexico. Ancestors of cultivated avocados were utilized as
a food by hunter-gatherers as early as 7000 b.c. Avocado seeds that have been dated from this pe-
riod have been collected from caves in the Tehuacan region (7). These ancient seeds are substan-
tially smaller than those of modern fruit, indicating that there has been continuous selection over
thousands of years for fruit size.
Currently, avocados are produced in tropical and subtropical North and South America and
Australia, Israel and Indonesia (Asia), and subtropical parts of Africa. Mexico is by far the largest
producer of avocados, followed by the United States, Dominican Republic, Indonesia, Brazil, Is-
rael, and Colombia (Fig. 1). Because different varieties of avocados are suited to different climate
conditions, there is no single cultivar that is grown throughout its range of cultivation. ‘Hass,’ a
complex hybrid with Mexican and Guatemalan lineage, and ‘Fuerte,’ a Mexican × Guatemalan
hybrid (8), are the most important cultivars; they are grown in the tropical highlands, in the sub-
tropics, and in areas with a Mediterranean climate, e.g., California (United States), Mexico, Aus-
tralia, South Africa, and Israel. Both cultivars originated as chance seedling trees (9). Guatemalan
avocados are usually grown at medium elevations in the tropics. The West Indian (e.g., ‘Sim-
monds’ and ‘Waldin’) and West Indian × Guatemalan hybrids (e.g., ‘Choquette’ and ‘Monroe’)
predominate in the lowland tropics throughout the Americas, including Florida (United States).
Dom. Rep.
6.9%
Figure 1 Leading avocado-producing countries. (From Ref. 1.)
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Genetic Transformation of Avocado 347
Figure 2 World trade of avocados—major importing countries. (From Ref. 1.)
The export and U.S. market for avocados is dominated by ‘Hass.’ France is the leading im-
porter of fresh avocados, followed by the United States, United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Ger-
many (Fig. 2). West Indian and West Indian × Guatemalan cultivars have failed to gain a large
market share in the United States largely because of postharvest problems (discussed later). The
value of avocado exports has been estimated to be approximately U.S.$233,627,000 (1).
II. GENETICS AND BREEDING
Modern avocado cultivars are selections that have been made from openly pollinated trees. There
has been very little conventional breeding of avocados because of their heterogeneity and long ju-
venile period. A few scion variety selections are currently under evaluation, including ‘Gwen,’
‘Lamb Hass,’ and ‘Sir Prize.’ The mode of inheritance of only one genetic trait of avocado has
been identified: the dwarfing character of P. schiedeana, which has been attributed to a single
gene (10). According to Lavi and coworkers (11,12), morphological traits in avocado are proba-
bly coded by several loci with several alleles in each locus.
Molecular tools for marker identification and mapping are increasingly being exploited.
Using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and microsatellite markers, Davis and
colleagues (13) are attempting to determine the paternal origins of important avocado cultivars
and the frequency of outcrossing in populations of avocados in southern California. The rela-
tionship among avocado cultivars and among different Persea species has been explored by
Mhameed and associates (14), using microsatellite markers. Mhameed and coworkers (15) have
reported a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) marker that is associated with fruit color. Linkage of a
DNA marker with flesh fiber has also been reported (16). Such correlations together with a link-
age map should eventually allow marker assisted selection for avocado improvement.
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Avocado improvement programs have focused on both scion and rootstock cultivar devel-
opment. Currently, the most active breeding programs are located at the University of California
(Riverside), in the United States, and the Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, in Israel.
A. Scion Cultivars
The world export market for avocados is based almost exclusively upon ‘Hass’ and ‘Fuerte.’ A
number of cultivars that closely resemble ‘Hass’ have been released in recent years in order to re-
place this selection, partially, including ‘Gwen,’ ‘Jim,’ ‘Reed,’ and ‘Lamb Hass’; however, none
of these selections has been able to compete effectively with ‘Hass.’ The primary breeding ob-
jectives include both fruit characters and tree size and form. A dwarf habit and precocity of bear-
ing are considered to be very important, e.g., the ‘Colin V-33’ selection (17). Resistance to major
fruit and foliar diseases, e.g., anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz., al-
ternaria rot caused by Alternaria alternata (FR.: FR.) Keissel, and avocado sun blotch caused by
the avocado sun blotch viroid, is imperative.
1. Control of Fruit Ripening

Mexican-type avocado fruit have been demonstrated to be strongly climacteric (18), having a
biphasic ripening phase. A fixed climacteric phase has been shown to be preceded by a variable
lag phase (19). Low levels of endogenous ethylene accumulate during the lag phase and possibly
trigger the climacteric as sensitivity to ethylene increases (20,21). Once initiated, however, ripen-
ing cannot be arrested. Mature fruit remain on the tree during the lag phase, and ripening begins
to occur only after the fruit are picked (22). Mexican and Guatemalan types of avocados can be
maintained on the tree for 2–6 months, as the fruit continues to accumulate oil (23). Since ripen-
ing of these avocado types is initiated only after picking, avocado fruit can be “stored” on the tree
until the price of fresh fruit is high enough. A consequence of this strategy of prolonged “on-tree-
storage,” however, is loss of production during the subsequent year, i.e., alternate bearing.
Fruit of West Indian and West Indian × Guatemalan hybrids cannot be stored on the trees
for more than 2–3 months, and this trait is strongly cultivar-dependent (22). Consequently, in
tropical zones, several avocado cultivars must be grown to ensure availability of fruit through
much of the year. In Florida, for example, approximately 30 avocado cultivars are commercially
grown in order to ensure fruit availability from the end of May through the beginning of March
(24). Establishing uniform market standards for West Indian and Guatemalan × West Indian avo-
cados has therefore been difficult. Extending the on-the-tree storage life of West Indian and
Guatemalan × West Indian avocados could revolutionize the industry in tropical countries, re-
sulting in fewer cultivars, higher fruit quality, and easier marketing.
According to Burg and Burg (25), ripening of avocado fruit can be initiated by exposure of
mature fruit to 0.1 ppm ethylene, although Biale (22) has indicated that 10 ppm ethylene was re-
quired to initiate ripening of ‘Fuerte’ fruit. Studies have indicated that ripening can be slowed, al-
though not stopped, by removal of ethylene from the storage atmosphere (26). The shelf life of
fresh fruit can be manipulated to some degree by blocking the action of ethylene through the
use of controlled atmospheres or ethylene absorbents, e.g., KMnO4 or activated charcoal or vana-
dium oxide; however the effectiveness of ethylene removal is variable. Like most fruit, the avo-
cado ripens naturally from the inner to the outer mesocarp, whereas ethylene-induced ripening
triggers ripening from the outside to the inside of the fruit (27). Thus, ethylene treatments to in-
duce fruit ripening often result in unequally distributed ripening. Low temperature (6–13°C, de-
pending on the cultivar) storage can also slow ripening; however, fruit quality and appearance can
be negatively affected, particularly for Guatemalan × West Indian cultivars (28).
Ripening of avocado fruits is associated with softening of the flesh. This is probably caused
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by the concerted action of different cell wall hydrolases, whose activity changes during ripening,
thereby altering the properties of many cell wall constituents. Knee and Bartley (29), for exam-
ple, showed that fruit cells walls contain relatively more pectic and less hemicellulosic material
than other plant cell walls, with a larger proportion of middle lamella to primary cell wall than
other organs. Ripening of avocado and other fruits has been associated with the increased mobi-
lization of polygalacturonases and cellulase (30–33). The presence of cell wall–degrading en-
zymes in fruit tissue may not necessarily imply that the enzymes are implicated in the ripening
process but may represent a general feature that involves a metabolically active cell wall (31).
Fruit cells retain the capacity for protein synthesis during ripening (33). During ripening,
avocado fruit synthesize ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and poly A+
RNA (34,35), and these can be translated in vitro. Christoffersen and coworkers (36) demon-
strated that different messenger RNAs (mRNAs) increase during the climacteric rise in respira-
tion and ethylene production of ripening avocado fruit. The changes in mRNA and protein popu-
lations that occur during ripening reflect changes in gene expression. Among the mRNAs that
have been isolated from ripening avocado fruits, Christoffersen and associates (37) showed that
the message for cellulase was encoded, Bozak and coworkers (38) identified the message for cy-
tochrome P-450 oxidase and McGarvey and colleagues (39) isolated a protein, pAVOe3, which
was homologous with pTOM13 that was isolated from ripening tomato fruit (40). The applica-
tion of exogenous ethylene can cause increased expression of many of these genes (30); Buse and
Laties (41) demonstrated that ethylene mediates posttranscriptional regulation of cellulase, cy-
tochrome P-450 oxidase, polygalacturonase, and 1-amino cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)
oxidase during avocado fruit ripening. Dopico and coworkers (42) and Kutsunai coworkers (43)
have isolated polygalacturonase cDNA and have demonstrated that ripening-related genes are ei-
ther absent or present at a low level in immature fruit. Ethylene is therefore pivotal for control-
ling ripening of avocado fruit.
The immediate precursor of ethylene is ACC, which is derived from S-adenosylmethionine
(SAM). The two key enzymes that catalyze the conversion of SAM to ACC and of ACC to ethyl-
ene are ACC synthase and ACC oxidase, respectively (44). S-adenosylmethionine is also pivotal
for several other biosynthetic pathways, which include polyamine production, phospholipid syn-
thesis, and DNA methylation.
The expression of certain genes in transgenic plants can be accomplished by introducing
the gene constructed to generate antisense RNA (45), causing the expression of specific genes to
be diminished and permitting their identification and assessment of their function during ripen-
ing. Genetic transformation has been utilized successfully to interfere with ethylene action. Sup-
pression of ethylene biosynthesis in fruit during their development should also suppress ripening.
In fact, Hamilton and associates (46) and Oeller and coworkers (47) transformed tomato with
ACC synthase and ACC oxidase in the antisense, respectively, and were able to suppress fruit
ripening. In the presence of ethylene, the inhibition of ethylene biosynthesis could be overcome,
resulting in normally ripened fruit. This could have a significant impact on handling of avocado
fruit post harvest, particularly of the West Indian type, which have poor shelf life and cannot be
stored on the tree.
2. Avocado Sun Blotch Disease

Sun blotch disease is caused by a viroid and is pervasive in many germplasm collections of avo-
cado and in commercial plantings. Not until in 1997 was a reliable screening procedure for avo-
cado sunblotch viroid developed (48). Conventional strategies for producing disease-indexed
plants from bacteria- or virus-infected plants have never been confirmed for a disease caused by
a viroid; however, Sano and colleagues (49) have demonstrated a strategy for conferring resis-
tance of potato to potato spindle tuber viroid based upon transformation with yeast-derived dou-
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ble-stranded RNA-specific ribonuclease pac 1. Such a strategy could be effective for controlling
avocado sunblotch disease.
B. Rootstock Cultivars
1. Phytophthora Root Rot Resistance
The major constraint for avocado production throughout much of its range is a serious root rot
disease caused by the soilborne pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands. It has been estimated
that phytophthora root rot (PRR) causes annual losses in the United States alone of approximately
$30 million (50). There is no true resistance to the disease within the species, although a few root-
stock selections that have good tolerance of PRR have been made (51,52). Tolerance of PRR by
‘Duke 7’ is associated with rapid growth of the feeder root system, which outpaces destruction of
the root system by the pathogen. ‘Thomas’ is a recent rootstock selection that outperforms ‘Duke
7’ in many avocado producing areas of southern California that are heavily affected by PRR
(53–55). ‘Martin Grande,’ a hybrid of avocado and P. schiedeana, also appears to have good tol-
erance of PRR in certain locations; however, it is currently under field trial. The rootstock selec-
tion ‘PP4,’ a seedling of ‘Barr Duke’ tentatively named ‘Zentmyer,’ appears to be more tolerant
of PRR than ‘Thomas’ in many locations in southern California (54,55). Phytophthora root
rot–tolerant rootstocks have generally been selected from mature trees that have survived in soils
that are heavily infested with the pathogen (escapes). Their performance under controlled condi-
tions has been determined after vegetative propagation by the specialized etiolation technique
(56). This technique involves graftage of rootstock (as scion) onto a young seedling, followed by
etiolation. Rooting of the etiolated shoot is induced by wounding and the rooted shoot is utilized
as clonal rootstock.
According to Zentmyer and Schroeder (57), Persea species within the subgenus Erio-
daphne are highly resistant to PRR. The Eriodaphne species, e.g., P. borbonia, P. cinerascens,
and P. pachypoda, are generally small-seeded. The PRR-resistant species are sexually and graft-
incompatible with Persea species in the subgenus Persea (58). Therefore, this source of resistance
to the pathogen is inaccessible for use as rootstock using conventional genetic approaches.
The potential for using somatic hybridization to make wide interspecific crosses between
avocado and the PRR-resistant species in the subgenus Eriodaphne was proposed by Pliego-Al-
faro and Bergh (59) as a way of developing a new generation of PRR-resistant rootstocks. Wit-
jaksono and coworkers (60) demonstrated that avocado could be regenerated from protoplasts
isolated from embryogenic cultures and has carried out preliminary fusion studies (61).
There is considerable likelihood that PRR of avocado can be controlled by using one or
more transgenic approaches. Transformation of existing rootstock or scion cultivars with rol
genes from Agrobacterium rhizogenes could result in more vigorous growth of the root system
(62,63). Faster root regeneration and growth have been associated with PRR resistance (64).
Another strategy could involve the transformation of avocado with genes that are associ-
ated with the constitutive expression of pathogensis-related (PR) proteins, e.g., β-1,3-glucanase,
plant defensin, and ribosome inactivating proteins (65,66). Plants that have been transformed
with these genes generally show enhanced tolerance to infection by pathogens (67). The hyphal
walls of P. cinnamomi, an oomycete, are composed largely of glucan with β-1,3 and β-1,6 link-
ages (68). Overexpression of soybean β-1,3-glucanase in tobacco has been demonstrated to con-
fer resistance to fungal disease (69); however, Yi and Huang (70) demonstrated that both β-1,3-
glucanase and chitinase are induced after infection of soybean by Phytophthora megasperma f.sp.
glycinea and suggested that both PR proteins may be necessary for control of growth of the
pathogen. In fact, a combination of two antifungal proteins in transgenic plants has been shown
to have a synergistic effect (71,72). Genetic transformation of the best avocado rootstock culti-
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vars, e.g., ‘Duke 7’ or ‘Thomas,’ with a combination of antifungal proteins should augment ex-
isting tolerance of PRR in these selections. Moreover, genetic transformation of scion selections
with the same genes under the control of a root-specific promoter should permit these cultivars to
be grown on their own roots.
2. Salinity Tolerance
According to Embleton and associates (73), Ben-Ya’acov (74), and Gustafson and coworkers
(75), the resistance to salinity is greater in West Indian avocado roots than in Mexican or
Guatemalan avocado roots. The productivity of plants that are grown under high soil salinity in-
clude reduced yields and tree size, poor root growth, lower photosynthesis, and chloride toxicity.
The major avocado production areas of the United States (California) and Israel increasingly are
dependent upon irrigation water that contains high levels of sodium chloride. Therefore, identifi-
cation of rootstock selections that are highly resistant to saline conditions is essential for the sus-
tainability of these industries.
III. SOMATIC CELL GENETIC MANIPULATION
A. Somatic Embryogenesis
Avocado has been regenerated from embryogenic cultures that have been induced from zygotic
embryo, i.e., nonclonal, explants (76–79) and from the nucellus of a few cultivars, including the
important rootstock ‘Thomas’ and the most important scion cultivar ‘Hass’ (61).
1. Induction of Embryogenic Cultures

a. Zygotic Embryo Explants. The procedure for induction of embryogenic cultures was orig-
inally described by Mooney and van Staden (71) and Pliego Alfaro and Murashige (72) and later
adapted by Witjaksono and Litz (73). Avocado fruitlets, approximately 0.3–0.5 cm long without
the calyx, are at the appropriate stage of development for explanting the zygotic embryo. After
removal of sepals and peduncles, the fruitlets are surface-disinfested for 10–20 minutes with
10–20% commercial bleach containing 1–2 drops of Tween 20 per liter. After rinsing of the fruits
with two changes of sterile, deionized water, they are bisected along the longitudinal axis under
axenic conditions. The zygotic embryo from each immature seed is removed and plated on the in-
duction plant growth medium.
b. Nucellar Explants. Witjaksono (61) demonstrated that embryogenic cultures could
be induced from the nucellus removed from 0.3- to 0.5-cm-length avocado fruit (see previous dis-
cussion). The immature fruit are surface-sterilized and bisected under axenic conditions. The zy-
gotic embryo is removed and discarded, and the nucellus with attached ovule parts is explanted
onto induction plant growth medium.
c. Induction Medium and Growing Conditions. The induction medium consists of B5
major salts (80), supplemented with MS minor salts (81), 4.14 µM picloram, and (in milligrams
per liter) thiamine HCl (4), myo-inositol (100), sucrose (30,000), and 8 g 1⫺1 TC agar. The pH is
adjusted to 5.7–5.8 prior to addition of agar and autoclaving at 121°C at 1.1 kg cm⫺2 for 15 min-
utes. The plant growth medium is generally dispensed in 10-ml aliquots into sterile disposable
petri dishes (60 × 15 mm), and cultures are maintained in darkness at 25°C.
2. Maintenance of Embryogenic Cultures

Embryogenic cultures, which consist of proembryonic masses (PEMs), are usually visible 3–4
weeks after explanting and are transferred onto fresh semisolid maintenance medium (complete
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MS basal medium) for one to two subcultures. Thereafter, they are subcultured at 2- to 4-week in-
tervals, using the smallest PEMs (0.2–0.5 mm in diameter) as the inoculum. Embryogenic sus-
pension cultures can be established by inoculating 100–300 mg of 8- to 10-day-old PEMs from
semisolid maintenance medium into filter-sterilized 40-ml liquid maintenance medium in 125-ml
Erlenmeyer flasks; however, the maintenance of PEMs in suspension is highly genotype-depen-
dent (79,82). Cotyledonary somatic embryos develop under inductive, i.e., maintenance, condi-
tions for most genotypes. Embryogenic suspension cultures are subcultured at biweekly intervals
into filter-sterilized medium and are maintained on a rotary shaker at 120 rpm at 25°C in darkness.
3. Maturation of Somatic Embryos and Plant Recovery

In order to initiate somatic embryo development from embryogenic PEM cultures, it is necessary
to subculture them onto semisolid MS medium without picloram (65,66,68); however, most of the
early cotyledonary stage somatic embryos are physiologically abnormal, i.e., hyperhydric, and
cannot develop to maturity. The frequency of recovery of opaque, white somatic embryos (>0.8-
cm diameter) can be increased if relatively high-gellan gum concentrations are used (6–7 g l⫺1
(83). The cultures are maintained in darkness at 25°C and subcultured onto fresh medium at 2 to
3-month intervals. Mature somatic embryos are approximately 1–2 cm in diameter and usually
germinate after embryo enlargement has ceased, usually 4–5 months after transfer onto matura-
tion medium. Germinating somatic embryos are subcultured onto medium in 150- by 25-mm glass
test tubes that have been closed with Suncaps. When root or shoot growth is apparent after 4–5
months, the cultures are transferred to 16-h light provided by cool white fluorescent tubes (80–100
µmol m⫺2 s⫺1) with 20,000 ppm CO2 in a nitrogen carrier in order to optimize plant recovery and
photoautotropy (84). Even so, the recovery of plants from somatic embryos is low (71–74).
Because of the low germination frequency of avocado somatic embryos, shoots that emerge
from each somatic embryo are usually decapitated 1–1.5 cm from the tip, cultured on avocado
shoot proliferation medium, and subcultured at 8-week intervals for several passages (83). Shoot
proliferation medium consists of semisolid MS medium, supplemented with 4.44 µM BA and 1
NH4NO3:2 KNO3 (total N = 40 mM). Rooting of individual shoots is accomplished by pulsing
shoot cuttings for 3 days in a root induction medium containing 122.6 µM IBA, followed by sub-
culture on semisolid MS medium with 1 g l⫺1 activated charcoal.
B. Genetic Transformation
The recovery of genetic transformants of avocado has depended on the establishment of highly
embryogenic suspension cultures that consist of PEMs that proliferate by the process of second-
ary somatic embryogenesis or budding (see earlier discussion). Cruz-Hernandez and colleagues
(85) demonstrated that growth of embryogenic suspension cultures of the PEM type can be sup-
pressed by approximately 50% in the presence of 50 mg l⫺1 kanamycin sulfate, whereas, 50%
growth suppression occurred on semisolid medium containing 100 mg l⫺1 kanamycin sulfate.
Complete suppression of embryogenic cultures occurs on semisolid medium with 200 mg l⫺1
kanamycin sulfate. Cruz-Hernandez and coworkers (85) utilized a two-step selection process to
recover genetically transformed embryogenic cultures that were resistant to kanamycin and that
expressed the β-glucuronidase (GUS) gene.
1. Coculture of Embryogenic Cultures with Genetically

Engineered Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Embryogenic cultures on semisolid medium are gently abraded with a soft camel hair brush. The
abraded cultures together with acetosyringone-activated Agrobacterium tumefaciens (strain 9749
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ASE2 containing a cointegrate vector pMON9749 with a selectable kanamycin-resistant marker

[nptII] and a reportable marker [GUS]) are inoculated into liquid maintenance medium (discussed
previously) and cocultured for 3 days at 100 rpm. Superficial A. tumefaciens is eliminated by in-
cubating the cultures in maintenance medium supplemented with 50 mg l⫺1 kanamycin sulfate
and 200 mg l⫺1 cefotaxime. Rapidly growing, putatively kanamycin-resistant proembryonic
masses are thereafter subcultured in liquid medium with filter-sterilized 100 mg l⫺1 kanamycin
sulfate and 200 mg l⫺1 cefotaxime.
Cultures are initially selected in maintenance medium containing 50 mg l⫺1 kanamycin sul-
fate for 2–4 months. This is followed by more intensive selection in the presence of 100 mg l⫺1
kanamycin sulfate followed by 200 mg l⫺1 filter-sterilized kanamycin sulfate with weekly trans-
fers into fresh medium of the same formulation(s) in order to eliminate chimaeras. Somatic em-
bryo development is initiated by subculture onto maturation medium (see earlier discussion)
without selection, followed by subculture onto maturation medium containing kanamycin sulfate.
Transformed somatic embryos can be recovered that stain positively for GUS in the X-GLUC re-
action (86), and the integration of nptII and GUS into the avocado genome has been confirmed
by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Southern hybridization (87,88). Transgenic plants have
not been regenerated. Using the same approach, Cruz-Hernandez and coworkers (personal com-
munication) have genetically transformed embryogenic cultures of avocado with the gene for the
PR-related protein chitinase.
IV. CONCLUSION
Improvement of perennial crop species that have long juvenile periods, such as the avocado, is
difficult and time-consuming if conventional breeding is followed (59). Genetic transformation
of elite avocado selections is feasible, and this should radically alter the way that this species, in-
cluding scion and rootstock selections, is manipulated in the future.
ACKNOWLDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for support provided by the California Avocado Society, the California
Avocado Commission, the Research and Development Center for Biology (LIPI) (Indonesia), and
the Agency for Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT) (Indonesia). Florida Agricul-
tural Experiment Station Journal Series No. R-06911
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24
Production of Transgenic Banana
(Musa species)
László Sági, Serge Remy, Juan Bernardo Pérez Hernández, and Rony Swennen
Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
I. INTRODUCTION 359
A. Production and Significance 359
B. Main Constraints of Banana Production 360
II. GENETIC TRANSFORMATION OF BANANA 361
A. In Vitro Cell and Protoplast Culture 361
B. Genetic Transformation 362
III. PROSPECTS AND CONCLUSION 365
A. Resistance to Pathogens 365
B. Fruit Quality Control 366
C. Potential for Pharmaceutical Applications 366
REFERENCES 366
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Production and Significance
The term banana covers here dessert, starchy (cooking banana and plantain), and beer bananas.
Banana is the most important fruit crop on Earth with an annual production of close to 90 million
tons, which accounts for approximately 20% of total primary fruit production worldwide (1).
In more than 120 banana-producing countries, which are mainly located in the Third World,
banana is consumed either fresh, prepared by cooking or boiling, or processed to beer, juice,
chips, puree, and other food products. The nutrient composition and nutritional value of banana
are very similar to those of potato. Because of its high starch content, banana fruit is a major
source of dietary carbohydrate uptake, but it also contains significant amounts of potassium, mag-
nesium, and phosphorus, as well as the vitamins B6 and C (2). In particular, plantain is also rich
in vitamin A, which is often deficient in human diet in the tropics. In addition, banana fruit has
been extensively used in folk medicine and is reported to exert a cholesterol-lowering effect (3)
as well as to decrease the risk of colorectal cancer (4). Banana is a staple food for at least 400 mil-
lion people and it is the fourth major food commodity (after rice, milk, and wheat) for the devel-
oping world.
359
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360 Sági et al.
Some 15% of banana production is exported (1) and serves as dessert for many more mil-
lions of people. The majority of export banana has been produced on large commercial estates
and by smallholders in Latin America and the Caribbean. Export banana trade has a gross value
of more than U.S.$5 billion (1), and banana cultivation is of great socioeconomic importance for
many less developed countries that rely on banana export to provide employment opportunities
and to generate a significant part of their foreign exchange.
The distribution of production is relatively even among Latin America and the Caribbean
(36%), Africa (34%), and Asia with the Pacific (29%). However, a considerable difference exists
in the banana types cultivated in the different continents. More than 80% of dessert banana is pro-
duced in Latin America and the Caribbean, whereas cooking banana is cultivated mainly in the
Asia-Pacific region. Plantains are produced in West and Central Africa and in Latin America,
whereas beer banana production is limited to East Africa.
B. Main Constraints of Banana Production

Most cultivated landraces are parthenocarpic and sterile triploids, characteristics that constitute a
major bottleneck to running successful hybridization programs. These obstacles, coupled with the
relatively long generation time and poor agronomic practice, make it very difficult for banana
breeders to release new cultivars with resistance to the numerous viral, bacterial, and fungal
pathogens as well as nematode and insect pests.
The most devastating banana disease is the Sigatoka complex, which is caused by the as-
comycetes fungal pathogens Mycosphaerella fijiensis (black Sigatoka) and M. musicola (yellow
Sigatoka). Sigatoka leaf disease presents a serious economic problem for the banana industry, and
yield losses may amount to 30–50% worldwide (5,6). The annual cost of fungicide control in
commercial estates may range between U.S.$600 and U.S.$1800 per hectare, accounting for up
to 30% of total production costs. In addition to their pressure on the environment, application of
fungicides is economically questionable in backyards and small farms, where banana cultivation
mainly takes place. The recent success in breeding of plantain (7) and other types of banana (8)
for Sigatoka resistance is still relatively limited.
Another major fungal disease is Panama disease or banana wilt, which is caused by Fusa-
rium oxysporum f.sp. cubense. This soil-inhabiting fungus caused one of the most destructive epi-
demics in history when in the 1950s and 1960s its race 1 destroyed approximately 40,000 hectares
of commercial plantation and nearly knocked out the banana industry (9). Race 4 (10), discov-
ered in 1978, presently threatens export banana production in the subtropics (11) as well as in the
tropics, as hitherto no source resistant to it has been identified. The fungus infects lateral roots
and blocks the plant vascular system, resulting in typical wilt symptoms. Since no effective fun-
gicide control is available for this disease, production is maintained by new plantings in clean soil.
At present, perhaps the most serious viral disease that affects banana is bunchy top disease.
The causal agent, banana bunchy top virus (BBTV), is a multicomponent single-stranded de-
oxyribonucleic acid (DNA) virus, which represents a new group of plant viruses, the nanaviruses.
BBTV is transmitted by the aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa in a persistent manner or by vegeta-
tive propagation (12) and is widely distributed in the Asia-Pacific region. In Africa, BBTV is pres-
ent in a few countries only, and in Latin America it is still absent. Growth of heavily infected
plants is significantly reduced and yields can be entirely lost. In addition, no BBTV-resistant
source has yet been identified.
Banana streak badnavirus, a pararetrovirus first described from Morocco in 1986 (13), is
becoming another major threat to banana production all over the world. The virus was found in
1999 to be able to integrate into the banana genome (14), and the integrated sequence has been
shown to reactivate to an episomal virus after tissue culture (15). This may have serious conse-
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Production of Transgenic Banana 361
quences as banana is one of the most intensively micropropagated plant species. Among the other
pathogenic viruses, banana bract mosaic potyvirus is a quarantine threat in the Philippines and in
India, and cucumber mosaic virus, which causes infectious chlorosis in all banana-producing re-
gions, is difficult to control because of its broad host spectrum (16).
Among the other diseases and pests, the bacterial wilt or Moko disease should be men-
tioned; caused by the bacterium Ralstonia (earlier Pseudomonas) solanacearum, it is destructive
in the humid areas of Central America and the Philippines. In some restricted regions of com-
mercial production, the bacterial head rot disease caused by Erwinia carotovora ssp. carotovora
can present significant problems.
Of the migratory endoparasitic nematodes, which are widespread pests of banana (e.g., the
root-lesion nematodes Pratylenchus spp. and the spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus multicinctus),
the burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis, is the most dangerous (17). This nematode causes
uprooting of fruit-bearing plants, constituting a steadily increasing problem in commercial estates
and small fields worldwide. Among the sedentary species, the root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne
spp. are a major problem in Taiwan and cause root deformation and stunting.
Finally, the banana borer weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus (18), by laying its eggs close to the
base of the pseudostem, after which the larvae burrow into the rhizome, causes serious damage
in the tropics, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and in the Pacific.
II. GENETIC TRANSFORMATION OF BANANA

A. In Vitro Cell and Protoplast Culture
The beginning of banana in vitro culture occurred in the early 1970s (19); it has grown to an in-
dustry, with 20 million micropropagated plants annually, as estimated in 1991 (20) and more than
100 million plants by 1999 (E. Khayat, personal communication, 1999). However, the more ad-
vanced in vitro culture techniques such as somatic embryogenesis, embryogenic cell suspension
(ECS), and protoplast cultures are less frequently used. At present, three main procedures have
been established for somatic embryogenesis in banana, based on vegetative tissue explants such
as rhizome fragments or leaf bases (21,22), in vitro proliferating meristems (23), and male flower
bud primordia (24,25). These procedures resulted in plant regeneration from diverse cultivars
through somatic embryogenesis, though at a different rate. Long-term regenerable ECS cultures
were first established from proliferating meristems (26) and more recently from immature male
flowers (27,28).
A common bottleneck of these procedures is that they are very time-consuming and labor-
intensive. Somatic embryogenesis takes places at 3–6 months at a frequency of less than 5% of
the inoculated explants, and ECS cultures are established in another 4–6 months. The presence of
endophytic contaminations is another difficulty encountered during the maintenance of ECS cul-
tures. Finally, the prolonged in vitro culture period required to obtain ECS cultures may have ad-
verse effects on phenotypic uniformity and stability of the regenerated plants.
Similarly to that in other monocotyledonous species, the development of ECS cultures
opened the way to the isolation of banana protoplasts with high embryogenic potential. Megia and
coworkers (29) described protoplast isolation from banana ECS cultures, but only sustained divi-
sion and callus formation was achieved. High-frequency plant regeneration through direct so-
matic embryogenesis was first reported for a cooking banana landrace (30). In this study, high
plating efficiencies (between 20% and 40%) were obtained when protoplasts were cultured on a
feeder layer of embryogenic banana cells or plated alone at a high (106 ml–1) density. Cell sus-
pensions initiated from a related landrace also proved to be a good source for regenerable proto-
plasts (31).
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362 Sági et al.
B. Genetic Transformation
The development of regenerable ECS and protoplast cultures has made it possible to transfer for-
eign genes into banana. Successful genetic transformation was first demonstrated in electropo-
rated protoplasts by the transient expression of the gusA reporter gene under control of derivatives
of the 35S RNA promoter of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV 35S) (32). Later, the first trans-
genic banana plants were produced by microparticle bombardment of ECS cultures with an in-
house-developed particle inflow gun (33,34). Also, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of in
vitro meristems has been reported to result in regeneration of transgenic banana plants (35).
These initial studies have optimized the major factors that influence the frequency of trans-
formation. In addition, the transient and stable expression pattern of standard and novel promot-
ers in banana has been investigated. According to these studies, the promoter and first exon and
intron of the maize ubiquitin (ubi1) gene proved to be the strongest, followed by the rice actin
(act1D) gene promoter and the recombinant Emu promoter.
More recently, a 1369-bp DNA fragment isolated from a full-length clone of the sugarcane
bacilliform badnavirus has been shown to have promoter activity in transient gene expression as-
says using banana and other monocot (maize, millet, sorghum) and dicot (canola, sunflower, and
tobacco) plant species. Experiments with transgenic banana and tobacco plants have shown that
this promoter could drive high expression of the gusA reporter gene in most cell types of vegeta-
tive tissues both in vitro and in the greenhouse, indicating a near-constitutive manner of expres-
sion. The expression levels were variable among different transgenic lines but were generally
comparable with the activities of both the maize ubi1 promoter and an enhanced CaMV 35S pro-
moter. Thus, the promoter from sugarcane bacilliform badnavirus represents a useful tool for the
high-level expression of foreign genes in both monocot and dicot transgenic plants and could be
used similarly to the maize ubi1 and the CaMV 35S promoter (36).
1. Microparticle Bombardment of Embryogenic Cell Suspension Cultures

Microparticle bombardment of cultures technology combines microparticle bombardment trans-
formation with a regeneration protocol from suspension cultures containing fast-dividing and
embryogenic somatic cells (33). The standard conditions for DNA delivery are the following:
25–50-mg fresh weight cells (4–6 days after subculture), approximately 800-ng plasmid DNA,
and 500 µg tungsten (1.1- or 1.7-µm diameter) microparticles per plate, 8-bar helium pressure,
12-cm target distance, and 30-millisecond opening time. After a recovery period of 7 days, the
bombarded cells are selected in the presence of 50 mg l–1 hygromycin or geneticin for about 2
months until transformed embryos are formed (Fig. 1). According to our experience, the tech-
nology is only limited by the capacity for plant regeneration of the available cell cultures. A cell
suspension culture with good morphogenic potential regenerates on average two to three trans-
genic plants per plate under the conditions described. In total, 100 plates can be routinely bom-
barded in 1 day with our particle inflow gun. Six months later the plants can be established in the
greenhouse and grown to maturity. Fig. 2 demonstrates the normal bunch formation and fruit pro-
duction of a transgenic dessert banana plant.
Up to now, close to 900 independent transgenic lines have been produced in the authors’
laboratory from the Horn-type plantain ‘Three Hand Planty’ and the Cavendish-type dessert ba-
nana ‘Williams.’ These plants were transformed with either of two selectable marker genes con-
ferring resistance to the antibiotics hygromycin (hpt) and geneticin (neo) and a number of
chimeric genes including three different antifungal genes and several genes isolated from banana
viruses such as the coat protein gene of banana bract mosaic virus (37). Large-scale molecular
characterization demonstrated that the majority of these plants contained the foreign genes, thus
indicating the efficiency of the selection scheme. For example, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
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Figure 1 Transformed embryo of the dessert banana landrace ‘Williams’ at 2-month selection on ge-
neticin after microparticle bombardment of an embryogenic cell suspension culture. Bar, 1 mm. (Photograph
courtesy of L. Sági.)
screening of 776 plants confirmed that more than 90% of them contained the selectable marker
gene. There was no major difference in this respect between the two landraces (93% in ‘Three
Hand Planty’ and 98% in ‘Williams’) and the two genes used for selection (90% and 94% for the
hpt and the neo gene, respectively). Similar results were obtained by genomic Southern analysis
of 56 plants, which showed that 89.3% had the selectable marker gene integrated (Remy in prepa-
ration).
Since the banana landraces transformed are sterile and propagate vegetatively, analysis of
the transgenes in the sexual progeny is excluded, and the integration pattern and expression level
in five subsequent asexual generations have been found to be stable (38). However, this contain-
ment of the transgenes makes banana very suitable for field tests without the risk of foreign gene
escape in the environment.
Durable resistance to multiple pathogens by molecular improvement is likely to be
achieved via simultaneous integration of several genes with different targets or modes of action
into the plant genome. Such simultaneous gene transfer can be performed by coprecipitating a
mixture of chimeric gene constructs onto microparticles prior to bombardment.
PCR screening and Southern hybridization analysis of more than 40 transgenic plants re-
vealed that, as could be predicted, linked genes cointegrated at a high frequency that ranged be-
tween 90% and 100% in three independent experiments. Also, as expected, cotransformation with
another, unlinked gene resulted in a lower cotransformation frequency than that with linked
genes. However, this frequency was still remarkably high, between 70% and 80%, probably as a
result of efficient coprecipitation of the DNA molecules on the surface of the microparticles (39).
As a result of more complex cotransformation experiments we now have a population of trans-
genic banana plants containing up to six different genes (S. Remy, I. Deconinck, and L. Sági, un-
published). These observations thus indicate that simultaneous bombardment of different plasmid
molecules may be a convenient way to introduce multiple genes into banana.
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364 Sági et al.
Figure 2 Bunch formation and fruit production of a transgenic dessert banana plant in the greenhouse.
(Photograph courtesy of W. Dillemans.)
2. Agrobacterium-Species–Mediated Transformation
The published method is based on the cocultivation of in vitro meristematic tissues with Agrobac-
terium tumefaciens (35). A major limitation of this technique is that chimeric plants can poten-
tially be regenerated at a high frequency because of the highly differentiated nature of the ex-
plants. In addition, we have found that wild-type agrobacteria are not able to induce tumors or
swellings on intact plants or cultured tissues (unpublished data).
In order to analyze the possible recalcitrance of banana to Agrobacterium sp. systematically
we investigated two early steps in the plant-bacterium interaction: chemotaxis to exudates from
excised and/or wounded tissues and attachment to cells or tissues. Chemotaxis was studied by a
swarm agar plate assay, and the results demonstrated that leaf, rhizome, root, and in vitro prolif-
erating tissues from different banana landraces were all able to induce a positive chemotactic re-
action of the A. tumefaciens strains EHA101, LBA4404, and Chry5 (40). In addition, massive
physical binding of agrobacteria to banana cells isolated from ECS cultures or mesophyll tissue
as well as to root hairs or isolated in vitro meristems was demonstrated by light and fluorescent
microscopy as well as by scanning electron microscopy, respectively (40). It is concluded that the
interaction of A. tumefaciens with banana is not impaired in these early steps, and this finding can
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be a basis for the development of efficient Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation protocols

in this crop. Indeed, more recently we have been able to generate a high number of transgenic
plants via Agrobacterium sp. cocultivation of plantain ECS cultures followed by selection on ge-
neticin or herbicide (Basta). Screening of 360 transgenic plants has revealed that 98% of them ex-
pressed the introduced gusA intron construct or the gfp reporter gene. The transgenic nature of in-
dependent plants has been confirmed by extensive PCR and Southern analysis (Pérez Hernández
et al., submitted).
III. PROSPECTS AND CONCLUSION

A. Resistance to Pathogens
Pathogenic fungi cause the most devastating diseases in banana and thus present the greatest eco-
nomic as well as environmental concern for the banana industry. Until genes conferring resistance
to fungal pathogens is available in banana (41), heterologous genes encoding proteins with anti-
fungal activity are the primary targets for transgenic expression. Perhaps the most promising can-
didates are antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) of plant origin (42) as they have exerted high in vitro
activity to Mycosphaerella fijiensis and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense without being toxic
to human or banana cells (43).
With our microparticle bombardment technology (33), several hundreds of independent
transgenic lines, which express different genes encoding defensin-type AMPs and a nonspecific
lipid transfer protein alone or in combinations, have been produced of a plantain and a Cavendish
dessert banana landrace. Molecular analysis by PCR, reverse-trancriptase PCR, and Southern and
Northern hybridization of these lines confirmed that a vast majority of them contained and ex-
pressed the introduced genes (see earlier discussion).
By using specific antibodies, the concentration of two antifungal proteins in total leaf pro-
teins was determined in transgenic plant extracts; it ranged from 0.05% to more than 1%, de-
pending on the promoter used. Addition of such extracts to germinating spores of a field isolate
of M. fijiensis, the causal agent of black Sigatoka disease, resulted in a significant inhibition of
fungal growth, which makes the respective plants interesting candidates for field testing.
Approximately 100 transgenic lines have been micropropagated for testing the stability and
effect of the transgenes in different field environments. In addition, close to 200 individual plants
have been transferred to the greenhouse, where 50 of them were evaluated by a simple and re-
producible leaf disk bioassay for fungus tolerance. A differential disease response was observed
among independent transgenic plants, which ranged from no resistance to a high degree of toler-
ance compared to that of the control plants. Computer image capturing and software based area
calculation allowed for the precise measurement of the infected leaf area and for the classifica-
tion of independent transformants according to their tolerance (44).
To date, no transgenic bananas have yet entered the phase of extensive field trials, mainly
as a result of the lack of biosafety guidelines and/or functional regulatory bodies in many tropi-
cal countries where banana is grown. This situation is a major bottleneck to progress in transgenic
field testing of tropical crops, especially in sub-Saharan Africa.
Banana transformation also provides a tool to engineer resistance against parasitic nema-
todes. In principle, three strategies can be applied: (a) expression of toxic proteins for direct ef-
fects on nematodes, (b) expression of nematode resistance genes, and (c) expression of proteins
that compromise the nematode-plant interaction such as plantibodies against essential proteins
secreted by the nematodes. At present, the first strategy appears to be the most perspective against
the migratory endoparasitic nematodes of banana because resistance genes to this group of ne-
matodes have not even been studied and the migratory nematode-plant interaction is not well un-
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366 Sági et al.
derstood. Currently, we are exploring an approach based on the regulated expression of barnase,
a cytotoxic ribonuclease (RNase), under the control of a potato gst1 gene promoter that was
shown to be inducible by infection with sedentary nematodes (45).
B. Fruit Quality Control

Since bananas are climacteric fruits and their ripening can be induced by ethylene, genetic mod-
ification of ethylene biosynthesis is a logical strategy to produce fruit with an extended green life
both for the customer as well as for shipment. Ethylene reduction may also decrease the detri-
mental biochemical reactions caused by fungal pathogens or mechanical wounding.
In the late 1990s, significant advances were made in understanding the changes in gene ex-
pression that are associated with banana fruit ripening (46,47). Both papers have simultaneously
reported the isolation and identification of transcripts that are differentially expressed during fruit
ripening. Since then, efforts have been directed to the isolation and characterization of the regu-
latory elements of these genes, which may be useful for fruit-specific expression of foreign pro-
teins in transgenic bananas.
In addition, an abundant 31-kDa protein from the pulp (the edible part) of banana fruit has
also been characterized and turned out to be highly homologous with previously described chiti-
nases (48). The protein was shown to be highly pulp-specific and preferentially degraded during
fruit ripening. It has been hypothesized that the physiological role of this protein may be that of
a storage protein rather than that of plant protection.
C. Potential for Pharmaceutical Applications

A potential application of banana plants engineered for fruit-targeted transgene expression can be
molecular farming for the production of recombinant proteins of pharmaceutical importance. Of
these proteins, the most interesting candidates could be vaccines, provided that they remain ac-
tive after oral administration.
The first of the candidate vaccines was the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), which was
produced in transgenic tobacco plants (49) and retained immunogenic properties after injection
in mice (50). Further investigations with other candidate vaccines indicated that they may invoke
an oral immune response in mice after feeding on transgenic potato tubers (51). Such oral vac-
cines may be used against diarrheal diseases that occur very frequently in the tropics (52). Trans-
genic bananas expressing such vaccines may be useful complements to traditional vaccination
programs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support from the INIBAP ProMusa program and BADC (Belgian Administration for
Development Cooperation) is acknowledged. The authors thank Ilse Deconinck and Greet
Schoofs for technical assistance.
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25
Production of Transgenic Melon
Ekaterini Papadopoulou and Rebecca Grumet

Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
I. INTRODUCTION 371
II. OBJECTIVES FOR MELON IMPROVEMENT 372
III. REGENERATION AND TRANSFORMATION TECHNIQUES FOR MELON 373
A. Regeneration of Melon 373
B. Melon Transformation 376
IV. CONCLUSION 378
REFERENCES 378
I. INTRODUCTION
The melon species Cucumis melo L. includes a group of high-value crops such as muskmelon,
cantaloupe, honeydew, casaba, and winter melon that are cultivated throughout the world (1). The
mature melon fruits are appreciated as summer dessert fruit, and the immature fruits may be con-
sumed as vegetables. The C. melo species has been subdivided into cultivar groups or botanical
varieties by several authors, including Whitaker and Davis (2) and Robinson and Decker-Walters
(3). Robinson and Decker-Walters (3) use the following groupings: cantalupensis (cantaloupe
and muskmelon), inodorus (winter melon), flexuosus (snake melon), conomon (pickling melon),
dudaim (pomegranate melon), and momordica (phoot, snap melon). The dessert melons, which
are the most commercially important types, generally belong to the cantalupensis and inodorus
groups. Members of the cantalupensis group include cantaloupe and Charentais-type melons;
honeydew is the most popular member of the inodorus group, which also includes casaba, canary,
and crenshaw melons. In other classifications (e.g., see Ref. 2), the muskmelon types are sepa-
rated from the cantaloupes. The muskmelons, which are classified as var. reticulatus, are the most
commercially important type in North America, whereas the cantaloupes (var. cantaloupensis)
are grown mostly in Europe.
Since the 1990s, melon has been the target of transformation research. After initial devel-
opment of transformation systems using marker genes in the early 1990s (e.g., 4–6), melon has
been transformed with a variety of potentially economically useful traits such as virus resistance,
ripening characteristics, salt tolerance, and altered protein composition (e.g., 7–11). Work with
transgenic melons has moved beyond the laboratory and in several cases is nearing commercial-
371
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372 Papadopoulou and Grumet
ization. The seed industry has been very active in this area; in the 1997–1999 seasons, there were
more than 50 applications from at least five companies for field trials performed with transgenic
melons in the United States (Table 1). In this chapter we describe the development and uses of
melon transformation technology. Melon biotechnology also has been reviewed by Guis and
coworkers (12).
II. OBJECTIVES FOR MELON IMPROVEMENT
Integration of selected genetic traits into plants can be a powerful tool for crop improvement. In
the past two decades plant transformation studies have focused on the development of practical,
reliable, and efficient systems for the genetic transformation of a wide variety of plant species by
introducing and expressing genes conferring desired characteristics. Extensive effort has been fo-
cused on major agronomic crops, e.g., soybean, corn, and cotton, which are currently being pro-
duced commercially on large acreages in the United States, but several horticultural crops, in-
cluding cucurbit crops, also have received attention (13).
Objectives for melon improvement include increased yield per plant, more and heavier
fruits, early harvest, high flesh proportion, improved fruit quality (primarily sucrose content), and
increased postharvest life (14–16). Resistance to environmental stresses, mainly drought and
salinity, is of special interest in the arid areas of cultivation, and as is true for most crops, reduc-
tion of production losses resulting from susceptibility to various insects and diseases is of high
priority throughout the world. Important fungal diseases include powdery and downy mildew
Table 1 Published Examples and Recent Field Tests of Transgenic Melons in the United States
Published examples
Traits Genotype Reference
Marker genes Hale’s Best Jumbo 4

Orient Sweet 5
Prince, EG360, Ajinomoto, Sunday Aki 6
Amarillo Oro 56
Sunday Aki 19
ZYMV CPa Hale’s Best Jumbo 7
CMV CPa Burpee Hybrid, Hale’s Best Jumbo, Topmark 6,8
CMV, ZYMV, WMV CPa CZW-30 11
Antisense ACOb Vedrantais 9
Yeast salt tolerance Pharo 10
U.S. field tests 1997–1999c

Trait No. notifications
Virus resistance 39
Altered ripening 14
Altered protein 1
a
ZYMV, CMV, WMV CP, coat proteins of zucchini yellow mosaic virus, cucumber mosaic virus, and watermelon mosaic
virus.
b
ACO, 1-amino-cyclopropane carboxylic acid oxidase (ethylene biosynthetic enzyme).
c
Source: USDA-APHIS records.
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Transgenic Melon 373
(Sphaerotheca fuliginea and Pseudoperonospora cubensis, respectively) and fusarium wilt

(Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. melonis and F. solani). Severe yield losses also can be incurred by
viral infections, such as the whitefly-transmitted geminivirus, squash leaf curl virus, and aphid-
transmitted viruses, including cucumber mosaic virus and several potyviruses, e.g., zucchini yel-
low mosaic virus, watermelon mosaic virus, and the watermelon strain of papaya ringspot virus
(17). Although the wild Cucumis species offer genes for resistance to a variety of pests and patho-
gens, interspecific transfer by conventional methods is inhibited due to sexual incompatibility
(16).
Other goals for melon improvement include facilitation of breeding processes via develop-
ment of stable monoecious or gynoecious genotypes (18). Availability of such breeding lines
would reduce the cost of emasculation of the female parents currently required for production of
hybrid seed. It also has been suggested by Shetty and colleagues (19) that melon fruits may be
used for production of proteins such as thaumatin, lysozyme, proteases for meat tenderization, or
chymosin for cheese making.
III. REGENERATION AND TRANSFORMATION TECHNIQUES FOR MELON
Fundamental requirements for production of transgenic plants include plant tissue competent for
transformation, a method for stable introduction of the novel genetic material, and, in the major-
ity of the currently used transformation systems, a crop-specific procedure to regenerate whole
plants from individually transformed cells. Since it is the regeneration procedure that is often the
limiting factor in establishing efficient transformation systems (20), we will first discuss melon
regeneration. Ideally, the regeneration procedure should be highly efficient, include minimal time
in culture both to increase efficiency and to minimize somaclonal variation, and be applicable to
a wide range of genotypes. Similarly, the goals for transformation include high efficiency, ease of
selection, and stable, adequate gene expression.
A. Regeneration of Melon
1. Explant Source
Melon plants have been regenerated from tissue culture by using a variety of methods including
organogenesis, embryogenesis, and regeneration from protoplasts (Table 2). Regeneration via
organogenesis has been most efficient and has been achieved for explants from cotyledons,
hypocotyls, leaves, and roots. During regeneration from cotyledons, the area close to the basal cut
edge of the explant appears to be the most active site for initiation and development of adventi-
tious shoot buds (8). A study of buds regenerated from cv. Galia revealed that the regeneration
process begins with cell division in the epidermal layer (21). Subsequently, structures from mul-
tiple subepidermal cell layers are formed; the first shoot buds can be observed after 15 days in
culture, and the first shoot 1 week later.
All of the published melon transformation systems have utilized organogenesis rather than
embryogenesis-based methods, and the majority have used cotyledon-derived systems (Table 1).
Although cotyledons are the most routinely responsive and are the preferred explant source for
transformation in our lab, we also have been successful using leaf explants (22); the greater
amount of leaf tissue per plant provides an advantage in cases in which seed supply is limited.
Factors that can influence the responsiveness of cotyledon or leaf explants to regeneration include
genotype, age of the donor plant, culture conditions (e.g., temperature, light), and presence of
growth regulators, which are discussed in the following sections.
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Table 2 Melon Regeneration Systems
Explant Genotype (cv.) Growth regulators Reference
Organogenesis
Cotyledon Amarillo Oro IAA, kinetin 70
Cantaloup Charentais T, DM17187, IAA, kinetin 47
Ogon no. 9, Doublon, Piboule,
Hale’s Best Jumbo IAA, BA, ABA 29
Accent, Galia, Preco, Viva, 4215 (Di- BA, IAA 40
amex)
Topmark BA, IAA 71
Earl’s Favorite Harukei No. 3 BA, IAA, 2,4-D, NAA 24
Pusa Madhuras BAP 72
Five inbred lines AgNO3 35
Sunday Aki BA, proline, SA, aspirin 73
Galia IAA, BA, TDZ, PC 31
Galia BA, ancymidol 28
Hypocotyl Pusa Sharbati BAP, ABA/GA3 74
Epicotyl Pusa Madhuras BAP, IAA, kinetin, GA3 72
Petiole PMR (cantaloupe) NAA, BA, zeatin dihydroside 75
Leaf Pusa Sharbati BAP, 2iP 46
Accent, Galia, Preco, Viva, 4215 BA 40
PMR 3680 (cantaloupe) NAA, BA 75
Hale’s Best Jumbo, Ananas El Dokki IAA, BA, AgNO3, sulfony- 36
lurea
Root Pusa Sharbati BAP 48
Somatic embryogenesis
Cotyledons Sunday Akigata 2,4-D, BA 76
Preco, Charentais T 2,4-D, BAP 41
(quiescent) 51 commercial cv., Male Sterile A147 2,4-D, BA, kinetin, TDZ 42
(breeding line)
14 commercial cv. 2,4-D, kinetin 44
Vedrantais 2,3-D, BAP 77
Hypocotyl Amarillo Oro IAA 70
Earl’s Favorite Harukei No. 3 IAA 24
Petioles Earl’s Favorite Harukei No. 3 IAA 24
Leaves Preco, Charentais T 2,4-D, BAP 41
Earl’s Favorite Harukei No. 3 IAA 24
Regeneration from protoplasts
Cotyledon Cantaloup Charentais IAA, kinetin 78
(seed cotyledon) Earl’s Favorite Harukei No. 3 2,4-D, IAA, NAA 24
Preco, Charentais T 2,4-D, BAP 41
Hypocotyl Amarillo Oro IAA, kinetin 70
Earl’s Favorite Harukei No. 3 2,4-D, IAA, NAA 24
Leaves, petioles Earl’s Favorite Harukei No. 3 2,4-D, IAA, NAA 24
ABA, abscisic acid; BA, benzyladenine; BAP, 6-benzylaminopurine; 2,3-D, 2,3-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 2,4-D, 2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 2iP 6-(γ, γ-dimethylallylamino)-purine; NAA, α-naphthalene acetic acid; TDZ, thidiazuron;
IAA, indole-3-acetic acid; GA3 gibberellic acid; PC, paclobutrazol.
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2. Media Components
As in many regeneration systems, auxin and cytokinin types and concentrations are critical factors
(23). Low auxin concentrations (0–1 mg/l indoleacetic acid [IAA]) favored shoot induction from
cotyledons, hypocotyls, leaves, and petioles, whereas higher concentrations (20–100 mg/l) re-
sulted in somatic embryo formation (24). The balance between auxin(s) and cytokinin(s) also ap-
pears to be important. In general, for a given concentration of auxin, increasing cytokinin concen-
tration increased organogenesis (25). The presence of cytokinins (benzylamino purine or
benzyladenine) during in vitro culture of cotyledons caused mobilization and metabolism of stor-
age proteins and stimulated shoot regeneration of cv. Galia explants, but only in the light; cytokinin
alone was not sufficient to induce regeneration or to support growth responses in the dark (26–28).
Other phytohormones also have been found to influence organogenesis from melon ex-
plants. Abscisic acid (ABA) has been shown to enhance shoot regeneration (29), and gibberellin
(GA), which can be antagonistic to ABA action (30), appeared to influence regeneration effi-
ciency negatively (28,29). Addition of the antigibberellin agent ancymidol increased organogen-
esis of cotyledon explants; exogenous GA counteracted the effect of both ancymidol and BA and
reduced the regeneration rate (28). Likewise, the growth regulators thidiazuron and paclobutrazol
(anti-GA activity) appeared to mimic the effect of cytokinin and auxin, respectively, on organo-
genesis (31).
Ethylene also can negatively affect regeneration in many tissue culture systems, and silver
ion, which is an inhibitor of ethylene action (32), can enhance regeneration in various systems,
including melon (e.g., 33–36). Interestingly, the role of ethylene in regeneration competence of
melon explants was examined in plants expressing an antisense 1-aminocyclopropane-1-car-
boxylate-oxidase (ACO) gene (37). Normal ethylene biosynthesis is impaired in these plants as a
result of reduction in the ACO enzyme that catalyzes the last step of ethylene biosynthesis, the
conversion of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) to ethylene (38). Consistent with ob-
servations of the effect of including silver nitrate in the medium, explants derived from transgenic
antisense ACO plants exhibited higher rates of shoot regeneration (37).
3. Explant Factors
The morphogenic response of explants during tissue culture is also greatly dependent on the
genotype and physiological characteristics of the tissue used. A wide variation in regeneration ef-
ficiency has been observed, depending on the melon cultivar (29,39–44). In many cases, even
though the explants generate a large number of buds, only a small portion develop into shoots;
the shoot production percentage varied with different cultivars (8,29,39). In other cases, Gaba
and coworkers (21) observed formation of leaves, or leaflike structures, that are not always ac-
companied by shoot apices, possibly because of genetic effects. Ficcadenti and Rotino (45) found
that genotypes of C. melo var. inodorous were more consistently regenerative than those of var.
reticulatus.
The physiological characteristics of the explant source also are critical. Cotyledon and leaf
age and size have been found to influence regeneration (36,46–48). Although in general, younger
tissue is more responsive, for leaf regeneration, it was possible to be too young (less than 3-cm
diameter) for optimal regeneration rates (36). Interestingly, the donor plant environment also was
found to be an important factor; leaves harvested from plants grown in pots in the greenhouse or
growth chamber were much more responsive than leaves derived from plants grown in vitro in
Magenta boxes (36). Both the external environment (growth chamber vs. culture room) and the
internal environment (pot vs. Magenta box) had a highly significant effect on regeneration rates,
suggesting that light, temperature, and gas exchange conditions all contribute to the responsive-
ness of the explants.
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4. Somaclonal Variation
Cytological analyses have indicated that regenerated melon plants exhibit a range of ploidy levels.
Tetraploidy was most common and has been observed with regeneration via somatic embryogen-
esis and organogenesis, and from both cotyledon and leaf explants (8,36,49–53). Tetraploidy can
be a problem for future production of transgenic lines as tetraploids can exhibit reduced fruit qual-
ity and fertility (52,54). The explant source may contribute to the frequency of tetraploidy as dif-
ferent tissues vary in their natural proportion of tetraploid cells; for example, depending on the
stage of development, melon cotyledons can have up to 60% tetraploid cells (12). Organogenesis
from 2-day-old cotyledons resulted in 81% tetraploids, whereas regeneration from young leaves
only gave 15% tetraploids. In other cases, however, possibly because of differences in the geno-
types tested, high percentages of tetraploids also have been reported for plants regenerated from
leaf tissue. Yadav and associates (36) reported that 47% of the tested regenerants were tetraploid,
and Kathal and coworkers (51) observed that the percentage of polyploid regenerants from leaf tis-
sue increased as the time of in vitro culture increased. Polyploidy ranged from 50% after 30 days
in culture to 90% after 90 days in culture. Thus, as has been observed in numerous systems (55),
minimal time in culture is important, both for efficiency of the process and for reduction of so-
maclonal variation.
B. Melon Transformation
1. Transformation Technology
Transgenic melons primarily have been produced via Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated
transformation (Table 1), although particle bombardment also has been used successfully in at
least one case (8). Factors influencing success with Agrobacterium-mediated transformation in-
clude Agrobacterium concentration, inoculation duration and temperature, and cocultivation pe-
riod and addition of virulence activating factors (4,5,19,56). Transformation has been success-
fully reported for a variety of North American, European, Middle Eastern, and Asian genotypes.
Selection strategies have generally relied on incorporation of the neomycin phosphotrans-
ferase (NPTII) gene conferring kanamycin resistance, although selection for methyltrexate resis-
tance also has been used successfully (4,5). Escapes from selection are observed frequently, how-
ever, so secondary selection of regenerated shoots on liquid medium or on rooting medium has
been valuable to reduce the number of individuals that must be subsequently screened by molec-
ular analyses (4,5,7). In our hands, further screening of putatively transgenic plantlets by enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay (NPT-ELISA) has proved effective to eliminate additional escapes
after secondary selection. More than 90% of the NPT-positive individuals subsequently proved
positive by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Southern analyses.
Segregation analyses of R1 seedlings showed that the introduced genes are inherited in a
Mendelian fashion (e.g., (4,5)). Interestingly, however, Dong and coworkers (5) observed that the
expression pattern of the introduced reporter genes (dihydrofolate reductase, DHFR, and β-glu-
curonidase, GUS) regulated by the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter was not uniform and
was modified during plant development. As the organs matured, activity of the reporter genes be-
came limited to vascular tissue. In some cases, transgene silencing has been observed in trans-
genic melon (57). In screening a population of 4600 hybrid progeny (nontransgenic × homozy-
gous transgenic R2) produced in the field, several individuals were recovered that possessed the
NPTII transgene but did not produce NPT protein as detected by NPT-ELISA. Thus, gene si-
lencing, which has been observed in numerous systems (58,59), is another factor to consider in
developing high-quality transgenic melon lines expressing the introduced trait.
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2. Introduced Traits
The genetic characters introduced into C. melo plants, to date, include genes to confer disease and
stress resistance and modify storage life of the fruits. Viral coat protein genes of zucchini yellow
mosaic virus and cucumber mosaic virus have been shown to confer resistance to their respective
viruses successfully (7,8). Especially promising is the ability to engineer multiple-virus resis-
tance. Transgenic cantaloupe expressing coat protein genes of cucumber mosaic virus, water-
melon mosaic virus, and zucchini yellow mosaic virus exhibited resistance to all three viruses in
field trials (11). Since similar genes have been used to produce commercial multiple-virus-resis-
tant transgenic squash cultivars (60,61), commercial transgenic melons are likely to follow soon.
Since the late 1990s there has been extensive field testing of virus-resistant melons by industry
(Table 1).
Another trait that has reached the point of field testing by industry is altered ripening, lead-
ing to prolonged postharvest life. Transgenic melons have been produced with the gene encoding
S-adenosyl methione hydroxylase (SAM hydroxylase) (USDA-APHIS records). SAM hydroxy-
lase can reduce ethylene accumulation by reducing levels of SAM, the immediate precursor of
ACC in the ethylene biosynthetic pathway (38). Transgenic melons also have been produced that
express an antisense ACC oxidase (ACO) gene (9). These plants exhibited reduced ethylene
biosynthesis and had inhibited fruit ripening on the vine. The abscission zone did not develop, so
the fruits remained attached to the plants and accumulated higher amounts of sugar. Quality char-
acteristics of the fruit, such as coloration of the rind and flesh and acidity, were not affected by
the lower ethylene production (15); however, there was a significant reduction in total volatile
composition (62). Exogenous ethylene restored the effect of the transgene and fruits matured nor-
mally, suggesting increased potential to regulate ripening as needed during the marketing process
(9,15). The transgenic melons showed greatly enhanced shelf life; wild-type melons rotted within
2 weeks of harvest while the transgenics retained high fruit quality (12).
A third area of interest for melon transformation has been stress tolerance. In 1997 cotyle-
don and leaf explants of melon cv. Pharo were transformed with the HAL1 gene, which confers
salt tolerance in yeast (10). In vitro cultured transgenic plants expressing the HAL1 gene had
higher tolerance to NaCl but exhibited slower growth.
3. Risk Assessment
Environmental release and commercial production of transgenic crops have raised public con-
cerns regarding safety. One frequently mentioned concern is potential escape of transgenes into
populations of wild relatives with resultant potential perturbation of natural habitats (20,63–65).
Field trials with transgenic melons have addressed some of these questions (57). Experi-
ments were designed to compare pollen-mediated movement of native and engineered genes and
to assess whether gene movement could be contained through the use of trap border plantings.
When movement of the engineered kanamycin resistance gene (NPTII) and that of a native
marker gene (green cotyledon) were compared, there was no case of movement of the transgene
in the absence of movement of the associated morphological marker gene (57). To our knowledge,
this was the first direct test comparing movement of native and engineered genes. Although these
results would be predicted for genes that have been stably integrated into the genome, public con-
cern about the nature of transgenes makes direct verification of this assumption desirable.
A second question was whether gene movement could be contained through the use of trap
border plantings. Hokanson and coworkers (57,66) indicated that although presence of borders
could significantly reduce the amount of gene movement out of an enclosed field, it would not be
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possible to prevent movement by this method. Even excessive ratios of trap plants to transgenic
donors did not completely prevent escape in all cases. Thus, even in small plots, let alone agri-
cultural fields, transgenes are likely to escape. Potential gene escape from agricultural fields,
however, is not an event unique to transgenes (67–69); the recurring question is, Is it the method
of gene introduction per se that should be of concern, or the specific crop and gene in question?
Currently USDA-APHIS make evaluations on a case by case basis by asking, Are there wild, in-
terfertile populations in the area of release, and if so, is the particular gene likely to be of eco-
logical significance, i.e., persist in the wild population and confer a selective advantage? Under
those conditions further analysis is warranted.
IV. CONCLUSION
In summary, melons have been the subject of numerous biotechnology efforts during the past
decade. Although increased transformation efficiency would be desirable, several public and pri-
vate labs throughout the world have successfully produced transgenic melons with a variety of in-
troduced genes. The initial focus has been primarily in the area of virus resistance and altered
ripening, but as more potentially useful genes become available, we are likely to see the range of
traits increase over the next several years. In addition to success in developing methodology and
introducing economically valuable traits, transgenic melons have played a role in examining
broader ecological issues associated with the deployment of genetically engineered crops.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Drs. Ken Sink and Dave Douches for helpful reviews of the manuscript. This work was
in part supported by USDA-NRI grant no. 69775 and by the Michigan Agriculture Experiment
Station.
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26
Cranberry Transformation and Regeneration
James J. Polashock and Nicholi Vorsa

Rutgers University, Chatsworth, New Jersey
I. INTRODUCTION 383
II. IN VITRO CULTURE AND PLANT REGENERATION FROM SOMATIC TISSUE 384
A. Growth Regulator Effects 386
B. Effect of Explant Age and Orientation on the Medium 386
III. TRANSFORMATION OF CRANBERRY TISSUE 387
IV. SELECTION AND SCREENING OF PUTATIVE TRANSFORMANTS 390
A. Transgenic Plant Selection Systems 390
B. Transgenic Plant Screening Systems 391
V. EXPRESSION OF GENES WITH POTENTIAL COMMERCIAL
APPLICATION IN CRANBERRY 391
VI. SUMMARY AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 394
REFERENCES 395
I. INTRODUCTION
The American cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait., is a recently domesticated native of North
America. V. macrocarpon is a diploid (2n = 2x = 24) long-lived woody perennial adapted to acid
soils and a temperate climate, requiring approximately 1200 hours of chilling to break winter dor-
mancy. Indigenous peoples were reported to collect the berries for various food and medicinal
products (for brief review, see Ref. 1). Settlers from Europe began utilizing the fruit to help pre-
vent scurvy. The first reported attempt to cultivate the cranberry was made in 1810 in Cape Cod,
Massachusetts (1). Since that time, the cranberry industry in the United States has grown to a cur-
rent production of approximately 550 million pounds annually (2). Today, cranberry fruit is uti-
lized mostly for juices. Cranberry juice has been reported to help prevent urinary tract infections.
Recent research in this area has suggested that compounds in the juice prevent or inhibit the ad-
hesion of Escherichia coli in the urinary tract (3–5).
Although cranberries have been cultivated on a large scale since the mid-1800s, many of
the varieties currently grown are wild selections from over 100 years ago. Varieties from con-
trolled crosses were released between the mid-1950s and 1970 (1), one of which, ‘Stevens,’ has
become the most popular cultivar. The release and widespread cultivation of new varieties are rel-
atively slow in cranberries (6). This is probably due to two major factors. The first is that the
American cranberry requires 3–5 years to achieve full production from planting, imposing a
383
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384 Polashock and Vorsa
lengthy cycle for breeding and selection. The second is the cost associated with renovating an ex-
isting cranberry bed to plant a new variety. The return on investment has been reported to be a
minimum of 8 years (7). Thus an introduced variety must be far superior to existing cultivars to
allow renovation to be a viable option.
Not only do breeding and selection for superior traits in cranberry constitute a lengthy
process, but the available genes are limited to the primary gene pool within V. macrocarpon. The
diversity and genetic differentiation within wild V. macrocarpon populations appear to be low
compared to those of other species (8). Although interspecific crosses within the same Vaccinium
subsection offer opportunities, intersectional hybrids within the Vaccinium genus are generally
sterile (9). The members of other species within the cranberry section Oxycoccus are largely poly-
ploid (e.g., V. oxycoccus L.), imposing limitations on accessing this gene pool. Interploid hy-
bridization, particularly when the desired introgression is from polyploid to diploid levels, is
difficult.
Biotechnology as a method of crop improvement has become a valuable tool to comple-
ment existing breeding programs. Techniques, particularly transformation, offer several opportu-
nities that are unattainable through conventional breeding. Direct transformation offers the op-
portunity for wide interspecies gene transfer.
In cranberry, the most serious threats to crop production are insect pests and fungal dis-
eases. This has become particularly important in recent years with the loss of registered fungi-
cides and pesticides. Fruit rot is a serious problem in some growing regions (particularly the
Northeast) and is caused by a complex of organisms (reviewed in Ref. 10). Insertion of human-
safe antifungal genes such as chitinases could provide sufficient resistance to allow for reduced
reliance on traditional fungicides. Genes are also being identified that may be effective against
cranberry insect pests. The insertion and expression of these genes in elite genotypes would offer
new opportunities in the development of insect-resistant cultivars.
Although interspecific gene transfer is attractive, manipulation of the existing cranberry
genome offers potential benefits as well. Most plants have natural insect and defense genes that
could be manipulated to be more effective against common pests. Other genes may be manipu-
lated to improve agronomic traits or to increase desirable compounds in the fruit.
Despite all of the potential advantages of cranberry biotechnology, there are few published
reports regarding transgenic cranberry. One reason is that cranberry is a minor crop, with limited
resources available to pursue the problems associated with cranberry biotechnology. Much of the
progress that has occurred in cranberry is due in part to the work published in other species of
Vaccinium, particularly blueberry (see, for example, Refs. 11–16).
Serres and McCown reviewed the state of the art in cranberry biotechnology up to 1995
(17). This paper addresses what we perceive to be the existing hurdles in cranberry biotechnol-
ogy as well as advances since 1995.
Three basic steps are required for a viable biotechnology system in cranberry: (a) a reliable
method for adventitious plant regeneration from somatic tissues of elite genotypes; (b) a scheme
for gene transfer, integration, and expression in the cranberry genome; and (c) a system to select
transformed cells and plants. Each of these basic steps can be further divided and optimized.
II. IN VITRO CULTURE AND PLANT REGENERATION

FROM SOMATIC TISSUE
In vitro culture of cranberry was first reported in 1984 (18); however, this work as well as that of
Marcotrigiano and McGlew (19) focused on micropropagation from stem explants and indicated
that many of the shoots formed in their system are probably adventitious. Scorza and Welker (20)
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Cranberry Transformation and Regeneration 385
reported adventitious shoot proliferation from cranberry stems and leaves. They listed cytokinin
as a requirement and noted that shoot development and shoot proliferation were inversely related,
indicating that the conditions (primarily growth regulator combinations) that induce shoot prolif-
eration do not allow for shoot elongation.
Shoot regeneration from adventitious buds on tissue cultured stem sections was achieved
by using a basic woody plant medium supplemented with 1 µM thidiazuron (TDZ) and 10 µM
N6-[2-isopentenyl] adenine (2ip) (21). This report focused on transformation of the regenerating
stem segments and did not discuss efficiency or optimization of the regeneration process. Shoot
regeneration from leaves was specifically examined by Marcotrigiano and coworkers (22). These
researchers also used a woody plant medium (although different from that used by Serres et al.
[21]) supplemented with 10 µM TDZ and 0 or 1.0 µM α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). Elonga-
tion of the regenerated shoots was reported to be a key problem with this system, similar to that
discussed in Scorza and Welker (20).
Our laboratory has taken a systematic approach to improving cranberry adventitious bud
production and elongation since an efficient system is required if comprehensive transformation
studies are to be explored. We have decided to concentrate on leaves as an explant since leaves
are routinely chosen for Agrobacterium–mediated transformation studies. In addition, the only re-
port of cranberry transformation used particle bombardment of stem sections (21). If bombard-
ment continues to be the transformation method of choice, leaves should offer a larger target than
stems.
To establish an efficient tissue culture and reliable regeneration system, we examined four
basic variables, (a) genotype, (b) growth regulator combination(s), (c) explant age, and (d) explant
orientation. All of these variables have been shown to be important in other tissue culture systems.
To address potential genotype differences, five cultivars were chosen for the study, ‘Ben
Lear,’ ‘Early Black,’ ‘Pilgrim,’ ‘Stevens,’ and ‘No. 35.’ ‘Ben Lear’ and ‘Early Black’ are wild se-
lections released in 1901 and 1852, respectively. Both are still widely cultivated. ‘Pilgrim’ and
‘Stevens’ are the result of crosses of wild selections from a USDA breeding program begun in
1929. These cultivars were released in 1961 and 1950, respectively. Both of these cultivars are
widely grown, and ‘Stevens’ is the most common choice for new plantings. The last variety, ‘No.
35,’ is not widely cultivated; it is a cross between wild selections and is still being evaluated for
desired horticultural traits. Cranberry cultivars have been shown in some cases to be heteroge-
neous genotypes (23,24). All of the clones used in our studies were DNA-fingerprinted to confirm
genetic identity and homogeneity.
The selection of growth regulators to be tested was based on the successful regeneration of
cranberry reported by Serres and coworkers (21) and Marcotrigiano and associates (22), namely,
TDZ, NAA, and 2ip. Although extensive experiments were not conducted on optimization, the
basal medium consisted of Anderson’s major and micro salts (25), MS organics (26), and 2% su-
crose (hereafter referred to as basal medium) for all experiments. The medium was adjusted to pH
5.3 with a solution of potassium hydroxide (0.5 N) before autoclaving (121°C, 15 minutes) and
solidified with 5 g/l Agargel (Sigma Chemical Company, St Louis, MO).
Explant age was examined by parallel experiments utilizing leaves nearest the shoot apical
meristem (the “youngest”—excluding the apical leaves less than 1.3 × 2.5 mm) down to 10 leaves
from the apical meristem (the “oldest”). Leaf age was an important parameter to examine since
it is commonly observed that aging of explants has a significant negative effect on regenera-
tion (27).
Finally, effects of explant orientation on the medium were examined. This was expected to
be an important consideration since leaf regeneration in blueberry was reported to arise only from
the abaxial side (11). However, Marcotrigiano and colleagues (22) reported shoot regeneration
from cranberry leaves occurred on both sides of the explants.
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Cranberry stems are easily disinfected for maintenance in sterile culture. Deleafed stems
are washed for 30 seconds in 70% ethanol followed by 10 minutes in 20% commercial bleach and
rinsed in sterile water. Maintenance is on the basal medium described, in Magenta GA7 contain-
ers. Culture chambers are maintained at 25 ⫾ 1°C and a 16-hour daily photoperiod provided by
cool-white fluorescent tubes at 40 µmol ⭈ m2 ⭈ s⫺1. Plants grow normally although the leaves tend
to be considerably smaller than on greenhouse or field grown plants.
All genotypes tested responded similarly in our experiments. Considering that we used both
wild selections and first-generation hybrids, it is probably safe to assume that genotype-specific
regeneration protocols will not have to be devised for transformation procedures. Varieties, how-
ever, varied considerably (up to four times) in their regeneration capacity (i.e., the number of
shoot meristems formed).
A. Growth Regulator Effects

Our research suggests that initially high levels (10 µM) of TDZ in the medium in combination
with 5.0 µM 2ip allowed efficient regeneration in all cultivars tested (Table 1). In some cases, the
explants were completely covered with adventitious shoots within 30 days in culture (Fig. 1). In
our studies, NAA even at low concentration (0.5 µM) severely retards regeneration and induces
proliferation of callus (28). This is in contrast to the results of Marcotrigiano and coworkers (22),
which showed a general increase in adventitious shoot production when 1.0 µM NAA was added
to the medium. This difference could be due to a number of factors such as explant genotype and
basal medium composition. Our results are consistent with those of Billings and associates (11)
in blueberry, another Vaccinium species.
The problem of adventitious shoot elongation that was encountered by other researchers
was also an issue in our laboratory. No elongation of shoot meristems was observed when the ex-
plants were maintained on the regeneration medium (basal medium containing 10.0 µM TDZ and
5.0 µM 2ip). Transfer to lower TDZ (1.0 µM) and higher (10.0 µM) 2ip did not alleviate the prob-
lem. If, however, the explants are transferred to basal medium (without growth regulators) soon
after bud induction (after about 40 days in regeneration medium), shoot elongation occurs in
about 2 weeks (Fig. 2). Rooting of the elongated shoots has proved to be quite easy. All shoots
transplanted to solid basal medium or moist sphagnum moss root within 15 days.
B. Effects of Explant Age and Orientation on the Medium

The age of source leaves for explants (i.e., the oldest leaves from a shoot versus the youngest) has
no apparent significant effect on regeneration. Thus, large-scale studies could utilize nearly all of
the leaves on in vitro grown shoots.
Table 1 Adventitious Shoot Regeneration and Elongation of Cranberry Leaf Explants
Mean no. shoot Mean no. elongated shoot

Genotype Explant number meristems/leaf a meristems/leaf a
Early Black 50 54.8a 18.2a

Pilgrim 50 51.2a 13.6b
Ben Lear 41 21.1b 7.8c
Stevens 50 14.2c 6.9c
No. 35 49 12.2c 6.5c
a
Mean values followed by the same letter are not significantly different (Duncan’s test, p = 0.05).
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Figure 1 Pilgrim explant after ⬃20 days on elongation medium (transferred after ⬃40 days on regener-
ation medium).
Explant orientation on the medium has a profound effect on observed regeneration. When
the adaxial side is in contact with the medium, about half the number of adventitious shoots are
formed, as compared to when the adaxial side was up (away from the medium). This observation
is not surprising since the shoot regeneration in our system occurs almost exclusively on the adax-
ial side for all genotypes on all media tested. This is in contrast to blueberry, in which Billings
and coworkers (11) reported that shoots originated only from the abaxial side, and to cranberry
(22), in which shoot regeneration was reported to occur on both sides of the leaves.
III. TRANSFORMATION OF CRANBERRY TISSUE
With an efficient regeneration system, the various potential transformation methods can be ex-
plored. A reliable transformation system can be divided into the following basic steps: (a) a
method of DNA delivery into the cells, (b) selective regeneration of transformed cells, and (c) a
method of screening the putative transformed plants.
Several methods of DNA transfer into plant cells have been developed. The only published
report of transformation in cranberry used electric discharge particle bombardment (21). Al-
though successful, this system appears to generate a relatively low frequency (0.15%) of recov-
ered transclones. Biolistic particle delivery systems tend to have low efficiency, can lead to
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Figure 2 Elongation of shoot tips from Pilgrim explants after transfer to basal medium.
chimeric plants, and are sometimes associated with insertion of multiple copies of the desired
genes that can lead to expression problems such as gene silencing.
Transformation using Agrobacterium tumefaciens harboring disarmed Ti plasmids is well
established. Wild-type Agrobacterium sp. strains are known to infect blueberries naturally. Row-
land (29) tested five common tumorigenic strains on blueberry and found that at least three of
those tested (T37, C58, and A281) could form galls. Serres and McCown (17), also using tu-
morigenic strains, found that three of the strains they tested (A348, A6, and A282/pTVK281)
could from galls on cranberry. Interestingly, A. tumefaciens strains T37 and C58 were included in
their research and were not reported to cause galls on cranberry within 3 weeks of inoculation.
More recently, blueberry transformation has been achieved by using at least two different dis-
armed Agrobacterium sp. strains (15,16). The latter report compared efficiency of two common
strains (LBA4404 and EHA105) of A. tumefaciens for transformation. Strain EHA105 (a super-
virulent disarmed derivative of A281) (30) was found to be much more effective and was used in
all of our studies. In order to allow better access of the plant cells to Agrobacterium, various meth-
ods of wounding can be used, including sonication (31) and digestive enzyme treatment.
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One other method that has been successful in some plants is called whisker transformation
(32,33). Silicon carbide “whiskers” are shaken with the explant in a solution containing the DNA
to be inserted. The whiskers penetrate the cells and allow the DNA to enter. Some of the DNA be-
comes integrated into the plant genome, giving rise to transformants.
Since particle-mediated transformation of cranberry has been successful, we are testing a
comparable method of bombardment, in which particles are accelerated by a helium burst
(e.g., Bio-Rad, PDS1000). Similarly to the experiments detailed in Serres and coworkers (21), we
have examined the effects of preculture period (0–20 days), particle size (0.75 and 1.0 µm), and
distance between the stopping screen and the target. All of the experiments were performed
with leaf explants on regeneration medium. A few blue sectors have been detected in some treat-
ments using GUS transient assays, but confirmation of stable transformation requires further ver-
ification.
Since wild-type A. tumefaciens infection has also been reported, our lab has concentrated
on using Agrobacterium–mediated transformation as an alternative system. Using Strain
EHA105, we have confirmed expression of a GUS reporter gene. Transient assays show that
about 50% of the treated explants have GUS activity. This activity is indicated by the presence of
1–12 blue spots/explant. The frequency of stable transformants to date is quite low, however, with
only two confirmed transclones in over 100 leaf explants. We propose that one problem is simply
exposure of the totipotent cells in the leaf to Agrobacterium infection. Since wounding is known
to be a requirement for infection, efforts have focused on this aspect. Various techniques such as
shaking with sand, sonication, whisker wounding, and lytic enzyme treatment need to be ex-
plored. However, any method that wounds the tissue too much causes death of the explant or a re-
duction of regeneration. Sonication as a method of microwounding appears to be a possibility
(31,34). At least one report suggests that sonication alone may be sufficient for transformation
(35). Preliminary evaluation using sonication is under way.
Experiments in our laboratory using sand and lytic enzymes to weaken the cell wall (vari-
ous concentrations and incubation periods were tested) showed a negative effect on regeneration
(probably due to severe wounding or degradation) and no increases in transient expression as
judged by histochemical GUS assays (data not shown). These methods do not appear to hold
promise for cranberry.
Silicon carbide “whiskers” have been used as a method of direct gene transfer (as detailed).
This method was explored, but transient GUS expression was not observed, nor were stable trans-
formants recovered. However, since the fibers could puncture cells, it was thought that “whisker”
treatment might be a suitable wounding technique (i.e., for Agrobacterium sp. transformation).
Results thus far have been negative.
Experiments to enhance Agrobacterium–mediated transformation efficiency include using
sonication for wounding, exploring other Agrobacterium sp. strains, and using variations of cul-
tivation techniques such as length of cocultivation, acetosyringone addition to the medium, prein-
cubation of the explants, and bacterium density.
One problem often encountered with Agrobacterium–mediated transformation is clearing
of the explants of bacteria after cocultivation, particularly when supervirulent strains are used
(see, e.g., Refs. 36,37). After 4–6 days of cocultivation, rinsing with a solution containing a high
level of carbenicillin (300 mg/L) for 30 minutes, followed by transfer to regeneration medium
containing 300 mg/L carbenicillin (with or without kanamycin for selection) effectively elimi-
nated bacteria from 95% of the explants within 14 days. This was determined by culturing the ex-
plants in LB (a rich bacterial growth medium) with no antibiotics for at least 10 days and ob-
serving for evidence of bacterial growth.
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IV. SELECTION AND SCREENING OF PUTATIVE TRANSFORMANTS
Selection of the transformed cells and subsequent regenerated plants is the next requirement. The
most commonly used antibiotic for selection of transformed higher plants is kanamycin. Resis-
tance to this antibiotic is conferred by insertion and expression of a gene encoding neomycin
phosphotransferase II (NPT II). Kanamycin selection in cranberry has been successful (21). Other
antibiotic resistance genes and in some cases herbicide resistance genes have been useful for se-
lection. We have tested one other gene for selection that encodes resistance to the antibiotic hy-
gromycin B.
The activity of many of the genes of interest that are inserted by transformation, especially
those that are not constitutively expressed, is difficult to assay. For this reason, screenable mark-
ers or reporter genes are widely used, particularly when transformation procedures are being op-
timized. The most commonly used in higher plants is gusA, a gene encoding β-glucuronidase
(GUS). Expression and activity of this enzyme are easily detectable by using both histochemical
and fluorigenic substrates (38). More recent versions of this gene contain a plant intron to ensure
expression only in plant cells and not in Agrobacterium sp. (39). This reporter gene was used suc-
cessfully in cranberry transformation (21), and expression was shown to be influenced by various
factors (40).
A. Transgenic Plant Selection Systems

A key step in the transformation process entails the recovery and selective growth of the trans-
formants. Kanamycin selection conferred by expression of the NPT II gene (under the control of
a nopaline synthase promoter) allows selection in cranberry, but this system to date is not ade-
quate. Serres and colleagues (21) used a flooding technique and 300 mg/l of kanamycin but rou-
tinely autoclaved the medium containing the antibiotic. Using filter-sterilized kanamycin (added
to partially cooled media), we find that varieties we are testing are sensitive to even lower con-
centrations than that reported (21). Although this could be due to genotype differences used in our
experiments, it is possible some kanamycin activity is lost as a result of autoclaving. Regardless,
transformants still require extended periods to grow, and selection across the explant is heteroge-
neous, possibly because of variable absorption and transport of the antibiotic from the medium.
These variable effects are thought to be partially alleviated by the flooding technique described.
Another antibiotic, hygromycin B, was tried in our experiments. Unlike kanamycin, which
causes bleaching of the tissue, hygromycin B caused death of the explants at the concentration
tested (100 mg/l). Since the adventitious buds are forming on the top of the explants, death of the
surrounding explant tissue was detrimental to selection and growth of putative transformants.
The laboratory of Brent McCown (University of Wisconsin-Madison) has examined the po-
tential for using herbicide resistance as a selectable marker. The bar gene, encoding phos-
phinothricine acetyltransferase (PAT), was transformed into cranberry plants and the transgenic
plants were evaluated for herbicide selection in vitro. Bar gene expression confers resistance to
glufosinate-ammonium (commercial formulation Liberty, Agrevo Corp.). This herbicide is a po-
tent and irreversible inhibitor of glutamine synthetase.
Glufosinate-ammonium for selection did not work well. Even nontransformed plants had
resistance to increasing levels of this herbicide in the medium (plants survived at a level of 20
mg/l). This was presumed to be due to an induction of glutamine synthetase gene expression
and/or a natural tolerance for ammonia buildup in cranberry (ammonia buildup is a result of glu-
tamine synthetase inhibition). Other herbicides and resistance genes have not yet been tested for
in vitro selection utility.
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B. Transgenic Plant Screening Systems

Our work and other published work on cranberry transformation have been limited to expression
of the GUS gene for screening putative transformants. This simple detection system has been in-
valuable in quickly evaluating transformation techniques through transient assays as well as ex-
pression in stable transformants. Unfortunately, as with kanamycin selection, this system is still
not adequate. One problem is that the assay is destructive. Any explants used in transient assays
are sacrificed. This is not a problem with putative transformants since only a small amount of tis-
sue, such as a leaf fragment, is required for the assay. Gus detection in transformants by histo-
chemical staining was found to be random and unpredictable (40). In addition, these researchers
also found that detectable levels of Gus expression varied among transclones as well as within a
transclone, depending on the developmental and physiological state of the tissue. The physical
growth environment was also found to play a role. These phenomena have been noted in other
plants such as blueberry (16).
Polyphenolic compounds, which are present in high concentration in cranberry tissue, were
noted to decrease fluorigenic detection of GUS activity. The addition of polvinylpolypyrrolidone
(PVPP) to the cranberry extract helped alleviate this problem (40). The polyphenolics in the tis-
sue are presumed to be a problem in the histochemical assay as well. Substrate penetration may
also reduce detectable activity in intact tissue. Leaves from our transformants expressing GUS
typically turn blue near the cut surface and in zones of accidental wounding. Over time, the whole
leaf stains blue. Vacuum infiltration of the substrate into the leaves does not seem to help.
Although GUS detection has been useful, refinement of the procedure is necessary to real-
ize the full potential. Perhaps other selectable markers such as green fluorescent protein (GFP)
will prove to be useful in cranberry. One advantage of GFP detection systems is the nondestruc-
tive attribute.
Aside from the problems associated with detecting enzyme activity, expression of any gene
inserted into the plant is first regulated at the transcriptional level. Although a host of promoters
have been used in transgenic plants, cranberry research has been limited to the CaMV 35s pro-
moter and the Agrobacterium sp. nopaline synthase promoter. Both of these promoters are con-
sidered to be constitutively expressed in transgenic plants. Other promoters will be required in
order for cranberry biotechnology to progress more efficiently. When several genes are driven by
the same promoter, as is often the case (e.g., the CaMV 35s promoter is used for GUS expression
as well as the gene of interest), cosuppression can occur. In addition, temporal and spatial regu-
lation is a requirement for the expression of some useful genes in cranberry. Work in our lab is
progressing toward isolating and testing other promoters for transgenic cranberry.
V. EXPRESSION OF GENES WITH POTENTIAL COMMERCIAL

APPLICATION IN CRANBERRY
Herbicide resistance is one of the most commonly explored applications of plant biotechnology.
A crop resistant to a broad-spectrum herbicide could allow for weed control without crop dam-
age. The success of this approach is evident in the commercial release of transgenic plants that
are resistant to many available herbicides (e.g., Monsanto’s Roundup Ready soybeans, corn, etc.,
and AgrEvo’s Liberty Link soybeans, corn, etc.).
Researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have tested transgenic ‘Pilgrim’ cran-
berry plants for field resistance to the herbicides glufosinate-ammonium and bialophos (Serres
and McCown, unpublished data; also see Ref. 41). Cuttings from the transgenic plant with the
highest expression of the bar gene were rooted and acclimatized to outdoor growth in a cold
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frame. Herbicide tolerance tests were performed in early July, late July, and September. The test
in early July showed that the transformed plants were significantly more resistant than the non-
transformed plants to the herbicide glufosinate-ammonium. Nontransformed plants were killed at
200–300 ppm, whereas the transformed plants survived 500 ppm. The transformed plants did,
however, show some delay in growth and some shoot tip death at 500 ppm. In late July, a similar
test, but with higher levels of glufosinate-ammonium (up to 1000 ppm), was conducted. Some
carrier damage, noted at the highest level, may limit the amount of the herbicide that can be used,
but even at 1000 ppm the transformed plants were not killed (Fig. 3), although the injury seen at
500 ppm in the earlier study was more severe. In September, a different, more translocatable form
of the herbicide, bialophos, was tested. Levels tested (800 and 1600 ppm) were roughly equiva-
lent to 500 and 1000 ppm glufosinate-ammonium. The transformed cranberry showed excellent
resistance to this form of the herbicide with only minor damage at the highest concentration. The
nontransformed plants also showed some resistance, although most shoot tips were killed and no
flower buds were set. Self-pollinated progeny to generate plants homozygous for the resistance
gene are being grown for evaluation.
Insect predation on plants is another problem cranberry growers face. Many insecticides
kill beneficial insects as well as the pests. In addition, insecticides, like fungicides, are being
banned from use as stricter regulations are put into place. Probably the most widely explored gene
for transgenic resistance to insects is Bt. Bt is a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
that encodes a δ-endotoxin. When ingested by certain insects, the δ-endotoxin is cleaved into an
insecticidal compound. Various forms of the gene that impart different insect toxin specificity are
now available.
Transgenic cranberry expressing the Bt gene were generated and tested for insecticidal ac-
tivity (Serres and McCown, unpublished data; also see Ref. 41). None of the 64 transclones ex-
Figure 3 Herbicide tolerance in transgenic cranberry conferred by bar gene expression. Plants were
treated with 1000 ppm glufosinate-ammonium. The flat on the left is CaMV/bar transformed Pilgrim; the
flat on the right is untransformed. Photograph was taken 1 month after spraying. (Photograph courtesy of
R. Serres and B. McCown.)
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pressing the gene produced significant blackheaded fireworm (BHFW, Rhopobota naevana) lar-
val mortality in in vitro feeding assays. BHFW is a lepidopteran pest of cranberry. Field tests,
however, using four transclones, over 2 years showed an increase in BHFW mortality rate rang-
ing from a 12% to a 37% reduction in the number of insects reaching maturity (Fig. 4). Signifi-
cant differences were also noted in the two cultivars tested, ‘Pilgrim’ and ‘Stevens.’ This was hy-
pothesized to be due to differences in endogenous phenolic levels. Inhibition of Bt δ-endotoxin
insecticidal activity due to tannins has been reported in other plant systems (42,43). More detailed
studies were conducted to determine whether in fact cranberry phenolic compounds (such as
flavonoids) could inhibit the δ-endotoxin activity to explain in part the low effectiveness and vari-
ability of the toxin on insect mortality rate in laboratory and field assays.
Crude cranberry extracts mixed with a modified commercial preparation of Bt were shown
to inhibit insecticidal activity in droplet feeding assays using BHFW (Fig. 5) and soybean looper
(Pseudoplusia includens). Extracts from cranberry to eliminate proteins and enhance flavonolic
constituents had similar effects to the crude extract, suggesting endogenous cranberry flavonoids
as the inhibitory compounds. These data are similar to those observed for β-glucuronidase (dis-
cussed previously) produced in transgenic plants (40).
Mean ⴞ SE of 8 replicates
Figure 4 Emergence of adult BHFW moths on transclones of cranberry. ConSt, Stevens control; TSt(#),
independent Stevens transclones; ConPg, Pilgrim control; TPg1, Pilgrim transclone. Bars with different let-
ters are significantly different. (Courtesy of R. Serres and B. McCown.)
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control 15% Bt cran + Bt
Figure 5 Effect of the Bt δ-endotoxin alone (15% Bt) and mixed with cranberry leaf extracts (cran + Bt)
on the growth of BHFH. (Courtesy of R. Serres and B. McCown.)
VI. SUMMARY AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
In our opinion, the regeneration procedure developed in our lab from cranberry leaves is efficient,
reliable, and applicable to all genotypes tested. Thus, regeneration from somatic tissue is no
longer a hurdle or bottleneck in biotechnological approaches to cranberry improvement. The
transformation procedure, however needs to be further improved. Our preliminary data using A.
tumefaciens are encouraging. If, however, this method proves to be unreliable, particle bombard-
ment techniques will be further examined and optimized. The success of Serres and coworkers
(21), using a bombardment technique, indicates that this is a viable, even if not the ideal method
of transformation.
Expression of all genes in transgenic cranberry needs to be further examined on all levels.
Promoters for better temporal and spatial expression need to be isolated and tested. The most se-
rious hurdle, using current technology, is developing selection methods to recover shoots from
transgenic cells. Some inadequacies in this area, as well as screening procedures (such as GUS
detection), are due in part to inhibition of activity by high levels of phenolics in cranberry, as de-
scribed. Herbicide resistance may yet prove to be a viable alternative to antibiotic selection. Many
other herbicide resistance genes and herbicides with different modes of action are available and
warrant testing. Selection alternatives such as d-xylose utilization, conferred by expression of the
xylose isomerase gene from Thermoanaerobacterium thermosulfurogenes, also merit exploration
(44).
Public acceptance of transgenic food crops such as cranberry and the legal hurdles associ-
ated with licensing various genes (promoters, etc.) for use in a minor crop will continue to be im-
portant considerations. Efficacy and safety of all transgenic plants and products need to be dili-
gently pursued to allow for the continued use of this powerful and indispensable technology.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Brent McCown and Rodney Serres for providing unpublished data. We
would also like to thank Luping Qu, a postdoctoral research associate in our lab, for contributing
recent data.
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27
Transgenic Grapevines
Dennis J. Gray, Subramanian Jayasankar, and Zhijian Li

University of Florida, Apopka, Florida
John Cordts
Profigen, Inc., Paterson, Washington
Ralph Scorza and C. Srinivasan
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Kearneysville, West Virginia
I. INTRODUCTION 397
II. REGENERATION SYSTEMS 398
III. SELECTABLE MARKERS 399
IV. GENE DELIVERY SYSTEMS 400
A. Particle Bombardment 400
B. Agrobacterium Species 400
V. PROGRESS IN CREATION OF TRANSGENIC GRAPEVINE CLONES 402
REFERENCES 403
I. INTRODUCTION
Grape (Vitis sp.) is the world’s most valuable fruit crop as a result of its unique use for wine and
as a fresh fruit and raisin. For wine, phenotype is particularly important and varietal fidelity is of
paramount concern. Development of new varieties is hampered because grape is a woody peren-
nial species with a life cycle of 2 to 5 years. It exhibits inbreeding depression so that homozygous
lines cannot be developed and, in a breeding program, vigor must be scrupulously maintained by
outcrossing. All of these factors conspire so that grape varieties must be propagated vegetatively
to maintain clonal fidelity, and use of breeding is not a particularly viable method for improve-
ment (although it is used successfully to breed new seedless table grapes). In all other instances,
varietal improvement is achieved incrementally by selection of variant phenotypes from stands of
established varieties. Such “clonal selection” (1) has been effectively used to produce recogniza-
ble subclones of many varieties. However, clonal selection is a random, “hit-or-miss” approach
that does not allow intentional introduction of desirable traits, such as disease resistance. Like
most crops, grape is subject to continual disease pressures; it would be advantageous to utilize
genetic improvement to maintain or improve established production standards in existing viticul-
tural regions and allow wider environmental adaptation so that grape production can be expanded
397
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398 Gray et al.
into previously inhospitable regions. Genetic transformation is an attractive alternative for genetic
improvement because it potentially alleviates the shortcomings of conventional approaches by al-
lowing addition of specific traits into otherwise desirable varieties.
Despite development of resources and procedures that allow transformation in a wide range
of crops species, grape has remained difficult, suggesting that other factors were at play. For ex-
ample, only recently have stably transformed grapevines of important varieties been obtained
This chapter reviews the literature on grape transformation from the perspective of technology
development. Thus, we discuss regeneration systems, gene delivery systems, selectable markers,
culture/selection systems, functional genes, and, finally, the current state of progress in the field.
II. REGENERATION SYSTEMS
In studies in which the objective was mainly to insert and express a gene of interest, rather than
obtaining transgenic plants, a regeneration system was not required, such that nonmorphogenic
leaves and young stem segments could be used as target tissue (2). Both in vitro and greenhouse
grown tissues have been used in such studies; however, in vitro grown tissues are preferred be-
cause of their aseptic nature. Recovery of transgenic plants requires a regeneration system, from
which plants are ultimately derived from single cells. Without such a system, transformants
would invariably be chimeric (i.e., only segments of the tissues and/or organs would be composed
of transgenic cells). Potential choices for grapevine include meristem, organogenic, and embryo-
genic regeneration systems.
Transformation of shoot apical meristems has been successful for a few crop species. To
develop transgenic grapes in this system, a stringent selection system is required, since the newly
transformed cells usually are already differentiated and part of a developing organ. Without se-
lection, chimeras may occur. Transformation of grape via use of meristem tissues is an attractive
prospect because of the ready availability of in vitro adventitious shoot cultures for a wide range
of varieties, however, to date, there has been no progress in this area.
The first report of stably transformed grape plants utilized an organogenic system of Vitis
rupestris ‘St. George’ (3). In this, adventitious buds induced from the hypocotyls of somatic em-
bryos served as the targets for gene delivery. Several transgenic vines were recovered from these
cultures. Concurrent study of adventitious cultures from Vitis vinifera cultivars ‘Cabernet Sauvi-
gnon’ and ‘Chardonnay,’ which were initiated from vegetative nodes (not somatic embryos), re-
sulted in transgenic buds, but plants were not recovered. Although shoot organogenesis was re-
ported from leaves of a number of species and cultivars (4–6), this regeneration system, other than
in one report, was never again shown to function in transgenic plant recovery, and the approach
seems to have been abandoned.
Most progress in grape transformation has involved embryogenic cultures (7–9). Since the
embryos appear to arise from single cells, somatic embryogenesis represents an ideal system for
transformation. In grape, embryogenic cultures are most commonly induced from floral organs,
such as stamens, and, less commonly, from vegetative organs, such as leaves. In some instances,
cultures have been maintained for several years (10), allowing a potentially inexhaustible supply
of tissue for transformation. Proliferation of somatic embryos occurs by two related develop-
mental pathways—indirect and/or direct embryogenesis. With indirect embryogenesis, cells
within unorganized masses of embryogenic tissue, termed proembryonal complexes (PEMs), give
rise to somatic embryos (7). With direct embryogenesis, well-developed somatic embryos give
rise to new embryos, primarily from epidermal or subepidermal cells located at the radicle (or
root)/hypocotyl boundary. Thus, direct embryogenesis results in clusters of concurrently devel-
oping embryos that are attached at their bases (the site where the radicle is barely exposed from
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Transgenic Grapevines 399
encasing hypocotyl tissue) or, in germinating embryos, where root meets hypocotyl. Both indi-
rect and direct embryogenesis can occur in the same culture, and apparently both regeneration
pathways have been utilized for transformation, although it is sometimes difficult to determine
from the descriptive narratives provided in published protocols. Scorza and coworkers (11,12)
clearly utilized isolated small embryos for transformation and recovered transformants by direct
embryogenesis. Embryogenic callus was used in several other successful procedures (13–16).
However, in these studies, it is difficult to ascertain the embryogenic regeneration pathway.
Kikkert and colleagues (17) utilized an embryogenic suspension culture, suggesting more clearly
that indirect secondary embryogenesis was the mode of regeneration. The primary handicap of
embryogenic culture for grape transformation is that embryogenic cultures are difficult to induce
and the response remains very genotype-dependent. Currently it is not possible to induce em-
bryogenic cultures from many desirable varieties, and, hence, it is not possible to transform them.
III. SELECTABLE MARKERS
Selectable markers permit resistant transformed cells to outgrow their nontransformed counter-
parts while under selection pressure and facilitate the successful recovery of transformants. Re-
porter markers, on the other hand, provide transformed cells with a visible phenotype that facili-
tates early identification of transformants at various stages of cell growth and development.
Reporter markers can also be used as indicators of transgene integration that can be quantitatively
scored for monitoring transformation conditions and for fine-tuning the parameters that affect
transformation efficiency.
The most commonly used selectable marker for grape is the neomycin phosphotransferase
II (NPT II) gene, which, when expressed, detoxifies and thus provides resistance to a number of
antibiotics. The most commonly used of these antibiotics, kanamycin, is applied at 25–50 mg/L
to select transgenic grapes successfully (e.g., 11–13,17). Interestingly, controversial and contra-
dictory reports state that grape may be either too sensitive to kanamycin or not sensitive enough
(9). Colby and Meredith (18) reported that 7 mg/L of kanamycin inhibited adventitious shoot
formation in nontransgenic grape, causing them to speculate that even NPT II–positive cultures
may not be resistant enough to select. Conversely, Perl and coworkers (15) reported that with their
culture/transformation system kanamycin did not inhibit embryogenesis in control cultures at lev-
els as high as 500 mg/L, so that the NPT II gene could not be used as a selectable marker. To cir-
cumvent this problem, genes for resistance to the antibiotic hygromycin and the herbicide Basta
were used to select transgenic plants successfully. Differences in conclusions reached by these
two studies may have been due to the testing of adventitious buds (not embryogenic cells) in the
former study and the use of specific antioxidants in the latter study. Regardless of the contradic-
tory reports, it clearly is possible to utilize NPT II gene expression, along with kanamycin, to se-
lect transgenic grape plants (11,12).
Mullins and associates (3) used the β-glucuronidase (GUS) gene as a reporter marker to
demonstrate that in the absence of the selectable agent kanamycin, no transformants were recov-
ered from various explants of both V. rupestris and V. vinifera genotypes previously inoculated
with Agrobacterium sp. In contrast, GUS-positive transformants were produced exclusively in the
presence of 15–20 mg/L kanamycin. However, nonchimeric transgenic plantlets of V. rupestris
‘St. George’ were obtained on a selection medium containing 10 mg/L kanamycin (3). Analysis
of GUS activity in a large number of putative transformants of V. rupestris and a hybrid indicated
that only about 30% of recovered plantlets selected on 10 mg/L kanamycin were nonchimeric
transformants, and the remainder were either escaped nontransformed plantlets or chimeras (13).
The GUS gene was also extensively utilized in studies of transformation of V. vinifera for identi-
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400 Gray et al.
fication and analysis of transgenic plants (11,12) and in studies to develop a biolistic transforma-
tion system in grapevine (17,19).
In a similar approach, Berres and associates (2) used a GUS histochemical assay to show
that the T-6b gene derived from pTiTm4 was capable of stimulating the growth of transformed
grape cells after Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation. The transformation eventually led
to the formation of chimeric shoot buds from leaf explants in part as a result of the multicellular
origin of adventitious buds and the lack of selection pressure to suppress growth of nontrans-
formed cells.
More recently, the green fluorescent protein gene (GFP), isolated from the Pacific North-
west jellyfish (Aequorea victoria), has become a widely used reporter marker to monitor trans-
gene expression in plants. GFP fluoresces in vivo when it receives light energy rather than as a re-
sult of a chemical reaction. GFP is unique in that its use does not require phytotoxic substrates as
do most other reporter systems, including GUS. Therefore, GFP allows continuous monitoring of
transgene expression without the need to sacrifice valuable tissue for analysis. Li and coworkers
(20) used GFP to characterize factors that affect Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation of
embryogenic cultures of various grapevine genotypes. In their study, susceptibility of 18 geno-
types to Agrobacterium sp. infection and their ability to form stably transformed calli were de-
termined. Equally importantly, the use of GFP facilitated early identification of nonchimeric
transformants and permitted the recovery of transgenic grape somatic embryos and plantlets
within a relatively short time. It is likely that GFP will find additional use as a reporter marker,
not only to optimize transformation efficiency, but also to study gene expression and regulation
in transgenic grape systems.
IV. GENE DELIVERY SYSTEMS
A number of gene delivery systems have been tried to produce transgenic plants, including elec-
troporation, electrophoresis, and piercing of cells with fibers. However, only two systems, parti-
cle bombardment– and Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation, have been successfully used
for grape.
A. Particle Bombardment
Particle bombardment, wherein microscopic gold or tungsten particles are coated with deoxyri-
bonucleic acid (DNA), are explosively discharged into target tissues, has been extensively used
to insert desirable genes into a range of crop species (21). Gray and associates (22) reported ex-
tensive transient expression of the GUS gene in embryogenic cultures of V. vinifera ‘Thompson
Seedless,’ which rendered the bombarded side of somatic embryos dark blue in color. However,
it was not until 1996 that transgenic plants of the Vitis hybrid ‘Chancellor’ were obtained by par-
ticle bombardment of embryogenic suspension cultures (17); this represents the only successful
report of plant recovery by this approach. Difficulty in obtaining transgenic plants via particle
bombardment may be due to the tendency of delivering multiple or partial gene copies into cells
or to the trauma of mechanical damage to cells by the biolistic bombardment. Recovery of trans-
genic plants may become difficult because damaged cells are prone to abnormalities, including
reduction of vigor, or, in the case of multicopy inserts, gene silencing may occur and transgenic
cells may not express desired traits.
B. Agrobacterium Species
Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation is the most commonly used method of inserting
genes into a wide range of plants. Grape is a natural host for Agrobacterium tumefaciens, and
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crown gall is a commonly encountered, often serious, disease (23), initially suggesting that trans-
formation would be a simple task. In practice, however, grape has been difficult to transform as
evidenced by numerous failed efforts since the 1990s. Early failures led researchers to examine
possible obstacles. The possible need to optimize Agrobacterium sp. strains was examined, since
biovar 3 is the strain that infects grape, whereas biovar 1 is used commonly for transformation.
However, both biovars produced galls on in vitro–grown shoots (24), suggesting that broad dif-
ferences in strains were not problematic. Transgenic root cultures that produced opines (25) and
an introduced marker gene (26) were recovered after Agrobacterium rhizogenes inoculation.
1. Culture of Agrobacterium Species for Transformation

Transformation has been accomplished by using Agrobacterium sp. strains LBA 4404, EHA 101,
and EHA 105. However, the bacterial culture conditions preceding cocultivation vary widely.
Generally, the bacterium is grown overnight in LB medium containing appropriate antibiotics at
28°C to a density of 0.2–0.6 OD at 600 nm. The culture is then pelleted and resuspended in a liq-
uid plant growth medium containing 2–3% sucrose. This diluted bacterial culture in plant growth
medium is used for transformation (15,27). Nakano and colleagues (14) added 20 µM acetosy-
ringone as an induction agent in the A. rhizogenes cultures. Similarly, Scorza and associates
(11,12) recommended resuspending overnight grown bacterial cultures in Murashige and Skoog
medium containing 100 µM acetosyringone, 200 µM betaine phosphate, and 2% sucrose and in-
cubation at 20°C for 6 hours to induce Agrobacterium sp. virulence genes prior to inoculation.
Whether or not there was any beneficial effect of culturing the bacteria in medium with this chem-
ical inducer was not explored.
2. Culture of Target Tissue Before Transformation

In several transformation systems, preculture of target tissue on a specified medium has been re-
ported to increase transformation efficiency. Perl and coworkers (15) reported that culturing em-
bryogenic calli in MS medium containing NOA (2 mg/L) for 7 days resulted in proembryogenic
calli that are highly suitable for transformation. They indicated that substituting NOA for 2, 4-D
resulted in the formation of better proembryogenic tissue for transformation. Perhaps the nascent
proembryogenic mass that formed after 7 days of subculture consisted of more actively dividing
cells and, thus, was a better target tissue for transformation. Scorza and coworkers (11,12) cul-
tured target tissue in ER proliferation medium (28) for several weeks prior to transformation. In
addition to having high levels of cysteine, a sulfur-containing amino acid with strong antioxidant
properties, this medium also has a high gel strength and lesser duration of time specified for au-
toclaving. Whether or not these factors contributed to increased transformation efficiency is not
known. Nakano and associates (14) used leaf-derived embryogenic callus in a modified Nitsch
and Nitsch medium containing 2,4-D and 4PU. They also recommended using freshly subcul-
tured tissue for transformation. Hebert and associates (19), who utilized fine suspension–derived
embryogenic tissue of ‘Chancellor’ grapes and obtained consistently high transformation rates,
maintained suspension cultures in MS medium containing 2,4-D.
3. Cocultivation and Selection of Transformed Cultures

Cocultivation is typically started in a suspension of bacterial cells and embryogenic tissue, after
which the cultures are plated on solid medium. The duration of cocultivation varies from just
1 hour (2) to 3 days (14). For V. vinifera cultivars, cocultivation for 2 days appears to be ideal
(11,15). Most of these studies suggest cocultivating on filter paper over a solid medium contain-
ing acetosyringone. Selection of transformed cultures typically began within 2 days (17). How-
ever, Scorza and colleagues (11) cultured the putative transformants for up to 6 weeks without se-
lection, then transferred actively growing cultures to selection medium. In addition to kanamycin,
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402 Gray et al.
the growth medium was supplemented with antibiotics such as carbenicillin and cefotaxime to
suppress Agrobacterium sp. for several weeks after cocultivation. Whenever a marker gene, such
as GUS, was used in the construct, periodic assays were performed to monitor and optimize the
selection process.
The first stably transformed grape plants were obtained by cocultivation of the adventitious
buds of rootstock V. rupestris ‘St. George’ with A. tumefaciens (3). A. rhizogenes was used to pro-
duce the first transgenic plants from somatic embryos of V. vinifera ‘Koshusanjaku’, which were
resistant to the kanamycin and expressed the GUS (14). A. tumefaciens was used to transform em-
bryogenic callus of V. rupestris and V. rupestris × V. berlandieri ‘110 Richter’ (13). Resulting
plants expressed both NPT II and GUS and, significantly, the grapevine fanleaf nepovirus coat
protein gene. Scorza and associates (11) combined particle bombardment wounding with A.
tumefaciens to obtain transgenic plants from zygotic embryo–derived somatic embryos of V.
vinifera. Presumably, the particle wounding treatment increased access of target cells to bacteria.
In addition, the cocultivation and plant regeneration media contained a high concentration of cys-
teine. Resulting plants contained the NPT II and GUS genes. Subsequently, the particle wound-
ing/Agrobacterium transformation procedure was used to obtain plants of V. vinifera ‘Thompson
Seedless,’ which, in addition to the NPT II and GUS genes, expressed the Shiva-1 synthetic lytic
peptide gene (12). A different approach utilized treatment 0.25% PVPP, an antioxidant, for
1 week after cocultivation to obtain transgenic plants from embryogenic cultures of V. vinifera
‘Superior Seedless’ (15). As in the work of Scorza and coworkers (11,12), antioxidants were
shown to prevent culture browning during cocultivation and selection, allowing better transgenic
plant recovery. Perl and coworkers (16) used this protocol to obtain transgenic plants of V. vinifera
‘Red Globe.’
V. PROGRESS IN THE CREATION OF TRANSGENIC GRAPEVINE CLONES
Reports of functional genes (excluding antibiotic resistance genes) that are expressed in grape-
vine cultures have been infrequent. An early example (12) documented the insertion of a gene en-
coding a lytic peptide with antimicrobial properties into ‘Thompson Seedless.’ However, progress
in the practical use of molecular genetics for grapevine improvement is accelerating, as evidenced
by reports presented at the Seventh International Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breed-
ing, held in Montpellier, France, in 1998. Numerous oral and written presentations demonstrated
a variety of global interests as well as successes in grapevine transformation.
Major needs expressed by grape growers concerned issues of pathogen resistance (fungus,
virus, bacteria), insect resistance, and qualities/physiological characteristics, such as seedless-
ness, antioxidant levels, and browning control. Several groups reported having transgenic plants
in lab or field evaluation programs to test for resistance to grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV), a dam-
aging and widespread nepovirus found in most grape growing regions of the world (29–35). Two
groups developed transgenic plants containing other coat protein genes for resistance to grapevine
viruses A and B (GVA and GVB), believed to be involved in Kober stem grooving and corky bark
(29,36). Other groups are interested in developing resistance to arabis mosaic virus (29,34) and
grapevine leafroll virus (31).
Transgenic clones of rootstock ‘Couderc 3309’ (V. riperia × V. rupestris), ‘Richter 110’ (V.
rupestris × V. berlandieri), and ‘Teleki 5C’ (V. berlandieri × V. riparia) containing the mutant
virE2 del B gene from A. tumefaciens are being tested for resistance to crown gall (A. vitis and A.
tumefaciens) (32). Harst and coworkers (37) and Kikkert and coworkers (38) developed trans-
genic plants with chitinase/endochitinase genes, which are being evaluated for resistance to grey
mold and powdery mildew. Reustle and Matt (39) have also used an endochitinase gene, but did
not recover transgenic plants.
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Levenko and Rubtsova (40) used Bar gene to develop resistance of grapevines to the herbi-
cide phosphinothricin (Basta). Similarly, Gollop and colleagues (41) are studying proantho-
cyanidin biosynthesis by transforming with the genes for dihydroflavonal reductase (DFR) and
leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase (LDOX). Transgenic vines containing the Bar gene were resis-
tant to 20 ml/L Basta, a concentration useful for weed control. Franks and coworkers (42) are
working to silence polyphenol oxidase (PPO) genes in plants to control browning in raisins.
Plants in the field are waiting to be evaluated for PPO activity and dried fruit color. Finally, vines
containing antifreezing genes have been developed (35). The nature of the genes was not clear,
but the intention is presumably to expand the useful growing regions for grape and/or increase
their hardiness to localized freezing conditions.
The skills and techniques necessary to transform, select, and regenerate transgenic grape-
vines are in place. A number of groups are currently placing potentially useful genes into exist-
ing varieties. In the near future, plants with useful attributes will be identified and the persistence
of the traits over an adequate period in perennial grape will be tested. Careful testing of clonal fi-
delity will be necessary, in particular, to determine the ultimate usefulness of transgenic wine
grape cultivars.
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24. PR Hemstead, BI Reisch. In vitro production of galls induced by Agrobacterium tumefaciens and
Agrobacterium rhizogenes on Vitis and Rubus. J Plant Physiol 120:9–17, 1985.
25. I Gribaudo, A Schubert. Grapevine root transformation with Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Proceedings
Fifth International Symposium on Grape Breeding, Vitis Special Issue, 1990, pp 412–418.
26. D Guellec, C David, M Brabchard, J Tempe. Agrobacterium rhizogenes–mediated transformation of
grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). Plant Cell Tissue Org Cult 20:211–215, 1990.
27. EW Stover, TJ Burr, HJ Swartz. Transformation of crown gall resistant and susceptible Vitis genotypes
with Agrobacterium vitis. Vitis 35:29–33, 1996.
28. RL Emershad, DW Ramming. Somatic embryogenesis and plant development from immature zygotic
embryos of seedless grapes (Vitis vinifera L.). Plant Cell Rep 14:6–12, 1994.
29. P Barbier, M Perrin, P Cobanov, B Walter. Probing pathogen-derived resistance against the fanleaf
virus in grapevine: An analysis of some more transformants (poster). VIIth International Symposium
on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier, France, July 6–10, 1998.
30. R Golles, A da Camara Machado, A Minafra, V Savino, G Saldarelli, GP Martelli, H Puhringer, H
Katinger, M Laimer da Camara Machado. Transgenic grapevines expressing coat protein gene se-
quences of grapevine fanleaf virus, arabis mosaic virus, grapevine virus A and grapevine virus B. VIIth
International Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier, France, July 6–10, 1998.
31. S Krastanova, KS Ling, HY Zhu, B Xue, TJ Burr, D Gonsalves. Development of transgenic grapevine
rootstocks with genes from grapevine fanleaf virus and grapevine leafroll associated closteroviruses 2
and 3 (poster). VIIth International Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier,
France, July 6–10, 1998.
32. B Xue, KS Ling, CL Reid, S Krastanova, M Sekiya, EA Momol, S Sule, J Mozsar, D Gonsalves, TJ
Burr. Transformation of five grape rootstocks with plant virus genes and a virE2 gene from Agrobac-
terium tumefaciens. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 35:226–231, 1999.
33. MC Mauro, B Walter, L Pinck, L Valat, P Barbier, M Boulay, P Coutos-Thevenot. Analysis of 41B
grapevine rootstocks for grapevine fanleaf virus resistance. VIIth International Symposium on
Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier, France, July 6–10, 1998.
34. A Spielmann, S Krastanova, V Douet-Orhant, S Marc-Martin, MH Prince Sigrist, P Gugerli. Resis-
tance to nepoviruses in grapevine: Expression of several putative resistance genes in transgenic plants
(poster). VIIth International Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier, France,
July 6–10, 1998.
35. I Tsvetkov, V Tsolova, A Atanossov. Gene transfer for stress resistance in grape (poster). VIIth Inter-
national Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier, France, July 6–10, 1998.
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36. L Martinelli, N Buzkan, A Minafra, P Saldarelli, D Costa, V Poletti, S Festi, A Perl, GP Martelli. Ge-
netic transformation of grape for resistance to viruses related to the rugose wood disease complex.
VIIth International Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier, France, July 6–10,
1998.
37. M Harst, B-A Bornoff, E Zyprian, R Topfer. Regeneration and transformation of different explants of
Vitis vinifera. VIIth International Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier,
France, July 6–10, 1998.
38. JR Kikkert, GM Reustle, GS Ali, PW Wallace, BI Reisch. Expression of a fungal chitinase in Vitis
vinifera L.: Merlot and Chardonnay plants produced by biolistic transformation. VIIth International
Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier, France, July 6–10, 1998.
39. GM Reustle, A Matt. First steps to use grapevine protoplasts for breeding purposes. VIIth International
40. BA Levenko, MA Rubtsova. Herbicide resistant transgenic plants of grapevine. VIIth International
41. R Gollop, Y Eshat, A Perl. Proanthocyanidins production in tissue culture: Regulation of dihy-
droflavonal reductase and leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase promoter-GUS-intron fusions in grape
(poster). VIIth International Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding, Montpellier, France,
July 6–10, 1998.
42. T Franks, P Iocco, M Thomas. Antisense and sense suppression of polyphenol oxidase in transgenic
Vitis vinifera cv. Sultana (poster). VIIth International Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breed-
ing, Montpellier, France, July 6–10, 1998.
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28
Genetic Transformation of Kiwifruit
(Actinidia species)
M. Margarida Oliveira
Faculdade de Ciências de Lisboa, Lisbon, and Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica,
Oeiras, Portugal
M. Helena Raquel
Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
I. INTRODUCTION 407
II. REGENERATION SYSTEMS IN ACTINIDIA SPECIES 408
III. DEVELOPMENT OF DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID TRANSFER PROTOCOLS 409
A. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Transformation 409
B. Direct Deoxyribonucleic Acid Transfer 415
IV. TRANSGENE INTERACTION AND STABILITY IN PROGENY 417
V. GENETIC IMPROVEMENT 417
VI. CONCLUSIONS 418
REFERENCES 419
I. INTRODUCTION
Kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa [A. Chev.] C.F. Liang et A.R. Ferguson var. deliciosa) (1) is an
amazing example of a fruit that in about one century was domesticated and conquered the world
market.
Actinidia, a genus containing about 60 species of dioecious vines (2), has its center of evo-
lution probably located in southwestern China. In the 19th century, Actinidia chinensis was in-
troduced into Europe, America, and New Zealand from China (3–5).
Actinidia chinensis includes diploid and tetraploid varieties and is possibly the progenitor
of Actinidia deliciosa, the cultivated hexaploid species (6,7).
Compared with other fruits, those of Actinidia have high levels of vitamins, mineral salts,
and fibers. These qualities, together with the unusual strongly pigmented flesh (usually green, but
also yellow or red, depending on the variety), made kiwifruit very attractive to the consumer.
In the beginning of the 20th century, growers in New Zealand raised seedlings from which
superior fruiting types were selected and propagated (4). It was after the first exports from New
407
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408 Oliveira and Raquel
Zealand to America that the name kiwifruit was chosen, in substitution for Chinese gooseberry,
as it was known in Western countries. Kiwifruit invokes New Zealand’s most famous flightless
bird, Apterix sp. (kiwi), which is an emblem of the country (8).
The female cultivar ‘Hayward,’ obtained from a selection program in New Zealand in the
1930s, has been the source of the vast majority of the world’s cultivated kiwifruit (5). However,
to handle the potential problems of kiwifruit monoculture, the development of alternative supe-
rior genotypes is recommended (3,9).
Since the 1970s China has become particularly interested in kiwifruit for its economic
value, and extensive investigations were carried out on native germplasm, leading to the selection
of good Actinidia sp. lines (10).
In New Zealand, one of the most important world producers of kiwifruit, the improvement
of Actinidia species, as an alternative to A. deliciosa but with equivalent postharvest characteris-
tics and identical organoleptic qualities, is also one of the present research interests. To meet this
goal, in the eighties, a controlled breeding program was initiated in New Zealand. However, for
woody species, the production of new varieties can be extremely hard and expensive because of
the difficulty in screening seedlings for the important characteristics. Application of a screening
strategy at an early stage requires a good knowledge of the genetic basis and the development of
molecular markers for important characteristics. By using random amplified polymorphic DNA
(RAPD)-based bulk segregant analysis it was already possible to identify two sex-linked markers
with inheritance patterns in diploid species that show a X and Y linkage, the male corresponding
to the heterogametic sex (2). These studies are of particular importance for the early identifica-
tion of male and female vines, which was not possible previously because of the absence of dif-
ferentiating morphological characters before flower production, and because of the small size and
large number of kiwifruit chromosomes (2n = 174 in hexaploid species) and the fact that they are
cytologically indistinguishable (2).
To support the breeding program, New Zealand is presently developing a kiwifruit mapping
project based on microsatellites (L. Fraser, personal communication, 1999).
Other improvement goals are, for instance, the development of increased resistance or tol-
erance to biotic or abiotic stresses. Pests and diseases still require wide application of chemicals
(11), and low temperatures in winter and strong wind account for severe damage (3).
In parallel with the conventional breeding strategies, other strategies based on genetic en-
gineering have emerged since the early 1990s, using tissue culture work already available, and are
now starting to give the first promising results.
II. REGENERATION SYSTEMS IN ACTINIDIA SPECIES
Being a dioecious plant, Actinidia sp. is highly heterozygous, complicating the propagation of se-
lected plants through seeds. However, the rapid propagation of nursery material could be easily
achieved by node culture, and this potential was explored as a substitute for the traditional cut-
tings and graftings.
In a short time, tissue culture work in Actinidia sp. expanded greatly, and a variety of ex-
plant types and regeneration strategies (meristem multiplication, adventitious shoot or root in-
duction and regeneration, and somatic embryogenesis) are presently available. Plant regeneration
was accomplished from shoot tips or axillary meristems, stem segments, leaves, filaments, an-
thers, endosperm, cotyledons, rescued hybrid embryos, calluses, cell suspensions, and proto-
plasts. The plants used in these studies included several Actinidia species, namely A. chinensis,
A. deliciosa, A. arguta, A. eriantha, and A. polygama, as well as different genotypes among male
and female clones (for reviews see Refs. 10–17).
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Genetic Transformation of Kiwifruit 409
III. DEVELOPMENT OF DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

TRANSFER PROTOCOLS
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) transfer protocols in kiwifruit are primarily based on Agrobac-
terium sp. as transformation vector (Tables 1 and 2, Fig. 1). Direct DNA transfer to protoplasts,
however, has also been applied, both for transient expression analyses and for stable transforma-
tion (11) (Table 1, Figs. 2 and 3). In spite of the increasing importance of particle bombardment
for genetic transformation, this system has not yet been applied to Actinidia sp.
Most work was dedicated to A. deliciosa var. deliciosa cv. ‘Hayward,’ but male clones of
this species were also used, as well as various genotypes of A. chinensis (Tables 1 and 2). As the
regeneration system and the availability of explant material are among the most important factors
for establishment of a transformation protocol, most authors have used leaves of micropropagated
plantlets as explants for Agrobacterium sp. infection. Leaves provide a large amount of tissue
with a reasonably good regeneration potential, and those from in vitro cultures usually respond
better and avoid the contamination problems often found on explants taken from field material.
To a lesser extent, stem segments and hypocotyl slices have also been used.
A. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Transformation

Several Agrobacterium sp. strains have been used for kiwifruit transformation; the most impor-
tant are LBA4404 (11,18–21), C58 (7,18,19), and A281 (7,19,22,23). Agrobacterium sp. strains
C58 and A281 have the disadvantage of being virulent and therefore possibly also transferring the
opine and hormone synthesizing genes located on the transfer DNA (T-DNA), but their use has
already provided interesting results and allowed the definition of efficient strategies for Agrobac-
terium sp.–mediated kiwifruit transformation.
Gall induction tests in kiwifruit have shown little difference among several strains, while
yielding only small and irregular galls (18). However, callus independent growth, with nopaline
production, could be achieved by using C58 (24).
The first report on regeneration of transgenic kiwifruit plants came from Japan (25), where
strain EHA101 (corresponding to the disarmed A281) was used both for germinants and for ex-
plants taken from ‘Hayward’ field material. Infection was performed by tissue immersion in the
Agrobacterium sp. suspension with vigorous shaking for 20 minutes, followed by cleaning on
sterilized paper and cocultivation for 1 day. Selection was applied 2 weeks after cocultivation, on
media supplemented with 25 mg/l kanamycin. These authors tested two culture media for shoot
induction and had the best results when using B5 (26) with 3 mg/l zeatin, solidified with 2 g/l gel-
rite.
Important features in Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation of A. deliciosa arose
from the work of Janssen (27) and Janssen and Gardner (19), who identified some critical condi-
tions that were later used with success for A. chinensis transformation (7). According to Janssen
and Gardner (19) the primary obstacle in kiwifruit transformation was the low frequency T-DNA
transfer to the explant cells. In these infection experiments, leaf strips were taken from micro-
propagated plantlets, immersed in the bacterial culture (LBA4404, A281, EHA101, or C58) for 1
minute, gently blotted dry, rinsed in sterile water, placed on regeneration medium, and coculti-
vated for 2 days. Selection on 100 mg/l kanamycin was initiated immediately after the coculti-
vation period on medium containing 0.275 g/l phytagel, 5 mg/l zeatin, and 0.1 mg/l NAA. To
improve T-DNA transfer Janssen and Gardner (19) designed a number of transformation experi-
ments, from which they could draw a number of conclusions: (a) the source plants should be
maintained on Phytagel and frequently transferred to fresh medium; (b) the infected explants
should be placed on moist filter paper during the cocultivation period; (c) leaf preculture should
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Table 1 Development of Gene Transfer Conditions and Stable Transformation Protocols
Table 1 Development of Gene Transfer Conditions and Stable Transformation Protocols
410
Species/
Species/ Plant
PlantPlant DNA Plasmid/
Plasmid/ Plasmid/
cultivar
cultivar material
material
material transfer
DNA DNAsystem
transfer transgenes
transfer system
system transgenes transgenes Results
Results Results To
Toretain
retain Ref.
To r
Ref.
Actinidia chinen- Stems of green- Agrobacterium sp. pKIWI110 (uid Hairy root induction by A4T; crown gall in- First published report on transgene 18
sis, A. deli- house and micro- A722, C58, A, nptII) duction by all the other strains except expression in Actinidia sp.
ciosa var. deli- propagated ICMP8302, LBA4404 GUS expression analyzed.
ciosa cv. plantlets ICMP8326, ID1576,
‘Hayward’ LBA4404, A4T
Hypocotyl slices, Agrobacterium pLAN411, Shoots were regenerated under a selection First report of transgenic kiwifruit 25
from: ‘Hayward’ EHA101, 1 day pLAN421 pressure of 25 µg/ml kan, GUS and NPT plants, variable GUS activity in
seedlings and cocultivation (uidA, nptII) II expression (dot blot) were obtained for transgenic plants, most green
stem cuttings of 85% of the green shoots regenerated from shoots of hypocotyl transformation
cv. ‘Hayward’ hypocotyl, molecular confirmation of expressed NPT II
transgene integration was not provided
Protoplasts isolated Direct DNA transfer pDW2 (cat) CAT transient expression analyzed by TLC All the tested direct DNA transfer 34
from petiole-de- using PEG 4000 and GC-MS; 30% PEG and heat shock in- conditions yielded transient expres-
rived callus (20% or 30%) creased transient expression but drasti- sion, meaning that those allowing
cally reduced viability; carrier DNA re- higher cell viability should be cho-
duced CAT transient expression sen for stable transformation exper-
iments
Leaves of micro- Agrobacterium sp. pKIWI105, Evaluation of factors rulling transformation Optimized conditions: source plants 19,27
propagated LBA4404, C58, pKIWI110, frequency (transient GUS as indicator): maintained on Phytagel and fre-
plantlets A281, EHA101 pKIWI109, gene transfer rates slightly higher with quently transferred to fresh
pLAN421 A281 than with the other strains; medium; use of a filter paper layer
(uidA, nptII) pLAN421 yielded much higher percent- during cocultivation; preculture
age of GUS-positive plants than detrimental; 20 µM acetosyringone
pKIWI110; transgenic shoots were resis- increased transient GUS expres-
tant to 50 µg/ml kan; transformation was sion; transgenic shoots were effi-
confirmed by GUS expression, PCR, ciently recovered
Southern blotting
Protoplasts isolated Direct DNA transfer p35SGUS Higher CAT and GUS transient expression PEG treatment yields much higher 11,28
from petiole-de- (electroporation: 4 (uidA) pDW2 (up to 100-fold) with PEG-treated proto- transient expression levels than
rived callus pulses 200–1300 (cat), pGP6 plasts; microcolonies selected on 25 electroporation, but electroporation
V/cm; PEG treat- (nptII), µg/ml kan; 70% of the shoots regenerated at low voltage (200 V/cm) allowed
ment: PEG4000 pB1121 and from electroporated protoplasts (200 higher cell viability (80%) and re-
20%) pTi35SGUS V/cm) and tested for NPT II expression generation of kanamycin resistant
(uidA, nptII) (dot blot) were positive; molecular confir- NPT II–positive shoots; from PEG
mation of transgene integration was not treatment no NPT II–positive re-
provided; PCR detection of NPT II in generated shoots were detected
Fig. 3
Oliveira and Raquel
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Actinidia deli- Petiole, stem, and Agrobacterium sp. p35SGUSINT Selection on 25–100 µg/ml kan-resistant Explant preculture increased GUS ex- 11,28
ciosa var. deli- root segments of LBA4404 (uidA intron, shoots expressed NPT II (dot blot); GUS pression 20 days after cocultiva-
ciosa cv. micropropagated nptII) expression was usually absent or very tion; kanamycin-resistant NPT
‘Hayward’ plantlets weak; molecular confirmation of trans- II–positive shoots were regenerated
gene integration was not provided
Actinidia chinen- Young half-ex- Agrobacterium sp. C58, PKIWI105 (with Transgenic plants regenerated from all geno- No marked differences between C58 7
sis (four geno- panded leaves, A281 uidA and types; transformation confirmed by GUS and A281 in efficiency of transfor-
types) A. deli- petiole, or stem nptII) expression, PCR amplification, and mation; in the tested conditions A.
ciosa (four segments of mi- Southern blotting (Phytagel was used in chinensis regenerated better (faster
genotypes) cropropagated all cultures and a filter paper layer was and in higher numbers) than A. de-
plantlets placed on the surface of each cocultiva- liciosa
tion plate)
Actinidia deli- Protoplasts isolated Direct DNA transfer p35SGUS Transient GUS expression analyzed by Leaf preculture on zeatin-containing 15
ciosa var. deli- from leaves of using PEG 4000 (uidA) HPLC; leaf preculture on Z-containing medium significantly improved the
ciosa cv. micropropagated (20%) medium (as opposed to NAA), increased yield of viable protoplasts; leaf
‘Hayward’ plantlets 2- to 2.5-fold the yield of viable proto- protoplasts, especially those from
Genetic Transformation of Kiwifruit
plasts; higher GUS expression on proto- epidermis and leaf veins (fraction
plasts from epidermis and leaf veins as 1), may be efficiently used to study
compared to those from mesophyll with a the expression of new promoters
10-fold increase in expression after heat
shock
A. deliciosa var. Seeds obtained from (Agrobacterium sp. (pLAN421, a Seeds were germinated on 250 µg/ml kan Inheritance and expression of trans- 37
deliciosa male field crosses be- A281) single border and later transferred to the containment genes were demonstrated in ki-
and female tween plants binary vector greenhouse; GUS expression varied in wifruit progeny; large numbers of
clones transformed by with uidA and some progeny plants, suggesting gene si- rearranged T-DNA copies and
Janssen and nptII) lencing; on two female primary transgenic transgenes silencing was found (in
Gardner (19) plants, analyzed in detail, no actively ex- primary transgenic plants and in
pressing copies of nptII and uidA were some progeny), probably as a result
linked of single-border binary vector
411
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412
Table 2 Genetic Transformation in Actinidia for Growth Improvement (Increased Rooting) or Quality Improvement
(Stress Resistance/Tolerance or Ethylene Control in Fruits)
Species/ Plant
Plant transfer
DNA DNA transfer Plasmid/Plasmid/
cultivar material
material systemsystem transgenes
transgenes Results Results Conclusions Ref.
Conclusions
Actinidia deliciosa Leaf disks Agrobacterium pBIN19 with nptII, and rol Shoots were recovered on 50–200 µg/ml Regenerated shoots showed increased 20
cv. ‘Hayward’ sp. LBA4404 A, B, C kan; NPTII expression (dot blot) found rooting ability; after transfer to soil,
and a male clone for all tested shoots; Southern blot con- plants tended to loose the aerial
firmed gene integration in the clone tested “hairy root” characteristics
Actinidia deliciosa Leaf explants of Agrobacterium pKIWI700 (antisense ACC Studies of ethylene production after leaf First results on reduction of ethylene 22
cv. ‘Hayward’ micropropa- sp. A281 oxidase), pKIWI710 wounding revealed that intact antisense production, further studies required
gated plantlets (sense ACC oxidase), ACC oxidase led to stronger reduction in on the effect of the sense construct
pKIWI720 (deleted ethylene production than deleted sense
sense ACC oxidase) gene; PCR analyses revealed frequent loss
(nos and nptII), of nos gene (on the right border)
pKIWI105 (uidA, nptII)
Actinidia chinensis Leaf explants of Agrobacterium Two constructs with tan- Most transformants contained intact T- Possible insufficient level of endoge- 23
cv. ‘Earligold’ micropropa- sp. A281 dem ACC synthase and DNAs; no reduction in wound ethylene nous ACC oxidase silencing, as a
gated plantlets oxidase genes (one in biosynthesis was observed on transfor- consequence of the low abundance
sense and another in an- mants with sense or antisense constructs, of transgene transcripts; further
tisense) for cosuppres- but at least one of the two transgenes was transformants required; more
sion or antisense sup- transcribed analyses to perform on ethylene
pression of ethylene production on leaf wounds and
production fruits.
Actinidia deliciosa Leaf disks Agrobacterium pBIN19 with nptII, and rol Greenhouse and field grown plants with rolABC-transformed plants showed 21
staminate cv. sp. LBA4404 ABC, rol B, or a 35S- rolABC showed stable expression, dwarf higher susceptibility to winter frost
‘GTH,’ pistillate driven osmotin gene phenotype, and reduced number of flow- and higher resistance to drought;
cv. ‘Hayward’ ers/plant; when used as rootstocks, these some transgenic ‘Hayward’ for the
increased branching on the scion; plants osmotin gene showed less suscepti-
carrying rolB alone were similar to un- bility to Botrytis cinerea; the high
transformed ones; progeny of untrans- resistance level of staminate GTH
formed ‘Hayward,’ fertilized by a trans- to Pseudomonas was reduced by
genic staminate, showed transgene rolABC
inheritance and expression
Oliveira and Raquel
Figure 1 Agrobacterium species–mediated genetic transformation of Actinidia deliciosa. (a) 10 µm;

(b)–(d) 1 cm. (a) Gus staining of a leaf disk, 10 days after Agrobacterium sp. infection. (b) Transgenic shoot
induction from leaf disks on selection media. (c) Transgenic A. deliciosa plantlets growing on selection
media. (d) View of a transgenic field trial at the HortResearch Orchard, Kumeu, New Zealand. (Images
kindly provided by the Horticulture and Food Research Institute of New Zealand, Ltd.)
be avoided; (d) 20 µM acetosyringone should be added to the Agrobacterium sp. growth medium
and cocultivation plates for increased transient GUS expression.
The strategy adopted by Rugini and associates (20), also with success, was however sig-
nificantly different. Leaf disks (1 cm in diameter) were excised from in vitro grown plantlets, im-
mersed in the bacterial suspension (LBA 4404), and gently scratched on both surfaces by press-
ing them on carborundum granules with a copper wire brush. After 1-hour incubation, the disks
were blotted and transferred to callus induction medium with the abaxial surface in contact with
the medium for a 3-day cocultivation period. In these experiments the authors induced callus de-
differentiation (on MS medium with 5 mg/l NAA and 0.1 mg/l BAP) in the absence of selection
pressure and proliferated callus tissue on increasing kanamycin concentrations (from 50 to 200
mg/l). After two transfers on 200 mg/l kanamycin, calluses were transferred to shoot induction
medium (MS with 1 mg/l BAP) and transgenic shoots were regenerated.
Oliveira and coworkers (11) selected for transformation petiole segments, excised from mi-
cropropagated plantlets and plated in vertical position in appropriate orientation, i.e., basal side
up, for differentiation of shoots on the top surface (28). A diluted bacterial suspension was applied
on the top sectioned surface of each explant and cocultivation proceeded for 48 hours. Selection
started at days 0, 8, 15, 21 and 45 after cocultivation with several concentrations of kanamycin (25,
50, and 75 mg/l) on medium containing 2 mg/l zeatin and 0.025 mg/l IAA. Green shoots were re-
covered in experiments in which kanamycin was applied at a late stage (after 45 days). These
shoots were subcultivated on the same fresh selection medium for further growth, then transferred
to H or H2 medium (11) with 15 or 100 mg/l of kanamycin. From these experiments kanamycin-
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Figure 2 Electroporation-mediated genetic transformation of Actinidia deliciosa cv. ‘Hayward.’ (a–c)

100 µm; (d, f ), 500 µm; (e) 1 cm; (g, h) 2 cm. (a) Protoplasts, isolated from friable hyaline callus, after elec-
troporation (200 V/cm, four pulses). (b, c) Aspects of first divisions in electroporated protoplast cultures. (d)
Protoplast-derived microcolonies growing without selection pressure. (e) Kanamycin-resistant calluses dif-
ferentiating shoots on 20 µg/ml kanamycin. (f ) Scanning electron microscopic aspect of an emerging shoot
bud. (g, h) NPT II–positive rooted plants growing in soil.
λ 1 2 3 4 5
700 bp —
Figure 3 PCR amplification of the nptII gene transferred through electroporation (200 V/cm, four pulses)
to A. deliciosa cv. ‘Hayward’ protoplasts. The analyses were performed on the regenerated kanamycin-re-
sistant NPT II–positive shoots. Samples: 1, 2, 3, tested shoots, 4, control shoot (nontransgenic), 5, positive
control (plasmid DNA, p35SGUSINT).
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resistant shoots, able to express NPT II in dot blot analyses, were recovered, although sustained
multiplication on 100 mg/l kanamycin was not achieved. The Agrobacterium sp. infection was
found to delay the organogenic response with the shoot initials arising after 4 weeks, instead of the
usual 3 weeks. In the preliminary experiments using LBA 4404/p35SGUSINT, the histochemical
detection of GUS activity was performed 20 days after transformation and culture under no selec-
tive conditions. The explants precultivated for 1 day before infection showed much more blue
product, after the histochemical GUS analyses, than those inoculated immediately after section-
ing. Moreover, in the former case, GUS analysis performed 3 days after cocultivation revealed
GUS activity in meristematic cells at the top cutting surface. In the subsequent experiments the ex-
plants were cultivated for a period of 1 or 2 days prior to Agrobacterium sp. infection. However,
the recovery of kanamycin-resistant shoots by using this method was more difficult than by using
those described by Janssen and Gardner (19) or Uematsu and coworkers (25). These differences
may be due to a number of factors, such as the regeneration conditions used and the antibiotics ap-
plied for Agrobacterium sp. elimination.
There are some interesting features described in the reports, such as the correlation of
higher zeatin concentration with higher kanamycin selection pressure (25 mg/l kanamycin/3 mg/l
zeatin used by Uematsu et al. [25] and 100 mg/l kanamycin/5 mg/l zeatin used by Janssen and
Gardner [19].) Rugini and associates (20) used 50–200 mg/l kanamycin with 5 mg/l NAA for cal-
lus proliferation, and later 1 mg/l BAP for shoot regeneration. Fraser and associates (7), working
with several Actinidia sp. genotypes, have tested various growth regulators in a wide range of con-
centrations (0.1–10 mg/l), and from these studies they excluded TDZ and kinetin and selected
zeatin, alone or preferably in combination with BA, combined with 0.1 mg/l NAA. The authors
didn’t mention the zeatin concentration selected but indicated that the higher concentration
tended to produce hyperhydric shoots. Selection pressure of 100 mg/l kanamycin was applied at
the end of cocultivation period.
Regarding the antibiotics applied for Agrobacterium sp. elimination, it is interesting to ver-
ify that they were usually not the most appropriate ones. According to more recent studies (29),
carbenicillin is somewhat more effective in controlling the growth of EHA101 (and therefore also
the strain from which it derives, A281), a strain quite resistant to antibiotics, whereas for
LBA4404, cefotaxime is the most effective antibiotic. Nevertheless, Uematsu and coworkers (25)
and Janssen and Gardner (19) both used cefotaxime at 500 mg/l for EHA101 and A281 (19,25),
Fraser and coworkers (7) used 300 mg/l cefotaxime for A281, and Rugini and associates (20) and
Oliveira and coworkers (11) have used carbenicillin, respectively, at 200 and 500 mg/l for
LBA4404. Although Rugini (20) states that no visible effects were evoked by carbenicillin, the
negative effect of this antibiotic on shoot regeneration in fruiting species has been widely docu-
mented (30–32). Carbenicillin has been indicated as an antibiotic with auxin-like effects (33), in-
ducing callus formation and inhibiting regeneration (32). The use of a high carbenicillin concen-
tration together with insufficient concentration of growth regulators, mainly of cytokinin, could
have played an important role in reducing shoot regeneration efficiency/survival in the experi-
ments of Oliveira and associates (11).
The Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation strategy has also led to transgenic plants
of Actinidia arguta (Harvey, unpublished results). Compared to A. chinensis, this species exhibits
a higher resistance to kanamycin and requires different regeneration protocols (K Richardson,
personal communication, 1999).
B. Direct Deoxyribonucleic Acid Transfer

Direct permeabilization of DNA to kiwifruit protoplasts was attempted by using polyethylene
glycol (PEG) and electroporation with rectangular pulses (11,15,34). Most experiments used pro-
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toplasts isolated from friable hyaline calluses (11,34) but also from leaves of micropropagated
plantlets (15).
Analyses of transient expression of reporter genes (cat, chloramphenicol acetyl transferase
gene, and uidA, β-glucuronidase gene) were carried out to evaluate the appropriate conditions for
DNA transfer and revealed that in the conditions tested PEG treatment was much more effective
than electroporation (Table 1). A number of experiments, performed by using different plasmid
constructs, consistently yielded much higher transient expression when using PEG treatment, al-
though it was associated with a drastic reduction in cell viability (always below 50%) (11,34).
The use of heat shock (45°C, 5 minutes) prior to membrane permeabilization or an increase in
PEG 4000 concentration (from 20% to 30%) both accounted for an increase in transient expres-
sion while strongly reducing cell viability (11). However, electroporation (four pulses of 40 µs
and 200 V/cm of field strength), although providing no significant or reproducible levels of trans-
gene transient expression, resulted in the regeneration of transgenic shoots (Fig. 2). Above 600
V/cm the protoplast viability fell to levels identical to or lower than those obtained with PEG
treatment, an effect that is probably related to the large protoplast size (90 µm in diameter). The
efficiency of electroporation may be related to its absence of toxicity and eventually also to an ef-
fect in increasing protoplast regeneration ability, as described for several species (for a review see
Ref. 35), including woody fruiting species (36). In contrast, PEG toxicity, in spite of the careful
washing of protoplasts, accounted for cell death, increased browning, and low plating efficiency,
even in the absence of selection pressure (11).
Electroporated protoplasts always showed strong variations in shape after cell wall regen-
eration, as well as asymmetrical divisions at culture initiation (Fig. 2b, c), probably as a result of
deep changes in the cytoskeleton caused by the electric pulses. However, no other differences
were observed during culture, except the high number of shoot-regenerating colonies in control
experiments (28).
Selection for kanamycin resistance was only applied in protoplast-derived cultures when
colonies had regenerated, in order to allow rescue of resistant ones for shoot induction. However,
the continuous presence of kanamycin in the culture media extended the time required for shoot
induction and regeneration and progressively decreased the number of survivals.
In these experiments Oliveira and coworkers (11) applied long periods of selection, 5–8
months, followed by omission of the selective agent to facilitate shoot elongation.
Nearly 80% of the shoots regenerated from electroporated protoplasts were positive for
NPT II expression analyzed by dot blot (11), as opposed to what was found for PEG-regenerated
shoots, in which no strong or consistent NPT II expression was observed. In the electroporation-
derived and NPT II–positive shoots, the presence of the nptII gene could be confirmed by poly-
merase chain reaction (PCR) amplification (Fig. 3).
Chimeric shoots were occasionally found (11). This situation could be related to the culture
system used, in which the protoplasts were not immobilized (immobilization here proved to be
detrimental) but instead laid free on a thin layer of liquid culture medium on top of an agarose-
solidified bead. Under these conditions transformed and untransformed protoplasts could aggre-
gate and give rise to colonies, and, under mild selection conditions, each could contribute to the
regeneration of one shoot.
The long period still required to regenerate plants from cv. ‘Hayward’ protoplasts is a big
disadvantage when compared to the period necessary for plant regeneration from organs like
leaves. However, the use of leaves as a protoplast source (15) may constitute an alternative source
of cells for transformation that, combined with electroporation, may provide large numbers of re-
generants. Moreover, this protoplast source may be easily and efficiently used to monitor new
promoters driving reporter genes.
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IV. TRANSGENE INTERACTION AND STABILITY IN PROGENY
The expression and inheritance of transgenes in A. deliciosa were carefully studied by Fung and
colleagues (37). This work is of particular importance, considering that the introduction of genes
of interest in kiwifruit is directed not only to one or two vegetatively propagated cultivars, but is
also to wider application in the breeding programs under way in several countries. The work was
conducted by using male and female transgenic plants of A. deliciosa, previously obtained by
Janssen and Gardner (19) and growing in a field trial. The seeds obtained from these crosses were
germinated under selective conditions and raised in the containment green-house for evaluation.
It was found that seven of nine of the GUS-positive plants transferred to soil remained positive
after 3 years under field conditions. However, the other two plants, which in culture showed ir-
regular and pale blue staining, lost GUS expression. Moreover, it was found that at least some of
the copies of nptII and uidA genes transferred to kiwifruit were integrated in different genetic
loci, with independent segregation demonstrated in the progeny. The two female primary trans-
genic plants in which transgene inheritance was monitored in detail both contained large numbers
of T-DNA insertions, as demonstrated through Southern hybridization, which could have facili-
tated rearrangements and transgene silencing. Fung and coworkers (37) suggested that the use of
the single-border binary vector could have been the cause of these unexpected segregation pat-
terns. The loss of nptII and uidA genes was observed in some progeny plants, although transgene
silencing was only detected for uidA.
The behavior of transgenic kiwifruit plants in the field was also monitored by Rugini and
associates (21), who already have about 100 transgenic plants with several genes introduced (E.
Rugini, personal communication, 1999) (Table 2). In these plants, stable expression of rolABC
genes was shown for the 8-year-old staminate plants and 5-year-old pistillate ‘Hayward’ plants
analyzed (21). The progeny derived from ‘Hayward’ plants pollinated with transgenic pollen (car-
rying rolABC) have shown transgene inheritance and expression (21).
V. GENETIC IMPROVEMENT
Genetic improvement of kiwifruit through genetic engineering is being attempted to modify the
growth behavior of the plant and increase abiotic stress tolerance (rol genes) (20,21), to increase
pathogen resistance (osmotin gene) (21), and to reduce ethylene production in the fruit (ACC syn-
thase and oxidase genes, in sense or antisense orientation) (22,23).
The rolABC genes, driven by their own promoters, in transgenic kiwifruit plants caused the
characteristic dwarf phenotype, with reduced flower production due to the reduced number of
ramified peduncles. Moreover, they exhibited slightly higher susceptibility to winter frost and
higher resistance to drought, even when grafted on wild rootstocks (21). However, in the case of
a staminate cultivar, GTH, it was verified that rolABC introgression accounted for a reduction in
the natural resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae and P. viridiflavae. This effect was
also confirmed in the offspring carrying the transgenes. These transgenic plants, when used as
rootstocks, induced increased branching on the scion.
Some ‘Hayward’ genotypes carrying the 35S-driven osmotin gene showed less susceptibil-
ity to inoculation with the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea (21).
The studies being conducted to control ethylene production in the fruit have been directed
to A. deliciosa (22) and A. chinensis (23) (Table 2). In A. deliciosa, the development of an ethyl-
ene biosynthetic mutant was aimed at defining the effects of ethylene and the role of climacteric
in ripening fruit (22). For A. chinensis the control of endogenous ethylene production may in-
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crease its storage properties to levels similar to those of kiwifruit (23). As has been done for other
plants, control of ethylene production was attempted here through introduction of sense or anti-
sense copies of endogenous ACC synthase or oxidase genes, single or in tandem, full length or
deleted sequences, for antisense suppression or sense cosuppression of their expression (Table 2).
The regenerated transgenic plants were assayed for the presence and expression of the transgenes
and tested for wound-induced ethylene biosynthesis. In A. deliciosa it was verified that the full-
length antisense ACC oxidase caused a stronger reduction in ethylene production in wounded
leave than the deleted sense gene (22). In A. chinensis, in spite of the successful introduction of
T-DNA in most transformants and the transcription of at least one of the transgenes, no reduction
in wound ethylene biosynthesis was observed (23). As suggested by the author, this may be due
to insufficient silencing of ACC oxidase because of low abundance of transcripts, although fur-
ther analyses are necessary and further transformants required.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Since the first report on transgene expression in Actinidia sp., several important achievements
were attained and transgenic kiwifruit plants were regenerated by using both Agrobacterium
sp.–mediated transformation and direct gene transfer.
As described in this review, important parameters for Agrobacterium sp.–mediated genetic
transformation have been defined for some genotypes, although these still require further opti-
mization particularly in what concerns the bacterial strain to use, the antibiotics for its elimina-
tion, and the most appropriate plasmid constructs.
Direct gene transfer also needs to be further explored, in order to achieve high numbers of
fully transgenic plants in a shorter period. Electroporation seems to be much more promising for
stable transformation than PEG treatment. However, the reduced number of experiments and vari-
ations performed with PEG, and its high efficiency in transient expression analyses, do not allow,
at this stage, rejection of this strategy for transgenic shoot regeneration.
Transgenic plants derived from Agrobacterium sp. infection were grown to maturity, cross-
pollinated, and their progeny analyzed. Inheritance and expression of the transgenes were shown
in the progeny.
The manipulation of traits with agronomic importance is under study in an attempt to im-
prove Actinidia sp. genotypes through genetic engineering. Genes leading to fruit quality im-
provement, through controlled ethylene production, to increased rooting or to stress resistance/
tolerance (diseases, drought, cold, etc.) represent some of the main targets for kiwifruit genetic
improvement. The introduction of such genes in some Actinidia sp. varieties still with limited com-
mercialization may provide them competitive advantage over the ‘Hayward’ cultivar and con-
tribute to increase the number of high-quality genotypes available for production and commer-
cialization.
NOTE ADDED IN PRESS
The introduction of disease tolerance in kiwifruit was reported by Nakamura and associates (38).
The authors used Agrobacterium sp. LBA4404 with nptII as the selectable marker to introduce in
kiwifruit cv. ‘Hayward,’ the soybean β-1,3-endoglucanase complementary DNA (cDNA) under
the control of the 35S caMV promoter. The presence of the transgene was demonstrated in all the
regenerated PCR-positive plants, with one to five integration sites. Transgene expression was
demonstrated by immunoblot and enzyme assays with laminarin as substrate. In the plants show-
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ing higher enzyme activity (up to six fold that of controls) the inoculation of Botrytis cinerea led
to necrotic lesions with an area significantly smaller than that of control plants.
The authors refer to previous work on kiwifruit transformation published at the J Jpn Soc
Hort Sci, Jpn J Breed, and the Fruit Tree Research Station, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the Horticulture and Food Research Institute of New Zealand, Ltd.,
for kindly providing the images presented in Fig. 1. Drs. Lena Fraser, Catherine Harvey, and Kim
Richardson are also gratefully acknowledged for their precious contribution to this paper and for
their kindness and availability.
REFERENCES
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Liang. Guihaia 4:181–182, 1984.
2. CF Harvey, GP Gill, LG Fraser, MA McNeilage. Sex determination in Actinidia. 1. Sex-linked mark-
ers and progeny sex ratio in diploid A. chinensis. Sex Plant Reprod 10:149–154, 1997.
3. GS Lawes. The need for plant selection in the development of the kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) in-
dustry. Gartenbauwissenschaft 44:182–184, 1979.
4. CA Schroeder, WA Fletcher. The Chinese gooseberry (Actinidia chinensis) in New Zealand. Econ Bot
21:81–89, 1967.
5. S Young. The fruit that launched a thousand ships. New Sci 15:36–39, 1985.
6. RN Crowhurst, R Lints, RG Atkinson, RC Gardner. Restriction fragment length polymorphism in the
genus Actinidia (Actinidiaceae). Plant Systematics Evol 172:193–203, 1990.
7. LG Fraser, J Kent, CF Harvey. Transformation studies of Actinidia chinensis Planch. NZ J Crop Hor-
tic Sci 23:407–413, 1995.
8. AR Ferguson. Kiwifruit: A botanical review. Hortic Rev 6:1–64, 1984.
9. P Blanchet. L’amélioration génétique du kiwi et des Actinidias au lycée agricole de Montaubaun. L’Ar-
boric Fruitière 456:46–51, 1992.
10. Z-G Huang, CY Tan. Kiwi fruit. In: Z Chen et al., eds. Handbook of Plant Cell Culture. Vol. 6. Peren-
nial Crops. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990, pp 407–417.
11. MM Oliveira, J Barroso, M Martins, MS Pais. Genetic transformation in Actinidia deliciosa (ki-
wifruit). In: YPS Bajaj ed. Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry. Vol. 29. Plant Protoplasts and
Genetic Engineering V. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1994, pp 189–210.
12. Z-G Huang, CY Tan. Chinese gooseberry, kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.). In: YPS Bajaj, ed. Biotechnology
in Agriculture and Forestry. Vol. 6. Crops II. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1988, pp 166–180.
13. Mu SK, LG Fraser, CF Harvey. Rescue of hybrid embryos of Actinidia species. Sci Hortic 44:97–106,
1990.
14. Mu SK, LG Fraser, CF Harvey. Initiation of callus and regeneration of plantlets from endosperm of
Actinidia interspecific hybrids. Sci Hortic 44:107–117, 1990.
15. MH Raquel, MM Oliveira. Kiwifruit leaf protoplasts competent for plant regeneration and direct DNA
transfer. Plant Sci 121:107–114, 1996.
16. MM Oliveira. Somatic embryogenesis in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa). In: SM Jain, PK Gupta, RJ
Newton, eds. Somatic embryogenesis in woody plants. Vol 5. The Netherlands: Dordrech, Kluwer Aca-
demic, 1999, pp 181–195.
17. M Rey, T Fernández, V González, R Rodríguez. Kiwifruit micropropagation through callus shoot-bud
induction. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol 28P:148–152, 1992.
18. RG Atkinson, CJ Candy, RC Gardner. Agrobacterium infection of five New Zealand fruit crops. N Z J
Crop Hortic Sci 18:153–156, 1990.
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19. B-J Janssen, RC Gardner. The use of transient GUS expression to develop an Agrobacterium-mediated
gene transfer system for kiwifruit. Plant Cell Rep 13:28–31, 1993.
20. E Rugini, A Pellegrineschi, M Mencuccini, D Mariotti. Increase of rooting ability in the woody species
kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa A. Chev.) by transformation with Agrobacterium rhizogenes rol genes. Plant
Cell Rep 10:291–295, 1991.
21. E Rugini, M Muganu, M Pilotti, GM Balestra, L Varvaro, P Magro, R Bressan, C Taratufolo. Genetic
stability, transgene hereditability and agronomic evaluation of transgenic kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa A.
Chev.) plants for rolABC, rolB and osmotin gene (abstract). Fourth International Symposium on Ki-
wifruit, Santiago, Chile, February 11–14, 1999, p 26
22. CWB MacDiarmid. Kiwifruit ACC oxidase genes. MSc dissertation, Auckland University, Auckland,
New Zealand, 1993.
23. DJ Whittaker. Etylene biosynthetic genes in Actinidia chinensis. PhD dissertation, Auckland Univer-
sity, Auckland, New Zealand, 1997.
24. CJ Candy. Transformation of kiwifruit using Agrobacterium. MSc dissertation, Auckland University,
Auckland, New Zealand, 1987.
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ation of kiwi fruit. Plant Cell Rep 10:286–290, 1991.
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versity, Auckland, New Zealand, 1991.
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transformação genética. PhD dissertation, Lisboa University, Lisboa, Portugal, 1992.
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faciens. Plant Cell Tissue Org Cult 37:243–251, 1994.
32. LM Yepes, HS Aldwinckle. Factors that affect leaf regeneration efficiency in apple, and effect of an-
tibiotics in morphogenesis. Plant Cell Tissue Org Cult 37:257–269, 1994.
33. JJ Lin, N Assad-Garcia, J Kuo. Plant hormone effect of antibiotics on the transformation efficiency of
plant tissues by Agrobacterium tumefaciens cells. Plant Sci 109:171–177, 1995.
34. MM Oliveira, J Barroso, MS Pais. Direct gene transfer into kiwifruit protoplasts: Analysis of transient
expression of the CAT gene using TLC autoradiography and a GC-MS based method. Plant Mol Biol
17:235–242, 1991.
35. SJ Ochatt, EM Patat-Ochatt. Protoplast technology for the breeding of top-fruit tress (Prunus, Pyrus,
Malus, Rubus) and woody ornamentals. Euphytica 85:287–294, 1995.
36. SJ Ochatt, PK Chand, EL Rech, MR Davey, JB Power. Electroporation-mediated improvement of plant
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38. Nakamura, Y, H Sawada, S Kobayashi, I Nakajima, M Yoshikawa. Expression of soybean β-1,3-en-
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29
Genetic Transformation of Mango
(Mangifera indica L.)
Richard E. Litz
University of Florida, Homestead, Florida
Miguel A. Gomez-Lim
CINVESTAV Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato, Mexico
I. INTRODUCTION 421
A. Taxonomy 422
B. History of the Crop 423
II. GENETICS AND BREEDING 423
A. Limitations of Conventional Breeding 423
B. Breeding Objectives 424
C. Breeding Accomplishments 428
III. SOMATIC CELL GENETIC MANIPULATION 429
A. Somatic Embryogenesis 429
B. In Vitro Manipulation of Embryogenic Cultures of Mango 430
IV. CONCLUSIONS 432
REFERENCES 432
I. INTRODUCTION
The mango Mangifera indica L. (family Anacardiaceae) is one of the leading fruit crops of the
world. It is estimated to be fifth in total world production after Musa (bananas and plantain), Cit-
rus sp. (all types), grape, and apple (1,2). The mango is the most important fruit crop of Asia and
is grown throughout the tropics and subtropics. Currently, India has the highest production, with
approximately 50% of the world’s total (Fig. 1). China, Thailand, Mexico, and Indonesia are also
important producing countries, each with annual production exceeding 1 million MT. The export
market for fresh mangoes and mango products has expanded rapidly since 1990, and Mexico is
the leading exporter of fresh mangoes, currently worth approximately U.S. $160 million (1).
Mangoes are also important exports of Brazil, South Africa, Pakistan, Philippines, and India, with
an estimated annual value of U.S. $346 million. The leading export destinations include North
America, the European Union, Hong Kong, and the United Arab Emirates (Fig. 2). The value of
421
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422 Litz and Gomez-Lim
Figure 1 World mango production in 1998. (From Ref. 1.)
Figure 2 Major mango importing countries. (From Ref. 1.)
mango exports from Mexico to the United States and Canada alone has been estimated to be ap-
proximately U.S.$138 million (1).
A. Taxonomy
The center of origin of the genus Mangifera is considered to be in Southeast Asia (3), and the
greatest Mangifera species diversity occurs in this region, particularly on the island of Borneo,
the Indonesian archipelago, and the Malay peninsula. Approximately 69 species have been iden-
tified in the genus (4). Mangifera indica is considered to have originated along the northeastern
boundary of the genus, possibly in present-day northern Thailand, Myanmar, Bangladesh, and
eastern India. Within Mangifera indica, there are two distinct ecogeographical races: a polyem-
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Genetic Transformation of Mango 423
bryonic type that is tropical and of probable Southeast Asian origin and a monoembryonic type
that is subtropical and probably evolved in eastern India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (3).
B. History of the Crop

Domestication of mango probably occurred at different times and in different places on the In-
dian subcontinent and elsewhere in Southeast Asia. According to De Candolle (5), mango culti-
vation in India can be dated to ca. 4000 b.c. Today the mango tree and its fruit remain important
Indian religious and cultural symbols (2). It has been suggested that the Portuguese, who estab-
lished trading outposts along the west coast of India in the 15th century, introduced vegetative
propagation methods into India, and these were used for the first time to clone superior mo-
noembryonic trees (2). The most important mango cultivars of India, e.g., ‘Alphonso,’ ‘Dashe-
hari,’ and ‘Langra,’ are selections that were made at the time of Ahkbar the Great and have there-
fore been propagated vegetatively for several hundred years (2,6). It is uncertain when cultivation
of polyembryonic mangoes originated in Southeast Asia. According to a linguistic analysis of the
various common names for mango in southeast Asia, Bompard and Schnell (3) concluded that
polyembryonic mango was probably domesticated independently by several indigenous cultures
in that region. The traditional cultivars of Southeast Asia, e.g., ‘Arumanis’ in Indonesia, and
‘Carabao’ in the Philippines, continue to be propagated as nucellar (true-to-type) seedlings in the
region.
The spread of mango from South and Southeast Asia to tropical and subtropical areas of the
world came about as a result of the Portuguese and Spanish voyages of exploration from the end
of the 15th century onward. Generally speaking, the Southeast Asian polyembryonic types were
carried across the Pacific Ocean along the Spanish trade routes to Peru, Central America, and
Mexico. The most important mango cultivar of Mexico today is the polyembryonic ‘Manila.’ The
Portuguese carried Indian mangoes westward to their outposts in Africa, and later to Brazil.
II. GENETICS AND BREEDING
A. Limitations of Conventional Breeding

Traditional breeding has had relatively little impact on mango cultivar development, and most
cultivars are selections made among seedlings of openly pollinated trees. Controlled crosses be-
tween mango trees are difficult to achieve because of the low frequency of fruit set (<0.01%) (6)
and the occurrence of polyembryony in Southeast Asian types. Mango trees are extremely het-
erogeneous as a result of outcrossing and polyploidy (2n = 4x = 40) (7). Their long juvenile pe-
riod (at least 7 years after germination) and the time required for evaluation (12–15 years after
germination) have also been significant barriers to progress in breeding. Cultivars that have been
released from modern breeding programs have not found acceptance in the marketplace of tradi-
tional South and Southeast Asian mango growing countries, as their fruit quality has generally
been inferior to that of traditional selections.
The international market standards for mango exports have been based upon the “Florida
mangoes,” e.g., ‘Haden,’ ‘Tommy Atkins,’ ‘Keitt,’ ‘Van Dyke,’ and ‘Kent,’ that have been derived
from a secondary center of mango diversity that was established in Florida, in the United States,
in the early 20th century. This center of diversity included introductions of monoembryonic and
polyembryonic mango germplasm from throughout Asia (3,8). Several generations of Florida
mango cultivars have resulted from open pollinations within this population. Many of the Florida
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mangoes are notable for bearing annually, having moderate levels of resistance to anthracnose,
and producing fruit with an attractive blush favored by consumers in nontraditional mango con-
suming countries (9).
B. Breeding Objectives
1. Scion Cultivars
Several horticultural traits that involve mango fruit quality and tree form have been targeted for
improvement (6). These include regularity of bearing, particularly in biennial bearing Indian-type
mangoes; precocity; and dwarf habit. The foliage and fruit should demonstrate resistance to a
number of pests and diseases. The most important diseases affecting mango production and
postharvest include anthracnose (caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides [Penz] Penz & Sacc.
In Penz) and alternaria rot (caused by Alternaria alternata [FR.:FR.] Keissel) (10,11). Fruit
should have an attractive blush and pleasant taste and aroma, and the pulp should be free of fiber.
Since mango has become an important export commodity, an extended shelf life and freedom
from physiological disorders that cause precocious fruit ripening, e.g., “jelly seed” and “soft
nose,” in certain important export cultivars like ‘Tommy Atkins,’ are also important.
a. Mango Fruit Ripening. Ripe mango fruit are highly perishable as a result of over-
ripening and increased susceptibility to development of anthacnose. They show pronounced
changes in texture during ripening, and the rate at which these changes take place has a signifi-
cant effect on fruit storage life. Mangoes are frequently harvested when immature, so that either
they fail to ripen or the quality and flavor of the ripened fruit is inferior (12). Fruit very often suf-
fer from extensive handling damage during all stages of the postharvest chain. Estimates of total
postharvest losses are controversial and range widely generally from about 10% to 80%.
The physiological characteristics of tropical fruit in general are similar to those of temper-
ate and subtropical fruit. Differences can involve major substrates involved in ripening, the rate
of ripening and senescence, and the order in which various components of ripening occur (13).
The unique aspects of tropical fruit physiological features include their chilling sensitivity, rapid
ripening (of climacteric fruit) compared to that of temperate fruit, and exposure of tropical fruit
to high temperatures or other stresses during quarantine disinfestation in postharvest handling.
Softening of fruit flesh is thought to be due to the hydrolysis of various cell wall compo-
nents and is accompanied by solubilization of pectin (14,15) and a net loss of arabinose, galac-
tose, and galacturonic acid (16). A number of different cell wall hydrolytic enzymes increase in
activity during softening (17). Mango fruit at the mature green stage contain some accumulated
starch (18), which is mobilized during ripening (19). The primary consequence of starch hydrol-
ysis is an increase in total sugars, with glucose and fructose as the main monosaccharides (20)
and sucrose as the predominant sugar (21); however, total sugar content varies among cultivars:
‘Carabao’ has one of the highest values (22) and ‘Golek’ one of the lowest (cited in Ref. 23). Amy-
lase and sucrose phosphate synthase increase at least 4-fold and 10-fold in activity, respectively,
during ripening (21,24).
Mango fruit are climacteric and have a moderate respiration rate (25), with CO2 production
of 70–150 mg/kg/h. As there seems to be a relationship between respiration rate and storage life,
there is a clear need to reduce respiration and thereby increase postharvest life. Temperature man-
agement is the main method for controlling the respiration rate, though this is limited in most
tropical fruit by their chilling sensitivity. All climacteric fruits show a significant increase in eth-
ylene production during ripening, which may be concurrent with the climacteric. The difference
in temporal patterns between respiration and ethylene production in various climacteric fruit sug-
gests a different underlying physiological attribute, which may involve differential sensitivities of
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fruit species to ethylene. In mango, the climacteric and the ethylene peak occur simultaneously
(26).
The two key enzymes in the ethylene biosynthesis pathway are those catalyzing the con-
version of S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) to 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) and
ACC to ethylene, called ACC synthase and ACC oxidase or ethylene forming enzyme (EFE), re-
spectively (27,28). Burg and Burg (29) showed that a small but notable peak of ethylene occurs
during ripening in monoembryonic ‘Haden’ and ‘Kent,’ and this has also been shown in polyem-
bryonic ‘Carabao’ (30) and ‘Manila’ (31). Ethylene production is low in preclimacteric mango
fruit but increases considerably during the climacteric. Cua and Lizada (30) showed that
‘Carabao’ mangoes produce ethylene prior to full maturity and that the highest rate (125 nl g⫺1
h⫺1) occurred in the outer mesocarp, although the levels of ethylene were comparable in the en-
tire mesocarp. The levels of the EFE substrate, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC),
were also very similar throughout the mesocarp.
One of the major constraints for enhancing the yield of mango has been premature, ethyl-
ene-induced ripening, which occurs before they are shipped or consumed. Several methods are
currently used to prevent or reduce this spoilage, e.g., harvesting of mature green fruit, use of eth-
ylene adsorbents (potassium permanganate or activated charcoal/vanadium oxide) (32), and hold-
ing of fruit at an optimal storage temperature. The optimal storage temperature is dependent upon
cultivar, preharvest environment (33), maturity at harvest (25), and storage conditions (34). Stor-
age at temperatures ≥8–12°C causes ripening and senescence, and lower temperatures cause
chilling injury.
Most of the postharvest technologies for mangoes are designed for disease and insect con-
trol and protection against injury during packaging and transport. Mangoes have poor storage
quality and technologies for longer-term storage, i.e., controlled or modified atmospheres, are as-
sociated with physiological disorders (35). Prolonged cool storage can have deleterious effects on
skin, flesh, and ripening attributes; the range of storage temperatures is limited (36). Symptoms
of chilling injury of mango fruit include pitting, darkening, failure to ripen completely, and in-
creased susceptibility to decay. Storage life and sensitivity to chilling injury seem to be depen-
dent on fruit maturity and storage temperature. Fruit harvested at an earlier stage of maturation
ripen more slowly at a given temperature and are more prone to chilling injury and other storage-
related disorders (34). Fruit harvested when nearly ripe are less prone to chilling injury (37,38)
and can be stored for up to 21 days at ≤8°C without deterioration in quality; however, the fruit
may deteriorate rapidly after removal from storage (36).
Control or modification of storage atmosphere has not been commercially successful for
mango fruit, which often show poor color and eating quality and presence of undesirable off-fla-
vors. In addition, there is no clear evidence that mango ripening can be delayed satisfactorily (35).
Kader (34) has suggested some regimens for modified atmosphere storage of mango, including
O2 3–5%, CO2 5–10%, and 10–15°C, which can delay ripening with increased firmness retention.
The genetic manipulation of fruit ripening requires the availability of relevant genes, and
genes coding for various ripening-related enzymes have been isolated from different fruits. The
messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNAs) for virtually all the ripening-related genes isolated so far
have been shown to be absent or present at a low level in immature fruit, to increase during ripen-
ing, and to decline as ripening progresses. Changes in mRNA and protein content occur during
ripening (31). Some of the mRNAs that decline in quantity probably encode photosynthetic en-
zymes, as it is known that the photosynthetic apparatus is dismantled during ripening (39).
A complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA) library has been prepared from climac-
teric mango fruits and screened by using differential hybridization (17). A series of cDNA clones
has been isolated whose common feature is the ripening-specific pattern of expression. Two
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cDNA clones identified coded for enzymes involved in ethylene biosynthesis, ACC synthase, and
ACC oxidase (40). Their expression during ripening was studied in pulp and peel in northern-type
experiments. ACC synthase message is undetectable in unripe fruit and starts to appear in turning
fruit, reaching a maximum in ripe fruit (40). This pattern of expression is similar in the peel and
in the pulp; however, the message appears in the pulp before the peel. ACC oxidase message
shows similar kinetics in both types of tissue, but the message is clearly detectable before any
ACC synthase message becomes detectable (40). These results suggest that ACC oxidase is ex-
pressed before ACC synthase and that ripening starts on the inside of fruit and proceeds outward.
Ethylene-treated fruits show a different pattern of expression, with ACC oxidase and ACC syn-
thase appearing first in the peel.
A cDNA for thiolase was also identified as having a ripening-specific pattern (41). Several
fatty acids, particularly linoleic and oleic acids, decrease in concentration during ripening. Fatty
acids in plants are metabolized by the β-oxidation pathway and the products are mainly used in
the synthesis of carotenoids and terpenoid volatiles and are released by ripe fruits. These enzymes
might be involved in metabolism of fatty acids to produce volatile compounds (23,41). Recently
a cDNA clone for acyl coenzyme A (CoA) oxidase, the key enzyme in the β-oxidation pathway,
was isolated from mango fruit and shown to behave identically to thiolase (A Nila-Mendez and
MA Gómez-Lim, unpublished data).
Alternate oxidase is involved in the cyanide-resistant respiratory pathway. It has been stud-
ied mainly in thermogenic species, and its activity is correlated with heat production, necessary
to volatilize foul-smelling compounds to attract insect pollinators. There is a significant partici-
pation of this pathway in the climacteric of many fruit. A cDNA coding for mango alternate oxi-
dase has been isolated, and by Northern blot analysis the message was detected in unripe fruit and
shown to increase substantially in ripe fruit (42). These results were correlated with similar in-
creases in enzyme activity and protein accumulation. The temperature in ripe monoembryonic
‘Alfonso’ fruit is up to 10°C higher than in unripe fruit and this characteristic has been attributed
to the activity of alternate oxidase (43). This extra heat might also serve to volatilize aroma-giv-
ing compounds.
Two cDNAs code for enzymes related to the cell wall, cellulase and β-galactosidase.
Mango cellulase increases in activity during ripening (M. A. Gómez-Lim, unpublished data). β-
Galactosidase is expressed in ripe fruit at high levels (S. Parra-Arenas and M. A. Gómez-Lim, un-
published data). A receptor to ethylene has been isolated from tomato and has been used to probe
for a mango homologue (43a). The message seems to be present at low levels in unripe fruit and
to increase as the fruit ripens. Genomic clones to the ethylene receptor, β-galactosidase, and al-
ternate oxidase have also been identified and are currently being characterized (S. Parra-Arenas,
P. Gutierrez-Martinez, and M. A. Gómez-Lim, unpublished data). These studies aim to identify
and isolate fruit-specific and cell wall–related promoters to be utilized in transformation.
It is possible to turn off the expression of specific genes in transgenic plants by introducing
a gene engineered to generate antisense RNA (44). This allows expression of specific genes to be
diminished, permitting identification and assessment of their function. One approach to control
fruit ripening is to depress ethylene content, using different strategies: inhibition of genes encod-
ing ethylene biosynthetic enzymes by transformation with antisense genes and lowering of the
level of ACC, the ethylene precursor, by deamination or hydrolysis.
ACC synthase and ACC oxidase have been modified by antisense technology in tomato
with expression of the transgenes driven by the constitutive 35S promoter (45,46). Antisense fruit
left on the vine or harvested and left in air had a 10- to 20-day delay in the onset of normal chloro-
phyll degradation, attained only an orange color, and failed to soften or develop a “ripe” aroma.
Exogenous application of ethylene reverted the phenotype and the fruits were able to ripen nor-
mally. Similar results have been obtained in cantaloupe melon fruits, in which transformation
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with antisense ACC oxidase significantly delayed ripening (47), although color change was not
inhibited (45,47).
Another strategy to reduce ethylene production has been the introduction of genes coding
for enzymes that metabolize ACC. Klee and coworkers (48) cloned a Pseudomonas sp. ACC
deaminase gene and inserted it into tomato. Ethylene biosynthesis was reduced to 3% to that of
wild type, and the resultant transgenic plants did not show any apparent phenotypic abnormali-
ties. Fruits from these plants exhibited significant delays in ripening, and the mature fruits re-
mained firm for at least 6 weeks longer than the nontransgenic control fruit. Similarly, a gene
from the bacteriophage T3 encoding the enzyme SAM hydrolase (SAMase), driven by a tomato
fruit–specific promoter, was used to generate transgenic tomato plants that produce fruit with a
reduced capacity to synthesize ethylene and a longer storage life (49). SAMase catalyzes the con-
version of SAM to methylthioadenosine and homoserine.
b. Other Fruit Traits. Genetic engineering of the lipid composition of mango fruit could
improve its nutritional value and enable the tree and fruit to withstand low-temperature stress. The
identification of desaturases, enzymes that introduce a cis-double bond in saturated fatty acids,
has led to the production of plants with an increased level of polyunsaturated fatty acids (50) and
increased chilling tolerance (51). Although mango fruits do not store lipids, these compounds
have been linked with color and flavor development of mango during ripening. The vast majority
of lipids found in mango are esters of long-chain fatty acids. There is increased fatty acid oxidiz-
ing activity during mango fruit ripening (52). Several fatty acids (particularly linoleic and oleic
acids) decrease in concentration during mango ripening. Products of β-oxidation are utilized in
the synthesis of carotenoids and terpenoid volatiles, which are important aroma components of
mango fruit. The peroxisomal thiolase identified in 1995 (41) and other enzymes of the β-oxida-
tion pathway may represent possible targets for altering fatty acid metabolism and volatile com-
pounds involved in fruit flavor and aroma.
No major advances have been made to identify flavor components and their enzymes in trop-
ical fruits. This might be a reflection of the complexity of this trait. Since mangoes contain high
quantities of carbohydrates, particularly sucrose, genetic manipulation of the sucrose-metaboliz-
ing enzymes may provide a way to alter sugar content and fruit flavor. Manipulation of different
enzymes involved with carbohydrate metabolism (53) has been reported, and resultant plants
showed an altered carbohydrate content. Because of the effect this process may have on plant me-
tabolism, it will be important to use fruit-specific promoters to target the transgenes to fruit cells.
Fruit flavor could also be manipulated through the use of sweet-tasting proteins, i.e., mon-
ellin or thaumatin. They elicit a sweet flavor by binding specifically with taste receptors and are
approximately 100,000 times sweeter than sugar on a molar basis (54). Transgenic tomato fruits
containing monellin have been generated (55). Thaumatin has been shown to be strongly induced
in ripening fruits (56,57).
The external color of fruit is an important factor in consumer preference. Ripe mango peel
shows a wide range of color from green to greenish yellow, red, violet, and yellow, which proba-
bly originate from chlorophyll degradation and accumulation of anthocyanins and total carot-
enoids (58). The principal pigments in mango fruit are chlorophylls, carotenes, xanthophylls, and
anthocyanins, which are synthesized via the terpenoid or phenylpropanoid pathways. There is
only one example of genetic manipulation of fruit color. Phytoene synthase catalyzes the dimer-
ization of two molecules of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate to form phytoene, the first C40
carotene in the carotenoid synthesis pathway. Expression of phytoene synthase in antisense in
tomatoes produced pale yellow flowers and fruits that ripen to a yellow color (59). Lycopene
could not be detected in those fruits, although other aspects of ripening, i.e., polygalacturonase
accumulation, were unaffected. Pigment synthesis manipulation represents an interesting choice
to modify the color of a fruit to make it more attractive.
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c. Plant Architecture. Robson and coworkers (60) produced transgenic plants that over-
express phytochrome A. The phytochromes are a family of photoreceptors that function as pho-
toreversible pigments in plants. The transgenic plants were tested in the field and were reduced in
stature; their leaves contained up to 30% more chlorophyll (which may result in increased pho-
tosynthesis) and significantly more biomass accumulated per plant (61). Mango plants with re-
duced stature would facilitate harvesting, reduce postharvest losses, and increase production per
hectare.
d. Flowering. Flowering of many traditional mango cultivars is irregular and/or bien-
nenial. At least three classes of homeotic genes control the determination of floral meristems and
organ identity in higher plants (62). Transgenic plants that overexpress the LEAFY gene (63) or
the CONSTANS gene (64) have been produced; in these plants these genes determine floral fate
in lateral shoot meristems with the consequence that flower development is induced precociously.
This phenotype was also obtained with plants overexpressing phytochrome genes (60). Cloning
and engineering homologous genes in perennial crops with erratic flowering, i.e., mango, could
lead to better control of flowering.
e. Disease Resistance. Genetic transformation is an environmentally sustainable alter-
native way to produce mango plants with resistance to fungal pathogens, particularly Col-
letotrichum gloeosporioides, the cause of anthracnose. Antifungal proteins have been utilized to
confer resistance against different plant pathogens (65,66). Transgenic plants that constitutively
express different pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, i.e., chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase, show re-
sistance to fungal infection (67); however, higher protection is achieved when more than one PR
protein is employed (68).
Other antifungal proteins include ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs), which inhibit pro-
tein synthesis by specific RNA N-glycosidase modification of 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA). RIPs
inactivate ribosomes of distantly related species, including fungi. Transgenic plants containing
RIPs are resistant against fungal pathogens (69). Transformation with chitinase, β-1,3-glucanase,
and RIPs leads to increased fungal protection (70) compared with the protection levels obtained
with corresponding transgenic lines expressing a single barley transgene. The data indicate syn-
ergistic protective interaction of the coexpressed antifungal proteins in vivo.
Antifungal defensins are cysteine-rich low-molecular-weight (5-kD) proteins that have
been shown to be potent elements for plant defense against fungal attack (71). Work in progress
in several laboratories around the world is aimed at producing transgenic plants containing the
defensin genes.
2. Rootstock Cultivars
The requirements for mango rootstocks are somewhat different from those for scion cultivars (6).
Ideal rootstocks should be graft-compatible with scion cultivars and also confer dwarfing to the
scion. The rootstocks should also be able to tolerate calcareous soils and saline conditions, which
limit production in parts of north Africa, western Asia, and Pakistan. In order that they can be
propagated with ease, rootstock cultivars should also be polyembryonic. Currently, there are no
mango rootstocks that have been developed exclusively as rootstocks. Polyembryonic mango
rootstocks ‘13-1’ and ‘Turpentine’ are used extensively in Israel and in the Western Hemisphere,
respectively.
C. Breeding Accomplishments
Conventional breeding programs exist in India at several locations, in South Africa, and in Israel.
Several cultivars have been developed and released in recent years, although none of them is
grown on a large scale. These include ‘Amrapalli,’ ‘Arka Anmol,’ ‘Arka Aruna,’ ‘Arka Puneet,’ ‘Au
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Rumani,’ ‘Mallika,’ ‘Manjiri,’ ‘Neeleshan,’ ‘Ratna,’ and ‘Swarnajehangir’ (India) and ‘Ceriese,’
‘Heidi,’ ‘Neldawn,’ and ‘Neldica’ (South Africa) (6). There is strong consumer preference in tra-
ditional mango growing countries for traditional mango cultivars.
III. SOMATIC CELL GENETIC MANIPULATION
Because of problems that are associated with application of conventional breeding to mango cul-
tivar improvement and the conservatism of consumers in traditional mango growing countries,
genetic engineering strategies hold considerable promise for improving existing, but in some way
flawed, mango cultivars. Specific horticultural traits could be altered in traditional cultivars by
using genetic transformation or mutation induction approaches.
A. Somatic Embryogenesis
The prerequisites for genetically engineering existing mango cultivars include (a) a de novo re-
generation procedure for mature phase mango selections in vitro and (b) a method for transform-
ing the in vitro cultures. The procedure for induction of embryogenic cultures of mature phase
mango has been well documented since the first report by Litz and associates (72). It is possible
to induce embryogenic cultures from the nucellus of both polyembryonic and monoembryonic
cultivars (72–74). The currently utilized procedure involves the extraction of the nucellus from
the immature seeds of young mango fruit, under sterile conditions, 30–40 days after pollination
(75–77). Embryogenic cultures are induced from the excised nucellus on sterile semisolid plant
growth medium in petri dishes. The induction medium (hereafter referred to as MEM) consists of
modified B5 (78) major salts, MS (79), minor salts and organic components, 400 mg l⫺1 gluta-
mine, 2.0 g l⫺1 gellan gum, 60 g l⫺1 and 4.5–9.0 µM 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)
(80,81). The nucellar cultures are incubated in darkness at 25°C and recultured onto freshly pre-
pared induction medium at daily intervals until the accumulation of oxidative products in the
medium has ceased (usually 3–4 days). An embryogenic response is normally evident 30–50 days
after explanting, depending on the cultivar. Embryogenic cultures consist of proembryonic cells
and masses (PEMs) (76). The induction response is genotype-dependent and is unrelated to the
seed type (i.e., monembryony vs. polyembryony). There is a temporal requirement for exposure
of mango cultures to 2,4-D in order to induce maximal efficiency of embryogenic competence
(82). The minimal requirement for induction of embryogenic competence of ‘Carabao’ nucellar
cultures on MEM is 7–14 days; however, the optimal response is obtained after a 56-day pulse
with 2,4-D (81). The embryogenic competence of the explanted mango nucellus of some diffi-
cult-to-induce mango cultivars can be enhanced by using highly embryogenic mango cultures as
a nurse (83), e.g., ‘Nam doc Mai’ on MEM with embryogenic ‘Parris’ as a nurse layer.
Maintenance of embryogenic cultures is optimal in suspensions; however, the ability to
form embryogenic suspension cultures is also genotype-dependent (76,77), and embryogenic cul-
tures of some important cultivars cannot be maintained in suspension. The medium for maintain-
ing suspension cultures is induction formulation without gellan gum. Normally, 300–400 mg of
an embryogenic culture is inoculated into 40-ml maintenance medium in 125-ml Erlenmeyer
flasks and kept on a rotary shaker at 100 rpm in darkness at 25°C. Subculture into fresh liquid
medium is essential at 5- to 7-day intervals, in order to prevent accumulation of oxidation prod-
ucts in the medium. Typical embryogenic suspensions consist of PEMs of different sizes. The
smallest PEMs are in fact single globular somatic embryos, whereas the large PEMs are globular
embryos whose normal pattern of development has been arrested by their continued exposure to
inductive conditions (84). The large PEMs have lost the ability to organize as single embryos and
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secondary somatic embryos develop from the protoderm. Therefore, in order to recover single so-
matic embryos from maintenance conditions, it is necessary to subculture the smallest fraction of
PEMs (520–860 µm), facilitated by passage through filtration fabric, into maturation medium.
The largest PEM fraction is utilized as the stock and is repeatedly subcultured in maintenance
medium.
The development of somatic embryos from PEMs in embryogenic cultures is stimulated by
their subculture to medium without 2,4-D. This response is mediated in different ways by differ-
ent cultivars. Embryogenic suspension cultures of some cultivars can form heart stage somatic
embryos after transfer into liquid medium without 2,4-D (hereafter referred to as LEM) (e.g.,
‘Hindi,’ ‘Tommy Atkins’). More typically, it is necessary (a) to subculture from LEM onto semi-
solid medium without 2,4-D (hereafter referred to as SEM) in order for somatic embryo devel-
opment to occur (e.g., ‘Carabao’) or (b) to subculture from semisolid induction medium onto
SEM. Addition of 4.7–13.9 µM kinetin or 6-benzylaminopurine to SEM or LEM has been
demonstrated to stimulate the early formation of cotyledonary stage somatic embryos (81). Hy-
perhydricity of late heart stage somatic embryos derived from suspension cultures is commonly
observed, and these developmentally abnormal somatic embryos cannot mature normally, usually
becoming necrotic at the late heart or torpedo stage of development. Hyperhydricity can be re-
versed either by partial desiccation of the somatic embryos under low relative humidity or by in-
crease in the concentration of gellan gum in the plant growth medium from 2.0 to 6.0 g l⫺1 (85).
The development of mango somatic embryos to maturity occurs on basal medium (dis-
cussed previously) enriched with 20% (w/v) filter-sterilized coconut water and containing
20 g l⫺1 sucrose and 2.0 g l⫺1 gellan gum (hereafter referred to as MMI) (81,86). Developing so-
matic embryos are incubated on MMI in darkness at 25°C until germination, at which time they
are transferred to light conditions, consisting of a 16-h photoperiod supplied by cool white fluo-
rescent lights (60–80 µmol m⫺2 s⫺1). The length of mango somatic embryos at the time of ger-
mination is approximately 4–6 cm. Exposure to light during somatic embryo maturation results
in precocious germination of the somatic embryos and poor survival. Survival is optimal after
transfer of plantlets into conditions that encourage photoautotropic development (87). Optimal
conditions for plant recovery consist of basal medium, containing 0–5 g l⫺1 sucrose and 0.5 g l⫺1
activated charcoal (hereafter referred to as MMII), and incubation at 25°C with a 16-h photope-
riod (160–180 µmol m⫺2 s⫺1) provided by cool white fluorescent lights in an environment con-
taining 20,000 ppm CO2 in a nitrogen carrier (76,81).
B. In Vitro Manipulation of Embryogenic Cultures of Mango

The regeneration of mango cultivars from nucellar cultures is of critical importance for the ap-
plication of somatic cell genetic approaches to the improvement of elite selections. Two ap-
proaches have been developed for manipulation of mango germplasm: in vitro selection after mu-
tation induction and genetic transformation.
1. In Vitro Selection
The application of in vitro mutation induction and selection for mango cultivar improvement is
limited by the absence of effective selection and screening agents that can be used to target a spe-
cific trait within a large embryogenic cell population. Litz and coworkers (88) demonstrated that
the culture filtrate produced by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides could potentially be used to se-
lect phytotoxin-resistant cells in embryogenic mango cultures. Embryogenic cultures of two im-
portant cultivars, ‘Carabao’ from the Philippines and ‘Hindi’ from Egypt, have been selected for
resistance to the purified phytotoxin and culture filtrate of C. gloeosporioides, and phytotoxin-re-
sistant cultures have been demonstrated to be strongly antifungal, as demonstrated in dual culture
experiments with the fungal pathogen (89). Newly expressed extracellular pathogenesis-related
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proteins, including isozymes of chitinase and glucanase, were produced by the phytotoxin-resis-
tant, antifungal embryogenic cultures, somatic embryos, and regenerants (89). Selection for re-
sistance was also accompanied by significant alterations in the DNA banding patterns, as ob-
served in RAPD gels (90). Unfortunately, other currently available in vitro selective agents have
little utility for mango improvement, thereby effectively limiting this approach.
2. Genetic Transformation
In order to transform mango genetically successfully, it is essential that the in vitro culture of a
cultivar can be maintained as a suspension culture, and this growth response has been demon-
strated to be genotype-dependent with mango (see earlier discussion). When mango is maintained
on semisolid induction medium, growth of embryogenic cultures is relatively slow, and the cul-
tures rapidly become oxidized if they are not transferred to fresh medium regularly. The normal
blackening of cultures makes it very difficult to distinguish living and dead PEMs. The first re-
ports of the recovery of mango genetic transformants were by Mathews and associates (91,92),
with ‘Hindi’ and an openly pollinated line derived from ‘Keitt,’ respectively. All genetic transfor-
mation studies involving mango have been mediated by disarmed strains of Agrobacterium tume-
faciens. Preliminary transformation studies involved the use of strain C58CI, carrying the binary
plasmid vector pGV3850::1103 with the NPT II gene, which was used for transforming embryo-
genic cultures derived from zygotic embyo explants of ‘Keitt’ (92). Embryogenic cultures of
‘Hindi’ that were derived from the nucleus were transformed with disarmed A. tumefaciens strain
A208 containing the cointegrate plasmid vector pTiT37-SE::pMON9749 (9749 ASE) with NPT
II and GUS (31). The most recent report described the use of disarmed A. tumefaciens strain
LBA4404, containing the binary plasmid vector pBI121 with NPT II, GUS, and different genes
in the antisense that mediate ethylene biosynthesis (93). The genes in the antisense included ACC
oxidase from an Arabidopsis thaliana library, alternative oxidase from a ripe mango mesocarp
library and ACC synthase from mango leaves. All of the transgenes were regulated by the 35S
promoter.
The procedure that has been utilized for mango transformation involves the gentle abrasion
of approximately 3 g of the largest PEM fraction (≥820 µm) from an embryogenic suspension
culture with a sterile camel hair brush under axenic conditions. The abraded PEMs are then sus-
pended in 50-ml liquid maintenance medium containing 0.05 ml of a log phase culture of ace-
tosyringone-activated A. tumefaciens in 125-ml Erlenmeyer flasks (94). Suspensions are main-
tained at 120 rpm at 25°C in semidarkness and subcultured daily for 3 days.
The strategy for the recovery of transformed embryogenic cultures involves sequential
transfers in order to stimulate the growth of completely transformed PEMs from partially trans-
formed or chimeral cell clusters. Matthews and Litz (95) demonstrated that the growth of em-
bryogenic mango suspension cultures is inhibited by 12.5 µg ml⫺1 kanamycin, whereas the later
stages of somatic embryo development are inhibited by 200 µg ml⫺1 kanamycin sulfate on semi-
solid medium. According to the stepwise strategy that was developed for mango, partially trans-
formed PEMs were recovered from suspension cultures in liquid maintenance medium contain-
ing 200 µg ml⫺1 kanamycin and 500 µg cefotaxime. These cultures were plated on semisolid
maintenance medium supplemented with 400 µg ml⫺1 kanamycin sulfate and 500 µg cefotaxime.
Transformed proembryos develop from genetically transformed cells on the surface of PEMs
(32). Subculture of putative transformants from selection medium containing kanamycin sulfate
and cefotaxime into liquid maintenance medium results in more rapid growth of the cultures and
formation of more transformed proembryos. On the basis of the X-GLUC reaction for the pres-
ence of GUS (96), completely transformed PEMs and globular somatic embryos can be recog-
nized after this procedure. Somatic embryo development can occur on maturation medium (dis-
cussed previously).
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IV. CONCLUSIONS
In vitro manipulation of mango as a means for improving existing cultivars is feasible; however,
the embryogenic response of mango is not easily manipulated because of the strong genotype-
dependent response of cultivars in suspension cultures and the rapid oxidation of cultures in
suspension and on semisolid medium. Genetic transformation of mango has focused on control
of fruit ripening, which has significant implications for postharvest handling and shipping of
fruit from the field to packing houses and to international markets and for the prevention of
postharvest spoilage due to anthracnose and alternaria rot. With the tools available, it is currently
possible to alter practically any gene, as long as a suitable molecular probe is available, and to
analyze the function during fruit ripening. There are several possible strategies for genetic ma-
nipulation of fruit ripening. Genes in the antisense or sense orientation can be utilized to inhibit
specific genes. Gene repression resulting from homologous sense gene expression is termed co-
suppression. There is no clear superiority of antisense versus cosuppression techniques. The cur-
rent lack of knowledge regarding mechanisms for either antisense or cosuppression makes it dif-
ficult to ascertain which technique will be more effective in reducing expression of a particular
target gene.
Currently, the control of anthracnose in humid production regions involves the weekly ap-
plication of fungicide from the time of flowering until harvesting (10). This practice is increas-
ingly viewed as being unsustainable. It should be possible to target control of anthracnose directly
by transforming scion cultivars with genes for pathogenesis-related proteins. This could revolu-
tionize mango production in the humid tropics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful for support provided by Florida Mango Forum (REL) and the Interna-
tional Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI, formerly IBPGR) (REL). Florida Agricultural
Experiment Station Journals Series no. R-06912.
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30
Transgenic Papayas in Hawaii: A Useful
Tool for New Cultivar Development and
Clonal Propagation
Maureen M. M. Fitch
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Aiea, Hawaii
I. INTRODUCTION 437
II. TRANSFORMATION 439
A. Methods 439
B. Traits 439
C. Plant Materials and Papaya Culture Initiation 440
D. Plasmids 440
E. Inoculation of ‘Kamiya’ R0 Plants with a PRSV Kahuku Isolate 441
F. Field Evaluation of ‘Kamiya’ R0 Plants 442
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 443
A. Selection on Kanamycin 443
B. Symptom Development on Test Plants Grown Under Fluorescent Lights 444
C. Molecular Analysis and Field Evaluation of Transgenic ‘Kamiya’ Papayas 444
D. Field Evaluation of Transgenic Hybrids Derived from Deregulated,
Commercialized ‘Sun Up’ Papayas 445
E. Field Evaluation of Clonally Propagated Transgenic Hybrid Lines 445
IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 445
REFERENCES 446
I. INTRODUCTION
Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is an important fruit crop in the tropics and subtropics because of its
pleasant flavor, year-round bearing habit, and short growth cycle of 10–12 months from seed to
ripe fruit. Ripe papayas are consumed at breakfast or as dessert, or the immature fruit is cooked
with meat as squash is. Green fruit serve as a daily staple in papaya salad in Southeast Asia and
in Africa are tapped for the latex, which contains papain, the main ingredient in meat tenderizer.
Ripe fruit are a rich source of vitamins A and C (Arriola et al., 1980) and provide enzymes that
assist in healthy digestion. The crop is grown in a wide range of cropping systems from small
home gardens to large-scale plantation agriculture in the Americas, Asia, Australia, and Africa. In
437
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438 Fitch
Hawaii, papayas constitute the sixth most important agricultural crop after pineapples, sugarcane,
macadamia nuts, coffee, and foliage crops. The farm-gate value is about $18 million annually. It
is raised on about 500 small farms for a total of about 3000 acres, on the islands of Hawaii (Big
Island), Oahu, Kauai, Molokai, and Maui. Prior to near destruction of the industry by an epidemic
of papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) in 1992, 95% of the industry was located in Puna on the Big Is-
land.
Market expansion has been limited by fruit availability and postharvest quality, the former
condition most heavily impacted by diseases such as PRSV, a worldwide problem; fungal dis-
eases; and postharvest damage from insect larvae. Solutions to the virus disease problems have
included isolation, surveillance, sanitation by removing infected individuals, planting of tolerant
cultivars, and, most recently, genetically engineered virus resistance (Fitch et al., 1992; Lius et
al., 1997; Gonsalves, 1998). PRSV-resistant papayas do not exist, although some wild species
from among the other 21 different caricas are resistant. Attempts to introgress resistance genes
from C. pubescens, C. quercifolia, C. stipulata, and C. cauliflora resulted in F1s with field resis-
tance from C. quercifolia and C. cauliflora but the plants were sterile (Manshardt and Wenslaff,
1989). More recently, R. Drew identified 11 interspecific hybrids between papaya and C. querci-
folia that were PRSV-resistant and showed some fertility (unpublished results); thus the potential
exists that resistance genes from wild species can be introgressed into papaya over time. Toler-
ance exists in a Colombian papaya accession that was used to create the cultivar ‘Cariflora’ in
Florida (Conover et al., 1985), which in turn was introgressed into large-fruited Thai papayas of
commercial quality with attentuated virus symptoms (V. Prasartsee, unpublished results). Prasart-
see determined that rigorous selection for tolerance in each seed generation was extremely im-
portant to prevent loss of tolerance. In Hawaii, F. Zee and S. Ferreira produced introgressed lines
from the Colombian accession that were of acceptable quality (unpublished results).
The newly commercial Hawaiian transgenic papayas ‘Sun Up’ and ‘Rainbow,’ immune in
the field to Hawaiian PRSV, were produced by collaboration of the University of Hawaii and Cor-
nell University. The homozygous ‘Sun Up,’ a red-fleshed cultivar that was derived from the orig-
inal R0 transgenic line, 55-1, is immune to the Hawaiian PRSV and to other PRSV strains from
around the world except for the Thailand and Taiwan strains, which show the greatest base pair
divergence from the Hawaiian isolate (Tennant, 1996; Souza, 1999). ‘Rainbow,’ on the other
hand, is resistant once the seedlings become established in the field after 2 months (S. Ferreira,
unpublished results). Other groups attempted transformation of local cultivars with resistant
genes from local PRSV strains (Tennant, 1996; Souza, 1999; Gonsalves, 1998). The Hawaiian
virus-resistant papaya represents the first fruit tree crop deregulated and licensed for commer-
cialization in the United States and the world. In the United States, it has the distinction of being
the first transgenic commercial crop produced by public institutions.
After PRSV, the most important pests on papaya in Hawaii are fungal diseases, which in-
clude phytophthora fruit and root rot (Phytophthora palmivora), anthracnose (Colletotricum
gloeosporioides), and powdery mildew (Oidium caricae); fruit rots caused by Rhizopus
stolonifera, Stemnophyllum lycopersici, and Phomopsis sp. are also important postharvest con-
cerns minimized by fungicide treatment in the field prior to harvest and by postharvest disinfes-
tation. Disinfestation consists of forced hot air incubation (Armstrong et al., 1995) for about 4
hours. Transformation of papaya for fungal resistance is ongoing in our laboratory (M. Fitch and
J. Zhu). We have produced transgenic papayas expressing a rice chitinase gene (Lin et al., 1995),
which inhibited growth of Phytophthora palmivora mycelia in an in vitro assay and may show
suppressed fungal symptoms. Papayas containing a grapevine stilbene synthase gene and dahlia,
radish, and onion antimicrobial peptide genes, and the pathogenesis-related protein control gene
NPR1 from Arabidopsis sp. are being regenerated (J. Zhu, unpublished results).
The fruit fly (Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis [Hendel]; Mediterranean fruit fly, Cer-
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Transgenic Papayas in Hawaii 439
atitis capitata [Wiedemann]; and melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae [Coquillett]) are pests that
limit export of papayas to the U.S. mainland and Japan. The decontamination procedure is a
forced hot air disinfestation that was developed to kill eggs and young larvae. We have obtained
constructs that may impart insect resistance to papaya as well. Transformation experiments have
been initiated.
II. TRANSFORMATION
A. Methods
The embryogenic callus transformation method based on walnut transformation by McGranahan
et al. (1988) that we initially developed is being utilized by most groups, using either Agro-
bacterium (Neupane, 1996) or the particle gun (Cabrera-Ponce et al., 1995; Tennant, 1996;
Souza, 1999; Cai et al., 1999; Mahon et al., 1996; de la Fuente et al., 1997). Several groups re-
ported on improvements to our original published method (Fitch et al., 1992), which included
using rapidly growing somatic embryos (Cabrera-Ponce et al., 1995; Cai et al., 1999). Cabrera-
Ponce reported a 50-fold improvement over our results, or 60 transgenic lines per gram fresh
weight vs. our 1.14 lines. The reliability of papaya transformation will improve after these
findings.
B. Traits
1. Virus Resistance
After publication of our results, researchers in other tropical areas reported on successes with
their PRSV strains and cultivars. Gonsalves’s laboratory became an international center for engi-
neered virus resistance, coordinating students and researchers, their respective papaya cultivars,
and PRSV strains. Since homologous PRSV coat protein (CP) genes appeared to give the
strongest resistance, lines suitable for each locality were created. The group in Taiwan field-tested
resistant lines for 4 years with fair protection, although some plants showed symptoms in the
field. Subsequent lines were as immune as the Hawaiian ‘Sun Up’ (S.-D. Yeh, unpublished re-
sults). Yeh developed infectious ribonucleic acid (RNA) strains that give mild strain cross-pro-
tection, possibly eliminating the necessity to transform the plants (unpublished results). In Aus-
tralia, transgenic papayas (Mahon et al., 1996) remained virus-free in the field (R. Lines, D.
Persley, R. Drew, unpublished results). Two of the three most promising lines developed leaf ab-
normalities that can probably be eliminated by crossing with nontransgenic lines. In Jamaica,
‘Sunrise’ type plants transformed with the Jamaican PRSV translatable and untranslatable CP
genes are being evaluated for deregulation and licensing. In Brazil and Thailand, transgenic ‘Sun-
rise’ and Thai papaya cultivars, respectively containing translatable and nontranslatable CP genes
of their respective PRSV strains, await clearances for field testing (D. Gonsalves, M. Souza, per-
sonal communication).
2. Delayed Ripening
Neupane (1997) transformed papaya by using both the particle gun and Agrobacterium sp. for de-
layed ripening with antisense 1-amino cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase and ACC
oxidase genes from papaya. Two of five lines expressed the antisense message in Northern blots,
but neither showed delayed ripening (K. Neupane, unpublished results). The R1 generation did
not show delayed ripening, the R2 generation, some of which were homozygous for antiethylene
genes, are being evaluated along with about 25 additional R0 lines. J. Botella is attempting the
same type of work in Australia.
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440 Fitch
3. Herbicide Resistance
Cabrera-Ponce and coworkers (1995) reported on herbicide-tolerant papaya from transformation
with the particle gun. The papayas were selected on 100 mg/l kanamycin + 4 mg/l phos-
phinothricin (PPT) and were resistant to the PPT herbicide. From bombardment to rooted plants,
the process took about 12 months. Control plants suffered total necrosis 2 weeks after application
of 0.1% (w/v) PPT, whereas transgenic plants withstood up to 3% PPT. A high degree of resis-
tance was attained since the prescribed application rate is 0.5% to 1.0%. It is not known whether
PPT is registered for use on papaya in Mexico. More than 100 GUS/NPTII (fusion protein)–pos-
itive clones were isolated in this experiment. These results differed from ours, in which only one
third of the lines contained β-glucuronidase (GUS) or the PRSV CP gene, whereas all lines con-
tained neomycin phosphotransferase (NPTII) (Fitch et al., 1992). We assume that all lines con-
tained the PPT gene since both PPT and kanamycin were used in selection. Two selectable mark-
ers for cobombardment resulted in excellent cotransformation.
4. Aluminum Tolerance
De la Fuente et al. (1997) reported on increasing the aluminum tolerance of papaya, a sensitive
crop. The particle gun was used to deliver a chimeric citrate synthase gene from Pseudomonas
aeruginosa driven by a 35S promoter and terminated by nos 3⬘ sequences. Overproduction of cit-
rate two- to three-fold higher than in controls resulted in resistant plants that rooted and grew nor-
mally in 300 µM aluminum (Al), whereas nontransgenic plants failed to root in 50 µM and higher
concentrations of Al. Bombardment protocols are described in Cabrera-Ponce and colleagues
(1995).
C. Plant Materials and Papaya Culture Initiation

Somatic embryos derived from either immature embryos (Fitch and Manshardt, 1990) or
hypocotyls (Fitch, 1993) were grown on embryo proliferation medium containing 10 mg/l of
2,4-dichlorophenoxy-acetic acid (2,4-D) in 1/2 MSO medium (callus induction medium, Fitch et
al., 1992). Immature zygotic embryos about 90 days old were excised and plated on callus induc-
tion medium 1–2 weeks prior to bombardment. Somatic embryos developed on the apical domes
and were spread on filter paper on induction medium. Since mature seeds are more readily avail-
able than immature ones, the hypocotyl protocol was adopted for generating embryogenic callus.
It was quicker and yielded embryos in 1.5 to 3 months. Two- to four-month-old cultures were bom-
barded. Although cultures older than 6 months were discarded, we still obtained a high frequency
of abnormal and dwarf plants, about 10/100, among the transgenic ‘Kamiya’regenerants (M. Fitch,
unpublished results). Either the cultivar is not stable or exposure to the high 2,4-D concentration
is causing the ploidy abnormality. In field tests of F1 and backcrossed hybrids of the ‘Kamiya’ line,
similar abnormal plants were observed among seedlings at frequencies of 1/100–300 plants.
Among the ‘Sunset’ and ‘Kapoho’ transformants, only 1/100 abnormal plants were observed.
D. Plasmids
Plasmids ranged in size from about 10 kb for the PRSV replicase (NIB), antimicrobial, and rice
chitinase constructs to nearly 20 kb for the translatable (PRV4) and untranslatable (UT) PRSV
constructs. The target genes were flanked by the 35S promoter and terminator sequences from
cauliflower mosaic virus, and the selection gene NPTII was driven and terminated by nos se-
quences. The rice chitinase gene was driven by 35S with a nos terminator, as were the stilbene
synthase, antimicrobial, and NPRI gene constructs. Hygromycin phosphotransferase was the se-
lection gene on the rice chitinase construct and NPTII on the other three constructs.
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1. Plasmid Preparation and Use with the Particle Gun

Plasmids in Escherichia coli were isolated by Qiagen column purification (Qiagen, Inc, Valencia,
CA). Ten micrograms of plasmid DNA were precipitated onto 3 mg of gold (1.6 µm in diameter).
Two micrograms of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)/0.6 mg of gold were bombarded at 1550 psi to
a 2.5-cm target of embryogenic calli 6.5 cm from the macrocarrier disk launch point by using a Bi-
olistics PDS-1000/He device (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA). Gap distance between the rupture disk and
macrocarrier was 6.5 cm. Each plate was bombarded three times for a total of 6 µg of plasmid DNA
per 2.5 cm target. The somatic embryos that made up the target weighed approximately 500 mg.
Clusters of bombarded somatic embryos were transferred immediately after bombardment
to recovery plates of induction medium for about 1 week, mainly to observe them for fungal and
bacterial contamination. After recovery they were placed onto a suboptimal selection concentra-
tion, 75 mg/l kanamycin for 1 month, then to 150 mg/l with monthly subculturing. By the end of
the third month, selectively growing embryos were observed. They were plated separately onto
fresh plates of 150 mg/l kanamycin, and if they showed rapid growth, a quarter of the isolate was
transferred to 300 mg/l kanamycin, a quarter retained on 150 mg/l, and the rest regenerated on
growth regulator-free medium.
2. DNA Extraction and Polymerase Chain Reaction

DNAs were extracted by the CTAB method (Doyle and Doyle, 1987). Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) primers for NPTII were reported in Chee and associates (1989) and PRV CP in Slightom
(1991). The NIB forward primer was 5⬘-ATC ATT CCA TGG GTA GTC GTT GGC TC-3⬘ and
NIB reverse was 5⬘-AGC TAA CCA TGG TTA CTG ATG AAA CC-3⬘. Standard conditions for
PCR were 1-minute denaturation at 95°C, 1-minute annealing at 58°C, and 2-minutes extension
at 72°C. Lines were screened for the NPTII or hygromycin selection genes and target genes,
PRV4, UT, and NIB.
3. Southern Hybridization
Southern hybridizations were performed as reported in Fitch and coworkers (1992) on putative
transgenic lines containing pGA482GG/PRV4 (Ling et al., 1991), pGA482GG/UT, or pBin19/
PRVNib-2. The pGA482GG/UT construct contains the PRV4 gene sequence plus three additional
stop condons at the 5⬘ end of the sequence to give a nontranslatable RNA. The pBin19/PRVNib-
2 construct contains a 1.13-kb HindIII fragment of the PRSV replicase (NIB) gene. A 500-bp
EcoRI fragment described in Fitch and coworkers (1992) was used to probe for the former two
constructs, the 1.13-kb HindIII fragment was used to probe for NIB-transformed lines. The
digoxygenin nonradioactive method (Boehringer-Mannheim, Indianapolis, IN) was used for hy-
bridizations and detection. DNAs from the rice chitinase, stilbene synthase, antimicrobial, and
NPR1 gene transformants are currently being extracted for Southern hybridization analysis.
E. Inoculation of ‘Kamiya’ R0 Plants with a PRSV Kahuku Isolate

Shoots from Kamiya lines containing the virus resistance genes were propagated in vitro and ac-
climated to laboratory conditions under illumination with fluorescent lights (35 mmol/m2/s). Fif-
teen- to twenty-five-cm-tall plants were pretreated in the dark overnight to increase leaf succu-
lence. A PRSV-infected papaya leaf section (Kahuku strain) about 6 cm in diameter was
macerated in pH 7 phosphate buffer and applied to two of the youngest fully expanded test plant
leaves which had been lightly dusted with powdered carborundum. The plants were grown under
lights at about 28°C and observed for symptom development. Micropropagated hemizygous
‘Rainbow’ plants, containing only 1 copy of the resistance gene, were used as positive controls,
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442 Fitch
although resistance could be broken under laboratory conditions. Untransformed seedlings

served as negative controls.
F. Field Evaluation of ‘Kamiya’ R0 Plants

‘Kamiya’ transgenic isolates were planted in two different APHIS-approved fields starting in
1997. Four lines, one containing PRV4, two containing NIB, and one line transgenic for NPTII
only, were planted under moderately high virus pressure. Two lines containing the untranslatable
CP RNA sequence, UT9-8A (resistant) and UT9-9A (susceptible), were planted in an APHIS-ap-
proved field in Kunia in April 1999. Since virus pressure at the Kunia site is very low, it is possi-
ble to maintain the susceptible lines for making selfed crosses and outcrosses between transgenic
and nontransgenic plants. We are evaluating one apparently normal, resistant ‘Kamiya’ line, UT9-
8A, for horticultural qualities along with another abnormal, tetraploidlike female line, UT9-9A,
making selfed pollinations or outcrossing the female with untransformed ‘Kamiya’ pollen to try
to produce homozygous lines that could have even greater resistance. As other lines containing
the replicase, UT, or PRV4 genes become available, they are planted in the field for seed produc-
tion and evaluation for horticultural traits.
1. Field Evaluation of Transgenic Hybrids Derived from the Deregulated,

Commercialized ‘Sun Up’
We embarked upon a backcrossing project utilizing the commercialized ‘Sun Up’ virus resistance
gene after discovery of abnormal ‘Kamiya’ transformants because we wished to produce a useful
virus-resistant ‘Kamiya’ in a timely manner. The objectives of the backcrossing project were (a)
to produce PRSV resistant plants with nearly the same qualities as the virus susceptible lines that
are well adapted to certain locations and (b) to determine whether the inbred line, F1 progeny, or
one of the backcross generations is superior to the inbred line. Hybrids between ‘Rainbow’ F2
progeny and the inbred ‘Kamiya’ were planted in two commercial locations on the island of Oahu
in Hawaii in 1998 to evaluate horticultural characteristics and virus resistance. The ‘Kamiya’ F1
hybrids were planted in Laie (about 300 trees) and Kahaluu (about 150 trees). Tree height and di-
ameter, height of first flower, yield, and fruit quality data were collected monthly. Major selection
criteria were firm flesh, pleasing flavor, good fruit set, good fruit shape, minimal carpellody, and
minimal sterility. Superior selections are being clonally propagated and will be evaluated with
growers in several locations. In addition, the ‘Kamiya’ lines will be advanced to backcross gen-
erations of at least 94% parent type (at least five generations), then selfed to select for homozy-
gous plants that can be propagated by seed if growers desire that option. In each planting, non-
transgenic parents, F1, and backcross plants will be compared. Selections of superior individuals
will be clonally propagated and evaluated in replicated plots.
‘Kapoho’ was the industry standard because of its excellent shipping and marketing quali-
ties—firm fruit and high sucrose content. At the same time the ‘Kamiya’ backcross project was
initiated, we also undertook ‘Kapoho’ backcrossing because the cultivar had been the most im-
portant in the industry. Since ‘Rainbow’ is 50% ‘Kapoho,’ we obtained backcross1 (BC1) hybrids
by crossing ‘Rainbow’ F2 progeny with ‘Kapoho.’ Seedlings were planted in on the island of Oahu
in Poamoho (about 100 trees) and Helemano (about 50 trees) and on the island of Hawaii in
Keaau (about 100 trees) and Kapoho (about 100 trees). Monthly growth, yield, and quality data
were collected on ‘Kapoho,’ ‘Rainbow,’ and the BC1 (⬃75% ‘Kapoho’) at the Poamoho planting.
Crosses were made between ‘Rainbow’ F2 that were homozygous for the CP gene and ‘Line 8,’ a
cultivar with excellent flavor but poor shelf life; two large-fruited Thai-style papayas; and a
medium-sized cultivar called ‘Maunawili Sweet’ selected for good growth in a high-rainfall area.
The objective of these additional crossing projects was to determine whether our strategy to cross
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a hybrid with an inbred of interest would lead to the inbred type sooner than the more standard
method of crossing two inbreds followed by backcrossing to one parental type.
2. Field Evaluation of Clonally Propagated Transgenic Hybrid Lines

Papaya seedlings segregate for sex expression, either one female to two hermaphrodites from
selfed hermaphrodites, or one female to one hermaphrodite or “male” in outcrosses (Storey,
1953). Typically seeds or seedlings are multiple planted then thinned to a single hermaphrodite
or female, depending on the location. The waste associated with multiple planting, in addition to
occasional scarcity of seeds, led to experiments to determine the feasibility of clonal propagation
of papaya. Clonal propagation of hermaphrodite ‘Rainbow,’ ‘Kamiya’ F1, and ‘Kapoho’ BC1
plants was established by two methods, micropropagation in tissue culture and rooted cuttings.
Micropropagation was initiated by using in vitro germinated seedlings and lateral shoots of ma-
ture hermaphrodite trees selected for quality characteristics. In vitro germinated seedlings (Fitch,
1993) were screened for the hermaphrodite type using PCR primers designed from randomly am-
plified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs, Sondur et al., 1996). Shoot proliferation occurred on a mod-
ified Murashige and Skoog medium (MSO, Fitch et al., 1990, GIBCO/BRL, Grand Island, NY)
containing 0.2 mg/l benzylaminopurine and 0.2 mg/l naphthalene acetic acid (MBN) and 2.5 g/l
Phytagel (Sigma, St. Louis, MO). Shoots 1 cm or taller were removed from clusters and incubated
in the dark for 5 days on MSO containing 1 mg/l indole butyric acid and solidified with 2.5 g/l
Phytagel. The shoots were rooted under fluorescent lights (35 µmol/m2/s PAR) at 27°C in jars
containing 25 ml vermiculite moistened with 30 ml 1/2 MSO and 3% sucrose. Rooted plants were
planted in Sunshine Mix#4 and acclimated under clear plastic domes. Acclimated plants were re-
potted into 3.5-inch plastic pots, grown in the greenhouse, acclimated to sunlight, and field
planted or were retained as stock plants from which cuttings were removed every 3–6 weeks.
Cuttings from greenhouse-grown stock plants, 8–22 cm in length and 6–10 mm in diame-
ter, were rooted in medium-grade 50% vermiculite/50% perlite medium under intermittent mist
(5 seconds every 10 minutes continuously) with 29°C bottom heating (M. Fitch, unpublished re-
sults). Cuttings rooted whether or not cut ends were dipped in 0.1% IBA (Hormex 11, Teufel
Nursery, Inc, Portland, OR). Approximately 90% of the cuttings rooted in 2–6 weeks. Plants were
removed from the mist bench, fertilized with time release granules, and acclimated in the green-
house for 2–4 weeks, in sunlight about 2–4 weeks, and transplanted in the field.
Micropropagated and cutting-derived clonal ‘Rainbow’ hermaphrodites, hermaphrodite
seedlings screened by PCR for sex expression, and multiple-planted seedlings (five/hole) were in-
stalled in a randomized complete block experiment with four replications. The experiment was
installed on April 30, 1998, on Hawaii in Keaau, south of Hilo, where annual precipitation aver-
ages 130 inches a year. Data on height, diameter, height of first bud, and fruit yield were collected
and analyzed by an analysis of variance. The second experiment, comparing cuttings, micro-
propagated plants, and multiple-planted seedlings, was installed by the grower on October 23,
1998, in Helemano, Oahu. A third planting with the same treatments as the first was installed in
Mokuleia, Oahu, on March 10, 1999.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Selection on Kanamycin
By using NPTII as the selection gene, satisfactory results were obtained by using kanamycin at
levels ranging from 75 mg/l to 300 mg/l. We found that escapes were eliminated by moving iso-
lates recovered after the third month of selection to 300 mg/l kanamycin and retaining only those
that grew vigorously on the higher antibiotic concentration.
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444 Fitch
B. Symptom Development on Test Plants Grown Under Fluorescent Lights

Symptoms on untransformed control and transgenic susceptible plants developed 10–14 days
post inoculation when the plants were grown under fluorescent lights in the laboratory. Small con-
trol seedlings died within 1 month and leaves on larger susceptible plants turned yellow and ab-
scised, and the plants eventually died after 2 months. ‘Rainbow’ plants with one copy of the trans-
gene developed symptoms after 16 days, but the older leaves remained green. Early symptoms
included downward or upward curving of new leaf margins, mottling of new leaves, and distor-
tion. The resistant transgenic line UT9-8A did not show symptoms 6 weeks after the first set of
inoculations and was inoculated a second time along with a second UT9-8A plant and untrans-
formed control. Neither plant showed PRSV symptoms 2 weeks after the second series of inocu-
lations; thus we concluded that UT9-8A was immune to the Kahuku PRSV strain.
C. Molecular Analysis and Field Evaluation of Transgenic ‘Kamiya’ Papayas

PCR and Southern hybridizations confirmed the presence of the transgenes. PCR for the NPTII se-
lection, translatable and untranslatable CP, and NIB genes was used to identify putative resistant
lines. Southern hybridizations revealed specific bands for PRV4, UT, and NIB at the predicted mo-
lecular weights, 1.7 kb for the CP genes as shown in our earlier studies (Fitch et al., 1992, 1994)
and 1.0 kb for the replicase gene. For practical, rapid screening, molecular characterization using
PCR was sufficient to identify lines that were then mechanically inoculated with a Kahuku PRSV
strain. We identified three immune lines, one with the translatable CP gene (PRV4-1), one with the
untranslatable CP gene (UT9-8A), and one with the NIB gene (NIB 1-1). Other lines showed field
resistance or delayed symptom expression (NIB 3-1); other lines were not resistant. The untrans-
latable gene isolate UT9-8A is the most promising because the plants appear to be normal, diploid,
and hermaphrodite. We are propagating the line for small-scale field testing and will complete
southern and northern hybridizations to confirm the presence and functioning of the transgenes.
The other two lines, PRV4-1 and NIB 1-1, are apparently tetraploid, highly sterile, and not imme-
diately useful. Barring fertility and agronomic problems, we believe that the UT9-8A line is a good
candidate for deregulation and licensing, as was line 55-1, which was the progenitor of ‘Sun Up’
and ‘Rainbow.’
The plant line containing only NPTII showed virus symptoms within 4 months of field
planting, whereas the three lines carrying resistance genes were immune for about 2 years. One
of the three lines exhibited a 2-month delay in symptom development in the laboratory but
was immune under field conditions. The other two lines may have multiple copies of the re-
sistance gene since they never exhibited virus symptoms in the laboratory or field. However,
they all appeared to be tetraploid and set small numbers of miniature fruit that contained only
one or two seeds. Attempts to embryo rescue and germinate the rare embryos were not suc-
cessful.
Other than a high degree of carpellody in one individual, normal for this cultivar at certain
times of the year, the plants appeared to be normal. Other UT9-8A plants and the corresponding
nontransgenic ‘Kamiya’ plants in the same field did not exhibit the degree of carpellody as high
as that of the one UT9-8A individual; thus, the problem may be overfertilization or some other
environmental factor. The susceptible UT9-9A, a female, is abnormal and appears to be tetraploid
with larger than normal petioles and leaves but small petals and ovaries. Some buds pollinated
with another transgenic line are enlarging; thus, the ovaries may not be sterile. If seeds develop,
it will be interesting to determine the ploidy and fertility of the seedlings.
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D. Field Evaluation of Transgenic Hybrids Derived from Deregulated,

Commercialized ‘Sun Up’ Papaya
In Hawaii, hemizygous ‘Sun Up’–based hybrids have been field planted at several sites and are
showing excellent production and no breakdown except in rare instances in which small plants
became infected and did not recover, for example, 1/800 in Kapoho, 1/400 in Keaau, and 1/300
in Kahuku. We kept the plants for 3–5 months and removed them when they failed to recover.
The backcrossing experiments were greatly simplified with presence of the GUS gene in
the donor plants. Production data from the first rounds of backcrossing the Kapoho BC1 and
‘Kamiya’ F1 plants showed that the deregulated, licensed transgene in the new hybrid back-
grounds was acceptable. We determined that the Kapoho BC1 plants had fruit size and firmness
intermediate between those of the inbred, untransformed Kapoho and ‘Rainbow.’ Sweetness was
approximately the same. We anticipate that we will be able to select for increased firmness in the
next backcross generation, BC2, at the same time selecting for the larger size and pleasant aroma
that we detected in the BC1 lines.
We believe that our protocol to backcross an inbred line like ‘Kamiya’ with a hybrid like
‘Rainbow’ instead of more directly, with another inbred, resulted in a hybrid with a greater pro-
portion of the target inbred’s characteristics. Although the F1 fruit were only 50% ‘Kamiya,’ they
resembled the ‘Kamiya’ parent, retaining the deep orange fruit color, coconutlike flavor, low bear-
ing habit, root rot tolerance, and large fruit size characteristics. The presence of a higher percent-
age of the ‘Kamiya’ genome may have resulted in F1 progeny that exhibited the backcross parent
phenotype in the shortest period possible. We have early indications from comparisons between
the ‘Kamiya’ F1 and ‘Kamiya’ BC1 plants that hybrid vigor in the ‘Kamiya’ F1s may make those
progenies more desirable than advanced backcrosses, which could exhibit some ‘Kamiya’ prob-
lems like carpellody, sterility, and seasonal fruit bitterness and unpleasant odor. Carrying on the
‘Kamiya’ hybrid evaluation, one of our new projects is to compare F1 progeny from ‘Kamiya’ ×
‘Rainbow’ F2 with ‘Kamiya’ × ‘Sun Up,’ (inbred transgenic) to determine whether the ‘Rainbow’
F2 hybrids are more similar to ‘Kamiya’ than are the ‘Sun Up’ hybrids.
Our data crossing ‘Line 8’ with the ‘Rainbow’ F2 support our hypothesis. We found that the
poor shelf life trait of ‘Line 8’ was still pronounced in the ‘Line 8’ F1 hybrids. We are further test-
ing our hypothesis by crossing three other inbred lines that have large fruit size, ‘Kuala Lumpur
Yellow,’ a Thai-style red, and ‘Maunawili Sweet.’
E. Field Evaluation of Clonally Propagated Transgenic Hybrid Lines

The asexual propagation experiments comparing clonal hermaphrodites with seedlings yielded
ripe fruits earlier and lower on the trunk, for potential harvest savings compared to single- or mul-
tiple-planted seedlings. The multiple-planted trees produced comparable yields about 3 months
later, but the 2 months of additional yield adds income for the grower and reduces costs by elim-
inating labor for thinning. An additional benefit not predicted in this experiment was shorter trees
over the harvest cycle, delaying the use of harvest poles, ladders, and fork or scissor lifts for har-
vest. Harvest is the most costly operation in papaya production.
IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The deregulated, commercial transgenic virus-resistant ‘Sun Up’ and ‘Rainbow’ cultivars have
been useful additions for papaya improvement in the state of Hawaii. They provided researchers
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446 Fitch
with virus-resistant cultivars for field experimentation, a practice that had been limited in the past
by losses from PRSV infection. We were able to determine the feasibility of producing and plant-
ing asexually propagated trees and to evaluate new hybrids in several important papaya-growing
regions in the state. We determined that an asexual propagation protocol that utilizes microprop-
agation and rooted cuttings could allow growers about 2 months of earlier production compared
to use of standard practice multiple-planted seedlings. An additional benefit is the lower bearing
height of the trees, which translates into savings in harvest time.
We have continued transformation experiments of papaya, producing another transgenic
virus-resistant cultivar, ‘Kamiya,’ containing one of three PRSV virus resistance genes. Our data
show that the translatable and untranslatable PRSV coat protein genes and the replicase gene im-
part resistance to ‘Kamiya’ papaya. D. Gonsalves, S.-P. Yeh, and R. Drew (unpublished results)
also report on successful virus-resistant papayas transformed with PRSV CP genes. Papaya trans-
formation also resulted in herbicide and aluminum resistance. The impact of the first virus-resis-
tant papayas on Hawaiian agriculture is significant, the industry was saved from destruction due
to the virus. We expect that transgenic papayas in other regions of the world will impact those
local economies similarly. Herbicide- and aluminum-tolerant papayas may also prove to be valu-
able commercially. Moreover, new genes for improvement of the crop are now available to us, for
example, genes for fungal and insect resistance, for broader solutions to agricultural problems. In
working directly with our growers while testing our new cropping system and hybrids, we found
that technology transfer has led to better understanding and teamwork among scientists, growers,
and other agricultural industry members. The growers are more comfortable with us, the scien-
tists, when they see the products of our experiments translating directly into useful products for
their livelihoods.
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Cheng, YH, JS Yang, SD Yeh (1996) Efficient transformation of papaya by coat protein gene of papaya
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Conover RA, RE Litz, SE Malo (1986) ‘Cariflora’—A papaya ringspot virus tolerant papaya for South
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in transgenic plants by alteration of citrate synthesis. Science 276:1566–1568.
Doyle JJ, JL Doyle (1987) A rapid DNA isolation procedure for small quantities of fresh leaf tissue. Phy-
tochem Bull 19:11–15.
Fitch MMM (1993) High frequency somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from papaya hypocotyl
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Fitch MMM, RM Manshardt (1990) Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from immature zygotic
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paya via microprojective bombardment. Plant Cell Rep 9:189–194.
Fitch MMM, RM Manshardt, D Gonsalves, JL Slightom, JC Sanford (1992) Virus resistant papaya plants
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Fitch MMM, RM Manshardt, D Gonsalves, JL Slightom (1993) Transgenic papaya plants from Agrobac-
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31
Genetic Engineering of Strawberries
and Raspberries
Robert R. Martin
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Corvallis, Oregon
I. INTRODUCTION 449
II. REGENERATION METHODS FOR FRAGARIA AND RUBUS SPECIES 450
III. DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSFORMATION PROTOCOLS FOR FRAGARIA
AND RUBUS SPECIES 451
IV. INCORPORATION OF SPECIFIC TRAITS—INSECT, NEMATODE,
AND MITE RESISTANCE 452
V. VIRUS RESISTANCE 454
VI. FUNGAL RESISTANCE 456
VII. FRUIT QUALITY 457
VIII. GENOMICS 458
A. Gene Discovery 458
B. Promoters 458
C. Gene Flow 459
REFERENCES 459
I. INTRODUCTION
Breeding of Fragaria × ananassa Duch. (strawberry) began in the early 1800s (Scott and
Lawrence, 1975) and Rubus breeding (raspberry, blackberry, and hybrid berries) has been going
on since the late part of the 19th century (Dale et al., 1989). Despite the relatively long history of
breeding with these crops and the many successes in breeding for disease and pest resistance,
there remain disease problems for which there are no known sources of resistance in the available
germplasm. In other cases, pests and pathogens have evolved to overcome host resistance that
breeders have incorporated in new cultivars. Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora fragariae f.sp.
fragariae) (Nickerson and Jamieson, 1995) in strawberry and raspberry bushy dwarf virus (RB
strain) in red raspberry (Barbara et al., 1984) are two examples of pathogens overcoming em-
ployed resistance genes. Raspberry aphids, Amphorophora idaei in Europe and A. agathonica in
North America, have evolved to overcome resistance genes used widely in raspberry breeding
programs to control aphid-borne viruses (Daubeny, 1996). Overuse and/or misuse of fungicides
449
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450 Martin
and insecticides has resulted in the development of pathogens and pests resistant to chemicals.
Some chemicals are withdrawn for use on these minor crops because the costs associated with
keeping them on the label are prohibitive or the work to get a chemical registered on these minor
crops is not done, again as a result of cost considerations. The Food Quality Protection Act in the
United States will result in a review of all pesticides and very likely will result in the loss of many
of those used currently for control of insects and pathogens of these crops.
With the advent of biotechnology, specifically genetic engineering, the potential to intro-
duce novel types of disease and pest resistance from sources unrelated to these crops became
available. Many of the disease- and pest-resistant traits being tested in Fragaria and Rubus spp.
have been shown to be effective in other crops or in model systems that are easier to transform
and regenerate than members of the Rosaceae (Estruch et al., 1997). Strategies being used for
virus resistance have been shown to provide some level of resistance with other viruses in other
crops prior to being used in the small fruit crops (Martin, 1995; Wilson, 1993). Strawberry and
rubus are generally much more difficult to regenerate and transform than tobacco or tomato and
other plants used in model systems to develop these technologies. In addition to pest and disease
resistance genes that are involved in fruit quality characteristics are being isolated (APHIS web-
site). The first commercial transgenic crop, the ‘Flavr Savr’ tomato, was designed to alter fruit
softening associated with fruit ripening. Although technologically a success, ‘Flavr Savr’ was not
accepted by the consumer for several reasons, including a lack of acceptance of genetically engi-
neered products and the lack of a perceived improvement in fruit quality. Another lesson learned
from this early tomato work was that to be successful, this new technology needs to be applied to
the best cultivars of a given crop. The state of the technology today is limited in that only a few
genes can be inserted into a plant at a time. Thus, most current work deals with single traits, which
are ideally suited for pest and disease resistance. Genetic engineered resistance has been shown
to be quite effective in controlling selected insects in commercial plantings of cotton, potatoes,
and maize carrying a Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin gene. Herbicide resistance has been used
widely in soybeans in the United States and in canola in Canada. Virus resistance based on coat
protein genes has been shown to be quite effective in commercial squash, potatoes, and papaya.
Virus resistance strategies have been tested in a wide range of crops and many of these will likely
be commercialized over the next few years.
II. REGENERATION METHODS FOR FRAGARIA AND RUBUS SPECIES
Plant tissue culture was used for virus eradication in strawberry as early as 1962 (Belkengren and
Miller, 1962) and for micropropagation as early as 1974 (Boxus, 1974). Plant regeneration of
strawberry from callus was reported in 1977 (De Assis and Hildebrandt, 1977; Lee and DeFos-
sard, 1977). Most tissue culture and micropropagation of strawberry have been directed to horti-
cultural purposes, primarily virus elimination and rapid propagation. Recently, regeneration has
been studied much more intensively as a first step in transformation to introduce desired genes.
Most groups found that media containing macro- and microsalts after Murashige and
Skoog (1962) and B5 vitamins according to Gamborg coworker (1968) was useful as a base
medium for strawberry regeneration. The addition of casein hydrolysate or tryptone at 400 mg/l
enhanced regeneration (Liu and Sanford, 1988; Finstad and Martin, 1995). Early regeneration
from strawberry callus tissue (Jones et al., 1988) showed that callus was produced on MS medium
containing inositol, thiamine HCl, and benzylamine purine (BA) at 0.9. Regeneration of shoots
from leaf or petiole pieces was dependent on the addition of plant hormones to the tissue culture
medium. Parameters for optimal regeneration can vary, depending on whether the leaf tissue was
derived from plantlets grown in vitro or in a greenhouse (Liu and Sanford, 1988; Finstad and Mar-
tin, 1995). The hormones and their concentrations have varied considerably among cultivars that
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Strawberries and Raspberries 451
have been regenerated successfully. Conditions that were optimal for ‘Allstar’ (in vitro cultures,
2.5 mg benzyladenine ([BA])/l and 0.5 mg indolebutyric acid [IBA]/l; greenhouse cultures [3.0
mg/l BA and 0.1 mg/l IBA], or ‘Redcoat’ (10 mg/l BA and 1 mg/l naphthaleneacetic acid [NAA]
(Nehra et al., 1990a) failed to produce any shoots with ‘Hood’ and ‘Totem’ (Finstad and Martin,
1995). Thidiazuron was the most effective cytokinin for regeneration of ‘Totem’ strawberry (Fin-
stad and Martin, 1995). Conditions for regeneration of ‘Marmolada’ and ‘Onebar’ were similar to
those for ‘Allstar’ (Martinelli et al., 1997). In studies with ‘Chandler’ strawberry (Barcelo et al.,
1998), both IBA and BA were required for regeneration. In this case, incubation of leaf disks in
darkness for 1 to 4 weeks increased the rate at which regeneration occurred but did not affect the
final percentage of disks with shoots. The level of irradiance after the dark treatment did not af-
fect the regeneration rate of ‘Chandler’ leaf pieces (20–80 µmol m⫺2 s⫺1 was tested). Regenera-
tion efficiency (percentage of explants that developed shoots) approached 100% under some con-
ditions. One can see from the work that has been done with strawberry regeneration that at this
time there is not a procedure that is useful for the regeneration of a broad range of strawberry cul-
tivars. In contrast, there is a regeneration and transformation protocol that was successful with a
range of potato cultivars (Kawchuk et al., 1991). Carbenicillin was inhibitory to regeneration of
strawberry (Finstad and Martin, 1995; Graham et al., 1995), whereas Timentin had no effect on
the percentage of explants that developed shoots in ‘Totem’ when used at 100–200 µg/ml. Ti-
mentin was also more effective at eliminating Agrobacterium spp. from the cultures than car-
benicillin and/or cefotaxime and it was also less costly.
Fewer people have been successful with Rubus sp. regeneration and in most cases the per-
centage regeneration is much lower for Rubus sp. than for Fragaria sp. when conditions are op-
timized. Owens y de Novoa (1992) found that stem and root explants of R. idaeus grew more cal-
lus but only leaf explants produced shoots in a medium that consisted of macronutrients of MS
micronutrients with 2× iron plus MS vitamins and 30 g/l sucrose. Optimal regeneration was with
2 µM BA plus 0.5 µM NAA or both hormones at 5 µM. McNicol and Graham (1990) were able
to get regeneration from both leaf and internodal segments when using a modified MS medium
containing the phytohormone combination 0.2 mg/l BA and 0.2 mg/l 2,4-D. They regenerated two
hybrid berries, ‘Sunberry’ (46% regeneration) and ‘Tayberry’ (27%); ‘Loch Ness’ blackberry
(27%); and ‘Autumn Bliss’ red raspberry (7.5%). Peeled internodal stem segments produced more
regenerants than unpeeled segments, and conditions for regeneration of stem segments were
much less critical than for leaf pieces. Thidiazuron was reported to be more effective than BA for
induction of organogenesis in Rubus sp. (Fiola et al., 1990; Cousineau and Donnelly, 1991;
Owens y de Novoa and Conner, 1992a). Mathews and associates (1995) were able to get regen-
eration from petiole, leaf, and internode explants of several different red raspberry cultivars by
using 0.1 mg/l IBA, 0.1–1.0 mg/l Thidiazuron, and 10 mg/l silver nitrate. For ‘Meeker’ red rasp-
berry (50% regeneration), they used 3% d-glucose as the carbon source, whereas with ‘Canby’
(1%) and ‘Chilliwack’ (8%) the carbon source was 3% sucrose. Transformation of arctic bramble
(Rubus arcticus L.) was successful on media containing 2 mg/1 BA, and 0.2 mg/l NAA and was
much more successful when using internodal segments (15–27%) compared with leaf pieces
(1%). As with strawberry the development of a regeneration protocol for Rubus sp. is quite em-
pirical, with optimal hormone and medium conditions dependent on cultivar and source and type
of explants.
III. DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSFORMATION PROTOCOLS FOR

FRAGARIA AND RUBUS SPECIES
Development of transformation protocols requires several decisions, beginning with whether to

use biolistics or Agrobacterium sp.–mediated technologies and choice of Agrobacterium sp.
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452 Martin
strains if this is the method of choice. The Agrobacterium sp. strain can greatly influence the
transformation success. A wide range of strains of A. tumefaciens and A. rhizogenes were capa-
ble of causing tumors in strawberry, though the efficiency of tumor formation varied widely
(Uratsu et al., 1991). In a test of 35 strains of A. tumefaciens on 10 genotypes of red raspberry
Owens y de Novoa and Conner (1992b) found that strains A208, A281, ACH5, C58, and TR105
were the most effective at inducing tumors on leaf disks in vitro. In a separate study, LAB4404,
a disarmed strain of C58, was the most efficient of seven A. tumefaciens strains at forming tumors
on leaf disks in vitro (de Faria et al., 1997). A. tumefaciens strains LBA4404, EHA101, MP90,
and EHA105 have been the most widely used for transformation in these crops. Agrobacterium
tumefaciens–mediated transformation of F. × ananassa (Nehra et al., 1990; James et al., 1990;
Finstad and Martin, 1995; Graham et al., 1995; Mathews et al., 1995; Barcelo et al., 1998), F.
vesca (El-Mansouri et al., 1996; Haymes and Davis, 1997), and Rubus (Graham et al., 1990; Has-
sen et al., 1993; Mathews et al., 1995; Kokko and Karenlampi, 1998) has been developed by a
number of groups.
Choice of a selectable marker is critical to the success of a transformation protocol. Trans-
genic plants have been grown from strawberry protoplasts electroporated with a plasmid carrying
β-glucuronidase (GUS) and selectable marker genes (Nyman and Wallin, 1992). It is also likely
that particle bombardment could be used to transform strawberry and raspberry since transient
expression of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) has been observed in several cultivars of F. ×
ananassa and R. idaeus (P. Kohnen, personal communication). However, most transformation in
strawberry and Rubus sp. has been done with leaf disks or petioles by using antibiotic resistance
genes as selectable markers. In the development of transformation protocols, β-glucuronidase
(GUS) (Jefferson, 1987) has been used most widely as a marker since expression can be moni-
tored by a simple staining procedure to confirm that tissue has been transformed. More recently,
the green fluorescent protein (GFP) (Oparka et al., 1995) has been used to monitor gene expres-
sion since this marker can be visualized in a nondestructive assay. The nptII gene, which confers
resistance to kanamycin, has been the most widely used antibiotic marker for Fragaria and Rubus
sp. transformation (Nehra et al., 1990; James et al., 1990; Finstad and Martin, 1995; El-Mansouri
et al., 1996; Barcelo, 1998; Graham et al., 1990; Graham et al., 1995; Haymes and Davis, 1997;
Mathews et al., 1995;) The hpt gene, which confers resistance to the antibiotic hygromycin, has
also been used successfully for selection in these crops (Mathews et al., 1995; Nyman and Wallin,
1992) Kanamycin selection is usually done at between 25 and 50 µg/ml and hygromycin selec-
tion at 10 µg/ml. In our experience, there are fewer escapes with hygromycin selection than with
kanamycin.
Since Rubus and Fragaria sp. are vegetatively propagated crops, the primary transgenics
can be used directly. With many other crops, the R1 and R2 generations are tested for gene func-
tion and the process of going through true seed eliminates most if not all chimerism from the
transgenic plants. Using GUS as a marker gene, Mathews and coworkers (1998) have shown that
many primary transgenics are chimeric. By performing iterative cultures with increasing selec-
tion pressure they were able to eliminate chimerism from transformed plants as demonstrated by
GUS assays on multiple leaves from rooted plants and by Southern hybrization.
IV. INCORPORATION OF SPECIFIC TRAITS—INSECT, NEMATODE,

AND MITE RESISTANCE
Many different protease inhibitors have been inserted into plants in efforts to develop resistance to
insects, nematodes, and mites. The effectiveness of an inhibitor depends on the major protease that
the target pest contains in its digestive system (Ryan, 1990). The most widely used protease in-
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hibitor to date has been the serine inhibitor from cowpea (cowpea trypsin inhibitor [CpTi]), which
has been inserted into a wide range of crop plants, including strawberry (Hilder et al., 1987; James
et al., 1992; Watt et al., 1995). Cysteine proteinase inhibitor gene oryzacystatin (OCI) from rice
has also been used to make transgenic strawberry and Rubus sp. (Vrain, 1997). When the potato
multicystatin (PMC), a cysteine protease inhibitor, was inserted into corn (Orr et al., 1994), it was
shown to be very effective against western corn rootworm but much less effective against south-
ern corn rootworm. The cysteine proteases make up 92% of the total protease activity in western
corn rootworm but only 75% of the protease activity of the southern corn rootworm. With the em-
ployment of protease inhibitors, it will be interesting to see how quickly insects can evolve to
change the relative importance of different proteases in their digestive system as this rate will
greatly influence the long-term effectiveness of protease inhibitors as a means of insect control.
When CpTi was inserted into ‘Rapella’ strawberry and 10 kanamycin-resistant transfor-
mants, they were shown to have positive results for the inserted genes by Southern hybridization
and exhibited phosphotransferase activity (James et al., 1992). Eight plants of six of the clones
were tested in insect feeding assays using the black vine weevil (Otioryhnchus sulcatus). Twenty
larvae, less than 3 days old, were added to each potted plant. After 2 months the survival rate of
larvae was 80–90% on the transformed clones and the controls. The CpTi has also been incorpo-
rated into ‘Melody’ strawberry (Graham et al., 1995; Graham et al., 1996; Watt et al., 1999). In
feeding studies with black vine weevil in which eight eggs were applied to the base of each test
plant and allowed to develop for 20 weeks, the best transgenic line had between 240% and 360%
more root weight than the nontransgenic control or GUS transgenic plants. The transgenic plants
exhibited a range of gene expression levels based on percentage reduction in trypsin activity. In
pots where the plants were not challenged with vine weevils, the root weight of control and trans-
genic plants was the same. Some of the transgenic plants showed a gradual decline in tissue cul-
ture, which was possibly due to the presence of the transgene. This is not surprising since plants
have proteases to “recycle” their proteins and a protease inhibitor could interfere with normal
plant metabolism, and it is possible some essential gene was interrupted in these lines. Surpris-
ingly, the transgenic lines that were the highest expressors of the CpTi were not the ones that de-
clined in tissue culture, suggesting site of insertion as the probable cause of the decline. Very few
of the eggs developed to the adult stage on the control or the transgenic plants in the feeding ex-
periments. A similar reaction to that observed with the pot feeding studies was observed after 2
years of trials in the field with strawberries carrying the CpTi transgene (Graham et al., 1999), in
which two cultivars with the CpTi gene demonstrated the same high level of resistance to the
black vine weevil under field conditions that was observed in greenhouse trials. The sharp con-
trast in effectiveness between these two trials may be due to expression levels of CpTi in the trans-
genic plants. In the first study (James et al., 1992), the level of activity of the CpTi was not de-
termined. In the trials by Graham and colleages (1997), one transgenic line (4.25) did not have
any effect on black vine weevil as compared to the controls and this line had the lowest activity
of the lines tested in their second feeding study. However, line 4.25 did have higher levels of ac-
tivity than line 4.1 from their first feeding study, which had the least amount of feeding damage
of all the plants they tested. These studies suggest that there is not a direct correlation between
expression levels of CpTi and protection from black vine weevil damage.
The rice cysteine proteinase inhibitor oryzacystatin (OCI) has been incorporated into straw-
berry and red raspberry plants (Vrain et al., 1997) Prior to using the OCI gene from rice to trans-
form plants they researchers tested its activity against the digestive proteases of root weevil and
found it to inhibit most protease activity; it also inhibited papain activity in gel assay tests. When
the OCI from rice was incorporated into strawberry and raspberry (R. idaeus), the presence of the
gene was demonstrated by selection on kanamycin and Southern hybridization. When the plants
were challenged with Pratylenchus penetrans (nematodes), Tetranychus urticae (two-spotted spi-
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454 Martin
der mite), or aphids there was no significant reduction in the number of any of these pests on the
transgenic plants compared to that on the control plants. The plants have not yet been tested for
resistance to weevils.
Lectins are being evaluated as potential control agents for several insect pests and nema-
todes (Vrain et al., 1997). Most lectins are toxic to many insects and mammals. The lectin from
snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) has little or no toxicity against mammals but has been shown to be
toxic against several insects and against root knot and root lesion nematodes (Hilder et al., 1995).
The protease inhibitors have activity against various chewing insects but have not been shown to
have any effect on aphids, whereas the snowdrop lectin offers some protection against aphids.
Lectins have a different mode of action than protease inhibitors so the potential exists to combine
two control strategies into a single plant that would reduce the chance of the pest’s developing re-
sistance to the transgenic control measure.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacterium that produces toxins that are specific for certain
insect larvae, primarily in the lepidopteran and coleopteran species. There are different forms of
Bt toxin, including Btk toxin (from B. thuringiensis var. kurstaki), which is effective primarily
against lepidopteran insects, and Btt toxin (from B. thuringiensis var. tenebrionis), which is ef-
fective against a range of beetles. In addition, other Bt toxins have been isolated with different
specificities including dipterans. Transgenic crops (corn, cotton, potatoes) containing the Btk and
Btt toxins have been grown commercially in the United States. At this point, the use of these crops
has resulted in considerable reduction in insecticide application compared to that is control plant-
ings. The problem of development of resistance to Bt toxin is much more of a concern with trans-
genic crops than when Bt is used as an applied insecticide. In the transgenic crops, the insects are
exposed to the toxin all the time. Another concern is that organic growers can use Bt as an insec-
ticide; if resistance develops the organic growers will not have an alternative control measure
whereas conventional growers can go back to using other insecticides. Lepidopteran larvae are
primarily problems as fruit contaminants during harvest in raspberry. The Bt toxins have not been
used in Fragaria or Rubus sp. at this time, however. Bt toxin is an approved topical insecticide to
reduce larvae numbers prior to harvest, and there may be potential for its employment as a trans-
gene for control of the leafrollers in red raspberry.
V. VIRUS RESISTANCE
The first demonstration of genetically engineered resistance to a plant pathogen was resistance to
tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) conferred by the incorporation of the TMV coat protein in tobacco
(Powell-Abel et al., 1986). Since that time that coat protein (CP) of many different plant viruses
has been used with varying degrees of success to engineer virus resistance (Martin, 1995). As
more examples of CP-mediated resistance were studied, it became clear that in some examples
there was a positive correlation between CP expression level and resistance to TMV (Powell-Able
et al., 1986) and cucumber mosaic virus (Cuozzo et al., 1988), whereas in other cases this corre-
lation did not exist (Ling et al., 1991; Stark and Beachy, 1989). Several strategies have been de-
veloped for engineering virus resistance since the early work with CP genes. These include the
use of mutated polymerase (Golemboski et al., 1990), mutated movement proteins (Beck et al.,
1994), nontranslatable ribonucleic acid (RNA) (Lindbo et al., 1993), and plantibodies (Taviado-
rakl, et al., 1993). The nontranslatable RNA strategy is RNA-based rather than protein-based, and
it is likely that many of the CP-mediated resistant plants that have been developed are actually re-
sistant as a result of the RNA and not the CP. Since the work by Lindbo and coworkers (1993),
many people have reported sense constructs giving high levels of resistance even when the CP
and transcript are not detectable. For more detailed information on engineered virus resistance,
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readers are referred to several reviews that have been written on engineering virus resistance in
plants (Martin, 1995; Wilson, 1993) and a 1998 book (Hadidi et al., eds., 1998) that has six chap-
ters covering this area. Pathogen-derived viral resistance can reduce spread of virus in a field sit-
uation even though the transgenic plants are not immune to the target virus (Thomas et al., 1997).
In the study by Thomas and coworkers potato lines expressing the CP of potato leafroll virus that
were only moderately resistant to the virus had significantly less secondary spread due to aphid
transmission.
In the small fruit crops, there has been limited work published on engineering virus resis-
tance. However, there are several reports of engineering genes of viruses that infect small fruit
crops into various Nicotiana spp., which are easier to work with and thus good choices to deter-
mine whether a specific strategy will be useful. Strawberries have been engineered to contain the
coat protein gene of strawberry mild yellow edge potexvirus (SMYEPV) (Finstad and Martin,
1995). Three of the transgenic lines showed some delay in symptom development in greenhouse
trials, but in field trials the delay was not significant when considering strawberry is multiyear
crop in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. The lack of resistance may be due to the
nature of the virus as it now appears that the transmission of this virus is facilitated by a helper
virus (Lamprecht and Martin, 1999) since SMYEPV is not aphid-transmissible from plants in-
fected with a full-length infectious clone of the virus. The virus from the infectious clone is trans-
missible when coinoculated with wild-type virus. If the SMYEPV is being transmitted to plants
in the coat protein of a second virus, then the uncoating process would not be restricted by the
transgene product. In other systems with CP-mediated resistance, the plants were not resistant to
infection by viral RNA. Further work on engineering resistance to SMYEPV is being carried out,
using mutated polymerase, mutated movement protein, and nontranslatable RNA strategies, in
my laboratory.
Coat proteins of nepoviruses, arabis mosaic (ArMV), strawberry latent ringspot (SLRV),
and tomato ringspot (TomRSV) have been transformed into tobacco plants (Cooper et al., 1994;
Kreiah et al., 1996; Yepes et al., 1996). These viruses are important in raspberry (Ellis et al., 1991)
and strawberry (Maas, 1998), and the information obtained in the tobacco system should be ap-
plicable to these crops. It is easier to work with tobacco or some other herbaceous hosts of a virus
for testing the effectiveness of a resistance strategy rather than strawberry or Rubus sp. SLRV pro-
duces two coat proteins, and both proteins, as well as the precursor of the two proteins, were ex-
pressed in Nicotiana clevelandii. The inoculated leaves of all the transgenic plants became in-
fected; however, systemic invasion of the virus in these plants was only 39%, 32%, and 24% for
the small, large, and precursor proteins, respectively. When plants were challenged with SLRV
by using viruliferous nematodes, only plants with the large coat protein subunit became infected.
The plants expressing the small subunit or the precursor protein were not infected in the nema-
tode transmission tests.
The CP of ArMV was expressed in N. tabacum ‘Xanthi’ (Bertioli et al., 1991) and in N.
tabacum ‘White Burley’ (Steinkellner et al., 1992). Level of expression varied widely from 0.03%
to 0.8% of total plant soluble protein. The plants expressing the CP developed local lesions when
inoculated with ArMV but no systemic symptoms when inoculated with either virus particles or
viral RNA (Bertioli et al., 1992). The uninoculated leaves did contain virus as determined by bioas-
say but between one and two orders of magnitude less than that of control plants. When the trans-
genic plants were exposed to viruliferous field populations of Xiphinema diversicaudatum none
became infected, whereas many of the control plants did become infected systemically (Cooper et
al., 1994). The coat protein of ArMV has been inserted into strawberry (McNicol et al., 1997); how-
ever, the status of these plants with respect to virus resistance has not been published.
The coat protein gene of TomRSV, in both the sense and the antisense orientation, has been
incorporated into N. benthamiana and N. tabacum, a systemic and local lesion host, respectively.
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456 Martin
When the transgenic N. benthamiana lines were challenged with TomRSV, the reaction in the
transgenic plants ranged from complete resistance (16/166) to delayed symptom development or
a moderation of symptom severity. Of the completely resistant lines, seven had sense and nine had
antisense constructs. The CP was undetectable by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
in the lines carrying the CP sense constructs, and RNA levels were low or undetectable by North-
ern blot on resistant sense and antisense lines, suggesting an RNA-mediated resistance mecha-
nism. In the transgenic N. tabacum 2/16 lines were completely resistant and the remaining 14 de-
veloped local lesions ranging in number from similar to that of wild type to significantly fewer
lesions. TomRSV CP gene has also been transformed into grape (Scorza et al., 1996).
Raspberry bushy dwarf virus (RBDV) is the most serious virus disease of raspberry world-
wide. The virus is pollen-borne; thus vector control is not an option in managing this virus. There
is a single dominant resistance gene (Bu) to the common strain of RBDV that has been used
widely in breeding programs, especially in the United Kingdom. In 1984 a new strain of the virus
that overcomes the Bu resistance was identified in Europe (Barbara et al., 1984). In field situa-
tions, RBDV can spread through large plantings of susceptible cultivars in less than 6-years (Mar-
tin, 1998). Cultivars containing the Bu gene are not widely planted in the Pacific Northwest of
North America because of horticultural and fruit quality characteristics, and many growers are
opting for a 6-year replanting schedule rather than planting of resistant cultivars.
Groups in Scotland (Jones et al., 1998) and in the United States (Martin and Mathews, un-
published data) are developing engineered resistance to RBDV. The group in Scotland is working
with a resistance-breaking strain of RBDV. The CP gene in the positive and antisense orientation
and as a nontranslatable RNA as well as the putative polymerase gene in the positive sense ori-
entation were inserted into N. tabacum ‘Samsun’ and N. benthamiana. Most transgenic lines with
the three different constructs showed some resistance to RBDV. Some lines showed only 10–35%
the number of local lesions, but the virus titers based on ELISA readings were 65–94% of those
of the control plants. This finding suggests that the transformants may have some resistance to in-
fection but once an infection is established there is little or no resistance to virus multiplication.
This is similar to the work done with TMV coat protein (Powell-Abel et al., 1986). In other lines,
with CP gene in either positive or negative sense and with nontranslatable CP gene, ELISA val-
ues were reduced (0–74% of controls). Also, in some cases the inoculated leaves became infected
but there was an absence of symptoms in uninoculated leaves or a decrease in symptom severity.
Many of the transgenic lines also showed a decrease in symptom severity.
The group in Oregon is working with an S isolate (non-resistance-breaking) that they have
sequenced (Taylor and Martin, 1999). The CP gene, movement protein, three different mutations
of the movement protein, and nontranslatable RNA were transformed into ‘Meeker’ red raspberry
(Martin and Mathews, unpublished). Fifty transformants were produced for each construct. Plants
were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of the inserted genes and five
plants with each construct tested for copy number by Southern hybridization tests. In early graft-
ing experiments, 47 of the 153 plants tested to date remained free of the virus after being grafted
twice with a RBDV source. These plants are now being evaluated in field experiments for fruit
quality, yield, and field resistance to RBDV.
VI. FUNGAL RESISTANCE
One of the most important fungal diseases of Rubus and Fragaria spp. is gray mold caused by
Botrytis cineria. Gray mold is difficult to control because it has a very broad host range and there
is inoculum present during the entire growing season. Also, there is not a good source of resis-
tance available to breeders to work with in their programs. Under favorable conditions for infec-
tion by Botrytis sp. growers must spray their crops frequently to control this disease. In addition,
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the fungus has developed resistance to a number of chemicals commonly used in control pro-
grams. Cultural practices to thin the canopy and increase air movement can reduce disease inci-
dence, but when weather conditions are ideal, chemical control is the only successful means to
control this disease. Any form of resistance that can be developed through genetic engineering to
help control Botrytis sp. would be of great utility. It is unlikely that a genetic engineering solu-
tion will be successful on its own, but it could be a very important part of an integrated approach
to control Botrytis sp.
Polygalacturonase inhibiting protein (PGIP) has been used in strawberry and respberry in
attempts to develop some level of resistance to Botrytis sp. (Ramanathan et al., 1995; Mathews et
al., 1995). Several companies are working with antifungal strategies in strawberry, but the details
are not public knowledge at this time. They are trying to engineer resistance to several different
fungi, including Verticillium, Colletrotrichum, and Fusarium sp. (APHIS website). Some of the
strategies are making use of chitinases, glucanases, PGIP, and possibly other methods. Agritope
Inc. (Portland, OR) is working with S-adensylmethionine hydrolase gene to affect fruit softening
(Mathews et al., 1995). If this does impact fruit softening it should decrease susceptibility to
Botrytis sp.
Chitinases, glucanases, and ribosome inhibiting proteins (RIPs) have been quite successful
in other crops (Punja and Zhang, 1993; Jach et al., 1995) and therefore should increase fungal re-
sistance in strawberry and Rubus sp. Each of these genes conferred some level of resistance to in-
fection with Rhizoctonia solani in barley (Jach et al., 1995). Combining chitinases and glucanases
or chitinase with RIP increased the levels of resistance obtained (Jach et al., 1995).
The chitinases should have an effect against a wide range of fungi in the ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes since their cell walls contain large amounts of chitin. It is unlikely, however, that
this strategy would be effective against Phytophthora sp. root rot, which is a serious problem in
Rubus sp. and strawberries.
VII. FRUIT QUALITY
After disease and pest resistance most efforts at genetic engineering of plants are designed to im-
prove quality aspects of the crop (APHIS website). In strawberry and Rubus sp., several different
transgenic strategies have been employed to improve fruit quality. When S-adensylmethionine
hydrolase (SAMase) was incorporated into tomato the results were reduced ethylene production
and extended shelf life (Good et al., 1994). The same strategy has been applied to raspberry and
strawberry for increasing the postharvest shelf life of these fruits. SAMase has been incorporated
into ‘Totem’ strawberry and ‘Meeker,’ ‘Chilliwack,’ and ‘Canby’ red raspberry (Mathews et al.,
1995). Though strawberry and raspberry are not considered typical climacteric fruit (Kader,
1991), there is evidence indicating that the removal of ethylene could reduce decay in fresh
berries. Treatment of ‘Chandler’ strawberry with ethylene absorbant resulted in increased firm-
ness and reduced colonization by fungi from 26.3% to 10% (De la Plaza and Merodia, 1989). The
application of ethylene to green fruit of raspberry enhances the rate of fruit ripening (Iannetta et
al., 1998).
The incorporation of PGIP into strawberry and raspberry (Mathews et al., 1995; Ra-
manathan et al., 1995) to increase fruit firmness is supported by the increase in polygalacturonase
activity during ripening of raspberry fruit (Iannetta et al., 1998; Jones et al., 1998). The effect on
fruit quality as a result of incorporating the PGIP into these fruits has not been reported. This is
similar to the strategy that was used on the first genetically modified fruit, the ‘FlavrSavr’ tomato
produced by Calgene Inc. In the case of the tomato, an insert to transcribe an antisense RNA to
the polygalacturonase was used to reduce the level of the polygalacturonase activity in the fruit
and delay fruit softening during the ripening process.
www.taq.ir
458 Martin
Invertase converts sucrose to glucose and fructose. The invertase genes from potato, both
cell wall and vacuolar forms, have been incorporated into ‘Symphony’ and ‘Senga Sengana’
strawberries (Bachelier et al., 1997). The cell wall form is thought to be involved in unloading of
sucrose from the phloem and control assimilation at the various sinks including fruit. The vacuo-
lar form may be involved in converting sucrose to hexoses within a cell and modifying the os-
motic potential within a cell and the turgor pressure within the fruit. The goal is to be able to mod-
ify the balance of sugars within fruit to improve flavor and processing quality. The results of the
use of the invertase gene on the strawberry fruit have not yet been reported.
VIII. GENOMICS
A. Gene Discovery
Many of the genes used for disease and pest resistance, with the exception of the viral genes, have
been adopted from work done on other crops. The use of “off the shelf” genes makes the devel-
opment of transgenic plants a much easier task and, in the case of disease and pest resistance, is
a very useful approach. When trying to modify fruit quality parameters it is necessary to know
which genes are expressed in the fruit of interest and at which stage of fruit maturation the vari-
ous genes are expressed. In some cases, the genes of interest will have homologues that have been
characterized from other crops, and these genes may be quite useful (e.g., PGIP and SAMase). In
other cases the best genes available for modifying fruit maturation, flavor, texture, processing
qualities, and other characteristics, will be derived from the crop whose fruit is being modified.
Jones and associates (1998) have identified 20 genes that are upregulated during fruit ripen-
ing in ‘Glen Clova’ red raspberry. These genes have a range of functions ranging from cell wall
hydrolysis (polygalacturonase and pectin methyl esterase) to ethylene formation (1-aminocyclo-
propane-1-carboxylic acid oxidase), a protease inhibitor, latexlike protein, metallothioneinlike
protein, and genes with unknown functions. A low-molecular-weight heat shock protein appears
to be expressed at elevated levels in the achenes during seed maturation and in the receptacle at
the W2 stage during which most changes occur that lead to fruit ripening (Medina-Escobar et al.,
1998). The function of any of this heat shock protein during fruit ripening is unknown, but its im-
portance as well as that of other isolated genes can be elucidated through transgenic technologies.
In the very near future, the entire genome of Arabidopsis sp. will be sequenced; however, it may
take much longer for function to be assigned to many of the sequenced genes. As gene functions
are elucidated, it may be possible to isolate homologous genes from strawberry and raspberry.
Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers closely linked to genes controlling
traits of interest are being used to assist in selection for difficult to screen traits (Melenbacher,
1995; Antonius-Klemola, 1999).
B. Promoters
Most transgenes in strawberry and Rubus sp. that have been expressed to date were placed behind
the 35S promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus. Tissue-specific promoters will be required when
trying to modify fruit characteristics and would be desirable for many pest and disease resistance
traits as well. When engineering resistance to Phytophthora fragariae var. rubi, nematodes, or
nematode-borne viruses in raspberry it is only necessary to have the traits expressed in the root
tissue. Resistance to aphid-borne viruses need only be expressed in the tops of plants, and resis-
tance to RBDV, a pollen-borne virus, need be expressed only in flowers. The fruit-specific pro-
moter E4 was used to drive the SAMase gene incorporated into raspberry and strawberry (Math-
ews et al., 1995). Wound-specific promoters would be ideal for genes that control feeding by
chewing insects provided the response time is sufficient to effect the insect.
www.taq.ir
C. Gene Flow
For many of the agronomic crops grown in the United States and Canada there are no sexually
compatible relatives in the native flora. This greatly reduces the problems with gene flow into na-
tive vegetation that may increase the weediness or invasiveness of native relatives. With straw-
berry and Rubus spp. there are sexually compatible native relatives in most growing regions.
Thus, we can expect that transgenes introduced into these crops will make their way into native
species over time (Luby and McNicol, 1995; Hokanson et al., 1997). Gene flow to native relatives
may not happen in a few years, but once transgenic plants are released into the environment the
process begins. We may not detect any movement of genes to native populations, but unless there
is a readily visible marker the likelihood of finding a rare outcrossing is small (Luby and McNi-
col, 1995). The real task for risk assessment is to do our best to evaluate the impact of a gene in
the native vegetation, since in these crops it is very likely the genes will make their way to the na-
tive relatives. The first points to consider are, Does the trait exist in the environment already, and,
if so, what do we know about its impact? ‘Willamette’ was the major red raspberry cultivar grown
in the Pacific Northwest from the mid-1940s to about 1990. This cultivar has the Bu gene for
RBDV resistance, which gives us a considerable history with this trait. Aphid resistance in red
raspberry has been used extensively in the breeding program in British Columbia, again giving
some experience with this trait. Also, aphid resistance has been identified in R. strigosus, the na-
tive red raspberry in North America, which means this trait has been in the native vegetation for
many, many years. Often we will not have any direct experience from native species or from con-
ventionally bred cultivars with a trait that we are dealing with in transgenic plants. Many Rubus
species are very invasive and difficult to control, and, therefore, herbicide resistance may not be
a suitable trait to incorporate into raspberry or blackberry (Traynor and Westwood, 1999).
At a 1999 conference on the ecological effects of pest resistance genes in managed ecosys-
tems it was concluded that the genetically engineered pest resistance traits currently being field
tested or commercially released present no fundamental differences, with regard to ecological
risks, from similar traits bred into crops through conventional breeding (Traynor and Westwood,
1999). There was also agreement that crops engineered with multiple pest resistances present
more complex ecological questions. Continued discussions among ecologists, environmentalists,
weed scientists, horticulturists, entomologists, pathologists, and concerned citizens will be
needed to evaluate the ecological risks associated with each generation of transgenic plants that
is developed. Food safety issues are dealt with by the Food and Drug Administration and the U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture in the United States and equivalent agencies in other countries. Public per-
ception and acceptance of transgenic crops are difficult to predict. At the present time public per-
ception in Canada and the United States is much more favorable to transgenic foods than in any
other part of the world. An unbiased explanation of relative risks needs to be presented to the pub-
lic. Who should do this is unclear, but it should not be left to the companies that are developing
the transgenic foods as their credibility will be questioned since they have a biased interest in the
products. Universities and government agencies are the likely candidates to develop and present
the information to the public, but at the present time this work is sorely lacking.
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32
Progress in Asparagus Biotechnology
Amnon Levi
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Charleston, South Carolina
Kenneth C. Sink
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
I. INTRODUCTION 465
II. SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS IN ASPARAGUS 466
III. HAPLOID EMBRYOS THROUGH ANTHER CULTURE 469
IV. GENETIC TRANSFORMATION OF ASPARAGUS 470
V. ASPARAGUS PROTOPLASTS 470
REFERENCES 471
I. INTRODUCTION
Asparagus officinalis L. is considered one of the oldest garden vegetable plants and is a crop with
high value now grown worldwide. In 1990, there were over 140,000 ha of asparagus worldwide
(49). In recent years there has been an increased demand for green fresh asparagus year round,
particularly in affluent countries in the Northern Hemisphere (49). Asparagus officinalis L. is a
native European-Siberian continental plant. The northeast Mediterranean is its center of origin,
where it is well adapted to sandy soils (43). The genus Asparagus belongs to the Liliaceae fam-
ily. It comprises over 150 herbaceous and woody perennial species that thrive in the temperate
and tropical regions of the world. Among these species Asparagus officinalis L. is the only known
edible one (35). Asparagus officinalis L. is a herbaceous perennial monocot, and a cool season
plant for which 24°–29°C day and 13°–19°C night temperatures are optimal for productivity and
longevity (51). Young asparagus crowns establish a rhizome structure with a large root system and
stems. Each rhizome has a few lateral buds that develop into succulent fleshy shoots (spears). The
spears are triangular and comprise short internodes and lateral buds. Expansion of individual
spears occurs foremost at the base internode and then in successive internodes, resulting in dy-
namic growth of the spear into a 4- to 6-feet tall fern (51). Asparagus officinalis L. is a dioecious
species with male and female plants (sex ratio 1:1). The male flowers have perfect anthers and an
aborted ovary. The female flowers are smaller than those of male plants and have nonfunctional
anthers, a perfect ovary and style, and three stigmas. The asparagus fruit is a red berry at matu-
465
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466 Levi and Sink
rity and contains up to six small globular seeds. The seed is mostly endosperm tissue surround-
ing a small embryo (55).
Well-maintained asparagus fields can be productive for 20–25 years, producing annual
yields of 3000 pounds per acre. In recent years, asparagus yields have been declining significantly,
and asparagus fields are being removed after 8–12 years. In addition to the decreased productivity
and longevity of established plantings, reestablishment of asparagus in fields where it was previ-
ously grown is difficult. This difficulty is described as the “asparagus decline and replant syn-
drome” (25,34). The common soil-borne fungi Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium moniliforme
are considered the principal causes for the root and crown rot diseases that result in the decline of
asparagus fields (7,25). Therefore, the development of varieties with resistance to Fusarium spp.
is a primary objective in asparagus breeding. Grogan and Kimble (23) found one asparagus line
with limited tolerance to fusarium. Takatori and Souther (59) in California and Ellison (16) in New
Jersey also screened asparagus accessions but could not find any accession with fusarium resis-
tance. Stephens and coworkers (57) screened 90 cultivars and breeding lines for resistance to fusar-
ium and found one cultivar, ‘Lucullus 234,’ that has resistance to F. oxysporum and F. moniliforme.
At present only two ornamental species, Asparagus densiflorus (Kanto) jessop (cvs.) ‘Sprengerii,’
and A. plumosus, have been found to be highly resistant to F. oxysporum and F. moniliforme
(40,57). However, both species are sexually incompatible with A. officinalis (16).
Asparagus has breeding impediments caused by its dioecious reproductive mode and its na-
ture as a perennial grass with a long life cycle. Asparagus plants begin to yield after 4 to 5 years
in the field, whereas the average harvesting period is about 10–15 years. Therefore, the develop-
ment of new cultivars by traditional breeding procedures requires many years (16).
A primary breeding goal is to increase genetic uniformity of asparagus crowns combined
with high productivity and longevity. The production of double haploid plants through polyem-
bryonic seeds or anther culture is currently the only avenue to obtain pure line plants that can be
used for further breeding and production of uniform hybrid lines (14). Thus, in recent years, many
attempts have been made to establish an anther culture system for asparagus.
Further confounding breeding efforts is the situation that there are major differences in the
growth pattern of asparagus female versus male plants. Male plants produce a larger number of
spears and have greater longevity than females. Furthermore, male plants do not manifest
seedlings that may harbor diseases and compete with the crowns that are already established in
the field. Thus, there is a great interest in the development of all-male varieties. The sexual mode
in asparagus is controlled by a single gene. The female plants are homozygous mm, whereas the
male plants are Mm (42). Therefore, double haploid plants originated through polyembryonic
seeds or anther culture should be homozygous female (mm) or supermale (MM) plants. Such
plants can be used for further breeding and production of genetically uniform male hybrid (Mm)
plants (14).
II. SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS IN ASPARAGUS
Asparagus has a low propagation rate using traditional methods. Experiments in dividing mature
crowns and in establishing rooted cuttings have had only limited success (1). Yang and Clore
(64–66) developed a procedure for propagating aerial crowns of asparagus stems in potted plants
kept under high moisture. After enlargement, shoots and roots are formed and are separated man-
ually to form new plants. However, this technique is slow and not practical for mass propagation.
Conversely, tissue culture techniques developed for the multiplication and rooting of asparagus
plants in vitro resulted in greater efficiencies (6,26,54,62,64–66). Furthermore, the production of
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Progress in Asparagus Biotechnology 467
clonal plants through somatic embryogenesis is estimated to be at least 5- to 10-fold higher in

comparison to in vitro propagation of adventitious shoots.
Somatic embryogenesis in asparagus can be used as a tool for rapid production of elite as-
paragus crowns, selected hybrid varieties, and buildup of the parents of such hybrids. It can also
be useful for clonal propagation of double haploid plants that may be used as parents of F1 hy-
brids (14). As in other plant species, and in monocots in particular, the development of a repro-
ducible somatic embryogenesis system is an essential step for the genetic transformation of as-
paragus with valuable genes.
Asparagus was the first monocotyledonous species to be reported for successful formation
of somatic embryos in vitro (63). In this primary study, hypocotyl-derived callus formed a large
number of globular embryos when placed on Linsmaier and Skoog (41) (LS) basal medium + 2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (1 mg/l) and kinetin (0.3 mg/l). The embryos differentiated
in liquid suspension of the same composition, and after the removal of the growth regulators the
embryos germinated shoots and roots. Additional studies were devoted to the development and
efficiency of somatic embryogenesis systems in asparagus. Steward and Mapes (58) reported the
formation of somatic embryos from asparagus stem segments. The segments were induced to
form callus in White’s liquid medium supplemented with coconut milk (10%) and naphthalene
acetic acid (NAA) followed by replacement of NAA with 2,4-D. The callus was induced to form
embryos by being placed in high-salt medium supplemented with NAA. The embryos were in-
duced to form shoot and root primordia upon their transfer to medium supplemented with coconut
milk and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Reuther (53) reported that callus derived from shoot tips and
shoot segment–derived callus, formed on LS + NAA (1 mg/l) and kinetin (1 mg/l), could give rise
to somatic embryos when transferred to LS + IAA (1 mg/l) + benzyladenine (BA) (0.1 mg/l). Sub-
sequently, the embryos developed into plants when transferred to LS, or to LS + IAA (0.5 mg/l).
In our study (37) we observed that somatic embryogenesis in asparagus can take place
when using various explants and media. Spear cross sections, in vitro crowns, and lateral buds
were all suitable explants for the initiation of embryogenic callus. When cultured on MS medium
+ NAA (0.1 mg/l) + kinetin (0.01 mg/l), the crowns established in vitro and the lateral buds oc-
casionally formed new shoots and roots. These were accompanied with the formation of a yel-
lowish, friable embryogenic callus. After two subcultures, at 4-week intervals, the calli were
transferred to embryo induction medium of MS + 2,4-D or NAA + kinetin (0–10 mg/l). After 4
weeks calli were transferred to embryo development medium MS + NAA (0.1 mg/l) and kinetin
(0.01 mg/l). The results in this study implied that NAA (0.3–10 mg/l) was sufficient for the in-
duction of asparagus somatic embryos in callus derived from lateral buds or from crowns estab-
lished in vitro. The use of 2,4-D resulted in a vigorous induction of embryonic callus as compared
with that produced with NAA. On the other hand, induction with NAA resulted in a higher num-
ber of normal embryos that could germinate into plants. Embryos developed and converted to
plants within 4 weeks on MS + NAA (0.01 mg/l) and kinetin (0.1 mg/l) (37,38). Saito and asso-
ciates (56) also examined the use of NAA versus 2,4-D for the induction of embryogenic callus
from asparagus epicotyls. In their study, 2,4-D was preferred since it induced callus with a higher
number of embryos when compared with NAA. Saito and coworkers (56) also reported that the
use of medium containing Gelrite and flasks with ventilative filters (as compared with aluminum
foil) was most favorable with respect to embryo desiccation and conversion to plants. In our study
(36) we found that carbohydrate source and concentration had a marked effect on the formation
and development of asparagus somatic embryos. Sucrose, fructose, or glucose levels of 5–6%
were optimal for the development of asparagus somatic embryos; transfer of embryos to medium
with a lower sugar level of 2% promoted embryo conversion to plants.
In another study (39), we examined the production of asparagus somatic embryos through
suspension cultures (Fig. 1). Also, we examined the effect of carbohydrate source and concentra-
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468 Levi and Sink
Figure 1 (A) Bipolar asparagus somatic embryo in suspension culture (MS + 10 mg/l NAA). (B) As-
paragus somatic embryo germinating on MS medium containing 2% sucrose, following transfer from MS
medium that contained 8% sucrose. (C) Somatic embryo–derived plants in a field trial.
tion on conversion of the embryos to plants. Callus derived from stems of an elite asparagus
crown was used for the establishment of embryo suspension cultures in liquid MS + NAA (10–20
mg/l). Subsequently, the development and conversion of embryos to plants were enhanced two-
to four fold, after transfer of embryos from suspension to solid MS with high carbohydrate levels
(4–10%), for 2 weeks, followed by transfer of the embryos to solidified MS with a low carbohy-
drate level (2%). These results implied that asparagus somatic embryos require high carbohydrate
levels during their formation and maturation and a lower carbohydrate level (2%) for rapid de-
velopment of the embryo to plant. Using this protocol a few hundred plants of asparagus male
line (M.S.U. 88-10) were produced through embryo suspension culture and were successfully
transplanted to the field.
Odake and coworkers (50) also examined the production of asparagus embryos through
suspension culture. In their study the combination of NAA (3 mg/l) + kinetin (1 mg/l) was solely
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used for the induction and maintenance of embryonic cultures. Their study implied that full-
strength MS medium was most effective for embryo induction, whereas half-strength MS was
more suitable for embryo conversion and development to plants. Cytological examination of 33
embryo-derived plants revealed that most of them (over 90%) were tetraploids. In this case the
donor plant was a diploid. The authors considered the possibility that the continuous use of
growth regulators in the medium caused chromosome doubling.
Kohmura and associates (31) induced the formation of embryogenic callus from bud clus-
ters. This callus was derived through sequential subcultures on MS medium + 10 mg/l ancymi-
dol, followed by placement on LS + 0.2 mg/l 2,4-D. Upon transfer to liquid medium free of
growth regulators the embryos developed an elongated shape. After transfer to solid medium the
mature embryos developed into plants. The authors successfully transplanted to the field over
2000 plants derived from such somatic embryos. Cytological examination of these plants indi-
cated a normal chromosome number (2n = 2x = 20).
Somatic embryogenic systems in asparagus provide a useful tool for rapid propagation of
asparagus elite crowns and for the tissue culture component for genetic transformation with genes
of valuable agronomic traits. The literature indicates somatic embryogenic systems in asparagus
can be established with various explant types and medium conditions. However, lateral buds and
in vitro established crowns were most suitable explants for initial embryogenic callus.
Conversion rate of embryos to plants is a limiting step. The use of 1) MS (48) or LS medium
(41) containing Gelrite and 5–6% sucrose in flasks with aeration filters (as compared with alu-
minum foil) should be most favorable with respect to embryo desiccation. Half-strength MS or
LS medium with a low carbohydrate level (2%) should be favorable for conversion of embryos to
plants (31).
III. HAPLOID EMBRYOS THROUGH ANTHER CULTURE
The development of haploid asparagus plants through anther culture can significantly enhance the
development of all-male hybrid varieties and supermales (MM) that are highly valuable in as-
paragus breeding programs, as well as the development of double haploids that can be used for
the production of genetically and phenotypically uniform hybrid lines. Hsu and colleagues
(29,30) reported the development of haploid plants from anther culture. In their study less than
2% of anthers produced embryogenic calli. Feng and Wolyn (19) developed an improved method
for obtaining a high frequency of haploid asparagus embryos through anther culture. Anthers
were placed on MS + casein hydrolysate (500 mg/l), glutamine (800 mg/l), NAA (2 mg/l), BA (1
mg/l), and sucrose (5%) at 32°C in the dark for 3–4 weeks. Calli and embryos were transferred
to MS + sucrose (6%), NAA (0.1 mg/l) and kinetin (0.1 mg/l), and ancymidol (0.65 mg/l) for mat-
uration at 25°C. More than 50% of mature embryos germinated on MS + GA3. Their procedure
yielded about 50 haploid plants per 100 anthers. They observed that high temperature was criti-
cal for the induction of embryogenic callus and that anthers with microspores at the late-uninu-
cleate stage produced the highest frequency of embryogenic calli. In a related study, Feng and
Wolyn (20) developed a procedure for production of haploid asparagus embryos from liquid cul-
tures of anther-derived calli by using the growth retardant ancymidol. The same authors also re-
ported the recovery of haploid plants from asparagus microspore culture, which increases the ef-
ficiency of the haploid production procedure and decreases chimeric plants that may derive from
anther culture (20). The production and use of all-male hybrids derived from anther culture are
becoming essential and integral parts of asparagus breeding programs. Such hybrids are highly
productive and more uniform than those derived from heterozygous clones (18).
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470 Levi and Sink
IV. GENETIC TRANSFORMATION OF ASPARAGUS
Agrobacterium tumefaciens has the ability to attach to asparagus cells (15,60), and asparagus ex-
hibits a wound response after inoculation with Agrobacterium sp. (24). Asparagus officinalis was
the first monocotyledonous plant to be reported for the successful formation of hormone-inde-
pendent and opine-producing crown gall tissue (27). In their experiment the authors inoculated
sections of young asparagus spears with the A. tumefaciens oncogenic strain C58. The infected
explants were cultured on MS + NAA and BA (1 mg/l) and cefotaxime (500 mg/l). After 4 weeks,
calluses that proliferated from inoculation sites were placed on basal medium. About 10% of the
callus colonies (mainly those that originated from the upper portion of a young spear) continued
to proliferate on the basal medium, giving rise to a hormone-free callus. A few of these hormone-
free calli were tested and found to contain opines, in contrast with the control colonies. This ex-
periment confirmed the first successful genetic transformation of a monocotyledonous plant using
A. tumefaciens. Using Southern analysis Bytebier and coworkers (4) showed complete integra-
tion of transfer deoxyribonucleic acid (T-DNA) in the Asparagus officinalis genome. This pro-
vided the first molecular evidence for the integration of T-DNA in a monocotyledonous plant.
Conner and coworkers (8) tested 4 A. tumefaciens oncogenic strains (A4T, A281, A722, and C58)
against 17 genotypes of Asparagus officinalis. Only strain C58 induced tumor formation, and
only 3 of the 17 asparagus genotypes (‘Violet of Albenga,’ ‘Limbras 18,’ ‘Roem Van Brunswijk’)
had tumors containing nopaline. This result occurred exclusively in response to strain C58. After
7 months on selection medium containing kanamycin, calli were formed on 3 of 125 explants.
These calli retained kanamycin resistance and produced nopline after subculture on kanamycin
selection medium. One callus retained kanamycin resistance and nopline synthesis for 18 months.
Shoots that were regenerated from this callus also produced nopline and retained kanamycin re-
sistance. Southern analysis confirmed that the kanamycin resistance gene had been integrated into
the asparagus genome. In further studies, using the A. tumefaciens strain C58, Prinsen and asso-
ciates (52) investigated the levels of endogenous auxin (IAA) and cytokinins in asparagus crown
gall cells grown on medium free of growth regulators. They detected no increase in IAA but a sig-
nificant increase in cytokinins in tumor cell lines as compared with untransformed callus.
Delbreil and colleagues (10) examined long-term embryogenic callus as a target for
agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation. The results showed a relatively low transforma-
tion frequency. However, use of a large number of embryos can compensate for the low transfor-
mation efficiency. The results indicated that elongated embryos were more receptive to transfor-
mation than globular embryos.
At present there has been only one report of direct gene-mediated transformation in as-
paragus. This was through electroporation of plasmid into callus-derived protoplasts (45–47).
Heat shock treatment and the presence of polyethylene glycol in the electroporation solution en-
hanced transient GUS expression in the protoplasts. The electroporated protoplasts formed
kanamycin-resistant calluses with positive GUS expression.
V. ASPARAGUS PROTOPLASTS
Protoplasts of asparagus were among the earliest of plant species to be studied. Bui-Dang-Ha and
Mackenzie (2) in the first report on the genus isolated protoplasts from cladodes of cv. ‘Marche
de Malines’ and cultured them in MS + NAA and zeatin. Only about 4% of the alive protoplasts
at day 7 divided once; sometimes division was not noted until day 17. Glutamine at 1000 mg/l
was found critical to sustained division. Small colonies formed that were transferred to solid MS
and regenerated roots on NAA + zeatin, or shoots when zeatin was replaced with BA together
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with 40 mg/l adenine. However, when Bui-Dang-Ha and coworkers (3) used the undifferentiated
protocalli in further experiments, whole plants were obtained via a somatic embryogenic route.
Such calli cultured on media with a high cytokinin to auxin ratio (zeatin : NAA) or on one of equal
molarity (BA : NAA) formed new friable tissues that contained embryos at various developmen-
tal stages. Only a few plants were obtained after transfer of the embryoids to solid or semiliquid
media containing IAA and zeatin.
Subsequent studies concentrated on increasing the plating efficiency (PE), media regime,
and genotypes to allow asparagus to be an efficient system. Kong and Chin (32) used seedling-
derived callus as a source of protoplasts and by droplet culture in liquid media or agarose droplets
on porous polypropylene membranes increased PE to about 10%. Plants were regenerated via
organogenesis by a two-step scheme using both a cytokinin and an auxin at each step with an-
cymidol in the last step to promote rooting. In an attempt to use mature asparagus plants in a pro-
toplast scheme, Elmer and colleagues (17) initiated callus of four genotypes on MS containing
auxins and a cytokinin, subcultured the calli, and cultured the isolated protoplasts in a modified
liquid Kao and Michayluk (KM) medium. PE was 6–7%, and only one genotype sustained divi-
sion past 8 weeks to form microcalli and eventually regenerate via organogenesis. Kunitake and
Mii (33) used embryogenic calli as the donor cells for isolating protoplasts and after liquid cul-
ture for 30 days; after growth on gellan gum solidified MS + 2,4-D callus was produced. The cal-
lus was subsequently converted to somatic embryos that germinated into plantlets at a 30–40%
rate. Dan and Stephens (9) used cv.’Lucullus 234’ and cultured callus-derived protoplasts in KM
medium solidified with agarose; a PE of 19% was obtained and plants were regenerated via
organogensis. Chen and associate (5) combined isolated protoplasts from in vitro grown etiolated
shoots, agarose culture with an asparagus cell feeder layer, and regeneration by embryogenesis.
A PE of 20% was obtained and about 25% of the colonies produced somatic embryos, of which
20% yielded plants, which were found to be diploids.
In summary, the key biotechniques are established for asparagus, but modification of pro-
tocols for all of them still seems necessary for success with particular genotypes (44). Breeding
of asparagus may be reaching a plateau in terms of increasing yield, and incorporating single-
gene-based traits is difficult if not impossible through traditional breeding schemes. Thus, intro-
duction of transgenes will play a key role in the future development of new cultivars. Indeed,
genes having potential for beetle, virus, and herbicide resistances are on hand as well as some that
would increase product quality. The remaining question is whether these new traits will be intro-
duced more effectively to growers through cloned or seed-produced hybrids.
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33
Generation of Transgenic Bean
(Phaseolus species) Plants for
Improvement of Nutritional Quality
Jae-Whune Kim
Microplants Co., Ltd., Chollabukdo, Korea
Chee H. Harn
Biotechnology Center, Nong Woo Bio Co., Ltd., Kyonggi-do, Korea
I. INTRODUCTION 475
II. TISSUE CULTURE OF BEANS 476
III. METHODS FOR TRANSFORMATION OF BEANS 477
B. Direct Gene Transfer 478
C. Particle Bombardment 478
IV. IMPROVEMENT OF THE NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF BEAN SEEDS
BY GENE TRANSFER 479
V. CONCLUSIONS 482
REFERENCES 482
I. INTRODUCTION
Legume seeds contain a large amount of storage protein and are one of the essential food sources
for humans and animals. Soybean provides a key nutritional food supply for Asian countries and
peas are an important food for African and Latin American countries (1). Like soybeans and peas,
beans such as French, common, garden, kidney, and snap are also important food sources on a
worldwide basis and their genetic stock, favored for dry seeds, constitutes about 30% of the total
world legume production.
The major cultivated representative of the bean is Phaseolus vulgaris L. Over a period of at
least 7000 to 8000 years beans have evolved from wild growing vines distributed in the highlands
of Middle America and the Andes into a major leguminous food crop, grown worldwide in a
broad range of environments and cropping systems (2,3). Beans are rich in proteins, complex car-
bohydrates, and dietary fibers, especially water-soluble fibers. They are low in fat and sodium and
475
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476 Kim and Harn
contain no cholesterol. Recently, the bean plant has become a target plant for genetic engineering
through possible modification of the seed composition. Both qualitative and quantitative im-
provement of the seed components is possible by engineering biochemical pathways of protein,
fat, and starch biosynthesis and/or by increasing resistance to insects, various pathogens, and
broad-spectrum herbicides.
Tissue culture systems for bean plants have been extensively studied. Bean plants have been
recovered from tissue cultures of both apical and axillary meristems (4,5). However, success in
inducing organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis has been limited. Therefore, regeneration
after gene transfer into beans has not been feasible. We review regeneration techniques and trans-
formation protocols for beans and also discuss current strategies to improve the nutritional qual-
ity of seeds.
II. TISSUE CULTURE OF BEANS
It is important to have a proper regeneration system by which transformed cells containing one
or more foreign genes grow into explants using proper media. Several groups have been working
on bean regeneration by using different tissues and methods. Martins and Sondahl (6) used the
shoot apex with three to four leaf primordia of 1- to 2-mm length from 7-day-old seedlings of 33
bean cultivars to establish primary cultures on B5 medium containing 0.05 µM benzyladenine
(BA). These cultivars formed multiple buds during the primary culture. Allavena and Rossetti (4)
achieved micropropagation of apical and axillary explants of four different genotypes. Genotypic
differences were found with respect to multiple shoot formation on Murashige and Skoog (MS)
medium supplemented with combinations of BA and naphaleneacetic acid (NAA) after 28 days
of culture. McClean and Grafton (5) regenerated shoots from cotyledon and epicotyl nodal tissue
of 12- to 14-day-old seedlings on MS medium supplemented with 5 µM BA. Shoots were rooted
on B5 medium. Three-day-old seedling explants that contained a cotyledon and a small portion
of the embryonic axis split in half were regenerated. A compact, shiny light-green-colored meris-
tematic ring appeared at the base of the axillary bud. New buds were formed from this ring and
continued to produce shoots in the media containing vitamins, 1% sucrose, 2 µM BA, and 15 µM
GA3. For high-frequency shoot formation, intact bean seedling cultures were used to form ad-
ventitious shoots from tissues in the axillary bud region at the cotyledonary node and areas sur-
rounding the shoot apex of the seedlings (7). However, most of these methods used for shoot for-
mation are applicable only to tissues containing the meristem.
Organogenesis has been attempted for bean regeneration in our laboratory (8). Organogen-
esis was induced from the basal part of the excised embryonic axis (3 mm in length) with the api-
cal meristem of seeds staged at 3 to 5 days after germination. Multiple shoot formation was ob-
served from the excised embryonic axis on MS medium containing 2 µM BA after 4 weeks of
culture (Fig. 1). Regeneration was successful, with an efficiency of approximately 40%. This
method may also apply to other bean cultivars because it is easy to obtain multiple shoots from
the embryonic axis of seedlings.
Other approaches for regeneration of bean plants from callus and protoplast cultures have
also been attempted. Westhuizen and Groenewald (9) obtained callus growth and subsequent root
formation from bean radicles by using MS medium supplemented with combinations of auxins
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid ([2,4-D], NAA), cytokinins (kinetin, 2ip, BA), and GA3. A
method for isolation of protoplasts from the cotyledonary leaves of bean cultivars has also been
developed (10). They obtained viable green calli from protoplasts, but these calli could not re-
generate shoots. Despite many attempts, regeneration of bean plants from callus and protoplast
cultures has been unsuccessful.
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Generation of Transgenic Beans 477
Figure 1 Multiple shoots (arrowheads) induced from the basal part of the excised embryonic axis with
apical meristem (arrow) of seedling at 3 days after germination.
Somatic embryogenesis is also an alternative for bean regeneration. In vitro culture of glob-
ular and heart-shaped embryos has been attempted (11). Somatic embryos were replicated in the
manner of embryoids, but neither the shoot nor the root apex developed. So far, the many attempts
to regenerate plants from somatic embryos of beans have failed.
III. METHODS FOR TRANSFORMATION OF BEANS
Several protocols for bean transformation are now available, and these may be powerful enough
to complement traditional breeding programs for crop improvement (12,13). Transformation of
beans has been achieved by three methods: Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation,
electroporation, and particle bombardment.

Embryonic axes, hypocotyl, epicotyl, cotyledonary nodes, primary leaf nodes, and primary leaves
from bean seedlings were used as explants in transformation experiments in order to establish an
optimal routine protocol for Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation of beans. Mariotti
and coworkers (14) attempted to transform beans with Agrobacterium sp. LBA 4404 harboring
the vector pBI121 with the β-glucuronidase (GUS) report gene. Gene transfer was achieved by
cocultivation of the primary leaf node. They were able to produce some shoots that expressed
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478 Kim and Harn
kanamycin resistance and GUS gene activity. McClean and associates (15) developed a germi-
nating seed assay to determine the susceptibility of various bean genotypes to infection by dis-
armed Agrobacterium sp. that contained the NPTII gene between T-DNA borders of the binary
plasmid. From the infected tissues they obtained callus and root tissues that were capable of
growth in the presence of kanamycin, but transgenic plants did not regenerate. Lewis and Bliss
(16) stab-inoculated intact shoot tips of germinating bean seeds with Agrobacterium sp. They ob-
tained tumor formation and GUS gene expression in the meristem region. Stab inoculation is an
attractive method of transformation because it does not require tissue culture regeneration. It cre-
ates a wound site and exposes the interior cell layers of the meristem to Agrobacterium sp. The
addition of acetosyringone (100 µM) to the medium, which has been suggested to improve trans-
formation (17,18), yielded higher tumor proliferation in a number of cultivars. Becker and col-
leagues (19) transformed cotyledonary nodes and leaf nodes of bean cultivars with Agrobac-
terium sp. and compared different culture conditions in order to improve the efficacy of
transformation and regeneration of transformed plants. It was found that the selection medium
strongly influences the further growth of explants. Fifty milligrams of kanamycin inhibited
growth within only 3 weeks, and at higher kanamycin concentrations (100–200 mg/l) the mate-
rial survived for just 1 to 2 weeks. A general problem of these Agrobacterium species–mediated
transformation methods is the inability to regenerate explants after infection.
B. Direct Gene Transfer

Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated gene transfer coupling with electroporation has been ap-
plied to gene transformation directly from protoplast cultures of legumes. Leon and associates
(20) demonstrated transient gene expression of GUS and luciferase (LUC) by direct gene trans-
fer to protoplasts of bean cultivars by using electroporation treatment with PEG. They established
optimal conditions for the method. As an example, for electroporation the input voltage was var-
ied while the pulse length was kept constant at 12 ms and PEG 4000 was used in a buffer of 0.1
M Ca(NO3)2 and 0.4 M mannitol. Similar levels of expression were also obtained by electropo-
ration of protoplasts without PEG, suggesting that PEG is not an absolute requirement (21).
Dillen and associates (22) used electroporation-mediated transformation to deliver DNA into in-
tact seedling tissues of several cultivars. Transient gene expression was achieved in hypocotyl and
epicotyl tissue and occurred in sectors of variable size. None of these studies was successful in
producing transgenic bean plants. It seems that the foreign gene must enter the bean meristem tis-
sue cells in order to produce transgenic plants.
C. Particle Bombardment
Gene transfer by particle bombardment with DNA-coated particles is a rapid and simple means
of transforming intact cells. This method has been widely used to introduce foreign DNA into
plant cells (23,24). Successful transformation of bean plants by particle bombardment has been
limited because systems for the regeneration of whole plants from transformed cells have not
been developed. The efficiency of gene delivery by bombardment has been tested by transient
GUS gene expression in cotyledons and embryonic axes of immature bean seeds (25). Approxi-
mately 60% of apical meristems showed at least one GUS-expressing unit after three treatments
of particle bombardment. However, stability of transformation and the capacity for regeneration
were not studied in this case. Aragao and coworkers (26) assessed the pressure of a helium shock
wave and the distance between the particle plate and the sample as they influence transient gene
expression by using a calcium spermidine procedure for coating gold particles with DNA. Rus-
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sell and colleagues (27) reported the production of stable transgenic bean plants using electric dis-
charge particle acceleration applied to embryonic axes and multiple shoot regeneration. Trans-
genic plants expressing GUS, herbicide, and virus resistance were recovered and maintained in
subsequent generations. The introduced bar gene was shown to confer strong resistance to trans-
genic beans against herbicide application in a greenhouse. The yield of transgenic plants was,
however, not more than 0.03% and the copy number of the transferred gene varied. Also, position
effects could not be excluded. Aragao and coworkers (28) bombarded mature bean embryos with
a methionine-rich 2S albumin gene from the Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa). Transient expres-
sion of the protein was detected by western blotting and chimeric tissues were obtained. How-
ever, stable transformants were not recovered. The bean was cotransformed by Aragao’s group by
using particle bombardment with the methionine-rich 2S gene isolated from Brazil nut and anti-
sense sequences of genes of the bean golden mosaic gemini virus. The linked genes were inher-
ited in a mendelian fashion, showing a high efficiency of transformation (up to 100%) (29).
A new approach that has been tested extensively is to use the embryonic axes of mature
seeds as target tissue for direct gene transfer using particle bombardment. Kim and Minamikawa
(30) attained stable bean transformation by this particle bombardment process. Various bom-
bardment conditions were tested by bombarding the shoot apical meristem of embryonic axes
with the plasmid carrying concanavalin A, the jackbean storage protein, with GUS (ConA::GUS)
gene coated particles. The most important factor for higher transient expression was the time of
bombardment. Longer bombardment time was the major cause of cell injury. A time of 0.015-sec-
onds in this device reduced injury from bombardment. After particle bombardment under optimal
conditions, the shoot apex of embryonic axes was cut in a cross-series section at 10-µm thickness
and the particle distribution was examined by light microscope (Fig. 2). Many particles were de-
livered into the shoot apex cells by the following optimization conditions: (a) pressure of helium
shock wave, 3 kgf/cm2; (b) distance between the particle plate and sample, 4 cm; (c) amount of
particles per bombardment, 0.05 mg; (d) amount of DNA per bombardment, 0.2 µg; and (e)
chamber vacuum, 600 mm Hg. The typical blue color indicated a successful delivery of the plas-
mid carrying concanavalin A and the GUS gene into bombarded cells of the shoot apex (Fig. 3A).
After 3 weeks of culture, embryonic axes developed into plantlets with two to three leaves (Fig.
3B). The regenerated plants flowered after 6 weeks in pots and subsequently produced seeds (Fig.
3C). GUS activity was observed in the cotyledons and seed coats but not in the pods of the trans-
genic plants (Fig. 3D). Also, stable expression of the canavalin and GUS fusion was examined in
transgenic bean seeds at maturation stages (31). GUS expression was positive in 40 of 54 seeds
collected from five transgenic plants analyzed. This developing technology was designed to cir-
cumvent problems of conventional tissue culture and plant regeneration.
IV. IMPROVEMENT OF THE NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF

BEAN SEEDS BY GENE TRANSFER
The development of transgenic plants with increased levels of nutrients may offer increased
health benefits. Sulfur deficiency caused a marked change in the relative content of seed storage
proteins in legumes (32). The sulfur deficiency resulted in a reduced level of a sulfur-rich protein
(33). These results indicate that the levels of methionine and cysteine in seeds influence the syn-
thesis of sulfur-rich proteins. Plants take up sulfur in the form of sulfate and convert it to sulfide
through adenosine-5⬘-phosphosulfate and sulfite (34). Cysteine is formed from sulfide and O-
acetylhomoserine and reacts with O-phosphohomoserine to generate cystathionine (35). Methio-
nine is formed from cystathionine via homocystathionine. An increase in the level of sulfur-con-
taining amino acids in seeds possibly induces the synthesis of a larger amount of sulfur-rich
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480 Kim and Harn
Figure 2 Shoot apex of embryonic axis was cut with cross-series section at 10-µm thickness and the dis-
tribution of particles was examined by light microscope. 10- to ⬃100-µm depth from the top of shoot apex.
proteins. However, the methionine content in phaseolin, a storage protein in bean, is much lower
than in other cereals (36). Production of a larger amount of methionine-rich proteins in the
bean seed would be expected to improve the nutritional quality of the seed protein. Control of
the regulation of methionine biosynthesis by manipulating the proteins in bean seeds increases
the methionine content in legume seed proteins. Phaseolin constitutes approximately 40% of the
total protein in the bean seeds but contains only three methionine residues (37). To improve the
nutritional quality of phaseolin, a modified phaseolin was synthesized by insertion of a 45-bp
oligonucleotide containing six methionine codons into the third exon of the phaseolin gene (38).
However, only a small amount of the modified phaseolin accumulated in the transgenic tobacco
seeds.
Analysis of the amino acid sequence of a 2S albumin in seeds of the Brazil nut revealed the
presence of 20% methionine residues (39). To increase the methionine content of the tobacco seed
protein, complementary DNA (cDNA) of the 2S albumin was ligated to the promoter region of
the phaseolin gene, and the chimeric gene was introduced into tobacco plants (40). The accumu-
lation of the 2S albumin resulted in a 30% increase in the methionine content of the transgenic
tobacco seeds. However, the Brazil nut 2S albumin was found to be an allergen (41). Therefore,
it may not be possible for humans and animals to utilize seeds in which the Brazil nut 2S albu-
min gene is expressed. Instead of 2S albumin, a 10-kDa albumin in sunflower seed can be used
because it is not an allergen (42) and contains 16% methionine residues (43).
Manipulation of the carbohydrate content in bean seed is also a possibility to improve nu-
tritional quality. About 61% of the total dry weight of bean seed is carbohydrate. Starch is the
major storage carbohydrate and is composed of the two glucose polymers linear amylose and
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Figure 3 GUS staining and plant regeneration after particle bombardment. (A) Transient GUS expression
in the embryonic axes after particle bombardment. Control, nonbombarded embryonic axis; pSOG, embry-
onic axis bombarded with concanavalin A plasmid-coated particles. Arrowheads point to shoot apexes. (B)
Plantlets recovered after 3 weeks of culture. (C) Plants regenerated from bombarded embryonic axes. (D)
Expression of the concanavalin A and GUS gene in a seed of transgenic bean plant. Co, cotyledon; Sc, seed
coat; Po, pod. Bars = 0.5 cm.
branched amylopectin, which are arranged into a highly ordered crystalline structure of starch
granules. Several enzymes, such as adenosine diphosphate (ADP) glucose pyrophosphorylase
(AGPase), starch synthase, starch branching enzyme, and starch debranching enzyme catalyze
chain elongation, branching, and trimming during the starch biosynthesis process. Providing that
sufficient metabolic precursors are present, significant increases in starch levels should be possi-
ble by controlling the expression of these enzymes. Much of this work has been done with
AGPase. Elevated levels of AGPase increased starch yields in potato tuber up to 30% (44). Con-
versely, transgenic potato plants transformed with AGPase cDNA in the reverse orientation ex-
press little AGPase with 70% reduction of starch levels and increased sugars (45). This approach
in the long term will result in manipulations of starch yield and quality. Among legumes only pea
has been studied for characterization of isoforms of the specified enzymes. In view of the impor-
tance of bean corps as a major food source, modification of the carbohydrate composition of the
bean is foreseen.
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482 Kim and Harn
V. CONCLUSIONS
Various methods for plant regeneration and genetic transformation of the bean (Phaseolus vula-
garis) have been discussed in this chapter. Regeneration of bean plants is not an easy task and is
dependent mainly on the tissues selected for use. Induction of shoot formation of bean was
achieved by various explants of seedlings, such as axillary bud and shoot apex. One of the few
breakthroughs for regeneration was due to organogenesis of the embryonic axis. However, re-
generation attempts with callus and protoplast culture have not been successful. Since the use of
protoplast and callus is necessary for maintaining cultures and transformation, regeneration meth-
ods using these cultures should be improved. Although success in transformation has been lim-
ited, a major accomplishment for stable transformation of bean was obtained by particle bom-
bardment of the shoot apical meristem of embryonic axes. Since legumes are important crops for
food, manipulation of genes encoding value-added materials has the potential to change the com-
positions of seeds quantitatively and qualitatively. Genetically modified transgenic bean plants
would be of great benefit to humankind.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank Drs. T Minanikawa and D. Yamauchi for suggestions and technical help
to J. W. Kim. We also want to express our thanks to Microplants Co., Ltd., for financial support.
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sient gene expression in bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) using an electrical particle acceleration device.
Plant Cell Rep 12:483–490, 1993.
27. DR Russell, K Wallace, J Bathe, B Martinell, D McCabe. Stable transformation of Phaseolus vulgaris
via electric discharge mediated particle acceleration. Plant Cell Rep 12:165–169, 1993.
28. FJL Aragao, MF Grossi de Sa, ER Almeida, ES Gander, EL Rech. Particle bombardment–mediated
transient expression of a brazil nut methionine-rich albumin in bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Plant Mol
Biol 20:357–359, 1992.
29. FJL Aragao, LMG Barros, ACM Brasiliero, SG Ribeiro, FD Smith, JC Sanford, JC Faria, EL Rech. In-
heritance of foreign genes in transgenic bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) co-transformed via particle bom-
bardment. Theor Appl Genet 93:142–150, 1996.
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bardment process. Plant Sci 117:131–138, 1996.
31. JW Kim, T Minamikawa. Stable delivery of a concanavalin promoter-β-glucuronidase gene fusion into
French bean by particle bombardment. Plant Cell Physiol 38:71–75, 1997.
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221, 1984.
33. PM Chandler, TJV Higgins, PJ Randall, D Spencer. Regulation of legumin levels in developing pea
seeds under conditions of sulfur deficiency: Rates of legumin synthesis and levels of legumin mRNA.
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Mol Biol 43:325–349, 1992.
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36. D Yamauchi, T Minamikawa. Improvement of the nutritional quality of legume seed storage proteins
by molecular breeding. J Plant Res 111:1–6, 1998.
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Phaseolin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80:1897–1901, 1983.
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degraded in the seeds of transgenic plants. Plant Mol Biol 11:717–729, 1988.
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amino-acid sequence of the 2S sulphur rich proteins from seeds of Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa
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rich 2S protein from sunflower seed (Helianthus annuus L.). Eur J Biochem 195:329–334, 1991.
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34
Genetic Engineering of Beet and the
Concept of the Plant as a Factory
Robert Sévenier, Andries J. Koops, and Robert D. Hall

Plant Research International, Wageningen, The Netherlands
I. INTRODUCTION 485
A. The Sugar Beet Crop 485
B. Engineering Agronomic Traits 486
C. Biosafety Aspects 489
II. METHODOLOGIES TO ENGINEER SUGAR BEET 489
A. Agrobacterium Species 489
B. Particle Bombardment/Electroporation/Sonication 490
C. Guard Cell Protoplasts 490
III. SUGAR BEET AS A FACTORY: FRUCTAN PRODUCTION IN SUGAR BEET 491
A. Sugar Beet as a “Plant as a Factory” 491
B. The Fructans 492
C. Oligofructan Production in Sugar Beet 493
IV. CONCLUSIONS 498
REFERENCES 498
I. INTRODUCTION
A. The Sugar Beet Crop
Sugar beet is one of the 13 species of Beta (Chenopodiaceae). Like all other cultivated beets,
sugar beet belongs to the species Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris. Cultivated beets are derived most
probably from an ancestral maritime population (Beta vulgaris spp. maritima)(1).
Before the 19th century, the beet was cultivated for its leaves, which were used as a veg-
etable or as cattle feed; the roots were devoted to medicinal purposes (2). As a result of the Eu-
ropean political events of the end of the 18th century, the trade of cane sugar from overseas be-
came limited. As a consequence of these restrictions some previous work showing the presence
of sugar in the taproot of sugar beet was highlighted (3). In 1575, Olivier de Serres, a French
agronomist, noted the presence of sugar in the root of Beta vulgaris (3). In 1745, the German
chemist Marggraf extracted and solidified sucrose from sugar beet extracts. Forty years later,
these findings were resumed by Achard, who also developed sugar beet farming. His work re-
sulted in 1802 in the establishment of the first experimental sugar factory (3).
485
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486 Sévenier et al.
Since then the culture of sugar beet for the production of sucrose has expanded rapidly. In
1900, 9.6 million metric tons of sugar was produced, 54% extracted from sugar beet. In 1998, 125
million metric tons of sugar was extracted, one third from sugar beet. Sugar beet is grown in 55
countries throughout Europe, North America, and extensive areas of Asia on a total of 6.96 mil-
lion ha.
The sugar beet has a biennial growth habit. During the first year, the plant produces a rosette
of leaves sustained by a large fleshy taproot. Nowadays, sugar beet varieties can develop taproots
weighing 1 kg and composed of 18% sucrose (fresh weight) and yielding up to 15 tons sucrose
per hectare (4). In the second year, after a low-temperature/long-day exposure, the plants start
flowering. Flowers develop on the terminal ends of the main axis as well as on lateral branches.
These flowers, pollinated by wind, give rise to mono- or multigerm seeds.
B. Engineering Agronomic Traits

1. Genetic Engineering in the Framework of Classical Breeding
As sugar beet became a crop, breeding strategies led to a dramatic improvement in the sugar
content of the taproot, from 5% to 6% sucrose at the beginning of the 19th century, to ⫾20%
sucrose today (5,6). One of the objectives of sugar beet breeders is to improve these figures
even further. To allow the beet to express its potential fully, optimal conditions should be present
during the farming and harvesting of the taproot (5). Because this ideal situation is elusive,
genetic improvement will allow sugar beet to compensate for unfavorable conditions. The differ-
ent characteristics being targeted concern the seed production steps as well as taproot de-
velopment.
Almost all conventional beet production is based on triploid F1 hybrid varieties (1). Seed
is obtained by crossing tetraploid fertile plants with pollen-sterile cytoplasmic male sterility
(CMS), diploid plants from which the hybrid seed is later harvested.
The universal use of only one source of CMS leads to a very narrow cytoplasmic genetic
base (1,6). Two main methods have been studied for the purpose of broadening the source of cy-
toplasm useful for sugar beet breeding. Somaclonal variation should allow the creation of new cy-
toplasm as well as new genetic characteristics (6), and protoplast fusion could help save time dur-
ing the introduction of new cytoplasm in breeding schemes (1). As for other species clonal
micropropagation has been addressed with the aim of developing efficient methods for rapid mi-
cropropagation of valuable breeding lines (7). To facilitate the production of F1 hybrids, haploid
plant production was studied and was revealed to be useful but nevertheless laborious and not
very efficient (7).
Optimal conditions for taproot production would include resistance to important diseases
such as cercosporiosis, downy mildew, black rot, viruses, and rhizomania. Tolerance to herbicides
and environmental factors (cold, drought, and soil salinity) is also desirable. Classical breeding
techniques have been and are still being applied to improve sugar beet for these characteristics.
However, the process remains slow (7). Therefore, since the mid-1980s attempts have been made
to exploit biotechnological techniques. Although these new techniques have proved to be power-
ful tools for other species, their use appeared to be difficult for sugar beet (7).
Many efforts have been made to develop an efficient method of genetic transformation for
sugar beet, initially with little or no success (8). However, two main protocols are now routinely
used to obtain transgenic sugar beet (see Methodologies for technical details).
The main goals of the genetic engineering of sugar beet concern the development of herbi-
cide-tolerant sugar beet, development of sugar beet resistant to pests and diseases, and improve-
ment of sugar (beet) quality.
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Genetic Engineering of Beet 487
2. Herbicide-Tolerant Sugar Beet

Weeds in commercial sugar beet fields constitute a major problem, when not controlled, they
compete with sugar beet, thereby reducing yield (9). No single herbicide can effectively control
all weed species without inflicting some harm to the sugar beet crop (10,11). Weed control is
nowadays realized without major difficulty, but the programs are quite complex and comprise dif-
ferent pre- and postemergence applications of mixes of one to three different herbicide special-
ties (12). To achieve proper control of the weed population, farmers must spend time surveying
the development of the weeds and applying the herbicides. This necessity creates extra costs.
The culture of sugar beet varieties engineered for herbicide tolerance should overcome
these problems. It should also be possible to introduce genes conferring resistance to wide-spec-
trum herbicides such as glyphosate, with low impact on the environment.
In the early 1990s several reports detailed field trials of herbicide-resistant sugar beet
(13–15). At least three different classes of herbicide were concerned: phosphinotricin (glufosi-
nate, bialaphos), glyphosate, and sulfonylurea. The genes introduced into sugar beet in order to
confer resistance to these molecules encoded phosphinotricin acetyl transferase (PAT), enolpyru-
vylshikimate 3-phophate synthase (ESPS), and acetolactate synthase (ALS), respectively (13).
ESPS was also associated with glyphosate oxidase reductase (GOX) (11). The transformed plants
obtained were able to resist agronomic doses of herbicide during field trials. Tolerance to the her-
bicides appeared to be inversely correlated to the number of copies of the transgenes (11,14,16).
Transformed lines resistant to glyphosate ammonium permitted a greater flexibility in the appli-
cation of the herbicide (14). Glyphosate- and glufosinate-resistant sugar beet have been thor-
oughly tested under field conditions (10,17). The first transformed herbicide-resistant sugar beet
varieties were expected to reach commercialization in the year 1999 (10) in the United States.
3. Engineering Sugar Beet for Pest and Disease Resistance

The most advanced and spectacular results concern sugar beet engineered to resist either the beet
necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) or nematodes.
a. BNYVV. The BNYVV is a soil-borne furovirus transmitted by the fungus Polymixae
betae (18). The virus is responsible for rhizomania, a disorder characterized by a massive prolif-
eration of rootlets that causes a severe stunting of the root. This results in a reduction in sugar
yield (19) that can be as dramatic as 50% of the expected harvest (20). In 1992, it was estimated
that 10% of the sugar beet acreage planted in Western Europe was affected by rhizomania (19).
Breeders have been improving the sugar beet tolerance to BNYVV since the 1980s and va-
rieties displaying varying levels of resistance have resulted (20).
Biotechnology, and especially gene transfer, is nowadays being used to fight this disease. It
is possible to combat viral infection by producing the coat protein of the virus in the plant, by ex-
pressing the viral RNA, or by interfering with the movement of the virus within the plant (21).
The expression of the BNYVV coat protein in sugar beet protoplasts has been shown to confer a
high level of protection to these cells (22). This protective effect was confirmed by using the hairy
root test system, for which Agrobacterium rhizogenes is used to induce proliferation of sugar beet
roots in vitro (23). Transformed sugar beet plants expressing the BNYVV coat protein have also
been produced. Greenhouse and field trials confirmed the protective effect of the transgene
against the development of rhizomania. Multiplication of the virus in the transformed plants was
significantly reduced (19). Field trials with sugar beet hybrids combining both the engineered re-
sistance and the classical tolerance showed higher resistance than that of varieties with classical
tolerance alone (24).
b. Nematodes. Heterodera schachtii is the most important nematode pest of beet (25).
This cyst nematode develops on the root by inducing highly specialized feeding structures within
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the vascular system. To control the development of nematodes, sugar beet growers must rotate
crops and use nematicides and resistant varieties. However, nematode eggs can survive unfavor-
able conditions for many years, and nematicides are now forbidden in many countries because of
their high toxicity (26). There is no useful resistance against nematodes in the species B. vulgaris,
but B. procumbens and B. webbiana do possess resistance genes against this pest (26–28). These
genes have been located by creating alien monosomic additions in B. vulgaris. Genetic localiza-
tion resulted in the identification of three resistance genes: Hs1web-1, Hs1web-7 from B. webbiana,
and Hs1pro-1 from B. procumbens (29). In 1997 the Hs1pro-1 gene was successfully cloned, a “first”
for a gene conferring resistance against nematodes (27). The isolated gene was able to confer
nematode resistance to susceptible B. vulgaris lines, as tested by the hairy roots system. Trans-
genic plants expressing Hs1pro-1 have been obtained and will be tested in the field (30).
4. Quality Improvement via Genetic Engineering

Besides the introduction of genes conferring pest, disease, or herbicide resistances, genetic engi-
neering could also be exploited to improve the quality of the sugar beet crop. This improvement
can be achieved by reducing the amount of undesirable compounds that interfere with sucrose
processing or by increasing the total yield of sucrose.
Among the undesirable compounds, the most prominent are betaine, raffinose, and invert
sugar, which interfere with sucrose extraction and crystallization (31,32). Betaine is a major im-
purity; reduction of the amount of betaine can be achieved via an antisense strategy directed
against the choline monoxygenase or the betaine dehydrogenase enzymes both involved in be-
taine biosynthesis (31). Raffinose, a trisaccharide, accounts for 1% of sucrose. It has been pro-
posed to use bacterial α-galactosidase in order to degrade raffinose in sucrose and galactose (32).
An antisense strategy directed against vacuolar invertase present in the storing cells of the taproot
should reduce the hydrolysis of sucrose in glucose and fructose and limit both the amounts of this
sugar and the loss of sucrose (32). The sucrose content of the taproot is affected by numerous fac-
tors and thus could be very difficult to target by using gene transfer technology. However, single
factors are likely to be rate-limiting and could be easier targets for a transgenic approach (31).
The transport of sucrose through the membranes is mediated by carrier proteins that could
limit the uptake. Engineering the transport capacity of these transporters could provide a way to
increase the sink strength of the taproot (31).
Another approach to increase the sucrose content of the taproot would be to manipulate the
root ultrastructure (33,34). High levels of sucrose are associated with the presence of numerous
parenchymatous zones in the root. If all the secondary cambial rings could contribute to the pro-
duction of parenchymatous zones, this could result in an increase in the sink capacity of the root
and in the development of small storage cells in close proximity to the active phloem delivering
the sucrose. The distribution of sucrose would then also be more homogeneous within the root.
Several sugar beet genes involved in the cell cycle have been isolated, but in order to obtain the
desired new root morphologic characteristics, the expression of these genes will have to be pre-
cisely monitored. The promotors able to fine-tune this expression are, however, not yet available.
Although sugar beet requires vernalization to flower, some plants are able to bolt during the
first year. The root loses its sugar and becomes lignified. This decreases both harvesting efficiency
and sugar yield (4). In northern latitudes sugar beet cannot be sown before the last frost to elim-
inate any risk of bolting in the following summer (34). Bolting in a sugar beet crop has been pro-
posed to be due to contamination by pollen from wild annual beets in sugar beet seed production
areas (35). A better understanding of the molecular basis of the bolting phenomenon could allow
the development of genetic solutions.
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C. Biosafety Aspects
Although sugar beet is used as a source of food, few criticisms have been raised against trans-
formed sugar beet in this respect. This can be explained because of the process required to extract
sucrose out of sugar beet taproot. The sucrose extraction includes a diffusion step. The taproots
are sliced and the sucrose is allowed to diffuse out of the cells into warm water. This is followed
by a precipitation/filtration step (CaO and CO2 are added to the juices in order to provoke pre-
cipitation of the impurities). The sucrose is then allowed to crystallize after concentration of the
juices. Each step of the process proved to be very efficient in terms of DNA degradation and pro-
tein elimination (36). White sugar obtained from transformed sugar beet and that from conven-
tional beet are indistinguishable with respect to purity (36).
However, other biosafety aspects, which concern the introduction of transformed sugar
beets into the environment, have been studied. Beta vulgaris spp. maritima, the wild beet, occurs
naturally in coastal areas of European countries (37). The weed beet, supposedly an offspring of
B. vulgaris and B. vulgaris spp. maritima, is a noxious weed in Western Europe, notably in Britain
and France (37). Pollen exchange between sugar beet and wild beet is a well-known phenomenon
that sugar beet breeders have to prevent during seed production (35). A distance of 1000 m is ad-
vised between beet devoted to seed production and any other cultivated beet or wild beet plants
(35,37). However, pollen has been shown to be transported up to 3200 m (38). The exchange of
pollen is possible in both directions (39). The bolting of sugar beet (flowering during the first year
of culture) is likely to be caused by accidental pollination of beets by weed beets in seed produc-
tion areas (35,40,41).
Hand crossing of wild beet and spinach beet with pollen produced by herbicide-resistant
beets showed transfer of the transgene to the offspring. The level of expression of the transgene
was sufficient to confer herbicide resistance to the hybrid (42). Transfer of herbicide resistance to
weed beets could seriously impair the control of this weed (41). BNYVV-resistant transgenic
beets did not show any significant increase of competitiveness when compared to classically bred
tolerant sugar beets (43). However, competitiveness of beets expressing PR proteins such as chiti-
nase could be different (44). Beets and other members of the Chenopodiaceae are nonmycor-
rhizal, but transformed beets expressing PR proteins could induce a decrease in mycorrhizal pop-
ulations resulting in a depletion of the following crop in the rotation. The transfer of such a gene
to the wild beet could modify the invasiveness of this plant by conferring both disease resistance
and advantage to the mycorrhizal plants of the ecosystem. Each new characteristic introduced in
sugar beet should therefore be studied separately, and risk assessment should focus on the effect
of the introduced gene on the whole ecosystem (37).
II. METHODOLOGIES TO ENGINEER SUGAR BEET

A. Agrobacterium Species
Genetic transformation of sugar beet is reported to be difficult. The essential requirement of cells
competent for both regeneration and transformation is only partially fulfilled (45). Several types
of explant have been tested. Cotyledons (45–47), hypocotyl (46), shoots bases (48), petioles (45),
leaf disks (49,50), and seedling-derived calli (14) have all proved to be useful with specific pro-
tocols. Although callus formation can be induced for practically all genotypes of sugar beet, few
genotypes can produce regenerable callus (14). The susceptibility of transformation by Agrobac-
terium tumefaciens is also genotype-dependent (46,48). This susceptibility could be increased by
preculturing the explants before cocultivation with the bacteria or by using acetosyringone (45).
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Transformation frequencies were increased in the presence of 2,4-D, but regeneration was then
severely reduced (45). Several A. tumefaciens strains have been used: AGLO (45), LBA (48–50),
C58C1 (14), and EHA101 (47,50). Trials with “shooter” LBA strains did not prove to be superior
(49). Selection of transformants can be achieved in the presence of antibiotics (kanamycin, G418)
(45,46,48,50), herbicides (phosphinotricin, chlorsulfuron) (14,50), or mannose (47) although the
proportion of escapes varies among agents. The nature of the promotor driving the selectable
marker sequence determines the level of selection to apply (14). Using cotyledonary nodes a high
regeneration frequency could be obtained (70%), but transgenic sugar beet plants were only ob-
served at a frequency ≤ 1% (45). The same frequency was obtained after selection on mannose,
whereas selection on kanamycin allowed a frequency of only 0.1% with a high proportion of es-
capes (47). In 1998 Zhang and collaborators reported an average transformation frequency of 3%
and a maximum of 9% in certain experiments (50).
B. Particle Bombardment/Electroporation/Sonication
DNA uptake by sugar beet protoplasts has been achieved by electroporation (51–53). Alternating
current pulses prove to be the most efficient for transient expression of chloramphenicol acetyl-
transferase (CAT) when compared to rectangular or exponentially decaying pulses (51). Joersbo
developed a formula to estimate the efficiency of electroporation as a function of the electropo-
ration parameter based on data collected with sugar beet cell suspension protoplasts (52). Al-
though the regeneration of electroporation-mediated transgenic sugar beet has not been reported,
stably transformed calli have been obtained at a frequency of 2–6 × 10⫺5 (53). Although only re-
ported once, mild sonication, which is based on transferring DNA by exposing cells to ultrasonic
waves, has mediated transient expression of CAT (54). The maximal level of expression was 7 to
15 times that obtained with electroporation. The surviving protoplasts divided, and their plating
efficiency was not affected. Transient expression has equally been observed after particle bom-
bardment of cell suspensions (55,56) and apices (57) of sugar beet. The rate of transient expres-
sion in apices was very low, but precise targeting of the different cell layers of the meristem was
possible by choosing the correct particle size and acceleration pressure (57). Particle bombard-
ment has also been reported for the transformation of chloroplasts (56). Such a possibility could
be a valuable tool to prevent sexual transfer of transgenes to wild beets.
C. Guard Cell Protoplasts

Although protoplast-based regeneration/transformation systems have been quite successful for a
wide range of species, such systems for sugar beet were for many years extremely recalcitrant (1).
However, the discovery that sugar beet guard cell protoplasts apparently have a much higher
propensity to divide and regenerate in culture than all other cell types (58,59) paved the way for
the development of a unique guard cell–based transformation system for this crop (16). Hetero-
geneous sugar beet leaf protoplast populations have division frequencies of 0.01–0.5%, a value
that could be significantly improved by using purified epidermis as the starting material instead
of whole leaves. In this case the protoplast population was enriched specifically for guard cells
(Fig. 1) from 0.5% to a level approaching 95% and the division frequencies increased to ≤ 50%
(16). Converting this system into one for transformation was relatively simple, and the use of
PEG-mediated DNA transfer, combined with herbicide (bialaphos) selection conferred by the pat
gene, resulted in suitable transformation frequencies in the 10⫺4 range (Fig. 1). This entails that
from a single protoplast isolation using 1.5 g leaf material >30 transformed plants can be pro-
duced after 5–8 weeks. As a result of the watertight nature of the selection protocol, combined
with a somatic embryogenesis–based regeneration protocol, all regenerated plants in these ex-
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Figure 1 (A) Enriched population of guard cell protoplasts directly after isolation (bar = 20 µm). (B) Ef-
fect of 0.25 mg/l bialaphos on guard cell callus growth: left, transformed cells without selection pressure,
middle, nontransformed cells with selection pressure; right, pPG5 (16)–transformed cells with selection
pressure. (C) Callus tissue derived from a single guard cell protoplast after transformation with pPG5 DNA
stained for GUS activity (bar = 100 µm). (D) Nontransformed control plant (right) and pPG5 transgenic line
(left), 14 days after spraying with twice the recommended dose of glufosinate. (From Ref. 16.)
periments are nonchimeric transgenics with no escapes. Somaclonal variation is also almost ab-
sent, although approximately 25% of regenerants become tetraploid. It has been estimated that
for this protocol, after eliminating all plants unsuitable for breeding purposes (i.e., tetraploids,
multiple copy plants, somaclonal variants), at least half remain for subsequent use (60). This sys-
tem is now in commercial use and the first varieties produced are planned for commercialization
in the very near future.
III. SUGAR BEET AS A FACTORY:

FRUCTAN PRODUCTION IN SUGAR BEET
A. Sugar Beet as a “Plant as a Factory”
Sugar beet, which produces 10 tons of sucrose per hectare, is one of the most productive crops in
temperate climatic zones. Because of its high carbohydrate yield, established cultivation, and ad-
vanced industrial processing, sugar beet is considered as an industrial crop. Therefore, sugar beet
is a good candidate for the development of a plant able to produce, on a large scale, economically
important products. However, the choice of the product should be made wisely. The specific char-
acteristics of the sugar beet should be taken into account in order to assure the desired result.
These characteristics include different aspects such as the agronomic characteristics of the cul-
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ture, the physiological characteristics of the plant, the biochemical aspects of sucrose metabo-
lism, and the industrial processing.
Among the products that can be considered are carotenoids, simple sugar derivatives, or tre-
halose (32,61), and fructans (62). It is also possible to modify pectins and cellulose in the taproot
in order to increase the value of the molasses (32). Another way to use sugar beet as a plant fac-
tory would be to introduce genes under the control of chemically induced promotors, allowing the
production of alcohol or other microbial fermentation products after harvest (32). The first ex-
ample of the use of sugar beet as a factory for novel compounds is detailed in the discussion that
follows.
B. The Fructans
Fructans are polymers of fructose that are used as storage carbohydrates by 15% of all flowering
plant species. Fructans are synthesized in unrelated species widespread throughout the plant king-
dom (63). Among the angiosperms that store fructans, the Asteraceae are most noted, as well as
the Cyperaceae, Poaceae, and Liliaceae. Three types of fructans can be distinguished on the basis
of the binding of fructose units to one of the three primary hydroxyl groups of sucrose. The in-
ulin-type fructans of the Asteraceae are extensions of sucrose through β-2,1-linked fructosyl units
(64). The inulin neoseries of the Liliaceae is produced by transfer of a fructosyl unit from a fruc-
tan to the 6-position of the glucosyl moiety of sucrose, forming neokestose (65). The graminan-
and phlein-type fructans of the Poaceae result from extension of sucrose through β-2,6-linked
fructosyl units, with or without branched β-2,1-linked fructosyl units (66). The degree of poly-
merization (DP) (i.e., the number of hexose moieties building up the fructan molecule) of plant
fructans can range from 10 to 250. In addition to their role as a plant carbohydrate store, fructans
may also be involved in osmotic adjustment and in drought and cold tolerance (67). Unlike starch
that is stored as an insoluble carbohydrate in the plastids, fructans are soluble and accumulate in
the vacuole. Besides plants, many microorganisms are also capable of producing fructans. Bac-
terial fructans are usually of a very high molecular weight, consisting of over 100,000 fructose
units bound through β-2,6 linkage type with occasional β-2,1 branching.
1. Fructan Biosynthesis Among the Asteraceae

In the Asteraceae, inulin biosynthesis occurs via the combined action of two enzymes located in
the vacuole (68). Sucrose sucrose fructosyltransferase (1-SST) catalyzes the transfer of a fructo-
syl unit from a sucrose to another sucrose molecule through a β-2,1 linkage (68). This results
in the synthesis of 1-kestose, the shorter inulin-type fructan molecule, and in the release of one
molecule of glucose. SST can also catalyze the synthesis of longer fructans, but with a lower
affinity (68).
GF + GF → GFF + G
GFF + GFF → GFFF + GF
where G represents glucose, GF represents sucrose, GFF represents kestose, and GFFF represents
nystose.
The synthesis of longer molecules, such as the fructans encountered in Jerusalem artichoke,
which have a degree of polymerization of up to 50, is catalyzed by the action of the fructan fruc-
tan fructosyltransferase (1-FFT) (69). FFT catalyzes the transfer of fructosyl units from one fruc-
tan molecule to another fructan molecule.
GF(F)n + GF(F)m → GF(F)n+1 + GF(F)m⫺1 n and m > 0
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2. Industrial Application for Fructans

Fructans can be used either in the food industry or in the nonfood industry. In the former, two
main applications can be described. First, after hydrolysis fructans can be used as a fructose
source to produce high-fructose syrups. Second, fructans can be used as food additives. Fructans
are currently used as low-calorie sweetener (70) and as bulking agent (71). These two applica-
tions present different requirements concerning the fructan molecular structure. A low-calorie
sweetener is achieved by using short-chain fructans (DP3 to DP5), whereas a bulking effect is as-
sociated with a higher DP (>10). Low-molecular-weight fructans presently on the market
(Meioligo, Japan; Nutraflora, in the United States; Actilight in Europe) are produced enzymati-
cally from sucrose by using a fructosyl transferase isolated from a selected Aspergillus sp. strain
(70). Longer fructan molecules are derived from inulin extracted from chicory or Jerusalem arti-
choke (71).
Because of their beneficial effect on human health they are also qualified as functional food
ingredients (72,73). Roberfroid and Delzenne in 1998 reviewed the evidence that sustains this
claim (73). Fructans are not digested in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract and thus reach
the colon, where they can be used by the endogeneous bacteria. Furthermore, it has been estab-
lished that in the colon, fructan hydrolysis favored the development of bifidobacteria populations.
For nonfood applications, fructans need to be chemically modified. Modifications such as
methacrylation (74), acetylation methylation (75), cyanoethylation (76), oxidation, and car-
boxymethylation (77) alter the structure of the fructose polymer and thus its properties. These
new properties make these molecules useful for the pharmaceutical industry (hydrogel allowing
intestinal targeting of drugs) and the detergent industry (Ca2+ chelating properties).
Despite great potential application, fructan usage is limited, mainly because of the lack of
an abundant and cheap production source (78). Reactor-based synthesis of short-chain fructans
incurs high production costs, whereas long-chain fructans are extracted from crop plants with low
agronomic value. If we could take advantage of a productive crop such as sugar beet for the pro-
duction of fructans, an efficient system would be established, allowing widespread fructan uti-
lization (62).
C. Oligofructan Production in Sugar Beet

With respect to producing fructans in an established crop, sugar beet is obviously a serious can-
didate. From a biochemical point of view, sugar beet is especially well equipped for this purpose
as the vacuolar concentration of sucrose is approximately 0.5 M. Another advantage of produc-
ing fructans in a crop unable to synthesize them naturally is the freedom to manipulate the struc-
ture of the newly accumulated compounds. This can be achieved by the judicious choice of genes
and regulatory elements introduced into the transformed plant.
1. The Strategy
The goal was to transform sugar beet into a fructan production facility. Three prerequisites had to
be met:
A reliable transformation protocol had to be developed.

The genes involved in fructan biosynthesis had to be cloned.
Prototype sugar beet transgenics expressing the fructan genes had to be produced.
First, a novel and efficient protocol for sugar beet transformation was developed (16). This pro-
tocol based on guard cell protoplast transformation, has been described previously.
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2. Cloning of Plant Fructosyl Transferase Genes

While other groups were working with genes derived from microorganisms, we chose to focus on
genes derived from plants. In plants, fructan biosynthesis occurs via the action of at least two en-
zymes. SST is responsible for short-chain fructan biosynthesis, long-chain fructan results from
the catalytic activity of FFT. In microorganisms only one enzyme is responsible for the synthesis
of very-high-DP fructans. Thus, the use of plant enzymes should allow fine control of the fructan
molecular structure. Both SST and FFT enzymes from Jerusalem artichoke were purified (68) and
the genes cloned (79). In control tests, SST and FFT enzymes encoding sequences were trans-
formed into petunia in which the expression of these two genes resulted in fructan accumulation
(79).
3. Transformation of Sugar Beet with the 1-sst from Jerusalem Artichoke

Once the functions of the cloned genes were verified it was possible to envisage the transforma-
tion of sugar beet. In a first step, to assess the feasibility of the concept, we chose to transform
sugar beet with 1-sst alone (62).
a. Acquisition of Transformed Sugar Beet. A construct harboring the 1-sst sequence
under the control of an enhanced 35S CaMV promotor and the pat gene, which confers resistance
to the herbicide bialaphos, was prepared. This construct was used to transform sugar beet guard
cell protoplasts (16), resulting in the acquisition of a number of independent transformed lines.
The transgenic plants harboring the 1-sst gene showed no visual differences in leaf shape or color
under greenhouse conditions as compared with nontransformed sugar beet (Fig. 2).
Figure 2 Young, nontransformed sugar beet plant (left) and 1-sst-transformed sugar beet plant (right)
grown in pots under greenhouse conditions.
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b. Molecular Analysis of the 1-sst Harboring Sugar Beet. Southern blot analysis re-
vealed that all the lines have incorporated one or more copies of the 1-sst transgene. As expected
with a transformation protocol making use of direct transfer of naked DNA into plant cells, the
copy number varied between the different lines. Of the different lines analyzed, four contained a
single locus. In three lines we detected less than five loci, and in one line more than 10 sites of in-
tegration were found. Partial integration or recombination was also detected for certain sites of
integration for three of the lines. Transcripts of the transgene were detected in six lines.
c. Biochemical Analysis of the 1-sst Sugar Beet. The content of soluble carbohydrates
in the transformed taproot was analyzed by using thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high-
pressure anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC) coupled to a pulse amperometric detector
(HPAEC-PAD) (62). TLC analysis of taproot extracts indicated the presence of fructose-contain-
ing compounds migrating at the same rates as the standard compounds GF2, GF3, and GF4 in four
of the lines analyzed. One of these transformed lines was further analyzed by HPAEC-PAD (Fig.
3). This analysis confirmed the presence of low-molecular-weight fructans in the taproot of the
transformed sugar beet. The chromatogram resulting from the analysis of the control taproot
showed a major peak corresponding to sucrose and a relatively small peak for raffinose. However,
the chromatographic trace obtained with the transgenic taproot extract showed dramatic changes.
The peak corresponding to sucrose was radically reduced and three new peaks, identified as GF2,
GF3, and GF4, appeared. In leaves, the changes in soluble carbohydrate content were less spec-
tacular, but small peaks of GF2, GF3, and GF4 were detectable.
In order to quantify the amount of oligofructans accumulated in the 1-sst-harboring sugar
beet, HPAEC analysis was performed on extracts prepared from five plants from the transformed
line previously analyzed and five control plants, all grown under greenhouse conditions (62). The
total soluble carbohydrate content as expressed in hexose equivalents of the transformed taproot
(460 ⫾ 101 µmol/g fresh weight [FW]) was not significantly different from that of the control
taproot (499 ⫾ 155 µmol/g FW) (Table 1). The sucrose content in the control roots was 246.1
µmol/g FW and only 23.1 µmol/g FW in the transformed roots. However, in the 1-sst sugar beet
taproot, GF2, GF3, and GF4 accumulated up to 73.8, 33.7, and 5.7 µmol/g FW, respectively.
d. Superiority of Sugar Beet for the Production of Fructan. The introduction of 1-sst
cDNA from Jerusalem artichoke into sugar beet resulted in a dramatic change of the main type of
storage carbohydrate, and sucrose was nearly totally converted into low-molecular-weight fruc-
tans. In the plants analyzed 90% of the sucrose imported by the taproot was converted into low-
molecular-weight fructans.
This yield can be compared with that in other published studies dealing with fructan pro-
duction in plants transformed with fructosyl transferases of plant or bacterial origin (Table 2).
Genes originating from microorganisms and from plants both proved to be useful for fructan pro-
duction in transformed plants. However, the vacuole of the plant cell appeared to be the most ap-
propriate compartment to achieve fructan accumulation. Targeting of the introduced gene to the
cytoplasm (80–82) or to the apoplasm (81) could result in significant accumulation of fructan but
was always associated with reduced organ growth, reduced organ dry weight, and necrosis. The
reasons for these phenotypic impairments were not elucidated. The presence of the introduced en-
zyme itself (81) and the diversion of sucrose away from the starch biosynthesis pathway (80) have
been proposed as putative explanations. As expected, potato (81,83,84), maize (82), and sugar
beet (62), three crops recognized for their carbohydrate accumulating capacity, displayed higher
fructan accumulation than tobacco (66,67,85). Fructan synthesis is accompanied by glucose re-
lease. It has been shown previously that high hexose levels could induce dramatic changes with
respect to plant development and phenotype (86,87). Expression of the 1-sst of Cynara sp. in po-
tato is associated with a significant increase of the hexose (84). Likewise, starch-deficient pota-
toes expressing a bacterial levan sucrase contained a large amount of glucose stoichiometrically
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Figure 3 High-pressure anion exchange chromatography/pulsed amperometric detection analysis of the

soluble carbohydrates of (A) taproot and (B) leaf extract: a, nontransformed sugar beet; b, sugar beet trans-
formed with the 1-sst gene; c, mixture of 20 mg/l glucose (G), fructose (F), sucrose (S), raffinose (R),
1-kestose (GF2), nystose (GF3), 1f-fructofuranosyl nystose (GF4). (From Ref. 62.)
Table 1 Soluble Carbohydrate Content of 1-sst Sugar Beet Line and Control Sugar Beeta
µmol g⫺1 FW Glucose Fructose Sucrose GF2 GF3 GF4
Line 1 Leaf 4.8 ⫾ 2.2 2.7 ⫾ 1.7 1.8 ⫾ 0.5 0.1 ⫾ 0.1 0.3 ⫾ 0.1 0.5 ⫾ 0.2
Root 25.1 ⫾ 12.7 3.1 ⫾ 1.2 23.1 ⫾ 13.0 73.8 ⫾ 16.8 33.7 ⫾ 2.1 5.7 ⫾ 0.5
Control Leaf 10.6 ⫾ 7.3 5.1 ⫾ 3.7 0.6 ⫾ 0.2 n.d. n.d. n.d.
Root 3.5 ⫾ 1.3 0.6 ⫾ 0.5 246.1 ⫾ 76.3 n.d. n.d. n.d.
a
Mean values ⫾ SD from 5 plants. n.d., not detectable.
Source: Ref. 62.
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Table 2 Fructan Production in Genetically Engineered Cropsa
Soluble sugar content of the transformed tissue

Gene Gene
Crop transformed introduced Gene origin targeting Tissue analyzed Sucrose Fructan Glucose Remarks Ref.
Tobacco sacB Bacillus subtilis Vacuole Leaves 0.14 mg/g FW 2.8 mg/g FW 1.5 mg/g FW — (85)
Tobacco sacB B. subtilis Vacuole Leaves 0.3–0.9 mg/g FW 0.05–0.3 mg/g FW 0.5–0.7 mg/g FW — (67)
Tobacco 6-sft Hordeum vulgare Vacuole Leaves 5–10 mg/g DW 0.05–0.3 mg/g DW N.R. — (66)
Tobacco 6-sft H. vulgare Vacuole Roots 50 mg/g DW 0.5–3 mg/g DW N.R. —
Tobacco sacB B. amyloliquefa- Cytoplasm Leaves 7 mg/g FW 4 mg/g FW 6 mg/g FW Necrosis appeared (80)
ciens (inducible after induction
promotor)
Potato sacB B. subtilis Vacuole Leaves (old) 350 mg/g DW reduced starch (83)
Potato sacB B. subtilis Vacuole Microtubers 50 mg/g DW reduced starch
Potato sacB B. amyloliquefa- Cytoplasm Microtubers N.R. 5–50 mg/g DW N.R. reduced starch and (80)
ciens tuber DW
Potato 1-sst Cynara scolymus Vacuole Microtubers 14 µmol/g FW 19 µmol/g FW N.R. — (84)
-(starch-deficient) lsc Erwinia amylovora Vacuole Tubers N.R. 70–120 mg/g DW 82–201 mg/g DW — (81)
-(starch-deficient) lsc E. amylovora Apoplasm Tubers N.R. 190 mg/g DW 50 mg/g DW reduced tuber FW
-(starch-deficient) lsc E. amylovora Cytoplasm Tubers N.R. 0 mg/g DW N.R.
Maize sacB B. amyloliquefa- Vacuole Seeds N.R. 10–80 mg/g DW N.R. — (82)
ciens
Maize sacB B. amyloliquefa- Cytoplasm Seeds N.R. 16–18 mg/g DW N.R. Severe reduction
ciens of seed DW
Sugar beet 1-sst Helianthus tubero- Vacuole Leaves 1.8 µmol/g FW 0.9 µmol/g FW 4.8 µmol/g FW — (62)
sus
Sugar beet 1-sst H. tuberosus Vacuole Roots 23.1 µmol/g FW 110 µmol/g FW 25 µmol/g FW —
a
Tobacco, Potato, Maize and Sugar Beet do not natively accumulate fructan.
N.R., not reported.
related to levan production (81). The glucose released during fructan synthesis in these plants
might have been metabolized only to a minor extent. In contrast, when sugar beet expressed 1-sst
of Jerusalem artichoke, the amount of glucose accumulated is equivalent to only 15% of the ex-
pected amount released during fructan synthesis (62).
In all the published data concerning transgenic plants expressing fructosyl transferase,
sugar beet expressing the 1-sst of Jerusalem artichoke has shown the highest efficiency of fructan
accumulation and the highest rate of glucose remetabolization in the absence of any phenotypic
abnormalities. The results obtained therefore suggest that sugar beet is one of the most promis-
ing candidates for industrial production of fructans in crop plants (62,78,88).
IV. CONCLUSIONS
It is now possible to engineer sugar beet efficiently through the introduction of foreign DNA via
guard cell protoplasts. This has allowed the concept of the plant as factory to be developed for
this highly productive crop.
The results obtained with the introduction of the 1-sst gene from Jerusalem artichoke into
the genome of sugar beet clearly demonstrate the feasibility of fructan production in this normally
sucrose storing plant. The high conversion rate of sucrose into fructans as observed in green-
house-grown beets is a promising indication of future agricultural success. The second step will
be to test the feasibility of synthesizing alternative fructans with a higher DP in sugar beet. The
introduction of both 1-sst and 1-fft from H. tuberosus will be carried out in order to test this. A
third step will be to modify the structure of the fructans synthesized in transformed sugar beet.
The introduction of genes encoding for different combinations of fructosyl transferase activities
should permit us to manipulate the structure of the fructan molecule produced. Using transformed
sugar beet expressing the desired gene combinations at the appropriate phase of plant develop-
ment will allow us to produce fructan molecules fulfilling the particular requirements of specific
industrial applications.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In 1997, R. Sévenier was supported by a Lavoisier grant from the Ministère des Affaires
Etrangères, Paris, France.
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35
Transgenic Carrots with Enhanced Tolerance
to Fungal Pathogens
Zamir K. Punja
Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
I. INTRODUCTION 503
II. GENETIC IMPROVEMENTS THROUGH BREEDING 504
III. TISSUE CULTURE OF CARROT 504
IV. GENETIC ENGINEERING OF CARROT 504
A. Materials and Methods 504
B. Results 507
V. OTHER REPORTS OF AGROBACTERIUM
SPECIES–MEDIATED TRANSFORMATION 511
VI. STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE TOLERANCE OF CARROTS TO FUNGAL DISEASES 515
VII. EVALUATING CARROT LINES EXPRESSING CHITINASES FOR ENHANCED
TOLERANCE TO FUNGAL PATHOGENS 515
VIII. OTHER REPORTS OF CARROT TRANSFORMATION FOR DISEASE TOLERANCE 517
IX. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 517
REFERENCES 519
I. INTRODUCTION
Carrot (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativa), a member of the family Umbelliferae, is grown world-
wide for its edible taproot. Carrot roots are marketed as fresh whole or baby carrots, for use in
processing (in frozen or canned foods, soups, and juice), and as frozen products. Nutritionally,
carrots are known to be high in β-carotene (provitamin A) as well as in vitamin B1 and C, and are
a good source of dietary fiber. The average per capita consumption of fresh carrots in the United
States in 1997 was 5.7 kg (1). The carrot industry worldwide is located throughout Europe (42%
of total acreage), Asia (37.5%), North America (14%), and South America (6.5%) (2), and the
total worldwide acreage is around 1.4 million acres. Sales of carrot seed provide additional rev-
enues, estimated at $92 million worldwide (2).
Carrot is a biennial plant, which flowers after exposure to a period of cold temperatures,
generally during the second year of growth. Premature flowering (bolting) in the first year of
growth can occur in some cultivars grown in certain regions. High temperatures (30–35°C) dur-
503
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504 Punja
ing growth can result in lighter-colored roots with reduced levels of β-carotene, whereas low tem-
peratures (5–10°C) early in the season can result in poor seedling establishment. The optimal
temperature range for growth and root development is 15–20°C (3). In addition to environmental
stresses, biotic agents including fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasmas, and nematodes can cause
significant losses in yield and quality of carrots worldwide (3–5).
II. GENETIC IMPROVEMENTS THROUGH BREEDING
Development of carrot cultivars through breeding has been a major effort since the 1980s and has
resulted in significant improvements to yield and quality (3,5,6). Root shape, length, and color,
smooth skin, flavor, early maturity, and resistance to various diseases are high priorities. Most of
these genetic improvements in carrot require long-term effort, and many are multigenic traits and
thus are not amenable to genetic engineering. In contrast, disease resistance and a range of other
traits are monogenic. Much of the carrot acreage currently comprises of F1 hybrids, produced by
using a system of cytoplasmic male sterility that makes crossing of inbred lines achievable and
economical (5,7,8). Inbred lines with proprietary genes introduced by genetic engineering tech-
niques can therefore be marketed under licensing agreements.
III. TISSUE CULTURE OF CARROT
Carrot is a model system for use in tissue culture, and extensive research has been conducted in
a number of areas—somatic embryogenesis, bioreactor scale-up of suspension cultures, proto-
plast culture and fusion, and somaclonal variation (3,9,10). For somatic embryogenesis, the most
commonly used media are Murashige and Skoog (MS) (11), Uchimya and Murashige (12), and
B5 media (13), containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and kinetin or benzyladenine
(3). Transfer of proembryonic masses to liquid medium can result in highly embryogenic syn-
chronous cultures (3). In the absence of auxin, somatic embryos continue to develop into
plantlets. Protoplasts can be isolated from these suspension cultures or somatic embryos, or from
mature plant tissues. A number of variants have been observed in long-term tissue cultures of car-
rot and also after selection, including altered morphological characteristics, resistance to specific
amino acid analogues and antibiotics (3,14), and resistance to the herbicide glyphosate (15). Pro-
toplast fusion studies using carrot have resulted in somatic hybrids with altered characteristics
(3,14). Neither artificial selection in tissue culture nor somatic hybridization studies have yielded
significant improvements to the presently grown cultivars of carrot.
IV. GENETIC ENGINEERING OF CARROT
Summarized in the following sections are the procedures used in our laboratory to derive trans-
genic carrot lines. The variables that can influence transformation efficiency are described here
and elsewhere (16,17).
A. Materials and Methods

1. Explant Source and Tissue Culture Conditions
Carrot seeds are frequently heavily contaminated with fungal organisms and may require vigor-
ous disinfection prior to use. The use of aseptically grown plants as the explant source is advan-
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Transgenic Carrots 505
tageous. Seeds of cultivars ‘Golden State,’ ‘Danvers Half Long,’ ‘Nantes Long,’ ‘Scarlet Nantes,’
and ‘Nanco’ were disinfected by washing in detergent (Liqui-Nax, (Alconox, Inc. NY), followed
by dipping in 70% EtOH for 30 s, then in a 5% solution of commercial bleach (Javex, 6.25%
sodium hypochlorite), followed by a 1% solution of benzalkonium chloride (in 10% EtOH) (Cal-
biochem Co., La Jolla, CA), 2 min in each, and finally rinsing three times in sterile distilled water
(1 min each). The seeds were transferred to water agar plates containing 10 g l⫺1 glucose, 100 mg
l⫺1 benomyl (as Benlate, 50% WP), 100 mg l⫺1 dichloran (as Botran, 75% WP), and 100 mg l⫺1
ampicillin and incubated at 23–28°C. After germination (about 10–15 days), seedlings were
transferred to Magenta boxes (Magenta Corp., Chicago, IL) containing approximately 30 ml of
full-strength growth regulator–free MS medium (11) with myo-inositol (100 mg l⫺1), thiamine
HCl (0.8 mg l⫺1), 30 g l⫺1 sucrose, and 10 g l⫺1 tissue culture agar (Sigma). The pH of the
medium was adjusted to 5.8 prior to autoclaving at 15 psi for 15 min. Sterile ampicillin was added
at a concentration of 100 mg l⫺1 to prevent bacterial contamination. The seedlings were grown at
23–28°C under cool-white fluorescent lamps (intensity of 450 µmol m⫺2 s⫺1) with a 16-h light
and 8-h dark cycle.
The medium used for callus induction and somatic embryo formation was full-strength MS,
containing thiamine, sucrose, agar, and ampicillin at the concentrations specified. The influence
of 2,4-D concentrations was determined at 0.5, 2.0, or 4.5 µM. Epicotyl segments, approximately
1 cm long, from 2-week-old aseptic seedlings (cv. ‘Golden State’ and ‘Nanco’) were placed in
petri dishes (100 × 15 mm), 8–10 explants per dish, with four to six replicate dishes per treatment.
All dishes were sealed with Parafilm and incubated under the same conditions as those for
seedling growth. The effect of cultivar on frequency of somatic embryogenesis was evaluated by
using epicotyls from seedlings of cultivars ‘Nanco,’ ‘Golden State,’ and ‘Danvers Half Long.’Ap-
proximately 8–10 explants were placed on MS medium containing 4.5 µM 2,4-D, with five to six
replicate dishes per cultivar.
2. Bacterial Strains and Plasmids

Disarmed Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains MOG 101 (octopine type) and EHA 105 (leu-
cinopine, supervirulent type) (courtesy of MOGEN Int. nv, The Netherlands) were used. Each
strain harbored one of three binary plasmids. Two plasmids, pMOG196 (14.0 kb) and pMOG198
(14.2 kb) (MOGEN Int. nv), contained between the T-DNA borders a petunia acidic chitinase
gene (Pach 1) or tobacco basic chitinase gene (Tbch 1), respectively, driven by the CaMV 35S
promoter (18). A third plasmid, pGA-492-CHN (14.8 kb), was constructed by excising the 2.5-
kb EcoR l-Cla l fragment of pk35CHN641 (19), consisting of the bean endochitinase (CH5B)
coding region fused to the CaMV 35S promoter, ligating into a EcoR l-Cla l linearized plasmid
pGA492 (20), and cloning into Escherichia coli DH5α. Plasmid pGA492-CHN was mobilized
from E. coli into A. tumefaciens strains MOG101 and EHA105 via triparental matings. All three
plasmids also contained a transferable selectable marker for kanamycin resistance, the neomycin
phosphotransferase gene (npt II) driven by the nopaline synthase (nos) promoter. A single colony
of each of the Agrobacterium sp. strains was inoculated into 50 ml of Luria broth (21) medium
(with kanamycin at 100 mg l⫺1) and grown overnight at 29°C on a rotary shaker at 200 rpm. The
cultures were then diluted 1:50 in minimal medium (MM) (22) (with kanamycin at 100 mg l⫺1)
and grown overnight under the same conditions. The bacterial suspensions were diluted in MM
(without kanamycin) to a density of A600 = 0.15, placed at 29°C at 200 rpm, and allowed to grow
to a density of A600 = 0.25–0.30. Aliquots (15 ml) of each of the cultures were centrifuged at 3700
× g for 5 min at ambient room temperature. The supernatant was discarded and the pellets were
resuspended in MS medium (pH 5.3 when using EHA105 and pH 5.8 when using MOG101) con-
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506 Punja
taining 100 µM acetosyringone and diluted to a final density of A600 = 0.05 (approximately 1 ×
108 cells ml⫺1) (22).
3. Transformation Procedure
Epicotyl explants (1 cm long) from 2- to 5-week-old aseptic carrot seedlings were precultured for
2 days on MS medium supplemented with 4.5 µM 2,4-D prior to the transformation experiments.
After the preculture period, the explants were immersed in 10–25 ml of the bacterial suspension
for 4 min, rinsed in liquid MS medium, dried briefly on sterile filter paper, and placed back on
preculture medium. Explants were cocultivated in the dark for 2–4 days at 26°C. The infected ex-
plants were subsequently rinsed in sterile water, blotted dry, and placed on selective medium (MS
medium containing 4.5 µM 2,4-D, 400 mg l⫺1 carbenicillin, and 25 mg l⫺1 kanamycin). The tis-
sue culture plates (60 × 15 mm), each containing 8–10 explants, were incubated in the dark at am-
bient temperatures of 23–28°C. Both positive and negative controls were included in the experi-
ments. The positive control consisted of noncocultivated explants cultured on antibiotic-free
regeneration medium (MS containing 4.5 µM 2,4-D), and the negative controls consisted of non-
cocultivated explants cultured on selective medium. After 4 weeks, all explants were transferred
to fresh selective medium with a higher concentration of kanamycin (100 mg l⫺1) and placed
under cool-white fluorescent lamps with a 16-h light and 8-h dark cycle at ambient temperatures.
Calli were subcultured to fresh selective medium every 4–6 weeks, over a 4 to 6-month period.
Upon appearance of somatic embryos, these calli were either placed into 50 ml of liquid MS
medium containing 0.5 µM 2,4-D and 50 mg l⫺1 of kanamycin or subcultured directly onto MS
medium lacking plant growth regulators or kanamycin (MSO). Suspension cultures (in 50 ml of
medium, incubated at 150 rpm) were subcultured to fresh medium every 2 weeks. Once the sus-
pension cultures were established, approximately 0.5 ml of each suspension was spotted onto
MSO medium and allowed to grow for 4–6 weeks. When embryos were produced, they were
transferred to MS medium containing 50 mg l⫺1 kanamycin and no 2,4-D. After 4 weeks, rooted
plantlets were transferred into sterile potting medium and placed in a growth chamber maintained
at 26°C, 85% relative humidity, and a 16-h photoperiod.
4. Data Analysis
The data on percentage of somatic embryo production after different treatments from the repli-
cations and repetitions were pooled and analyzed for significant differences by using chi-square
analysis (P ≤ 0.05). In addition, the standard deviation was calculated and used to differentiate
means from different treatments. In all experiments that evaluated each of the parameters influ-
encing Agrobacterium sp. transformation, the minimal number of explants included ranged from
33 to 404. All experiments were repeated at least once; some were repeated four to five times over
a 2-year period.
5. Confirmation of Transformation
a. Polymerase Chain Reaction Analysis. Total nucleic acids were isolated from leaf tissue
(1–2 g fresh weight) of transgenic and nontransgenic plants according to the protocol described
by Kanazawa and Tsutsumi (23) and were subsequently treated with 50 µg mlms1 of ribonucle-
ase (RNAse). The DNA was then extracted with phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1)
and ethanol-precipitated. Two specific sequences of the npt II coding region were used for poly-
merase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of this gene in the genomic DNA. Oligomer A, a
17mer with 5⬘-3⬘ sequence GATGGATTGCACGCAGG, was located 15 bp upstream from the
start codon, and oligomer B, a 17mer with 5⬘-3⬘ (bottom strand) sequence GAAGGCGATA-
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GAAGGCG, shared identity with the 3⬘ region of the NPT II gene, 17 bp 5⬘ of the stop codon.
These primers amplified a region about 800 bp in size. Each PCR reaction (25 µl overlaid by 50
µl of mineral oil) consisted of 1× Taq buffer (MgCl2-free), 2.5 mM MgCl2, 200 µM dNTPs, 0.5
µM of each oligonucleotide primer, and approximately 20 ng of template DNA. Each PCR reac-
tion was incubated at 92°C for 5–10 min and then 1.25 units of Taq polymerase (Promega) was
added and the mixture quickly placed on ice. The temperature cycling for the PCR was as fol-
lows: 29 cycles at 94°C for 1 min, 54°C for 2 min, and 72°C for 3 min. The 30th cycle was the
same except that DNA synthesis at 72°C was carried out for 10 min. The PCR products were an-
alyzed electrophoretically on 2.0% agarose gels. The oligomers were also tested by amplifying
the characteristic 800-bp region of the npt II gene by using 10 ng of total Agrobacterium sp. DNA
containing pMOG 196 as positive control template.
b. Southern Hybridization Analysis. Approximately 5–12 µg of total genomic DNA
was digested with Hind III (BRL) according to manufacturer’s specifications and electrophoresed
on a 0.7% agarose gel. DNA fragments were blotted to positively charged nylon membranes
(Boehringer Mannheim) by capillary action with 10× SSC and fixed by ultraviolet (UV)
crosslinking. Filters were hybridized against a Digoxigenin-UTP PCR-labeled probe, which was
made by amplifying the 800-bp fragment containing the coding region of the npt II gene by using
the PCR temperature cyclings and conditions specified. However, for this reaction, the dTTP con-
centration was changed to 17 µM and Dig-UTP (Boehringer Mannheim) was added to a final con-
centration of 8.5 µM. Hybridizations were conducted by using about 15 ng of the labeled probe
per milliliter of hybridization solution containing 2% blocking buffer (Boehringer Mannheim)
and 50% formamide (redistilled nucleic acid grade) and incubated at 40–42°C for at least 15 h.
Washes and chemiluminescence detection of hybridized filters were done according to
Boehringer Mannheim’s instructions. The blots were exposed to radiographic films (Kodak
OMAT-K) for 1–24 h.
c. ImmunoBlot Analysis. Samples of transgenic carrot tissues (callus or leaves) were
frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after collection and finely ground into a powder by using a
mortar and pestle. All extractions were performed at 4°C. The powder was extracted with 0.1 M
sodium citrate buffer, pH 5.0, and filtered through four layers of cloth (Miracloth) and centrifuged
at 20,000 g for 30 min. The supernatant was put onto an ultrafiltration unit (Amicon YM10 filter)
for protein concentration adjustment. Protein samples applied to pretreated nitrocellulose mem-
branes and immunostained by using the Bio-Rad Immun-Blot GAR-AP assay kit (Cat. No.
170–6509). The antibody raised against tobacco basic chitinase (provided by Dr. B. Fritig, Insti-
tut de Biologie Moleculaire des Plantes, France) and the bean chitinase (provided by R. Broglie,
DuPont, USA) were used at 1:2000 dilutions.
B. Results
1. Tissue Culture
When epicotyl explants were placed on MS medium containing 0.50, 2.0, or 4.5 µM 2,4-D, calli
developed at different rates, but the overall frequency of somatic embryo formation was only af-
fected in cv. ‘Nanco’ and was highest at 4.5 µM 2,4-D. In cv. ‘Golden State,’ 2,4-D concentra-
tions had no effect (Table 1). In all treatments, after 4 weeks of incubation, calli were homoge-
neous and friable and frequently had somatic embryos and small shoots. The effect of cultivar on
frequency of somatic embryogenesis was also determined by comparing the final percentage of
embryogenic calli after 2–4 months of incubation on 4.5 µM 2,4-D. The cultivar ‘Nanco’ had the
highest frequency (81.4%), followed by cv. ‘Golden State’ (77.2%) and ‘Danvers Half Long’
(55.3%). Therefore, carrot cultivar may be a variable in transformation experiments as a result of
differing responses in tissue culture.
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508 Punja
Table 1 Effect of 2,4-D Concentration on Somatic Embryo Formation in

Carrot Cultivars ‘Golden State’ and ‘Nanco’
Embryogenic calli (%) following exposure to 2,4-Db
Carrot cultivara 0.5 µM 2.0 µM 4.5 µM

c
Golden State 13.2 (38) 10.3 (39) 14.7 (34)
Nanco 7.0 (57) 19.2 (52) 25.4 (59)
a
Epicotyl segments (1-cm-long) from 2-week-old aseptic seedlings were used.
b
Percentage of calli out of the total plated that developed somatic embryos was rated after
2–4 months in culture.
c
Numbers in parentheses refer to total number of explants plated.
Source: Ref. 16.
2. Results from Transformation Experiments

After cocultivation, epicotyl explants were placed on selective medium with 25 mg l⫺1 of
kanamycin for 4 weeks. Subsequently, healthy calli were subcultured to fresh selective medium
containing 100 mg l⫺1 kanamycin. This two-step procedure was selected to minimize potential
inhibition of regeneration by kanamycin (24,25). Initially, cocultivated and control explants ex-
panded to about the same size during selection on 25 mg l⫺1 kanamycin. Once on 100 mg l⫺1,
only the cocultivated explants and positive controls developed additional callus, whereas the neg-
ative control did not increase in size and was bleached. Transformation efficiency was calculated
as the total number of cocultivated explants that produced embryogenic calli on selective medium
relative to the total number of cocultivated explants originally plated on medium containing 100
mg l⫺1 of kanamycin.
a. Effect of Explant Age. Epicotyl explants from 2-, 3-, 4- and 5-week-old aseptic
seedlings of the carrot cultivar ‘Golden State’ were cocultivated for 2–3 days with the superviru-
lent Agrobacterium sp. strain EHA 105 (containing either pMOG196 or pMOG198). The trans-
formation frequency ranged from 5.4% to 8.6% for 2- to 5-week-old seedlings, respectively (Fig.
1). These different explant ages were not statistically different (P = 0.91, chi-square test); there-
fore, explant age was not considered to be a variable that could affect transformation frequency.
b. Effect of Agrobacterium Species Plasmid. To determine whether transformation effi-
ciency was influenced by the Agrobacterium sp. plasmid, explants of cultivar ‘Golden State’ were
cocultivated for 2–3 days with Agrobacterium sp. strain EHA 105 with either pMOG196 or
pMOG198. In addition, explants of the cultivar ‘Danvers Half Long’ were cocultivated for 3 days
with Agrobacterium sp. strain MOG 101 harboring one of plasmids pMOG196, pMOG198, or
pGA492-CHN. With cv. ‘Golden State,’ the transformation efficiency was 5.6% when pMOG196
was used, and 6.4% with pMOG198. With cv. ‘Danvers Half Long,’ transformation efficiency was
7.3% (pMOG196), 2.4% (pMOG198), and 1.0% (pGA492-CHN). Chi-square analysis (P ≤ 0.05)
indicated that these transformation efficiencies were not significantly different. Therefore, the
plasmid used was not considered to be a variable in transformation experiments.
c. Effect of Cocultivation Period. Cocultivation periods of 2, 3, and 4 days were evalu-
ated. Epicotyl explants of cultivars ‘Golden State’ and ‘Danvers Half Long’ were cocultivated for
these periods after infection by Agrobacterium sp. strain EHA 105 containing either pMOG196
or pMOG198. The results showed that 2 or 3 days of cocultivation yielded similar transformation
frequencies, but these were significantly higher than for 4-day cocultivation (Table 2). Therefore,
shorter periods of cocultivation are recommended for transformation experiments.
d. Effect of Carrot Cultivar. Epicotyl explants of four carrot cultivars were cocultivated
for 2–3 days with Agrobacterium sp. strain MOG101 (containing pMOG196, pMOG198, or
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0.90 < P < 0.95
Figure 1 Influence of explant age on transformation efficiency of carrot cv. ‘Golden State’ cocultivated
with Agrobacterium sp. strain EHA 105 for 2–3 days. (From Ref. 16.)
Table 2 Effect of Cocultivation Period of Carrot Epicotyl Explants with Agrobacterium

tumefaciens Strain EHA 105 on Transformation Frequency
Embryogenic calli (%) following a cocultivation period ofb
Carrot cultivara 2 days 3 days 4 days
Golden State 6.5 6.0 0.0

Danvers Half Long —c 1.8 0.0
a
Epicotyl segments (1-cm-long) were taken from aseptic seedlings.
b
Percentage of calli out of the total plated following cocultivation that developed somatic embryos was
rated after 2–4 months in culture.
c
Not determined.
Source: Ref. 16.
pGA492-CHN). ‘Scarlet Nantes’ had the highest transformation rate (6.2%), followed by ‘Dan-
vers Half Long’ (5.1%), ‘Nanco’ (0.5%), and ‘Nantes Long’ (0.0%). All cultivars were found to be
significantly different (P = 0.05) (Fig. 2A). In a second experiment, cultivars ‘Golden State,’
‘Nanco,’and ‘Danvers Half Long’were cocultivated with Agrobacterium sp. strain EHA 105 (con-
taining pMOG196, pMOG198, or pGA492-CHN). ‘Nanco’ had the highest transformation effi-
ciency (12.1%), followed by ‘Golden State’ (6.1%) and ‘Danvers Half Long’ (1.8%) (Fig. 2B).
These results indicate that significant cultivar × strain interactions were present.
e. Effect of Agrobacterium Species Strain. Explants of the cultivars ‘Danvers Half
Long’ and ‘Nanco’ were cocultivated for 3 days with Agrobacterium sp. strain MOG 101 or EHA
105. The transformation efficiency was significantly affected by the Agrobacterium sp. strain
(Table 3), and a marked strain-cultivar interaction was observed.
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510 Punja
‘Scarlet ‘Danvers ‘Nanco’ ‘Nantes

Nantes’ Half Long’ Long’
‘Nanco’ ‘Golden ‘Danvers

State’ Half Long’
Figure 2 Influence of carrot cultivar on transformation efficiency after cocultivation with Agrobacterium
sp. strain MOG 101 (A) or strain EHA 105 (B). Means followed by different letters are significantly differ-
ent (P = 0.05, chi-square test). (From Ref. 16.)
3. Regeneration of Transformed Plants

After production of somatic embryos (Fig. 3A), calli were either placed in liquid MS medium (0.5
µM 2,4-D, 50 mg l⫺1 kanamycin) or subcultured onto MS medium without growth regulators or
kanamycin (MSO). Once suspension cultures became established, approximately 0.5 ml of each
suspension was plated onto MSO. Within 4–6 weeks, these somatic embryos developed into
shoots (Fig. 3B), which were transferred to MS medium containing 50 mg l⫺1 kanamycin.
Plantlets that rooted and developed leaves (Fig. 3C) were transferred to potting mix and placed in
a growth chamber, where they grew into mature plants (Fig. 3D).
4. Confirmation of Transformation
a. Polymerase Chain Reaction Analysis. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of
the npt II coding region was conducted with cultivars ‘Nanco’ and ‘Golden State’ transformed
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Table 3 Effect of Agrobacterium Strain on Transformation Frequency of Carrot
Embryogenic calli (%) following exposure to

Agrobacterium strainb
Carrot cultivara MOG 101 EHA 105
Danvers Half Long 5.1 (39)c 1.8 (386)

Nanco 0.5 (396) 12.1 (146)
a
Epicotyl segments (1-cm-long) from 2–4-week-old aseptic seedlings were used.
b
Percentage of calli out of the total plated following co-cultivation that developed somatic embryos was rated after
2–4 months in culture.
c
Numbers in parentheses refer to total number of explants plated. Data from the replications and repetitions were
pooled.
Source: Ref. 16.
with strain EHA 105 containing either pMOG196 or pMOG198, and cultivar ‘Danvers Half-
Long’ transformed with strain EHA 105 containing pGA492-CHN. An 800-pb band that was ob-
tained was visible by exposing the ethidium bromide stained gel to UV light, control plants did
not yield this band (Fig. 4A). Among all of the plantlets recovered through the tissue culture
process, none that did not contain the npt II insert was found (data not shown).
b. Southern Hybridization Analysis. Plants of cv. ‘Golden State’ transformed with
Agrobacterium sp. strain EHA 105 (pMOG198) and ‘Danvers Half Long’ transformed with strain
EHA 105 containing pGA492-CHN were analyzed. Since the DNA isolated was readily digested
by restriction endonucleases, it did not require further purification. Hind III digestion of DNA
from three different transformed plants, originating from different calli, yielded from one to four
fragments that hybridized with the npt II probe, whereas no hybridization was detected in the con-
trol plant DNA (Fig. 4B). DNA from pMOG198 was used as positive control.
c. Immunoblot Analysis. Dot blot analysis was performed on total soluble protein ex-
tracted from tissues of confirmed transgenic plants, as well as from control (untransformed)
plants. By using the antibody against tobacco chitinase, the protein was detected in leaf tissue and
callus cultures of cultivar ‘Nanco’ (Fig. 4C). By using the antibody against bean chitinase, the
protein was detected in leaves of cultivar ‘Danvers Half Long.’ No reaction was observed with
protein extracts from untransformed carrot plants.
V. OTHER REPORTS OF AGROBACTERIUM

SPECIES–MEDIATED TRANSFORMATION
Carrot roots have been inoculated with wild-type A. rhizogenes to produce transformed root tis-
sue, from which plants were successfully regenerated via somatic embryogenesis (26). Although
these plants had altered root and leaf morphological features, they were used to quantify rates of
transfer of introduced genes through successive generations. A. rhizogenes was also used to in-
troduce the maize transposable element Ac into carrot (27). Upon regeneration of plants, the char-
acteristic hairy root phenotype developed, but it did not impede study of Ac activity. Hairy root
carrot cultures have also been utilized to study host-mycorrhizal interactions in vitro (28).
Scott and Draper (12) utilized proembryogenic carrot suspension cells and inoculated them
with a nononcogenic A. tumefaciens strain C58C1 carrying the plasmid pGV3850::1103 with a
chimaeric kanamycin resistance gene (nos-npt II). Plants were regenerated from transformed
cells via somatic embryogenesis in the presence of 100 mg lms1 kanamycin; transformation effi-
ciency was estimated to be 62–74%. Southern blot analysis showed that copy number ranged
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512 Punja
Figure 3 Regeneration of plantlets after Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation of epicotyl ex-

plants of carrot. (A) Somatic embryo formation on medium containing 100 mg l⫺1 of kanamycin; (B) de-
velopment of plantlets on growth-regulator-free medium with kanamycin; (C) growth of transformed
plantlets on kanamycin-containing medium; (D) taproot of transgenic plant after 2 months of growth in pot-
ting medium. (From Ref. 17.)
from one to eight. Western blot analysis confirmed the expression of the npt II gene and indicated
that there was a single, full-length polypeptide (12).
In a study by Wurtele and Bulka (29), carrot callus cells were transformed with several
strains of A. tumefaciens that possessed the same C58 chromosomal background. Each strain con-
tained binary vector pGA472, which comprised the nos-npt II construct. Callus pieces (1 month
old) were divided into 0.5 g (fresh-weight) aliquots, mixed with a suspension of A. tumefaciens,
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(A)
(B)
(C)
Figure 4 Analysis of transgenic carrot plants. (A) Polymerase chain reaction amplification of the npt II
coding region from plasmid pMOG196 (lane 1) and five transgenic plants (lanes 2–6). (B) Southern analy-
sis using an npt II probe of three transgenic plants (lanes 1–3) and a nontransformed control (lane 4). (C)
Protein dot blot of tissue extracts reacted against chitinase antibodies. Panel A, tobacco chitinase antibody
with positive control (a), negative control (b), transgenic leaves (c), transgenic suspension culture (d). Panel
B, positive control (a), negative control (b), transgenic leaves (c). (From Ref. 17.)
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514 Punja
cocultivated for 3 days, then transferred to regeneration medium. Plants were regenerated via so-
matic embryogenesis on medium containing 300 mg l⫺1 kanamycin. The effects of p-hydroxy-
benzoic acid, acetosyringone, and mechanical wounding of the cells at the time of cocultivation
were studied. The results showed that these treatments had little or no effect on the timing or fre-
quency of kanamycin-resistant clump formation (29). Southern blot analysis, using the binary
vector as a probe, showed that the transgenic plants contained 1 to 15 copies of the introduced
gene (29).
Carrot hypocotyl segments from sterile 1-week-old seedlings were used as the explant
source by Thomas and coworkers (13). The explants were preincubated on tissue culture medium
(B5 with 9 µM 2,4-D) for 2 days prior to infection with A. tumefaciens LBA4404 containing
CaMV 35S-GUS construct on a binary vector (pRGUSII). The plasmid also contained the npt II
gene for kanamycin resistance. The results showed that preincubation of explants was essential,
since no transformation occurred in the absence of the preculture treatment (13). Different carrot
varieties were surveyed, and it was found that production of kanamycin-resistant calli was vari-
ety-dependent and ranged from 0.9% to 5.8%. The transformed calli (up to 1 cm in diameter)
were used to establish suspension cultures, and transformed plants were regenerated via somatic
embryogenesis. Southern blot analyses confirmed that selected lines were transformed, with one
to three copies of the GUS gene (13).
Pawlicki and associates (30) studied the factors influencing A. tumefaciens–mediated trans-
formation of carrot. The parameters evaluated were carrot variety, age and type of explants, co-
cultivation and precultivation times, and effect of acetosyringone. Explants from five varieties
were cocultivated with a nononcogenic A. tumefaciens strain C58C1 carrying the plasmid
pGSTRN943 or pGSGluc1. Both plasmids contained a chimeric npt II gene, and pGSGluc1 also
contained the β-glucuronidase gene. Petioles, cotyledons, hypocotyls, and roots were used as ex-
plant sources and were compared for their transformation efficiency. Cocultivation periods were
varied from 1 to 7 days, and precultivation periods (1, 2, 3, or 7 days or 1 month) prior to infec-
tion, and the presence (100 µM) or absence of acetosyringone, were examined. Plants were re-
generated from embryogenic calli (with 100 mg l⫺1 kanamycin) and rooted plantlets were potted
and transferred to the greenhouse. The results from this study showed that transformation effi-
ciency was dependent on carrot variety and ranged from 0% to 46.7%. Explant type was also
found to be important: petiole explants were more conducive to transformation than cotyledon,
hypocotyl, or root explants. The age of explants was also found to be a variable: a 3- to 4-week-
old seedling was optimal. Cocultivation periods of 2 or 3 days gave higher transformation fre-
quencies than periods of 1 or 7 days. Last, it was found that a preculture period or the presence
of acetosyringone did not influence transformation efficiency. Transformation was confirmed by
histochemical detection of β-glucuronidase activity in transformed cells, and by Southern hy-
bridization analysis. Guivarch and colleagues (31) reported that the presence of acetosyringone
significantly increased the transformation efficiency of cells in carrot root disks as measured by
GUS expression.
Carrot root disks were utilized by Gogarten and coworkers (32) to study the effect of an an-
tisense construct containing a vacuolar H+ adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) subunit cDNA.
The npt II gene was used as the selectable marker. Kanamycin-resistant calli were grown in liq-
uid medium containing 2,4-D and benzylaminopurine. Shoots and roots were induced on solid
media containing appropriate growth regulators, and plantlets were recovered.
In a 1998 study by Hardegger and Sturm (33), β-glucuronidase expression driven by the
35S promoter was shown to be high in transgenic carrot root tissues. The explants used for cocul-
tivation were hypocotyls, and calli were produced on B5 medium with naphthaleneacetic acid and
6-benylaminopurine. Agrobacterium sp. strain GV3101 was found to be more efficient than LBA
4404 in the frequency of transformation, giving an average frequency of 20%.
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Direct DNA uptake by carrot protoplasts by chemical and electrical means has been utilized
to study gene expression, for example, the effects of promoters, enhancer elements, and introns
on transcriptional efficiencies. These studies were made possible by coupling sequences of inter-
est with the coding regions of reporter genes, such as the firefly luciferase (lux), neomycin phos-
photransferase (npt II), chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (cat), and β-glucuronidase (GUS)
(34,35). A gene for herbicide resistance was introduced into carrot via direct gene transfer (36).
The resultant transgenic plants contained the phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase gene and were
shown to be resistant to the herbicide l-phosphinothricin.
VI. STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE TOLERANCE OF

CARROTS TO FUNGAL DISEASES
The availability of cloned genes encoding for pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, antifungal pro-
teins (AFPs), and a number of antimicrobial compounds, derived from a range of sources
(37–40), provides opportunities to enhance the tolerance of carrot to a broad spectrum of fungal
pathogens after Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation. Enhanced disease resistance
has been reported in a range of plants after gene introduction and expression of AFPs (41–43),
PR proteins (44–49), phytoalexins (50), hydrogen peroxide (51), defensins (52), and thionins
(53).
Chitinases are well-characterized PR proteins. Their expression in plants is increased by
pathogen attack and certain abiotic stresses (54,55), and they accumulate intracellularly in the
central vacuole (basic chitinases) or extracellularly in the intercellular space (acidic chitinases)
(18,19). Some evidence for the role of chitinases in the defense response of plants is available
(19,44,46,56). Chitinases catalyze the hydrolysis of chitin, a substrate that is not found in plants
but is a component of the cell walls of many fungi (57). Thus, exposure of fungal cells to chiti-
nases has been shown to cause them to lyse (54,58). To determine whether enhanced expression
of chitinases in plants could also have a similar effect on fungi in planta, different chitinase en-
coding genes were introduced into carrot. These included chitinases cloned from petunia (18), to-
bacco (18), and bean (19). Since carrot is naturally susceptible to a number of important fungal
pathogens (3,5), the overexpression of this protein was evaluated for enhanced protection against
several fungal pathogens.
VII. EVALUATING CARROT LINES EXPRESSING CHITINASES FOR

ENHANCED TOLERANCE TO FUNGAL PATHOGENS
Transgenic lines of carrot cvs. ‘Golden State’ and ‘Nanco,’ containing either an acidic chitinase
gene from petunia or a basic chitinase gene from tobacco, were evaluated. The transgenic plants
were regenerated from transformed calli after A. tumefaciens–mediated transformation and mul-
tiplied by using a cell suspension culture system as described earlier. Nontransgenic controls,
which consisted of either seedlings grown in tissue culture or plantlets derived from embryogenic
calli, were obtained by using the same tissue culture procedures as for transformation. All
seedlings and plantlets were transferred to sterile potting mix after 4–6 weeks of growth in vitro
and maintained at 22–26°C under a 16-h photoperiod provided by lamps (Gro-Lux) at an inten-
sity of 140 µEM–2 s–1. Plants were evaluated at various times during their growth, ranging from
4 to 12 months after transplanting.
The pathogens used were Alternaria radicini, Botrytis cinerea, Rhizoctonia solani, Scle-
rotium rolfsii, and Thielaviopsis basicola. All cultures were maintained on 15% V8 juice agar and
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516 Punja
incubated at 22–28°C on the laboratory bench. Colonies were subcultured prior to use in the in-
oculation experiments. Petioles from transgenic and control plants of each cultivar were selected
from similar-aged plants. The petioles were excised at the crown, the leaves were trimmed off,
and 10- to 16-cm-long sections were washed under running tap water for 3–5 min. Petioles of
similar diameter were grouped and cut into 8-cm-long sections; six segments were combined and
assayed together as one sample. Petioles from transgenic and control plants were inserted upright
into actively growing colonies (7–14-days-old, in 100 × 15 mm petri dishes) of the fungal patho-
gens; the distal ends of the petioles were grouped and held together with tape (Fig. 5). Where pos-
sible, samples of six petiole segments from transgenic and control plants were placed on the same
fungal colony, at opposite ends. The petri dishes with the petioles were sealed in plastic bags lined
with moistened paper towels. The extent of lesion development from the base of the petiole up-
ward was measured after 2, 4, and 7 days of incubation at 22–24°C. Lesion length was measured
to the nearest millimeter on each petiole, and the mean lesion length for each colony was deter-
mined. In each experiment, two to three cultures of each inoculum age were used to assess each
cultivar/transgenic line. The experiment was conducted five times, each with two to three repli-
cate colonies of each pathogen, using petioles from the same transgenic plants collected at dif-
ferent times during growth. Data from all of the experiments were subjected to analysis of vari-
ance (ANOVA). Untransformed data were analyzed by the general linear modeling program
(GLM) in the SAS statistical software package (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Pairwise comparisons
of treatment means (lesion size) were made for transgenic versus control tissues for both cultivars
at each of the three assessment dates and for the two inoculum types. Significant differences are
indicated at P = 0.01 using the LSD test.
The detached petiole assay was a sensitive and reproducible method for rating the extent of
Figure 5 Detached petiole assay used to evaluate response of transgenic and nontransgenic plants to fun-
gal inoculation. Petioles were placed upright into a colony of Botrytis cinerea; left group of petioles are from
control plants, right group are from transgenic plants. Photograph was taken after 3 days, note lesion devel-
opment and collapse of tissues at the base of petioles of the control.
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fungal development on transgenic and control carrot tissues. In general, significant differences
were not apparent until 4 days after inoculation for most of the pathogens tested. After extensive
fungal colonization, there was collapse of the petioles within 5–7 days due to extensive cell mac-
eration. To prevent this, each group of petioles was supported by a central wooden stake, which
held them upright until the experiment was completed (Fig. 5). For the transgenic line expressing
the acidic petunia chitinase, statistical analyses of the data did not show a significant difference
between transgenic and nontransgenic plants in several experiments (data not shown). The trans-
genic line expressing the basic tobacco chitinase was also challenged with the pathogens and
comparisons were made with control plants. With B. cinerea, lesion size was significantly (P =
0.01) smaller in transgenic plants of both ‘Golden State’ and ‘Nanco’ at 4 and 7 days after inoc-
ulation (Fig. 6A). With R. solani, lesion development was significantly reduced in the transgenic
cultivar ‘Nanco’ at all evaluation times (2, 4, and 7 days), whereas in ‘Golden State,’ a significant
reduction was seen only after 7 days (Fig. 6B). With S. rolfsii., overall lesion sizes were smaller
in transgenic cultivar ‘Nanco’ at all evaluation times, whereas ‘Golden State’ had lower disease
only at day 7 (Fig. 6C). The greater reduction in lesion size at later evaluation times is indicative
of a cumulative effect of the antifungal activity due to the expressed chitinases. Thus, chitinase
expression in transgenic carrot plants has the potential to delay appearance of disease symptoms
and result in lower overall disease incidence.
VIII. OTHER REPORTS OF CARROT TRANSFORMATION

FOR DISEASE TOLERANCE
Several antifungal proteins from tobacco were constitutively expressed in transgenic carrot plants
when using constructs from tobacco containing cDNAs and genomic fragments after Agrobac-
terium sp. transformation (59,60). The genes encoded AP 24 (PR-5, osmotin), chitinase, and glu-
canase. Transformed lines were regenerated and self-pollinated, and seed was used for field trials
in 2 years. Selected lines showed increased resistance against four pathogens: Alternaria dauci,
A. radicini, Cercospora carotae, and Erysiphe heraclei. The most promising lines were those ex-
pressing a combination of a chitinase and a glucanase gene, and they exhibited broad-spectrum
tolerance (59,60). A human lysozyme gene was constitutively expressed in two carrot cultivars
and some of the transgenic lines showed enhanced resistance to Erysiphe heraclei and Alternaria
dauci (61).
IX. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
It is evident from all of the published work on carrot transformation to date that several different
protocols are available. The variables that appear to affect the frequency of transformation include
carrot cultivar, explant source, bacterial strain, tissue culture medium, and growth regulators. In
spite of this, recovery of transgenic carrot plants has been reported from several laboratories. Sur-
prisingly, however, there are few reports on the introduction of potentially useful agronomic traits
in carrot, with the exception of fungal disease resistance. When compared to other vegetable
crops, such as tomato and cucumber, carrot appears to have lagged behind in the level of interest
for genetic transformation for the introduction of novel traits. This is surprising for a plant species
that responds well in tissue culture and is a horticulturally valuable crop.
Although breeding efforts have provided and will continue to provide superior cultivars for
commercial use, there are many unexploited opportunities for future targets in genetic engineer-
ing of carrot. The feasibility of introducing virus resistance, resistance to insect pests, tolerance
of environmental stress, and modulation of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway and the ratio of
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518 Punja
Figure 6 Lesion development on transgenic and control petioles of two carrot cultivars at 2, 4, and 7 days
after inoculation with different pathogens. (A) Botrytis cinerea. (B) Rhizoctonia solani. (C) Sclerotium rolf-
sii. Means followed by different letters are significantly different (P = 0.01, LSD test) within each time of
inoculation.
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various sugars for quality enhancement has yet to be explored. Confirmation of expression of the
desired trait under field conditions and transmission of the introduced genes to the progeny will
be required.
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genic carrot plants (abstract). Phytopathology 86:S57, 1996.
60. LS Melchers, MH Stuiver, Novel genes for disease-resistance breeding. Curr Opin Plant Biol 3:147–
152, 2000.
61. M Takaichi, K Oeda. Transgenic carrots with enhanced resistance against two major pathogens,
Erysiphe heraclei and Alternaria dauci. Plant Sci 153:135–144, 2000.
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36
Transgenic Cassava for Food Security and
Economic Development
Nigel J. Taylor, M. V. Masona, and Claude M. Fauquet
ILTAB/Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri
Christian Schöpke
ValiGen, San Diego, California
I. INTRODUCTION 523
II. AGRONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND SOCIOECONOMIC ROLE OF CASSAVA 524
III. THE ROLE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN CASSAVA IMPROVEMENT 526
IV. DEVELOPMENT AND PRESENT STATE OF TRANSGENIC
TECHNOLOGIES IN CASSAVA 527
V. APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING IN CASSAVA 531
A. Virus Resistance 531
B. Bacterial Blight Resistance 533
C. Resistance to Insect Pests 534
D. Herbicide Resistance 535
E. Starch and Polymers 536
F. Cyanogenesis 537
G. Postharvest Deterioration 537
H. Other Applications 538
VI. PROMOTERS AND TRANSGENE EXPRESSION 539
VII. INTEGRATED GENOMIC AND GENETIC TRANSFORMATIONS 540
VIII. SUSTAINING PROGRESS AND APPLICATION OF CASSAVA TECHNOLOGY 541
A. Collaboration and the Role of the Cassava Biotechnology Network 541
B. Technology Transfer 541
IX. CONCLUSION 542
REFERENCES 543
I. INTRODUCTION
The tropical root crop cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is, after rice and maize, the most im-
portant staple food crop cultivated in the tropics and the primary source of dietary calories in
many of the world’s low-income countries. Cassava is cultivated in 80 tropical countries over a
523
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524 Taylor et al.
total of 16 million hectares and eaten by an estimated 500 million people daily (1). Addressing
constraints to cassava production through the application of transgenic biotechnologies could im-
prove the quality of life for hundreds of millions of people and contribute to future food security
for billions more. Despite this, reports of the first confirmed transgenic cassava plants in 1996
were met with mixed enthusiasm. Although they credited the technical achievements, they raised
concerns as to the relevance and value of the breakthroughs in a crop with undefined commercial
value (2).
Others view the development of transgenic technologies for cassava differently and believe
that along with that of other tropical food crops, its improvement should command the highest
priority. The projected total number of people who must be supported by the world’s agricultural
systems by the year 2050 varies according to source, but is estimated at between 8 and 11 billion
(3). What is not disputed is that 90% of the population increase from present levels will occur in
the less developed countries (LDCs), requiring a doubling in food production in these regions (4).
With 820 million people already classed as chronically undernourished (3,4), critical questions
are being asked about the ability of tropical agriculture to fulfill future nutritional and economic
requirements in the LDCs. Cassava’s high productivity under suboptimal and low-input agricul-
tural conditions has identified it as an important factor in attaining sustainable food security and
economic development within many tropical countries (1,5). In order to meet these challenges all
available tools, including biotechnology, should be brought to bear to address its major yield con-
straints and to enhance product quality.
This chapter outlines the progress made in developing and applying transgenic technolo-
gies for the agronomic improvement of cassava. First, the crop and its socioeconomic importance
are described given in order to highlight the perceived requirement for biotechnology in cassava
improvement programs. The development of genetic transformation technologies and their ap-
plication to address the major limiting factors in cassava cultivation are then described. It will be-
come apparent that transgenic capabilities in cassava are lagging behind those of most other major
food and cash crops. Although genetic transformation protocols are now in place, at the time of
writing no transgenic cassava plants have undergone field testing. The technical reasons for this
are discussed, but cassava’s position as primarily a subsistence crop raises numerous issues that
must be addressed before transgenic approaches for its improvement can be implemented and
sustained.
Nevertheless, it is hoped the reader will appreciate that significant breakthroughs have oc-
curred in cassava biotechnology since the mid-1990s. Genetically engineered cassava plants ex-
pressing marker genes (6–8) and transgenes for virus resistance (9), modified starch synthesis
(10), herbicide resistance (11), and reduced cyanogenic qualities (12) have been recovered. Map-
ping projects are under way (1) and numerous BAC and complementary deoxyribonucleic acid
(cDNA) libraries are now available. In relation to the resources committed, progress has been
good and an initial period of frustration has given way to one of optimism and opportunity.
II. AGRONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND SOCIOECONOMIC

ROLE OF CASSAVA
Cassava, otherwise known as tapioca, yuca, manioc, or mandioca, is an outcrossing, monecious

member of the family Euphorbiaceae. Considered an allotetraploid (2n = 36), it is a highly het-
erozygous, semiwoody perennial shrub varying from 1 to 4 m in height, depending on the culti-
var (Fig. 1A). Propagation takes place vegetatively, via lignified stem cuttings. After planting,
new roots are formed and axillary buds sprout to form the shoot system. Three to four months
later, photosynthates produced by the established leaf canopy are diverted to the root system,
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Transgenic Cassava 525
Figure 1 Cultivation and processing of cassava. (A) Cassava field in Indonesia; (B) harvested cassava tu-
bers, 30–40 cm, awaiting processing; (C) Cameroonian villagers processing cassava into gari, a type of cas-
sava flour.
where the excess energy is converted to starch and stored in the parenchyma of greatly thickened
storage roots, generally referred to as tubers (13,14) (Fig. 1B). Although some peoples consume
the leaves as a green vegetable, the crop is cultivated primarily for the high calorific value of its
storage roots, which are processed to produce a large range of food products (14) (Fig. 1C).
M. flabelifollia has now been confirmed as the most likely progenitor of cultivated cassava,
with a center of origin along the southern border of Amazonia (15). The Portuguese transported
the plant to western Africa during the 16th century; from there it spread eastward and eventually
reached Madagascar. Introduction to Asia took place in the 17th century, and by the end of the
1800s it was established in all the world’s tropical regions (5). Cultivation continued to increase
throughout the 20th century, most noticeably in Africa, where the colonial powers often encour-
aged its cultivation as a famine reserve and where it gradually replaced traditional but less robust
root crops such as yam (Diosiorea sp). At the beginning of the 21st century, Africa is the largest
cassava producing region, harvesting 85.9 million tons fresh weight tubers from 10.3 million
hectares, followed in production by Asia and South America (3) (Table 1). On a country scale,
Nigeria, Thailand, Indonesia, and Brazil are the major cassava producers (16); however, 11 of the
Table 1 World Cassava Production by Region
Area harvested Average yield Production

Region (ha × 106) (tons/ha)a (tons × 106)
Africa 10.3 8.3 86.0

Asia 3.5 13.3 46.5
South America 2.2 12.4 27.4
Others 0.2 — 1.1
World 16.2 9.9 161.0
a
Weights expressed as wet weight of harvested root tissues.
Source: Ref. 3.
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526 Taylor et al.
12 countries that consume the most cassava per capita are in sub-Saharan Africa, where 40% of
the population rely on it as their major staple food (17).
Cassava’s success is based on its unusually adaptable and productive nature. Although
greatest yields are obtained on loamy, sandy soil under humid tropical conditions, it is highly tol-
erant of marginal or eroded soils and adapts easily to the acidic oxisols prevalent throughout much
of the tropics. An efficient photosynthetic system enables it to accumulate as much as 250 × 103
cal/ha/day, a rate 25% and 40% greater than that of rice and maize, respectively (18). Coupled
with a high harvest index of up to 0.8 dry weight tubers/total plant dry weight (5,18) this makes
cassava one of the most productive crop plants and the cheapest known source of starch. When
grown on fertile soils under high radiation, cassava yields are comparable on a dry weight basis
to rice, maize, and sugarcane. However, under conditions of biotic and abiotic stress cassava ex-
cels, outyielding all other staple food crops (1,5). Once established, cassava plants are able to
withstand considerable periods of drought or defoliation by insect pests by mobilizing reserves
laid down in the root system to reestablish the leaf canopy and resume growth.
Cassava’s reliability, flexible harvest time, and amenability to intercropping make it highly
attractive to smallholder farmers. These characteristics, combined with the need to process cas-
sava tubers within 48 hours of harvesting, have kept the majority of cassava cultivation and com-
merce small-scale and local. Most cassava is grown for human consumption, with an average of
88 kg consumed per person per year in Africa (1). Cassava’s economic value lies primarily at the
village and town levels, where farmers trade fresh and processed cassava products in local mar-
kets. Its perception as purely a subsistence crop is somewhat misleading, as an estimated 40% of
the cassava planted in African fields in 1996 was intended for sale (19). This proportion is even
higher in West Africa and South America, where there are established and expanding markets for
animal feed, alcohol production, and industrial starch from cassava processing. Thailand and In-
donesia are the major exporters of cassava products, accounting for more than 80% of the $435
m worth of cassava dried pellets and starch traded on world markets in 1997 (3). World fresh pro-
duction for 1998 was valued at over $16 billion (20), but the monetary value of the crop on a
global scale is less important than its role within the microeconomies of the LDCs.
There is no doubt that cassava is of central importance to a significant proportion of the
world’s population. However, because of its perception in the North as a subsistence crop with lit-
tle or no economic value, it has only recently become the subject of concerted research and im-
provement programs. This means that cassava still retains an unknown capacity for yield and
quality improvement, one that is likely to be greater than that of other major food crops. With in-
creasing population pressure requiring greater productivity from marginal and degraded soils
under suboptimal farming conditions, cassava is poised to become one of the most important
crops of the 21st century.
III. THE ROLE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN CASSAVA IMPROVEMENT
Despite its robust nature, cassava is susceptible to a number of biotic and abiotic constraints that
must be addressed if it is to fulfill its yield potential reliably. These vary in importance from one
location to another but include preharvest losses to viral and bacterial diseases, pests, and weeds.
Production in Africa is most adversely affected, resulting in average yields of 8.3 tons fresh
weight tubers per hectare, 60% below those achieved in Asia and almost 10 times lower than that
recorded under optimal field trial conditions (5). Rapid postharvest deterioration is a ubiquitous
problem that limits marketability of the crop and hinders the development of medium- to large-
scale commercial exploitation. Lack of high-quality planting material, low-protein content of cas-
sava products, and presence of cyanogenic compounds in the storage roots are also considered
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limiting factors. Addressing these restrictions would have a significant impact on food production
in the tropical regions.
The diverse nature of the constraints, different socioeconomic requirements for cassava
among cultural groups, problems encountered in disseminating information to small farmers, and
lack of resources for agrochemical applications, all mean that the production of improved
germplasm remains the most effective manner in which to address limitations to cassava’s culti-
vation and exploitation. Conventional breeding for cassava improvement was initiated in the
1920s (21), and concerted programs have been ongoing since the 1960s at the CGIAR centers
with a mandate for cassava: the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT, Colombia)
and the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA, Nigeria). Traditional breeding sys-
tems are hindered, however, by cassava’s highly heterozygous nature, its shy and asynchronous
flowering, and inbreeding depression. Cassava breeding programs are bulky and lengthy, requir-
ing screening of between 50,000 and 100,000 seedlings after the first sexual crossing (14) and at
least 10 years for the improved product to reach the farmer. In addition, as a result of wide seg-
regation of desirable traits after sexual crossing, any new variety will differ in numerous traits
from the genotype originally selected by the farmer as best suited to his or her agronomic condi-
tions and socioeconomic needs.
The development and application of transgenic technologies in cassava could circumvent
many of the problems inherent in traditional improvement programs. Transfer of beneficial traits
from cultivated varieties and wild relatives could be rapidly integrated into a given cultivar with-
out compromising its existing desirable agronomic characteristics (22,23). Equally important,
such capabilities would facilitate the introduction of heterologous genes, such as those imparting
pathogen-derived resistance, insect toxins, antisense traits, and apomixis, something not possible
by conventional breeding, that could potentionally revolutionize the cultivation and utilisation of
cassava. Although priorities were set regarding the application of genetic engineering to address
the major constraints outlined here (23), it was obvious that protocols for the production of trans-
genic cassava plants must first be developed and established.
IV. DEVELOPMENT AND PRESENT STATE OF TRANSGENIC

TECHNOLOGIES IN CASSAVA
Concerted efforts to develop a genetic transformation system for cassava were initiated in the
early 1990s, but as a result of restricted funding and the crop’s recalcitrance to in vitro manipu-
lation, effective protocols remained elusive until 1996. Somatic embryogenesis was first reported
in cassava in 1982 (24), after which the original embryogenic protocol was improved and ex-
tended into several dozen cultivars (25–27). In all cases, embryogenic structures possessing a
high degree of organization between and within their epidermal and subepidermal cell layers (28)
are induced to develop from immature leaf explants after 3 weeks culture on medium supple-
mented with auxin. As the only plant regeneration system available, these structures, and the sec-
ondary embryos that can be produced from them, were employed as target tissues in early at-
tempts to develop a genetic transformation capability in cassava. However, the multicellular
nature of the morphogenic events and the highly organized nature of the embryogenic structures
made efficient selection for the transgenic cells difficult and resulted, at best, in the recovery of
chimeric tissues (29).
Achievement of a genetic transformation capability for cassava resulted from break-
throughs in manipulating the embryogenic culture systems. Three different methods have now
been reported for recovering transgenic cassava plants, with integration of the transgenes con-
firmed by Southern blot analysis in each case (6–8,11,12). Fig. 2 provides a schematic represen-
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528 Taylor et al.
Particle bombardment
or Agrobacterium sp. Agrobacterium sp.
Agrobacterium sp.
Figure 2 Schematic representation of three methods for recovering transgenic cassava plants.
tation of the genetic transformation and tissue culture systems now used for the crop. In the first
method, procedures were developed for the induction of friable embryogenic callus and suspen-
sion cultures (30). Such tissues are recognized as excellent target tissues for transgene insertion
and are employed as the basis for genetic transformation programs in numerous crop species in-
cluding the cereals (31,32). In most cases zygotic embryos are used as the initial explant. How-
ever, in cassava the heterozygous nature of this tissue makes it an unsuitable starting material, and
so somatic embryos are produced first from leaf tissues with friable embryogenic callus (FEC)
subsequently induced from these totipotent structures.
Two laboratories have confirmed regeneration of transgenic plants from the African culti-
var TMS 60444 after particle bombardment of embryogenic suspension tissues. At the Interna-
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tional Laboratory for Tropical Agricultural Biotechnology (ILTAB), the marker genes nptII and
uidA were inserted; selection on media containing the antibiotic paromomycin followed (6).
Workers at the Agricultural University, Wageningen employed similar procedures but utilized the
marker gene luc to allow visual identification and selection of transgenic tissues after application
of the substrate luciferine (7). Transgenic tissues were isolated and proliferated; afterwhich re-
generation of transgenic plants took place through embryo development, maturation, and germi-
nation (Fig. 3). The potential of this system to produce transgenic plants has been further realized
by recovery of transgenic plants after genetic transformation of embryogenic suspension tissues
with Agrobacterium (33) and use of the callus as the target tissue in place of suspension-derived
tissues.
Simultaneously with the initial report by ILTAB, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
(ETH) confirmed recovery of transgenic cassava plantlets from the South American cultivar
‘M.Col 22’ (8). In this system organized embryogenic structures initiated from leaf explants were
allowed to mature and develop green cotyledons on medium lacking auxin. The foliose organs
were excised from the mature embryos, cut into small pieces, and infected with Agrobacterium
carrying the nptII (or hph) and uidA marker genes. Shoot regeneration was induced by culturing
the explants on medium containing the cytokinin benzylaminopurine and the selection agent ge-
neticin or hygromycin. The third documented transformation system also exploits the mor-
phogenic potential of somatic embryo–derived cotyledons. In this case a new cycle of somatic
embryos was induced from fragments of these organs infected by Agrobacterium, followed by re-
generation and germination of the embryos on medium containing the relevant antibiotics. Re-
searchers at both CIAT (11) and, more recently, Ohio State University (12) have reported the re-
covery of transgenic cassava in this way from cvs. ‘M.Peru 183’ and ‘M.Col 2215,’ respectively.
For further details on the tissue culture and genetic transformation transfer systems in cassava the
reader is referred to a number of recent reviews (1,16,34,35).
In most crop species genetic transformation systems are initially developed and optimized
for genotypes that are most amenable to manipulation by the available tissue culture protocols.
These then act as valuable models for the study of transgene integration, expression, and imparted
phenotype, with further efforts required to expand the technology into economically important
cultivars. Cassava is no exception, but with more than 1700 cassava cultivars grown throughout
the tropics, the challenge in this crop is significant. It will not be possible, or even desirable, to
Figure 3 Regeneration of transgenic cassava plants. (A) Cotyledon-stage somatic embryos, regenerating
from friable embryogenic callus; (B) transgenic cassava plantslets, developing from a germinated somatic
embryo; (C) greenhouse-grown transgenic cassava plant cv. TMS 60444.
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530 Taylor et al.
develop genetic transformation capabilities for every cultivar, but the technology must be ex-
panded into the regionally most important varieties if the benefits of genetic engineering are to
reach the small- to medium-scale farmer. Efforts to develop cultivar-independent transformation
protocols by direct gene transfer to proliferating meristems have proved unsuccessful (36), leav-
ing the production of embryogenic tissues a prerequisite for transformation in any given cassava
cultivar. Fig. 1 illustrates how all three established transformation systems are reliant on the abil-
ity to induce and then proliferate embryogenic tissues from immature leaf tissues. Consequently,
considerable effort has been directed at improving induction procedures from this organ (25–27,
37). Encouragingly, competence for somatic embryogenesis appears widespread in M. esculenta
and it has been possible to induce embryogenic tissues in almost all 65 cultivars tested to date (1).
Neverthleless, embryogenic efficiencies are strongly genotype-dependent, varying from 100% to
less than 5% (26,27), making further research necessary to improve our understanding of the fac-
tors controlling embryogenic competence in cassava and to allow incorporation of more cultivars
into the transgenic protocols.
Despite genotypic variation, results indicate that genetic transformation in a significant
range of cassava cultivars will be possible in the near future. Friable embryogenic callus has been
established in 16 cultivars and plant regeneration achieved in 9 (9,37). Transgenic plants have
been recovered in the three African cultivars ‘TMS 60444,’ ‘Bonoua Rouge,’ and ‘L2,’ and the
South American cultivar ‘M.Col 1505’ after particle bombardment of embryogenic suspension
tissues. The production and regeneration of transgenic plants of cv. ‘TMS 60444’ are now rou-
tine, taking 4–6 months from the time of gene insertion to plantlet establishment. At the time of
writing approximately 125 transgenic plant lines containing transgene constructs coding for
marker genes and for putative resistance to virus and bacterial diseases have been recovered at
ILTAB (9). A similar number of transgenic plant lines containing visual marker genes and an an-
tisense starch gene by researchers in the Netherlands have been recovered (10,37).
Plant recovery via organogenesis from cotyledon fragments has also been improved and ex-
tended into six cultivars (38). Recovery of transgenic plantlets from transgenic cotyledon tissues
can be achieved in a slightly shorter time than from the disorganized embryogenic tissues,
whether by somatic embryogenesis or caulogenesis. Both these systems are simpler in concept
and require less tissue culture expertise than regeneration from FEC but necessitate greater labor
inputs if large numbers of transgenic plants are to be recovered. The lack of a disorganized growth
phase is desirable as it minimizes the chance of culture-induced variation but also raises as yet
unresolved questions regarding the likelihood of inadvertently recovering chimeric plants.
Considerable debate has centered on which of the genetic transformation systems are su-
perior and/or preferable for use in cassava transformation programs. As for other species, criteria
assessed are reproducibility, number of independent transgenic plant lines recoverable, time re-
quired to recover plants, quality of the regenerants, and possible chimerism (39). For cassava,
however, attention must also be paid to transferability of the protocols to other laboratories, most
especially those in the LDCs. Future requirements in transgenic programs should also be consid-
ered. The ability to pyramid genes for disease resistance and manipulation of biosynthetic path-
ways will require integration and expression of multiple transgenes in a manner similar to that
demonstrated in 1998 in rice (40). Full and rapid exploitation of genomic tools will also necessi-
tate insertion of large regions (up to several hundred thousand base pairs) of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), such as those carried in bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs). Each of the trans-
formation methods reported has its strengths and possible drawbacks, such that at this time, it is
not possible to say which will become the preferred method. Indeed, the resources available in
any given location, the target cultivars, the amount of DNA being inserted, the number of plant
lines required, and the resources and expertise of the respective laboratories may mean that all
have a role to play in the application of transgenic technologies in cassava.
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V. APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING IN CASSAVA
With reproducible genetic transformation systems now established, cassava biotechnology has
entered its second phase, in which transgenes of potential agronomic interest are being integrated,
expressed, and studied in cassava. Table 2 lists the agronomic traits identified as targets for trans-
genic cassava and gives an estimated time scale for their achievement. Transgenic programs under
way reflect a combination of the major constraints to cassava production, the genes available to
tackle them, and the goals and expertise of the respective laboratories driving the research.
A. Virus Resistance
The application of genetic transformation for increased resistance to the major cassava viruses is
a major priority. Pathogen-derived resistance strategies have proved effective in other crops (41)
and are being developed against both major viral diseases of cassava: cassava common mosaic
virus (CsCMV) and African cassava mosaic disease (ACMD).
1. Cassava Common Mosaic Virus

CsCMV is a potexvirus capable of causing yield losses in excess of 30% in Brazil, Peru, Colom-
bia, and Paraguay (42) and in 1995 a new strain in Venezuela was reported (43). Fauquet and
coworkers found that expression of CsCMV coat protein (CP) gene in N. benthamiana plants was
correlated with increased resistance to the homologous Brazilian strain of the virus, such that
transgenic plants required 10–100 times greater concentration of virus innoculum to elicit the
same symptoms as control plants (44). The CP transgene also provided some resistance against
Table 2 Goals and Projected Time Spans for Genetically Engineered Cassava
Goal Estimated time to field trial (Years)
Virus resistance
Common cassava mosaic virus 1–2a
African cassava mosaic virus 1–2a
Bacterial resistance
Cassava bacterial blight 1–2a
Insect resistance
Stem borer 1–2a
Hornworm 3–5
Mealy bug 3–5
Nematode resistance 3–5
Herbicide resistance 1–2a
Modified starch 1–2a
Reduced cyanogenic properties 1–2a
Improved postharvest traits 3–5
Elevated root proteins 3–5a
Extented leaf life 1–2a
Bioplastic production >10
Apomixis (clonal true seed) >10
Modified plant architecture 5–10
Elevated root dry matter 3–5
a
Projects under way.
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532 Taylor et al.
CsCMV strains from Colombia and Paraguay. With such clear demonstration of transgenic resis-
tance, insertion of the CsCMV CP was undertaken as soon as reliable protocols became available
for producing genetically transformed cassava plants. Particle bombardment of embryogenic sus-
pension cultures at ILTAB has resulted in the production of several hundred callus lines resistant
to the antibiotic paromomycin, from which 30 independent transgenic plant lines containing the
CP gene were regenerated. Western blot analysis confirmed varying levels of CP expression in
leaf tissues from 12 of the 30 plant lines (45). The most robust of these plants are now established
in the greenhouse and are being assessed to determine whether expression of the transgene in cas-
sava tissues imparts effective resistance to the virus.
2. African Cassava Mosaic Disease

African cassava mosaic disease is the most serious disease of cassava and considered the most
important vector-borne disease of any African crop. Production is adversely affected in every sub-
Saharan country. In West Africa, which has been subjected to the most detailed study, 80–100%
of all plants are infected (20,46) by the virus. The disease was initially thought to be caused by
African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV), a geminivirus transmitted by the whitlefly Bemisia tabaci
and spread through the use of infected cuttings. However, recent investigations have shown the
situation to be more diverse and complicated than previously considered, as at least two other
species, East African mosaic virus (EACMV) (46) and South African mosaic virus (SACMV)
(47), are present on the continent, along with many strains and variants. Mixed infections can
exist within the same field and indeed the same plant, leading to very severe symptoms. The virus
is not usually lethal but suppresses plant vigor, causing yield reductions of between 15% and 30%
continent wide, estimated to be equivalent to 25 million tons of food or $2.3 billion per year (20).
Most worryingly, recombination between these viruses appears to be driving the evolution of the
disease, leading to the appearance of new and highly virulent strains that have devastated cassava
production in recent years and caused severe hardship in areas of Uganda and neighboring coun-
tries (48). In addition, Bemisia tabaci has been reported in Cuba and Brazil, raising concern that
the disease could become established in Latin America (W. Roca, personal communication,
1999). Because there is little known resistance to ACMD in the South American germplasm, in-
troduction of the virus into this continent would have potentially devastating effects on food and
commercial cassava production, germplasm collections, and native Manihot species.
Breeding programs at IITA have produced cultivars with elevated resistance to ACMD,
mostly through incorporation of traits from the wild species M. glaziovii (49), but the improved
cultivars do not suit the cultural needs of all African farmers. There is a desire, therefore, to uti-
lize genetic transformation to introduce new sources of resistance directly into specific cassava
cultivars. Three such strategies have proved effective in suppressing ACMV replication and
movement in transgenic N. benthamiana test plants. Employing a pathogen-derived replicase
strategy, Hong and colleagues found that integration and expression of the ACMV AC1 (Rep)
gene driven by the enhanced 35S promoter imparted elevated resistance to infection by this virus
(50). Likewise, Sangare and colleagues showed that expression of a mutated AC1 gene delayed
symptom appearance and severity and reduced virus movement (51). In an alternative approach,
advantage has been taken of naturally occurring low levels of defective interfering (DI) particles
associated with infections of ACMV. The DIs consist of a mixed population of subgenomic DNA
B deletion mutants, approximately half the size of the full-length component, in which both genes
have been disrupted. When DI dimers were integrated into the N. benthamiana genome, they be-
came mobilized in the presence of ACMV, replicating to high numbers as extrachromosomal
copies, interfering with viral replication, and imparting elevated resistance to the virus through
symptom attenuation and delay (52). In a third approach, ACMV infection was reduced by em-
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ploying a gene coding for the toxic ribosome inactivating protein (RIP) isolated from Dianthus
caryophyllus and cloned downstream from an ACMV DNA A viron sense (AV1) promoter. After
transformation into N. benthamina, expression of the transgene only took place when presence of
the virus transactivated the AV1 promoter. Expression of the toxic protein caused death of the in-
fected cells in a hypersensitive-like manner, significantly reducing virus accumulation and sys-
temic movement (53).
Transgenic cassava plants of cv. ‘TMS 60444’ containing AC1 and DI sequences have been
regenerated at ILTAB. Insertion of the DI was straightforward, but when the AC1 gene driven by
the cassava vein mosaic virus (CsVMV) promoter was bombarded into embryogenic suspension
tissues, very few transgenic lines could be recovered compared to those of controls transformed
with a promoterless version of the gene (ILTAB, unpublished results). Analysis of the recovered
transgenic AC1 callus lines indicated that expression of the wild-type ACMV AC1 gene is toxic
to cassava cells. However, spontaneously produced, nonlethal versions of the AC1 transgene re-
covered from surviving callus lines have been identified, cloned, and used to produce further gen-
erations of transgenic plants. Genetically transformed plants containing a point mutation in the
NTP binding domain of the AC1 gene have been produced in this way, with expression confirmed
at the ribonucleic acid (RNA) level. Challenge of transgenic plants containing DI dimers and the
AC1 gene is ongoing. Cultivar ‘TMS 60444’ is known to be highly susceptible to the virus (54)
and should provide a good model for determining the effectiveness of these pathogen-derived
strategies.
These studies represent only the first efforts to develop transgenic resistance to ACMD.
Further questions must be addressed, including durability of any imparted resistance, especially
under field conditions and over numerous vegetative generations. Integration of the DI from
ACMV imparted elevated resistance to both Nigerian and Kenyan isolates of this virus in N. ben-
thamiana (50), but it is not known whether it, or the AC1 gene, will maintain resistance to other
ACMD-causing virus species, or against mixed infections. In such cases it may be necessary to
insert pathogen-derived transgenes from more than one virus, depending on the region of in-
tended cultivation, or to develop broad-based resistance strategies against all the ACMD-causing
geminiviruses. It is also hoped that mapping and genomic studies will allow identification and
cloning of natural virus resistance genes within the next 5 years. Once isolated, these genes can
be transferred directly to farmer-preferred cultivars or used as the basis for conventional breeding
programs.
B. Bacterial Blight Resistance

Cassava bacterial blight (CBB), causal agent Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam), is
endemic to Africa and Latin America and constitutes a threat to the crop in both continents. A sys-
temic and epiphytic pathogen, Xam produces infection that causes a variety of symptoms, in-
cluding angular leaf spots, vascular necrosis, wilting, and dieback. Occurrence and severity of the
disease are unpredictable and vary with the cultivar and climatic conditions. CBB is spread
mostly through the use of infected cuttings with losses of up to 100% occurring in severe cases,
and control is limited to good sanitation and the use of resistant varieties. Resistance was initially
bred into cultivated varieties from the wild relative M. glaziovii and is thought to be polygenic
(55).
Efforts to develop a transgenic approach to CBB resistance are still in their early stages but
hold great promise. Two approaches are being taken. In the first, the bacterial resistance gene
Xa21, isolated from a wild relative of rice, which imparts resistance to bacterial leaf blight caused
by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), is being inserted into the cassava genome. Xa21 is an
R gene encoding a putative receptor kinase that provides resistance to a significant geographical
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534 Taylor et al.
range of Xoo isolates when expressed as a transgene in cultivated rice varieties (56). Both wild-
type and complementary DNA (cDNA) versions of the gene, driven by the natural and 35S pro-
moters, respectively, have been inserted into cassava cv. ‘TMS 60444.’ It is yet to be determined
whether Xa21 is expressed in cassava tissues or whether any cross-protection will be imparted
against Xam. Promisingly, however, PCR primers designed for Xa21 have been used to amplify
homologous sequences from CBB-resistant, but not CBB-susceptible cassava cultivars. An am-
plified sequence has been used to screen the BAC library at CIAT; it has allowed five clones that
contain the Xa21 homologue to be identified (M. Fregene, personal communication, 1999). Fin-
gerprinting revealed three different restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns
from the five clones, and information from the mapping population has allowed the trait to be cor-
related to known resistance against at least one CBB strain with agronomic importance in north-
ern South America (V. Verdier, personal communication, 1998). The three BACs have been trans-
ferred to ILTAB, where they are being cobombarded with a selectable marker gene into
embryogenic TMS 60444 tissues. Recovered transgenic tissues will be screened with the respec-
tive primers to identify which have incorporated the desired sequence, and plants will be regen-
erated from these lines. Methods for challenging young plantlets by stem inoculation have been
developed at CIAT (V. Verdier, personal communication, 1998), demonstrating good correlation
between seedling and adult resistance in CBB (49).
This approach marks an important move forward for cassava biotechnology as it represents
for the first time the combination of functional genomics, mapping, and transgenic technologies
in an integrated manner to combat an important agronomic constraint. If resistance to CBB can
be transferred to ‘TMS 60444,’ other relevant cultivars will be transformed in the same way or
with the cloned gene(s) responsible for imparting resistance. As for ACMD it is likely that future
efforts will be directed at pyramiding and expressing multiple resistance transgenes to ensure
durable and widespread resistance to the different CBB strains.
C. Resistance to Insect Pests

Because of its long planting to harvest time, cassava is susceptible to severe infestation by insect
pests. The use of infected cuttings in subsequent generations can then result in accumulating pest
populations, significant yield reductions, and even crop failure. In Africa, mealybug (Phenacoc-
cus manihoti) and cassava green mite (Mononychellus tanajoa), both introduced from South
America and therefore without natural predators, are considered the most important pests affect-
ing the crop. In Latin America the range of insect pests is greater; it includes mites, cutworms,
scale insects, mealybugs, and lace bugs (57). However, the hornworm (Erinnyis ello) and stem
borers (various species of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera) pose the most serious
threat. The use of chemical control systems is not generally recommended (57) because of their
toxicity and damage to natural enemies of the pest populations, while the purchase of chemicals
is not economically feasible for many smallholders. As for other constraints, the use of resistant
planting material is seen as the most effective way to combat many of cassava’s insect pests.
Transgenic plants with elevated resistance to insect damage have proved effective in a num-
ber of crops (58,59) and were planted over 3.7 million hectares worldwide in 1998 (60). In most
cases, one or more cry genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) coding for insectici-
dal (Bt) toxins are expressed by the plant genome. Ingestion of plant tissues containing these tox-
ins has proved effective for controlling a variety of insect families. In response to farmer-identi-
fied concerns regarding the stem borer Chilomima clarkei, a program for the production of
transgenic cassava expression cry genes has been initiated at CIAT. Losses to this insect are in-
creasing in northern Colombia, causing as much as 60% reduction in tuber yield and 100% loss
of planting material. Infestations identified in one location in 1995 had spread to three states by
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1998, threatening commercial and subsistence farmers growing the susceptible cultivar ‘M.Col
2215’ (Venezolana) in this region and in neighbouring Venezuela and Ecuador (P. Chavarriaga,
personal communication, 1999). The cry1A (b) gene has been obtained and is being transferred
into ‘M.Col 2215’ by using Agrobacterium and particle bombardment transformation systems.
Further work will then assess levels of expression and accumulation of the toxin in cassava tis-
sues, especially under field conditions, and determine what degree of toxicity will be required to
control the insects. Depending on the success of this study and further investigations on the pest-
plant interaction, pyramiding Bt genes and management of transgenic plantings will be designed
in order to counteract accumulation of resistance within the pest population (61).
A similar Bt approach may also be effective to combat the lepidopterous cassava hornworm,
as spraying with Bacillus thuringiensis has been shown to be effective against this pest (22). The
use of lectins is being considered to control the Coleoptera (16). Application of these approaches
in cassava will obviously require significant and sustained effort before a fully effective product
is available to the farmer, but with initial steps now under way the potential is significant. In ad-
dition to the use of heterologous genes, mapping and genomic studies may allow the identifica-
tion of naturally occurring resistance genes within the cassava genome, or that of its wild rela-
tives. Recent success in identifying host plant resistance to the whitefly Aleurotachelus socialis
holds promise in this area. Whiteflies pose a production threat in Colombia and act as the vector
for ACMD (62). Cloning insect resistance genes in cassava would open new avenues for their con-
trol, helping to control ACMD epidemics as well as having possible implications for combating
geminivirus infections in other crops.
D. Herbicide Resistance
Weed control is essential in newly planted cassava fields. Between two and six weedings are re-
quired over a 3- to 4-month period until developing cassava plants establish an effective canopy
between the rows. Failure to achieve this reduces root numbers and size, depressing overall yields
by as much as 40% in early and 70% in later or nonbranching cultivars. Weeds compete with the
young cassava plants for water, nutrients, and light, and in Africa Imperata cylindrica also causes
direct effects on the harvestable product by damaging tubers and facilitating the onset of root rot
(14).
Weeding takes place by mechanical or chemical means or a combination of the two (13).
The use of herbicides is increasing, especially in Asia and South America, and carries many ben-
efits for the farmer if he or she can afford the applications. Development of transgenic herbicide
resistance cassava cultivars is considered by some to be an undesirable application for cassava
biotechnology because purchase of the chemicals would not be possible by the poorest farmers.
However, with the proven success of herbicide-resistant transgenic soybean, maize, and rapeseed
in the United States and in developing countries such as Mexico and Argentina (60), the value of
herbicide-resistant cassava is being reassessed. Some persuasive arguments can be made in its
favor. Medium- to large-scale cassava producers would benefit from significant cost savings and
improved yields, and the use of herbicide applications would allow low- or zero-tillage systems
to be adopted in marginal soils and hillsides, reducing labor requirements and soil erosion. From
a technical standpoint, unlike strategies for resistance to disease and insects or for improved
product value, herbicide-resistant transgenics can be viewed as a short-term, achievable goal. The
technology is proven and simple, requiring insertion and suitable expression of only one trans-
gene. In addition, the two most commonly used herbicide-resistant genes, imparting protection to
Basta and glyphosate (Roundup), respectively, are known to be suitable for use with cassava.
Both herbicides are already applied to cassava in the field (13) and both have been shown to be
suitable chemical selection agents for in vitro selection of transgenic tissues.
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536 Taylor et al.
Transgenic cassava plants expressing resistance to Basta have been produced at CIAT (11)
and a program to develop herbicide resistance in the relevant agronomic cassava cultivars has
been initiated at that institute. At this time, however, gaining access to suitable transgenes for
large-scale production remains a problem. Although it is hoped that this can be resolved, it raises
the first of many possible future issues concerning cassava, property rights, commercial interests,
and their influence on the development of transgenic food crops in the LDCs.
E. Starch and Polymers

Cassava’s storage roots consist of between 73% and 85% starch on a dry weight basis (63). This
is utilized for numerous applications within the LDCs and for export to the industrialized coun-
tries. Cassava starch products are used in the food and beverage industries as thickeners and as
sources of glucose, dextrin, high-fructose syrup, sorbitol, and monosodium glutamate, and in
nonfood applications for the manufacture of paper, adhesives, textiles, and packaging materials;
as fillers in paint; and as raw material for the chemical industry (64). Cassava starch is of good
quality, possessing desirable characteristics such as high clarity, neutral flavor, excellent thicken-
ing, and easy digestion (65). Demand from food processing industries, coupled with requirements
for renewable sources of biodegradable polymers, ensures that world starch markets will expand
over the coming decades. Genetic transformation of the major starch crops will be applied to meet
these requirements by facilitating increased yields, but also by adding value to the agricultural
product. At present, most starch modification takes place after harvesting and extraction, adding
costs and producing environmentally damaging effluent (64). The ability to adapt and manipulate
starch quality and quantity in planta, by up- or down-regulating genes within the biosynthetic
pathways, offers significant opportunities for LDCs to increase cassava’s role in world starch
markets and to create new products through the development of novel high-value storage com-
pounds within its roots. The use of antisense genes to reduce starch accumulation and increase
sugar content of the storage roots also holds promise for producing a sweet cassava and improv-
ing the crop as a source of industrial alcohol.
In progress toward these aims, five cDNAs from the cassava starch biosynthetic pathway
have been cloned at the Agricultural University Wageningen, three corresponding to ADP glucose
pyrophosphorylase genes (ADPase), one branching enzyme (63), and one granule-bound starch
synthase (GBSS) (66). Potato plants transformed with cassava ADPase B and GBSS cDNAs in
antisense orientation have been shown to down-regulate starch accumulation significantly; in the
case of GBSS almost amylose-free potato tubers are the result (66). More recently, 21 transgenic
cassava plant lines were recovered from embryogenic tissues bombarded with the AGPase B an-
tisense sequence fused to the CaMV 35S promoter (10). The transgenic plants contained between
one and seven copies of the insert, and although no storage roots were formed, an established
assay for starch accumulation in the stems of in vitro plantlets revealed that more than 70% of the
plant lines accumulated reduced levels of starch compared to those of the controls. Interestingly,
the frequency of transgenic plants displaying the desired phenotype was significantly higher than
that observed in potato (5%) transformed with the same construct, possibly because of the ho-
mologous genetic background in cassava. This work demonstrates that applying transgenic tech-
nologies to adapt cassava’s major economic product is possible. With improved procedures for
the recovery of transgenic cassava plants and more genes from biosynthetic pathways becoming
available, interest is growing in both the private and the public sector in the opportunities offered
by this technology.
M. esculenta’s high productivity and ability to store large amounts of material within mem-
brane-bound organelles in its storage roots may make molecular farming technologies economi-
cally attractive in cassava, once ongoing research has overcome technical problems in other
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model species. For example, if starch accumulation can be eliminated by the use of antisense se-
quences, it may be possible to engineer cassava genetically to synthesize and accumulate high-
value bioplastic polymers, such as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), within its storage roots (67).
F. Cyanogenesis
Cassava is the most important of the cyanogenic crop plants, accumulating cyanogenic glycosides
in all its tissues. This capability has led to its reputation in the North as an unsafe and undesirable
food. However, the problems associated with cyanide poisoning from cassava consumption are in-
significant considering the huge amounts eaten daily and the calorific value thereby obtained (17).
Cassava cultivars can be split into sweet and bitter varieties, containing low and high amounts
of cyanogenic glycosides, respectively. Sweet cultivars are grown to be eaten as fresh snacks or
vegetables, but the great majority of cultivated cassava consists of bitter varieties that must be
processed prior to consumption in order to prevent exposure to the cyanide-generating compounds.
Processing can take the form of soaking-pounding, grating-fermenting-pressing, or chipping-dry-
ing. In each case the aim is to cause detoxification by breakdown of cyanogenic compounds and re-
lease of gaseous cyanide prior to ingestion. Biochemical analysis of the processes involved has re-
vealed that the cyanogenic glycosides linamerin and lotaustralin are synthesized and accumulated
in the vacuole, whereas enzymes required for their degradation are located in the cell wall. Macer-
ation of the tissues therefore facilities contact, such that linamarin (which constitutes 95% of the
glycosides) is hydrolysed to acetone cyanohydrin and glucose by linamerase, followed by conver-
sion of the acetone cyanohydrin to cyanide and acetone by hydroxynitrile lyase (HNL) (68,69). The
evolutionary/ecological importance of the cyanogenic compounds in the plant is not known, but
they may play a role in nitrogen storage or in defense against pest and pathogen attack. Certainly,
bitter varieties are preferred by most subsistence farmers for reasons of food security, as they are
more resistant to pests and diseases and are less attractive to large herbivores and vermin (70).
For these reasons some controversy has centered on the necessity or desirability of produc-
ing acyanogenic cassava (71). Nevertheless, developing transgenic cassava with reduced cyano-
genic content would have advantages in medium- to large-scale commercial operations by mini-
mizing processing time and costs and by reducing or eliminating problems of toxic effluent (72).
Possible strategies involve the use of cloned DNA of P450 cytochrome in the antisense orientation
in order to down-regulate the first step in linamarin synthesis, or to manipulate linamarase or HNL
expression to increase the activity of these degrading enzymes (73). In 1998 findings at Ohio State
University showed that linamarase and HNL are both present in leaf tissues, but that HNL is ab-
sent, or present at undetectable levels, in cassava tubers, leading to inefficient detoxification of ace-
tone cyanohydrin in processed roots (69). These workers utilized this knowledge to produce ge-
netically transformed plants of cv. ‘M.Col 2215’ expressing cDNA of the HNL gene. The
transgenic plants were found to have two to three times higher activity of this enzyme in their leaves
as compared to the control (12). Further studies are ongoing to determine the presence and action
of this enzyme in transgenic root material and to assess whether elevated HNL activities will pro-
mote more rapid and complete degradation of linamerase during tuber processing.
As for all applications of genetic transformation in cassava to date, these findings require
further work before a useful product can be released to the farmer. However, the results are prom-
ising and indicate that cassava cultivars with reduced cyanogenic content, or even acyanogenic
tubers, could be available in the near future.
G. Postharvest Deterioration
Cassava storage roots are unavoidably damaged at harvesting and deteriorate rapidly, becoming
inedible as soon as 48 hours after removal from the soil (74). This characteristic restricts mar-
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538 Taylor et al.
ketability of the crop and necessitates immediate processing of the harvested tubers, either on
farm or close to the site of production. Urban centers within the LDCs are growing rapidly, pre-
senting large markets for cassava products. Satisfying this demand completes a cycle of food sup-
ply and income generation for rural development but is frustrated by the rapid postharvest per-
ishability of cassava storage roots. Large-scale commercialization of the crop is hindered by the
necessity to invest capital in processing plants within the growing areas, rather than transporting
the harvested product to the factories. Improving the postharvest characteristics of cassava is seen
as a high priority for the development of the crop and its contribution to economic development
within the tropics (1,22,75).
Initial deterioration of cassava storage roots is characterized by discoloration of the vascu-
lar and storage parenchyma tissues and by biochemical changes typical of the wound response in
other plant tissues. In such systems, wound sealing and development of a wound periderm act to
suppress signals liberated from damaged cells at the wound surface. This reaction prevents the re-
sulting cascade of damaging biochemical reactions involving lytic enzymes, protease inhibitors,
hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins, and numerous phenolic compounds from extending through-
out the plant (75). In cassava roots, however, the suberization/lignification healing process fails
or is inadequate, causing physiological deterioration to spread throughout the root and leaving the
wound open to infection by microorganisms. Sealing the roots in plastic bags to ensure high hu-
midity facilitates wound healing, allowing the tubers to be stored for considerable periods (75).
Spraying the tubers with wax is also effective. Although neither process is economically feasible
for improving shelf life, they illustrate that the postharvest physiological characteristics of cas-
sava tubers may be amenable to genetic engineering if important aspects of the deterioration
process can be manipulated and/or the healing process up-regulated. Variation in susceptibility to
postharvest deterioration between cultivars also means that mapping for such traits may lead to
the identification of the genes or gene complexes involved.
Much work remains, but whereas complexity of the deterioration process frustrated initial
work, recent application of molecular techniques has allowed numerous genes involved in the
wounding process to be cloned and identified. At the University of Bath, United Kingdom, a cDNA
library has been constructed from messenger RNA (mRNA) isolated from tuber tissues 48 hours
post harvesting. After screening with heterologous cDNA and genomic probes, several clones for
genes with putative action in the wound response have been isolated and sequenced, including a
hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein, a β-1,3-glucanase, and an ACC oxidase (76,77). In addition,
three phenylalanine (PAL) genes have been identified in cassava. Two have been fully sequenced,
including a 900-bp region of the promoter from the cPAL2 gene (76). In an alternative approach,
researchers at Agricultural University Wageningen are using cDNA-AFLP differential display to
study gene expression after tuber harvesting. Around 90 transcripts have been isolated and are
being examined to determine which are linked to the deterioration phenomenon (78).
These studies represent the first steps to application of genetic engineering to address
postharvest deterioration in cassava. Any transgenic approach must, however, ensure specificity to
the harvested product and not affect wound healing or defense mechanisms in other organs or the
intact root. For this reason future efforts are likely to focus on specific ways to direct and enhance
localized healing response in wounded tuber tissues, possibly by manipulating hydroxyproline-
rich proteins and related genes under the control of root-specific and wound-inducible promoters.
H. Other Applications
Transgenic approaches have been suggested to address other limiting factors in cassava agron-
omy, including resistance to fungal root rots and nematodes (22), and to prolong leaf life for en-
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hanced photosynthetic area and as a green vegetable (79). However, two proposed targets, ele-
vating protein content in the tuber tissues and apomixis, deserve further attention, as, although
technically demanding, both could potentially revolutionize the cultivation and commercial ex-
ploitation of cassava.
Cassava tubers have a very low protein content (1–2% dry weight), meaning that a diet con-
sisting of cassava must be accompanied with protein from fish, meat, or legumes if deficiencies
are to be prevented. Although a varied diet is obviously best, increasing overall protein content
within the storage roots would improve the nutritional quality of cassava and benefit the con-
sumer’s health. Cassava leaf tissues have a relatively high protein content, and so an approach
aimed at manipulating source-sink relationships may be required. Greater impact, however, could
be achieved by genetically transforming cassava to produce high-molecular-weight glutenins
(80). At this time, substituting wheat flour with more than 30% cassava flour significantly reduces
the quality of the resulting bread. Engineering cassava for improved bread-making qualities could
give cassava access to existing and expanding markets within the LDCs, impacting the macro-
ecomomies of these countries by reducing their expenditure on imported cereals.
Developing a true seed propagation system for cassava was identified as a high-priority ob-
jective in 1989 (22,23). Cassava planting material is bulky, is difficult to store, and as for all veg-
etatively propagated crops requires careful management to prevent accumulating problems from
pests and diseases. Propagation via zygotic seed is not a viable option because of high heterozy-
gosity in Manihot sp. Engineering cassava with genes imparting apomitic traits would revolu-
tionize the crop, allowing a small, disease-free clonal propagule to be produced and stored. Farm-
ers could be provided with certified, high-quality planting material and transportation of elite
cassava propagation material to counter serious disease and pest outbreaks made possible over
considerable distances. Although such goals seemed far-fetched a decade ago, recent confirma-
tion of natural apomictic tendencies in cassava (81), genomic studies, and the availability of ge-
netic transformation systems have brought this goal closer to reality. Although no project is yet
under way to introduce such traits into cassava, it remains an attractive, if long-term application
goal for cassava biotechnology.
VI. PROMOTERS AND TRANSGENE EXPRESSION
All the transgenic strategies described require effective promoters to drive transgene expression
in the desired manner. Cassava has particular and demanding needs in this area. Transgene ex-
pression must be maintained over considerable periods and numerous vegetative cycles under
what in many cases will be conditions of water stress, poor nutrition, and pest or disease pressure.
In addition, producing plants homozygous for the transgene(s) is not feasible; nor is a sexual
cycle available to reverse the effects of gene silencing in the adult plants. As a result of the rela-
tively recent development of a transgenic capability, no information is available concerning long-
term transgene expression in cassava under field conditions. However, with the required biosafety
regulations for transgenic plants established in Colombia, the first trails under tropical conditions
were scheduled at CIAT in 2000–2001.
The development of tissue-specific and inducible promoters is of central importance to fu-
ture transgenic crop programs and should command significant research input. To date all the
transgenic cassava plants recovered have employed forms of the CaMV 35S or cassava vein mo-
saic virus (CsVMV) constitutive promoters to drive the transgenes and selectable markers. The
CsVMV promoter and its derivatives were isolated at ILTAB (82) and tested in tobacco and rice,
in which constitutive and root- and phloem-specific versions were identified (83). Transgenic cas-
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540 Taylor et al.
sava plants containing these promoters fused to the uidA gene have been regenerated and are
presently being investigated for expression of the marker gene under greenhouse conditions.
Root-specific promoters have obvious application in modifying the harvestable product; a
phloem-specific promoter should direct pathogen-derived resistance to that tissue, thereby com-
bating the systemic spread of viral infections.
Successful gene cloning from the cassava genome is also leading to the isolation of new en-
dogenous promoters with potential use in transgenic programs. The cbg3 promoter has been iso-
lated from a genomic library after screening for homology to a linamarase cDNA clone. Subse-
quent studies of transient GUS expression driven by this promoter have revealed its strong
root-specific action (84). Likewise a 840-bp PAL2 promoter has been shown to drive stable ex-
pression in cassava tissues (ILTAB, unpublished results) and is being investigated to determine
whether it possesses wound- or pathogen-inducible properties.
VII. INTEGRATED GENOMIC AND GENETIC TRANSFORMATIONS
If the benefits of transgenic programs are to be realized fully, genetic transformation technolo-
gies should operate hand in hand with the information and products generated by genomics (85).
Indeed the preceding sections have contained numerous references to the use of genomic stud-
ies to identify and provide cloned genes and promoters of agronomic interest. As for genetic
transformation technologies, restricted funding for genomic studies in cassava slowed initial
progress in this field. However, significant advances that have been made over the last few years
now offer exciting opportunities for cassava biotechnology. A number of tools have been devel-
oped (reviewed in Ref. 1), including a genetic linkage map derived from parents chosen to seg-
regate for ACMV and CBB resistance, cooking quality, photosynthetic rate, and resistance to
mealybug. The maps (male and female) presently consist of 230 restriction fragment length
polymorphisms (RFLPs) 100 randomly amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) (86), and
microsatellite markers (87). A number of cDNA and genomic libraries have been generated from
leaf and tuber tissues, and most recently a library of 70 000 BAC clones has been generated. A
further two BAC libraries are planned and more ambitious plans have been tabled to raise fund-
ing required to commence sequencing of ESTs or the entire cassava genome.
For the first time a fully integrated, multidimensional approach can be envisaged for cas-
sava biotechnology, which will bring together cassava breeders, agronomists, phytopathologists,
physiologists, and entomologists with the biotechnologists. Development of high-resolution ge-
netic maps will become an increasingly important tool for the identification, cloning, and study
of genes conferring desirable agronomic traits in M. esculenta cultivars. Screening for homology
within collections of related wild species can allow the full diversity of particular genes or gene
families to be identified and exploited. BAC clones will provide rapid access to the desirable ge-
netic sequences so that transformation can be employed to transfer these into farmer-preferred
cultivars. Results from the CIAT CBB gene-tagging project represent an early example of the po-
tential benefits of such an approach, in which a region of the genome responsible for 80% of
known variation for resistance to a South American strain of the disease has been identified (V.
Verdier, personal communication, 1999).
VIII. SUSTAINING PROGRESS AND APPLICATION OF

CASSAVA TECHNOLOGY
A. Collaboration and the Role of the Cassava Biotechnology Network
Developing and sustaining transgenic biotechnologies in cassava create challenges other than the
purely technical. Agricultural biotechnology is being driven largely by the private sector of the
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North, with the majority of research and development programs directed at the temperate crops
or at tropical species such as pineapple, banana, and rubber, from which a financial reward is ex-
pected. In addition, many of the tools and protocols being developed are protected by patents and
confidentiality agreements. Developing world subsistence crops, such as cassava, sweet potato,
yam, and millet, have little or no place in such market-oriented activities, meaning that the re-
sources required to maintain cassava biotechnologies must be found elsewhere (88). To date, this
has come largely from nongovernmental development agencies and from charitable organizations
such as the Rockefeller Foundation. Such funding is always limited, however, making building
research teams and maintaining a critical mass of expertise in this field ongoing problems.
The progress in cassava gene biotechnologies described has been achieved in less than 10
laboratories, located almost exclusively in Europe, in the United States, and at CIAT, Colombia.
Collaboration and communication among the major groups have been essential to the break-
throughs achieved and were greatly facilitated by the coordinating efforts of the Cassava Biotech-
nology Network (CBN). The CBN was established in 1988 after an initiative by several individ-
ual scientists who believed in the potential of biotechnology for cassava improvement and sought
support from the CGIAR centers at CIAT and IITA. Financed in large part by the Dutch govern-
ment’s Special Programme on Biotechnology and Development Cooperation (DGIS/BIOTECH),
the CBN had grown to more than 400 members by 1997 (1,89). The CBN acted as the most im-
portant coordinating factor in cassava research throughout the 1990s, maximizing the limited
funding available by initiating communication and collaboration among the advanced laborato-
ries and the LDCs who wished to acquire transgenic capabilities for cassava. Through its priority
setting surveys it has also helped ensure that farmer-identified needs maintained a high profile and
that the development of cassava biotechnology remained as focused as possible on the needs of
the intended end users. At the time of writing, the future of the CBN is in doubt as a result of lack
of a suitable sponsor. However, among its other achievements it has been an instrumental force in
coordinating the development and success of the molecular mapping, genomic tools, and genetic
transformation projects described in this review. These are the major technical advances that pro-
vide cassava biotechnology with a springboard for the future.
With proven transgenic capabilities now established, commercial backing is increasing for
cassava biotechnology research in Europe, the United States, and South Africa. Although it is to
be welcomed as an important new source of funding and for improving cassava’s profile, it raises
dilemmas regarding the free exchange of information and possible protection of cassava-related
biotech products. Commercially funded activities will also be directed at improving cassava as a
marketable product and therefore aimed at medium- to large-scale production. The challenge will
be to ensure that the smallholder cassava growers can also gain from such activities, have access
to the products of the new technologies and opportunity to use them to improve their standard of
living.
B. Technology Transfer
An important factor in delivering the benefits of transgenic technologies to the tropical farmer is
the transfer of the relevant knowledge, tools, and capability to the LDCs. Although cassava is a
tropical crop, development of its transgenic capabilities has taken place largely in laboratories
within the industrialized countries, and thus is remote from the intended end users. Different
countries face different problems regarding cassava cultivation and utilization and require an in-
digenous capacity with which to address their specific constraints. Technology transfer to the
LDCs shortens the distance between the biotechnologist and the farmer and empowers these
countries to seek funding from international agencies, negotiate with multinational companies,
and generate self-sustaining indigenous biotech industries (90).
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542 Taylor et al.
Technology transfer has been a principal aim of the major funding bodies, the CBN, and
the laboratories involved in developing cassava biotechnology. From a technical point of view, an
important issue is “transferability” of the transformation protocols to operating conditions preva-
lent in laboratories within the tropical countries. For example, the use of luciferase as a visual se-
lection system requires sophisticated optical equipment not affordable in the LDCs. Likewise, the
desire for simple protocols has caused some to favor the use of Agrobacterium sp.–based trans-
formation systems. However, many countries, such as Brazil, Mexico, Malaysia, Thailand, India,
Zimbabwe, and South Africa, have well-equipped labs and considerable experience in handling
embryogenic cultures and particle bombardment protocols in other crops such as rice. Adapting
these to cassava should not be difficult. The limiting factor in transferring transgenic technologies
to developing countries is in most cases the lack of suitably trained scientists and technicians and
funding required to sustain research programs until a useful product can be realized (91). Unlike
in rice biotechnology, for which the Rockefeller Foundation has funded the training of scores of
scientists, no coordinated effort has been initiated for cassava. A number of developing country
scientists have made important contributions to the development of cassava biotechnology while
working in collaboration with the advanced laboratories. In addition, through the CBN sponsor-
ship a handful of scientists from Asia, Africa, and South America have received training and re-
turned to their home institutes to initiate cassava transformation programs (89,90). Nevertheless,
this input is not sufficient to enable a self-sustaining base of suitably trained scientists to be es-
tablished in the LCDs. Transfer of the required personnel and tools remains a significant chal-
lenge and will be central factor in the successful application of cassava biotechnology. Compared
to those for other major crops such as rice, maize, or cotton, the technologies required to produce
transgenic cassava are recent and relatively underdeveloped. Much therefore remains to be done
before the full benefits can be transferred to the farmer. A central factor in achieving this goal will
be the role of the International Centres at CIAT and IITA, who have historically carried the re-
sponsibility for ensuring effective technology transfer to smallholders in the LDCs.
IX. CONCLUSION
There is little doubt that transgenic biotechnologies hold enormous potential for improved crop
yields and enhanced agricultural products. Questions remain, however, as to whether the oppor-
tunities offered by these technologies will be applied to benefit the human population as a whole
or whether the major beneficiaries will be producers and consumers within the industrialized
countries. The majority of the human population live within the LDCs and rely on tropical and
subtropical crops for their dietary and economic needs. Population growth means that improve-
ment in the staple crops relevant to these regions must be achieved and sustained throughout the
coming decades if the LDCs are to maintain their political and economic development. It is within
these countries that agricultural biotechnology can have its greatest impact.
To date, the resources applied to developing biotechnologies for tropical food crops such as
cassava are enormously out of proportion to their worldwide socioeconomic importance (4). Nev-
ertheless, as described in this review, significant progress has been made in developing biotech-
nologies in cassava. An important stage has now been reached in which both the genetic trans-
formation protocols and the genomic tools to provide genes and promoters with potential
agronomic interest are in place. Many challenges remain, but there is great optimism that if the
required levels of support can be maintained, both the technical and practical challenges can be
overcome to ensure that the smallholder cassava farmer will also be a beneficiary of the biotech-
nology revolution.
www.taq.ir
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www.taq.ir
37
Transgenic Cauliflower with Insect Resistance
K. Chengalrayan, Yih-Ming Chen, and Kai-Wun Yeh

National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
Po-Jen Wang
National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
I. INTRODUCTION 547
A. Advantages of Genetically Engineered Insect-Resistant Plants 548
B. Bacillus thuringiensis Toxins 548
C. Proteinase Inhibitors 548
II. SPORAMIN 550
III. EXPRESSION OF TI GENE IN TOBACCO 551
IV. TRANSFORMATION OF CAULIFLOWER WITH TI GENES 553
A. Literature Survey 553
B. Regeneration 554
C. Bacterial Culture 555
D. Transformation 555
V. GENE EXPRESSION AND TI ACTIVITY 555
A. Protein Extraction and TI Activity 555
B. Immunoblotting 556
C. Southern Hybridization 556
VI. INSECT BIOASSAY 556
VII. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 559
REFERENCES 559
I. INTRODUCTION
Crop plants are susceptible to a wide range of herbivorous insects. Losses due to pests and dis-
eases have been estimated at 37% of the agricultural production worldwide, with 13% due to in-
sect pests each year (1). Present methods of crop protection rely mainly on the use of agrochem-
icals, and the cost associated with management practices and chemical control of insects
approaches $10 billion annually. Moreover, insects have demonstrated a high capacity to develop
resistance to a wide array of chemical insecticides (2). Therefore, it is necessary to develop a more
environmentally friendly agriculture that will have decreased inputs in energy and chemicals and
will not generate harmful outputs such as pesticide residues.
547
www.taq.ir
548 Chengalrayan et al.
Some successes have been achieved by using conventional plant breeding techniques. How-
ever, the problems with traditional plant breeding for pest controls are that it is time-consuming
and laborious. It is difficult to modify single traits and must rely on existing genetic variability.
Plant genetic engineering offers the possibility of introducing resistance genes from foreign
species into crop plants. Genetic engineering of the crop plants can make a major contribution to
such inherently insect-tolerant varieties. Thus, genetic engineering opens up a virtually limitless
source of germplasm for selection of insect control genes to introduce into elite crop varieties.
A. Advantages of Genetically Engineered Insect-Resistant Plants

There are several advantages of genetically engineered insect-resistant plants:
1. Protection is provided continuously throughout the life cycle of a particular crop irre-
spective of weather conditions.
2. Protection is provided even to plant tissues such as roots, undersides of leaves, and in-
sides of pods, which are difficult to protect by chemical sprays.
3. It allows transfer of insect resistance genes across the species of conventional breed-
ing, such as different species, genera, and even kingdoms.
4. Insects are always treated at the most sensitive stage.
5. Only crop-eating insects are exposed.
6. The effective material is confined to the plant tissues expressing the transgene and
therefore does not leach into the environment.
The advent of genetic engineering in the 1970s led to the possibility of using this technique
to enhance crop resistance to pests. As a result, in 1994 the U.S. company Calgene obtained ap-
proval to commercialize the genetically modified Flavr Savr delayed ripening of tomato (3). From
then on, the development and use of transgenic crops have gained momentum, with insect resis-
tance traits ranking second only to herbicide resistance (3).
B. Bacillus thuringiensis Toxins

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a commercially successful biological insecticidal agent. Different
strains of Bt produce a variety of crystal toxins with distinct host ranges. At least 10 genes en-
coding different Bt toxins have been engineered into plants. These genes produce parasporal crys-
tals that consist of about 130-kDa proteins known as δ-endotoxins (5), which are solubilized and
processed in the insect midgut to active toxins of about 65–75 kDa comprising the N terminus of
the proteins. They exert their toxicity by binding to midgut epithelial cells and ultimately by caus-
ing osmotic lysis through pore formation in the cell membrane that leads to the death of the in-
sect (5). Bt toxins have been transferred and expressed in more than 26 different plant species (6).
The levels of resistance they confer depend on whether native-bacterial or truncated, codon-opti-
mized genes are used (7). Until now, codon-optimized genes have been transferred to a limited
number of crops: cotton, maize, potato, broccoli, cabbage, and alfalfa. By far the greatest expen-
diture of research on plant genetic engineering has gone into insect-resistant transgenic crops ex-
pressing Bt toxin. However, there are obvious risks in reliance on this single resistance factor (8).
Several insect species have evolved resistance to Bt gene–transformed crops (9–11). Therefore,
many research projects are aimed at discovering non-Bt proteins to control insect pests.
C. Proteinase Inhibitors
The alternative to the Bt toxin gene strategy is to use plant-derived insecticidal proteins that in-
terfere with the nutritional needs of the insect. For example, polyphenol oxidases generate toxic
www.taq.ir
Transgenic Cauliflower 549
compounds from dietary components (12), and proteinase inhibitors and α-amylase inhibitors
(13) deprive the insect of nutrients by interfering with its digestive enzymes. Proteinase inhibitors
have received ample attention because of their small size, abundance, and stability, which make
them easy to work with (14). The introduction of specific proteinase inhibitors into plants is an
alternative approach for obtaining crops that are resistant to insect attack. Serine, thiol, and as-
partic proteinases and metalloproteinases are found in the plant kingdom. These proteinases are
responsible for dietary protein in insects. Serine proteinases are often present as the main diges-
tive enzymes when the pH of the insect midgut lumen content is neutral or alkaline, and cysteine
and aspartic proteinases are present with more acidic gut contents (8).
It is advantageous to use these inhibitors as insect control agents because they are active
against a wide range of insects. Moreover, they are inactivated during cooking and are not con-
sumed through food. However, high levels of proteinase inhibitors are required for insect killing
and there is a need to regulate expression of such inhibitors to specific tissues. Recently pro-
teinase inhibitor proteins and their genes have received greater attention (Table 1).
Table 1 Proteinase Inhibitors That Have Been Engineered into Plants
Proteinase inhibitors Transformed plants Reference
Plant origin
C-II (soybean serine proteinase inhibitor) Potato (15)
CMTI (squash trypsin inhibitor) Tobacco (16)
CpTI (cowpea trypsin inhibitor) Lettuce (17)
Sweet potato (18)
Tobacco (19)
Tomato (20)
14K-CI (bifunctional cereal inhibitor of serine-pro- Tobacco (21)
teinases and amylases)
OC-1 (rice cysteine proteinase inhibitor) Poplar (22)
Tobacco (23)
PI-IV (soybean serine proteinase inhibitor) Potato (15)
Tobacco (15)
Pot PI-II (potato proteinase inhibitor II) Birch (17)
Rice (23)
Tobacco (24), (25)
SKTI, Kti3 (soybean Kunitz trypsin inhibitor) Potato (15)
Sweet potato sporamin (trypsin inhibitor) Tobacco (26)
Cauliflower (27)
Tomato proteinase inhibitor I Alfalfa (28)
Nightshade (28)
Tobacco (28), (24)
Tomato (29)
Tomato proteinase inhibitor II Tobacco (24)
Tomato (29)
Animal origin
Antichymotrypsin from Menduca sexta Cotton (30)
Tobacco (31)
Anti-elastase from Manduca sexta Alfalfa (32)
Cotton (30)
Tobacco (31)
www.taq.ir
Figure 1 Strategy for creating more resistant plants by using genetic engineering.
Since proteinase inhibitors are playing a key role, we searched for plants that were resistant
to local insect pests, to isolate the gene responsible and to transfer it into commercially important
crop(s). Following this strategy (Fig. 1), we cloned a trypsin inhibitor (called sporamin) gene
from sweet potato tubers and transferred it to cauliflower.
II. SPORAMIN
Sporamin is the major storage protein in sweet potato tuber (33). It accounts for 60–80% of the
total soluble protein. Several reports suggested that a large amount of trypsin inhibitor (TI) is
present in the tuber of sweet potato and total soluble protein concentrations in tubers are shown
to be positively correlated with TI activity (34–38). It is known that the sporamin gene belongs to
a gene family with more than 10 identified genes. Up to now, at least 8 complementary deoxyri-
bonucleic acid (cDNA) clones and 4 genomic clones have been characterized by various groups
(39,40). On the basis of nucleotide sequence homology, the sporamin gene can be divided into
two subfamilies, called sporamin A and sporamin B. Moreover, the homology is approximately
90–98% within the subfamilies and 78–82% between subfamilies. Recent studies have demon-
strated that the amino acid sequences predicted from sporamin cDNAs are homologous to the
soybean TI and should be classified as plant Kunitz inhibitors (Fig. 2) (41). On the basis of the
molecular mass (⬃21 kDa), two disulfide bonds, and further amino acid homology, it is classi-
fied as a serine type TI of the Kunitz family. Expression of the sporamin gene can be systemati-
cally induced in the leaf tissues of sweet potato by wounding. This suggests that sporamin may
play some roles in the defense mechanism as a proteinase inhibitor. In order to identify the func-
tional role of sporamin, we expressed cDNAs that encode preprosporamin, prosporamin, and spo-
ramin constructed in Escherichia coli cells as fusion proteins (39). All three forms of sporamin
were shown to have strong inhibitory activity against trypsin (39).
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Figure 2 Alignment of the derived amino acid sequences of sporamin SPOA, sporamin SPOB, soybean
Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor (STI), Acacia confusa trypsin inhibitor (ACTI), and Erythrina variegata
trypsin inhibitor (ETI). The sequences showing homology are boxed. SPOA is deduced from spTI-1 cDNA
sequence, and SPOB deduced from pIMO 336 cDNA, which belongs to sporamin B gene family. (From Ref.
38.)
III. EXPRESSION OF TI GENE IN TOBACCO
A full-length 0.93-kb cDNA encoding the TI was subcloned into the Xba I/BamH I sites of the
plant transformation vector PBI 121 under the control of the 35S cauliflower mosaic virus
(CaMV) promoter and with 3⬘ Nos terminator (Fig. 3). The CaMV 35S promoter has been used
in the majority of insect-resistant transgenic plants (6). Selectable marker genes are introduced
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Figure 3 Construct of pBI121/TI vector used in cauliflower transformation (TI 0.93 kb, pBI121 13 kb,
pBI121/TI 13.93 kb).
alongside the insect resistance gene to allow selective growth of plant cells that have incorporated
the new genes. We employed the most commonly used marker, the bacterial neomycin phospho-
transferase II (npt II) gene, for the selection of transgenic plants.
Using standard molecular procedures, the sequence of the construct was determined to
identify the precise orientation (42). Finally, the vector with the gene in correct orientation was
transferred to Agrobacterium tumefaciens LBA 4404 and integrity of the plasmid was verified by
Southern analysis.
Initially we conducted experiments on tobacco plants and transferred the gene to tobacco
by using the leaf disk transformation method described by Horsch et al. (43). From 30 indepen-
dent transformants, 6 transgenic lines that grew faster and developed vigorous roots in soil were
chosen for further experiments such as TI activity and Western analysis. Northern blot analysis
with 32P-labeled sporamin TI cDNA probe clearly showed that 0.9-kB transcripts were present in
all transgenic tobacco lines (26). The TI gene under the control of the 35S promoter led to the pro-
duction of trypsin inhibitor proteins up to 0.2% of the total protein.
To test the insect activity of the introduced TI gene, transgenic and control tobacco plants
were produced from stem cuttings and grown in 20-cm pots with loam-based compost in a tem-
perature-controlled growth chamber. When the plants were about 30 cm tall, they were individu-
ally infected with 50 early second instar larvae of tobacco cutworm. Larvae were distributed on
leaves and the plants were surrounded with 1-mm nylon mesh. After an incubation period of 4
days, the larval population was monitored by counting and weighing all larvae present on each
plant. The experiment was repeated to confirm the results. After an incubation period of 4 days,
the leaves of the control tobacco plants were completely eaten. However, insecticidal bioassays
of transgenic tobacco plants showed that the larval growth of Spodoptera litura (F.), the tobacco
cutworm, was severely retarded, as compared to their growth on control plants (Table 2). The high
level of TI expression in Tb-7 transformant tobacco leaves had deleterious effects on larvae, caus-
ing a 93.3% mortality rate, and decreasing mean larval weight was correlated with a decrease in
the leaf surface eaten. However, larvae fed leaves from Tb-6 plants expressing TI at a low level
did not die. These results showed that TI gene can be used for insect resistance in other crops.
With this background, experiments to transfer TI gene into cauliflower were carried out.
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Table 2 Insect Bioassay on Different Lines of Transgenic Tobacco (Tb) Plants
Average body Leaf area eaten

Tobacco plants Insect survival (%) weight (mg) per larva (cm2)
Wild type 100 33.4 ⫾ 4.4 5.5

Tb-1 43.5 15.7 ⫾ 4.2 4.3
Tb-2 77.8 17.8 ⫾ 5.9 2.6
Tb-3 96.4 12.0 ⫾ 3.1 1.6
Tb-6 96.4 12.0 ⫾ 3.1 1.6
Tb-7 6.7 6.1 ⫾ 0.8 0.8
Tb-8 91.3 16.3 ⫾ 3.3 2.2
IV. TRANSFORMATION OF CAULIFLOWER WITH TI GENE
The world annual production of cauliflower is over 12.7 million metric tons, of which more than
30% is produced in China (FAO, 1997). It is one of the common Brassica sp. vegetables grown
in Taiwan, and the production of this crop is second only to production of cabbage. At least six
varieties of this crop are grown in different seasons. However, one of the major problems in this
crop is insect damage. Some of the insect pests are listed in Table 3 (44).
A. Literature Survey
Brassica spp. and related species are fairly easy to handle in tissue culture systems, making this
genus a suitable subject for exploiting techniques of genetic transformation for breeding purposes
(45).
Table 3 Important Insect Pests of Cauliflower
Blossom beetles Meligethes spp.

Brassica pod midge Dasineura brassica
Cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae
Cabbage butterflies Pieris brassicae, P. rapae, P. napi
Cabbage gall weevil Ceutorhynchus assimilis
Cabbage leaf miner Phytomyza rufipes
Cabbage moth Mamestra brassicae
Cabbage root fly Delia radicum
Cabbage stem flea beetle Psylliodes chrysocephala
Cabbage stem weevil Ceutorhynchus quadridens
Cabbage white fly Aleurodes proletella
Cut worms Agrotis spp.
Diamondback moth Plutella xylostella
Flea beetles Phyllotreta spp.
Garden pebble moth Evergestis forficalis
Slugs Arion hortensis
Agriolimax agrestis
Swede midge Contarina nasturtii
Turnip gall weevil Ceutorhynchus pleurostigma
Turnip root fly Delia floralis
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Table 4 Literature Survey on Genetic Transformation of Cauliflower
Explant Response Mode of transformation Source
Hypocotyl Trangenic plants Agrobacterium rhizogenes, (A4, (46)

15834, 8196, TR101, TR7)
Leaf disk and petiole Kanamycin-resistant plants A. tumefaciens (C58, C1RiF) (47)
Leaf disk Kanamycin-resistant plants A. tumefaciens (6042, 6044, (48)
6046, 6048)
Mesophyll protoplasts Kanamycin-resistant plants PEG uptake Electroporation (48)
In vitro plants Cauliflower mosaic virus– A. tumefaciens (C58p, MP90) (49)
resistant plants
Hypocotyl Insect-resistant plants A. tumefaciens (LBA 4404) (27)
Hypocotyl Basta-resistant plants A. tumefaciens (C58 C1 RiF) (50)
Transgenic plants with A. tumefaciens (CIB542) (51)
altered pollen stigma inter-
action and fully compat-
ible when self-pollinated
Leaf and petioles of Kanamycin-resistant plants A. rhizogenes (A4T) (52)
intact cotyledons
Genetic engineering protocols for transferring marker, herbicide-resistant, and self-com-

patible genes to cauliflower have been developed by various groups (Table 4). However, there
were no reports on generation of insect-resistant cauliflower; therefore, experiments to transfer
the sporamin gene into Taiwan cauliflower cultivars to combat insect pests were initiated.
B. Regeneration
Three key Taiwanese cauliflower cultivars, ‘Known You Early No 2,’ ‘Snow Lady,’ and ‘Beauty
Lady,’ were used for regeneration. Seeds of all three cultivars were disinfected in 70% ethanol for
10 seconds, followed by 0.5% sodium hypochlorite for 50 minutes (with sonication during the
initial 20 minutes). The seeds were germinated for 4 days on B5 basal medium (53) with 3% su-
crose and 0.8% Bacto gar. The incubation conditions for germination and other in vitro experi-
ments were at 25°C and with a photoperiod of approximately 28 µE m–2 s–1 for 16 hours. Three
different explants (hypocotyls, cotyledonary petioles, and cotyledons) were excised and tested for
their regeneration capacities in B5 basal medium with 0.2 mg/l indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and
0.5, 1.0, 2.0, or 4.0 mg/l benzyl adenine (BA).
Among three explants tested, the hypocotyl explants of all the cultivars displayed the high-
est regeneration rate (data not shown) after 3 weeks incubation; adventitious buds formed prima-
rily at the cut ends adjacent to the apical meristems. The optimal BA concentration for shoot bud
regeneration for ‘Known You Early No 2’ and ‘Snow Lady’ was 5.0 mg/l and for ‘Beauty Lady’
1.0 mg/l. At these BA concentrations, the response was 74%, 68%, and 37% for ‘Beauty Lady,’
‘Snow Lady,’ and ‘Known You Early No. 2,’ respectively. The further experiments were carried
out by using hypocotyl explants.
A significant breakthrough was achieved when the explants were pretreated for 3 days in
callus-inducing (CI) medium (B5 basal medium supplemented with 1 mg/l 2,4-dichlorophenoxy-
acetic acid [2,4-D] and 0.5 mg/l Kinetin [Kn]) followed by 29.4 µM silver ion (prepared by mix-
ing 1:3 molar concentration solutions of silver nitrate and sodium thiosulfate and adding them to
culture medium via filter sterilization). The percentage of regeneration frequency in all three cul-
tivars exceeded 95%. This work is the first successful case of applying an ethylene inhibitor to in
vitro cauliflower regeneration (27). The stimulating effects of the silver ion and other ethylene in-
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hibitors on in vitro regeneration of Brassica spp. have been documented (54–56). Added proof of
ethylene’s regulating in vitro shoot regeneration was provided in generating transgenic Brassica
sp. plants with an antisense ACC gene (57).
C. Bacterial Culture
Agrobacterium tumefaciens LBA 4404 with PBI 121 was cultured in YEP medium (beef extract
5 g/l, yeast extract 1 g/l, bactopeptone 5 g/l, sucrose 5 g/l, and MgSO42 mM) containing 100 mg/l
kanamycin and incubated in a shaker at 240 rpm and 28°C for 2 days. The suspensions were then
mixed with sterile glycerol (1:1 vol/vol) and stored at –70°C. The Agrobacterium sp. inoculum
from glycerol stock was added to YEP medium containing 100 mg/l kanamycin (1:25 vol/vol) and
incubated under the specified conditions. After 10 hours, 50 µM acetosyringone was added and
incubated further for 8 hours. The bacterial culture was then centrifuged at 3500 rpm and the pel-
let was resuspended in an equal volume of liquid CI medium with 10 mM d-glucose. The culture
was 100 times diluted for transformation.
D. Transformation
The hypocotyl explants (precultured in callus-inducing medium for 3 days) were incubated with
10 ml bacterial supension for 1 hour in darkness. The explants were blot dried in sterile Whatman
filter paper and incubated in solid CI medium at 25°C in dark for 72 hours. The cocultivated ex-
plants were washed with 1.5% d-mannitol with 1500 mg/l carbencillin, blotted dry, and placed in
shoot induction medium supplemented with 150 mg/l carbenicillin and 50 mg/l kanamycin. By
this method more than 100 kanamycin-resistant plants were obtained.
V. GENE EXPRESSION AND TI ACTIVITY
Some of the transgenic plants growing in 50 mg/l kanamycin containing medium were used for
in vitro TI activity, Southern blot, and Western blot assays.
A. Protein Extraction and TI Activity

Soluble proteins were extracted from 0.3 g of fresh leaf of each putative transgenic and control
plant, by grinding in liquid nitrogen with 3× volume of extraction buffer containing 30 mM Tris-
HCl (pH 7), 1% PVP, and 1% vitamin C. After centrifugation at 12,500 rpm for 15 minutes, the
supernatant containing soluble proteins was collected and stored at –70°C for in vitro TI activity
and immunoblot assays.
The TI activity assay was based on the Geiger and Fritz (58) cell free trypsin assay method
with N-benzoyl dl-arginine-4-nitroanilide hydrochloride (DL-BAPA) substrate. For TI assay, ap-
proximately 50 µg of protein sample (from crude extract) was added to 500 µl of reaction buffer
(10 mM CaCl2, 100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0) containing 3 µg trypsin (step 1) and incubated at 37°C
for 10 minutes. After adding different concentrations of BAPA (stock concentration, 50 mg BAPA
dissolved in 1 ml DMSO) in 500 µl of reaction buffer (step 2), it was further incubated for 20–30
minutes. The reaction was terminated with 500 µl of 10% acetic acid (step 3) and measured for
OD405.
The trypsin hydrolyzes the substrate and forms 4-nitroaniline, which absorbs light at
OD405. TI activities were measured by the reduction in the readings due to presence of TI over the
TI-free control (Table 5). All the tested putative transgenic plants showed significantly higher TI
protein content than control plants.
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Table 5 In Vitro TI Activity Assay of Transgenic

Cauliflower Plants (Sample 1296 ‘Snow Lady,’ 1298
‘Beauty Lady,’ 1-1, 1-2, and others) and Nonresistant
Control (CK) Plantsa
Sample OD405
1296 1-1 1.256 ⫾ 0.061

1-2 1.120 ⫾ 0.22
1-3 1.265 ⫾ 0.041
2-1 0.934 ⫾ 0.010
1290 2-2 1.101 ⫾ 0.037
3-1 1.175 ⫾ 0.007
3-2 1.127 ⫾ 0.051
3-3 1.184 ⫾ 0.009
5-1 1.074 ⫾ 0.014
5-3 0.831 ⫾ 0.031
CK 1 1.387 ⫾ 0.016
2 1.358 ⫾ 0.003
a
Values are averages of three readings ⫾ SD. The lower the OD
value, the higher the TI level.
B. Immunoblotting
Appropriate quantities of protein were fractionated by SDS-PAGE following the Laemmli (59)
procedure and transferred to nitrocellulose by using Mini Trans Blot Cell (Bio Rad, Hercules,
CA). The TI polypeptide was detected by using a rabbit anti-TI serum and goat antirabbit im-
munoglobulin G (IgG) coupled with horseradish peroxidase as the secondary antibody. The TI
polypeptide was detected as a 21-kDa band that was present in all the six transgenic plants tested,
whereas the control plant did not show such a band (Fig. 4).
C. Southern Hybridization
DNA was isolated from fresh leaf tissues as described by Dellaporta and coworkers (60). Primers
used in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were the flanking sequences of the TI cDNA with
5⬘CATGAAGCCCTCACACTG3⬘ at the 5⬘ end and 5⬘CATTACACATCGGTAGGTTTG3⬘ at the
3⬘ end. PCR products and biotinylated probe of cDNA (prepared according to the Feinberg and
Vogelstein (61) protocol) were used in Southern hybridization with the NEBlot Phototype kit and
its procedures from New England Biolabs (Beverly, MA)
The genomic DNAs from all tested plants produced 0.66-kb DNA segments after PCR,
whereas that of the control plant did not. Southern hybridization with TI cDNA probe confirmed
that these 0.66-kb DNA segments contained TI gene sequences (Fig. 5).
VI. INSECT BIOASSAY
Small-scale insect feeding trials were carried out. Leaves of two transgenic ‘Snow Lady’ plants
were used to feed the first instar larvae of the common Brassica sp. lepidopteran pests (mandible),
Spodoptera litura, and Plutella xylostella in closed containers. The remaining confirmed trans-
genic plants were cloned in vitro and used in an open infestation test carried out in a greenhouse
with opened windows.
A high degree of insect protection was evident in our bioassays (Table 6), (Fig. 6A, B).
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97.4 kDa
66.2 kDa
45.0 kDa
31.0 kDa
21.5 kDa TI protein
14.4 kDa
Figure 4 PCR and Southern blot analysis of the selected kanamycin-resistant regenerant (R0) cauliflower
plants (1296 ‘Snow Lady,’ 1298 ‘Beauty Lady’) and control (CK) plants. (From Ref. 26.)
Figure 5 Insect resistance of transgenic and control cauliflowers: (left) cauliflower transformed with spo-
ramin gene and (right) control.
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Table 6 Insect Bioassays Using Two Clonal Plantlets of a TI Trangenic Cauliflower ‘Snow Lady’ Plant
1296 1-1 and Nontransgenic Control (CK) Plants
Larvae Larvae reaching Larvae reaching

Insect species Host plant survived (%) pupa stage (%) adult stage (%)
Spodoptera litura ‘Snow Lady’ 1296 1-1 56.7 22.7 13.2

CK 86.7 63.6 49.1
Plutella xylostella ‘Snow Lady’ 1296 1-1 60.0 36.0 21.6
CK 100.0 100.0 100.0
Figure 6 Plant open infestation test carried out in a greenhouse with open windows (left, TI transgenic
cauliflower plants in vitro cloned from R0 plants). The insects were identified as Pieris conidia (A) and
Plutella xylostella (B). (From Ref. 26.)
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These results demonstrated that the TI proteins produced in the transgenic cauliflower plants were
functionally active in planta. Our insect bioassays, although at small scales, also provided evi-
dence that the introduction of a protease inhibitor gene into transgenic crop plants can be effica-
cious. Analysis of the resultant R1 and R2 generation plants as well as a large-scale field test of
the clonal R0 plants are currently in progress.
VII. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
The search for the novel resistance genes will be continued. For example, we recently discovered
another trypsin inhibitor from sweet potato leaves. Different genes will be combined in plants to
increase the range of pests affected and to delay the development of insect resistance to the gene
products. More specific and powerful promoters are needed to replace, at least partly, the CaMV
35S promoter. We expect to expand our technology to commercialize vegetable crops such as cau-
liflower, cabbage, and Chinese kale in the near future.
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38
Virus-Resistant Chili Pepper
Produced by Agrobacterium
Species–Mediated Transformation
Wen-qi Cai, Rong-Xiang Fang, Feng-li Zhang, Jiu-chun Zhang,

Xiaoying Chen, Gui-ling Wang, and Ke-qiang Mang
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Hong-sheng Shang, Xu Wang, and Yue-ren Li
Northwest Sci-Tech University of Agriculture and Forestry, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
I. INTRODUCTION 563
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS 564
A. The Binary Vector for Transformation 564
B. Transformation and Regeneration of Chili Pepper 564
C. Characterization of Transgenic Plants 565
D. Protection Against Cucumber Mosaic Virus and Tobacco Mosaic Virus Infection 566
E. Quality Analysis of Dry Fruit 567
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 567
A. Regeneration of Transformed Chili Pepper Plants 567
B. Analysis of Transgene Integration and Expression 567
C. Resistance to Cucumber Mosaic Virus and Tobacco Mosaic Virus
in Kanamycin-Resistant T1 Transgenic Plants 572
D. Resistance to Different CMV Isolates in the T3 Progenies
of the Homozygous Line 16-13 573
E. Field Test of the T2 Progeny of Line 16-13 574
F. Field Tests of the T3 and T4 Progeny of Line 16-13 575
G. Quality Analysis of Transgenic Dry Fruit 576
IV. SUMMARY 577
REFERENCES 577
I. INTRODUCTION
Chili pepper is an important vegetable that has been used as a spice and a source of red pigment.
In many regions of the world, diseases limit the production of chili pepper. The most common
563
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564 Cai et al.
diseases are caused by viruses, such as cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), tobacco mosaic virus
(TMV), potato virus Y (PVY), and tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). In China, CMV and TMV
are major viral pathogens in chili pepper production. Coat protein–mediated protection (CPMP)
has been established in transgenic plants against many plant viruses, including TMV and CMV
(1–4). We are using the same strategy to develop virus-resistant chili pepper transformed with the
CMV CP and TMV CP genes. Pepper regeneration in vitro has been reported by several labora-
tories via seedling cotyledons or hypocotyl explants (5–14). In addition, there have been reports
of Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation of pepper from cotyledons. Liu and cowork-
ers (15) described transformed shoot buds and leaflike structures showing β-glucuronidase activ-
ity; however, attempts to regenerate whole transgenic plants were unsuccessful. Zhu and associ-
ates (16) reported transgenic sweet pepper transformed by Agrobacterium tumefaciens with the
CMV CP gene. Two of the T1 plant lines expressed the CMV CP gene.
In this report we describe the regeneration of virus-resistant chili pepper plants by Agrobac-
terium species–mediated transformation of hypocotyl explants with TMV CP and CMV CP
genes. The expression of transgenes in plants has also been determined. Field trials of the T3 and
T4 progeny of the transgenic homozygous lines indicated that fruit yield was 47% to 110% higher
than that of the control plants. Quality analysis showed that transgenic dry fruit is comparable to
that of control plants.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

A. The Binary Vector for Transformation
The disarmed Agrobacterium tumefaciens LBA 4404 carrying the binary vector pBTC (3) was
used to transform chili pepper. pBTC contains expression cassettes of CMV CP and TMV CP
genes, each of which is flanked by the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter and the rbcS tran-
scription termination signals (Fig. 1).
B. Transformation and Regeneration of Chili Pepper

Seeds of chili pepper (Capsicum annuum var. Longunt) cultivar ‘8212,’ which has been used in
chili pepper production in Northwest China, were obtained from a commercial source.
The seeds were surface-sterilized by soaking in a solution of 0.1% HgCl2 with 0.1% Tween-
20 for 1 minute, 30 seconds. The seeds were then rinsed with sterile distilled water and germinated
on 1/2 Murashige and Skoog (MS) (17) medium containing 1/2 MS salts and 1/2 vitamins, 30%
sucrose, and 0.65% agar in glass tubes (15 × 2.5 cm). The pH of the medium was adjusted to
pH 5.8 and autoclaved for 15 minutes at 121°C. The tubes with seeds were maintained under dark
conditions at 28°C for 9 days, then incubated at 25°C with a daily 16-hours light (2000 lux).
The Agrobacterium sp. cells were cultured in 5 ml of liquid Luvia-Bertani (LB) medium plus
Figure 1 A schematic diagram of the T-DNA region of pBTC plasmid.
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Virus-Resistant Chili Pepper 565
30 mg/l of acetosyringone at 28°C and shaken at 200 rpm for 16 to 17 hours. The cells were di-
luted to OD560 of 0.1 to 0.3 with liquid MS, pH 7.0, containing 30% sucrose and 30 mg/l acetosy-
ringone. Apical hypocotyl sections (ca. 0.5 cm long) were cut from 12- to 14-day-old seedlings by
using a surgical blade and placed into petri dishes on filter paper that had been wetted with sterile
liquid MS. Excess medium was removed before inoculation. The hypocotyl sections were inocu-
lated with a diluted culture of Agrobacterium sp. cells by pipetting 3 ml of the bacterial cell sus-
pension onto the explants and gently mixed for 1–2 minutes. Inoculated hypocotyl sections were
blotted dry on filter paper and placed horizontally onto the induction medium containing MS salts
and vitamins plus 3% sucrose, 0.6% agar, 2 mg/l benzyladenine (BA) (Sigma), and 0.5 mg/l in-
dole-3-acetic acid (IAA) (Sigma). The plates were sealed with parafilm and placed upside down
in the dark at 25°C for 2 days of cocultivation. After cocultivation, explants were transferred to the
selection and induction medium containing MS salts and vitamins, 3% sucrose, 0.6% agar, 2 mg/l
BA, 0.5 mg/l IAA, plus 75 mg/l kanamycin (Sigma) and 300 mg/l carbenicillin and placed at 25°C
under continuous cool-white fluorescent light. Three days later, all explants were moved onto the
selection regeneration medium containing MS salts and vitamins, 3% sucrose, 0.6% agar, 0.5 mg/l
BA, 0.05 mg/l IAA, plus 75 mg/l kanamycin and 300 mg/l carbenicillin in 50-ml glass flasks (10
explants per flask). The flasks were placed at 25°C under continuous cool-white fluorescent light.
After 3 weeks, the explants were transferred onto selection regeneration medium supplemented
with 50 mg/l of kanamycin and subcultured in fresh selection regeneration medium with 50 mg/l
of kanamycin at 2- to 3-week intervals. Excised regenerated shoots were cultured in the selection
elongation medium containing MS salts and vitamins, 3% sucrose, 0.6% agar, 0.1 mg/l IAA, plus
50 mg/l kanamycin and 300 mg/l carbenicillin. Elongated shoots were transferred to the selection
rooting medium containing MS salts and vitamins, 3% sucrose, 0.6% agar, 0.1 mg/l indolebuty-
ricacid (IBA) (Sigma), 50 mg/l kanamycin, and 300 mg/l carbenicillin for rooting. The shoots had
rooted after 2 weeks. Finally, after another 2 weeks plantlets were removed from the medium and
planted into vermiculite and fed with liquid MS medium that contained 0.1 mg/l IBA. Plants were
potted in sterile soil and grown in a greenhouse after 4 or 5 days.
C. Characterization of Transgenic Plants

1. Polymerase Chain Reaction Analysis
Genomic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted from young leaf tissues of transgenic and
untransformed pepper plants by using the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method
(18). Oligonucleotides corresponding to the CaMV 35S promoter –78 to –59, sequence CG-
TAAGGATGACGCACAAT, and the complementary sequence of the termination signals of rbcS
(E9 and 3C) TCGAAACCGGATGATACGAAC were used as primers for PCR amplification.
DNA was amplified by 30 cycles of 1 minute at 93°C, 1 minute at 53°C, and 1 minute at 72°C,
and finally 2 minutes at 72°C. PCR products were analyzed by electrophoresis on 1% agarose gel.
2. Southern Blot
The detection of integrated transgenes was performed by Southern blot analysis. Plant genomic
DNA was extracted by the CTAB method from young leaves. About 20 µg of total DNA predi-
gested with BamHI was electrophoresed in 0.9% agarose gel and transferred by capillarity to Zeta
Probe Blotting Memberane (BIO-RAD products) as described (19). The DNA fragments excised
by BamHI from pBTC were used as the positive control. The CP genes of the CMV and TMV
amplified by PCR from pBTC and labeled with α-32p dCTP (Du Pont) were used as probes. Pre-
hybridization, hybridization, and washes were done at 65°C and the filter was analyzed by au-
toradiography.
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566 Cai et al.
3. Reverse Transcription (RT)-Polymerase Chain Reaction

Detection of TMV CP and CMV CP gene transcripts was carried out by RT-PCR. Total ribonu-
cleic acid (RNA) was purified as described by Chang and coworkers (20). First-strand comple-
mentary DNA (cDNA) synthesis was carried out on 5 µg of total RNA in 25 µl reaction mixtures
with 5 units of avian/myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase (AMV RTase) (Amersham LIFE
SCIENCE) according to the manufacturer’s instruction. The PCRs were carried out by using 0.2
µl of RT reaction mixture. Oligonucleotides corresponding to the TMV (common strain) CP gene
sequence 5⬘ CAGTTCGTGTTCTTGTCATC 3⬘ (from the 27th to 47th nucleotide) and the com-
plementary sequence to the 406th to 426th nucleotide of the TMV CP gene 5⬘ CCGATTATAA-
GATCCGGTTC 3⬘ were used as primers for PCR amplification to detect the TMV CP gene tran-
script. DNA was amplified by 30 cycles of 30 seconds at 94°C, 30 seconds at 53°C, and 30 seconds
at 72°C, and finally 10 minutes at 72°C. PCR primers corresponding to nucleotide 101 to 120 of
the CMV (Shandong isolate) CP gene 5 minutes CAACTTTAGAGTCCTGTCG 3⬘ and the com-
plementary sequence to nucleotide 563 to 582 of the CMV CP gene 5⬘ GAATACACGAGAACG-
GCG 3⬘ were used for identification of the CMV CP gene transcript. Amplifications were done by
30 cycles of 30 seconds at 94°C, 30 seconds at 45°C, and 30 seconds at 72°C, and finally 5 min-
utes at 72°C. The PCR products were analyzed by electrophoresis on a 2% agarose gel.
4. Indirect DAS-ELISA
Indirect double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA) (21) was
used to detect accumulation of CMV in field tests. Mouse antiserum against CMV was coated on
96 well plates at 1:500 dilution. Rabbit antiserum to CMV, preabsorbed by healthy tobacco sap,
was used at 1:5000 dilution. Horseradish peroxidase conjugated goat antirabbit antibody (Beijing
Institute of Biological Products) was used at 1:100 dilution. Leaves were ground in phosphate-
buffered saline containing tween (PBST) buffer at 1:2 dilution.
5. Western Blot
For western blot analysis, 0.1 g of young leaf tissues was ground in 200 µl of protein extraction
buffer (0.05 M Na2HPO4, pH 7.2, 0.5 M NaCl, 0.001 M ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid [EDTA],
0.001 M phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), and 0.01 M 2-mercaptoethanol) and boiled for
5 minutes. The supernatant was added to an equal volume of the Laemmli buffer (22) and boiled
for 5 minutes. One hundred micrograms of soluble protein (each lane) was loaded on a 12%
sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel (22). Proteins were transferred from the gel onto a
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane (Millipore). Immunodetection was performed by
using rabbit antiserum to CMV (1:3000 dilution) or rabbit antiserum to TMV (1:500 dilution),
preabsorbed by healthy tobacco sap, and alkaline phosphatase conjugated goat antirabbit anti-
body (Promega), and visualized by nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT)-5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-
phosphate (BCIP) staining.
6. Selection of Homozygous Lines

Primary polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-positive transformants (T0 generation) were self-pol-
linated. The resultant virus-resistant T1 plants were self-pollinated and their T2 progeny were
germinated on MS medium with 300 mg/l kanamycin to select homozygous lines.
D. Protection Against Cucumber Mosaic Virus and

Tobacco Mosaic Virus Infection
1. The PCR-positive transformants were self-pollinated. The T1 and T2 progeny of homozy-
gous lines, and the control pepper plants at the six- or seven-leaf stage were dusted with car-
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borundum and rubbed with 20 µg/ml of homologous CMV (Shandong isolate) in the greenhouse.
The plants were monitored for symptom development at 5- or 7-day intervals after inoculation.
When tested for resistance to both CMV and TMV, the plants at the six- or seven-leaf stage were
first inoculated with 20 µg/ml of homologous CMV, and 7 days later, two other leaves of the same
plants were inoculated with 0.5 µg/ml of homologous TMV. Tobacco was used as the systemic
host to check the infectivity of CMV or TMV inoculum. Chenopodium quinoa was used as the
local lesion host for CMV and TMV to quantitate the level of virus replication. Two kinds of le-
sion were produced in this assay, which were caused by CMV and TMV.
2. For field testing of the T2, T3, and T4 progeny of the homozygous lines, the transgenic
plants and control plants were planted in a CMV- and TMV-infested field in Yangling County,
Shaanxi Province. The plants were subjected to natural pepper-growing conditions. Resistance
was evaluated by monitoring symptom development. Disease severity was rated by the symptom
scores: 0, no symptom; 1, slight mosaic; 2, deformed leaf; 3, mosaic leaf and dwarfing; 4, de-
formed leaves and dwarfing.
E. Quality Analysis of Dry Fruit

The content of rough fiber, rough fat, total ash, and insoluble ash in HCl was determined accord-
ing to Chinese National Standard GB10469, GB10065-89, GB8857, GB10473.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Regeneration of Transformed Chili Pepper Plants
The sensitivity of untransformed 8212 hypocotyl tissue to kanamycin was examined by using
shoot induction medium containing 0, 25, 50, or 75 mg/l of kanamycin. Normal calli and adven-
titious buds developed on the medium without kanamycin. However, no adventitious buds were
produced when 50 mg/l or a higher level of kanamycin was used. A concentration of 75 mg/l of
kanamycin was chosen for selection of transformed tissues during the first month of culture. Sub-
sequently, 50 mg/l of kanamycin was used for selection of transformed plantlets. Generally, the
buds arose from around the periphery of the cut surface at 3 to 4 weeks after explants were placed
onto the selection medium (Fig. 2A). About 12% to 15% of explants developed buds in the se-
lection medium. In most cases several buds emerged from one explant (Fig. 2B). However, only
one or two buds developed to form normal shoots (Fig. 2C, D). To ensure reliable and consistent
plantlet development, the small shoots should be kept in selection regeneration medium until they
are at least 1.0 cm tall. Plantlets could be potted in soil 4 to 5 months after initiation of transfor-
mation (Fig. 2E). These plants appeared morphologically normal (Fig. 2F) and set fruit with vi-
able seeds (Fig. 2G). In total we have obtained 49 normal kanamycin-resistant chili pepper plants
from several transformation experiments.
B. Analysis of Transgene Integration and Expression

1. Selection of Transgenic Plants and Homozygous Lines
Seedling development in MS medium containing kanamycin was used to select for homozygous
transgenic lines. Seeds of self-pollinated highly virus-resistant T1 transgenic pepper plants were
germinated on MS medium with 300 mg/l of kanamycin. Kanamycin-resistant seedlings devel-
oped a white and long root with root hairs. However, kanamycin-sensitive or control seedlings
produced only brown and short roots without root hairs. According to the results of rooting as-
says, T2 seedlings of six T1 lines (4-2, 12-2, 12-8, 16-2, 16-12, and 16-13) were 100% kana-
mycin-resistant (Table 1). The T3 progenies of line 16-13 were further tested for kanamycin re-
sistance. These seedlings were also 100% kanamycin-resistant (data not shown).
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568 Cai et al.
Figure 2 (A) The buds coming up from around the periphery of cut surface 3 to 4 weeks after explants
were placed onto the selection medium; (B) several buds emerged from one explant; (C) only one or two
buds developed to normal shoots; (D) elongated shoots on selection elongation medium; (E) the rooted
plantlet on selection rooting medium; (F) the plantlet was potted to the vermiculite and soil 4 to 5 months
after initiation of transformation; (G) transgenic chili pepper plant had set fruit; (H) PCR-positive T1 plant
(left) and untransformed plants (right) were challenged with 20 µg/ml CMV and 0.5 µg/ml TMV.
The kanamycin-resistant T0 pepper plants were tested by PCR to determine whether each
plant had been transformed. The PCR amplification results showed that at least 22 of the 49
kanamycin-resistant chili pepper plants had both the CMV CP and TMV CP genes integrated into
the plant genome, as exemplified in Fig. 3. The PCR assay was also used to evaluate the ho-
mozygosity of the selected lines. For example, the two CP genes were detected in all the tested
T3 progenies of line 16-13 as shown in Fig. 4.
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Table 1 Selection of Homozygotes on MS Medium with 300 mg/l Kanamycin
Line Number of resistant seedlings Number of sensitive seedlings
12-2 27 0
12-8 33 0
16-2 38 0
16-12 36 0
16-13 53 0
4-2 81 0
Figure 3 PCR analysis of kanamycin-resistant T0 chili pepper plants. Lanes 1–7, seven independent
kanamycin-resistant T0 plants; lane 8, untransformed plant; lane 9, 1-kb marker (BRL); lane 10, pBTC with
CMV CP and TMV CP genes; lane 11, pBC with CMV CP gene; lane 12, pBT with TMV CP gene; lane 13,
pB113 without CMV CP and TMV CP genes.
Southern blot analysis was also performed on a single T3 progeny from the homozygous
line 16-13. Fig. 5 showed that BamHI-digested 16-13 plant genomic DNA produced the same
band pattern as did the BamHI-digested plasmid pBTC (as a control) did, releasing a 3.8-kb (en-
compassing the TMV CP gene), a 2.6-kb (containing the CMV CP gene), and a 0.7-kb (with the
3⬘ end of the TMV CP gene) fragment (see Fig. 1). The Southern blot analysis demonstrated the
presence of the T-DNA copy in the genome of the T3 progeny of line 16-13.
2. Transcription and Translation of TMV CP and CMV CP Genes in Line 16-13

The RT-PCR analysis was carried out on T3 progeny of line 16-13 to examine the transcription
of the viral CP genes. Fig. 6A shows the presence of a fragment of ca. 0.4 kb, the expected size
from the TMV CP gene transcript, and a fragment of ca. 0.5 kb (Fig. 6B), the expected size for
the CMV CP gene transcript using primers, as described in the section, Materials and Methods.
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570 Cai et al.
Figure 4 PCR assay on T3 progeny of the homozygous Line 16-13. DNA fragments with expected size
(1.1 kb for the CMV CP gene and 0.8 kb for the TMV CP gene) were observed in all eight T3 seedlings
(lanes 3–10); no PCR product appeared in an untransformed ‘8212’ (lane 11); lane 2 contains PCR product
from plasmid DNA (pBTC); lane 1, 1-kb marker (BRL).
Figure 5 Southern blot analysis of T3 progeny from homozygous Line 16-13. Lane 1, untransformed pep-
per plant; lane 2, plant in the T3 progeny from line 16-13; lane 3, plasmid pBTC.
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Figure 6 Expression of TMV CP gene (A) and CMV CP gene (B) in T3 progeny of homozygous line 16-
13 by RT-PCR. The RT-PCR was carried out on total RNA extracted from transformed and untransformed
seedlings. Lane 1, DNA marker DL2,000 (Takara Biotech); lane 2, pBTC for PCR-positive control. (A)
Lanes 3–10, plants from T3 progeny of line 16-13; lane 11, T3 progeny of line 16-13 without AMV RTase
in reaction mixture; lane 12, untransformed plant; (B) Lanes 3–7, plants from T3 progeny of line 16-13; lane
8, plant from T3 progeny of line 16-13 without AMV RTase in reaction mixture; lane 9, untransformed plant.
Synthesis of TMV and CMV CPs in T3 progeny of line 16-13 was demonstrated by West-
ern blot analysis. A 24-kDa protein specifically recognized by the CMV polyclonal antisera con-
firmed the expression of the CMV CP in seven T3 progeny of line 16-13. The amount of CMV
CP accounted for 0.004–0.005% of the soluble protein in transgenic plants (Fig. 7A). A 17-kDa
protein specifically reacted with the TMV polyclonal antisera indicated the expression of the
TMV CP in all seven T3 progeny from line 16-13 (Fig. 7B). The expression level of the TMV CP
was estimated at 0.002–0.003% of the soluble protein in transgenic plants.
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572 Cai et al.
Figure 7 Expression of CMV CP and TMV CP in T3 progenies of homozygous 16-13 by Western blot
analysis. (A) Lane 1, 4.9 ng of CMV CP (the CMV CP is ca. 24-kDa); lanes 2–8, a 24-kDa protein was ob-
served in T3 progenies of line 16-13; lane 9, no 24-kDa protein appeared in nontransformed control plant.
(B) Lane 1, 3.8 ng of TMV CP (the TMV CP is ca. 17-kDa); lanes 2–8, a 17-kDa protein was observed in
T3 progenies of line 16-13; lane 9, no 17-kDa protein appeared in the nontransformed control plant.
C. Resistance to Cucumber Mosaic Virus and Tobacco Mosaic Virus

in Kanamycin-Resistant T1 Transgenic Plants
Fifty T1 progeny of 4 self-pollinated PCR-positive T0 plants were inoculated with 20 µg/ml of
purified CMV. Fifty days after inoculation, 50% of the progeny plants showed no or delayed
symptoms; among them, 5 plants did not develop any symptoms until the fruiting period. How-
ever, all untransformed plants had developed systemic symptoms.
Sixty-three progeny of another 6 self-pollinated PCR-positive T0 plants were challenged
successively with 20 µg/ml of CMV and 0.5 µg/ml of TMV. Eighty days after inoculation, 15 T1
plants showed resistance to virus infection (Fig. 2H, left), whereas untransformed pepper plants
showed systemic symptoms (Fig. 2H, right). Some of the results of protection of T1 transgenic
pepper plants against CMV and TMV infection are shown in Table 2. The T1 transgenic plants
showed different levels of protection, as judged by symptoms and the infectivity assays on
Chenopodium quinoa. The T1 plant lines 34-12, 10-11, 9-9, 34-2, 16-13, and 10-12 did not show
any signs of infection on leaves, indicating high levels of resistance to CMV and TMV. Consis-
tently, levels of virus multiplication in plants 34-12, 10-11, 9-9 were low, as the number of lesions
produced were less than 10% of the number of lesions produced by extracts of nontransgenic
plants. Virus multiplication in plants 34-2 and 10-12 were at the intermediate level, and more le-
sions appeared from the T1 plants 34-13, 5-6, 45-4, consistently with the more severe symptoms
exhibited in the challenged plants.
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Table 2 Protection of T1 Transgenic Pepper Plants Against Cucumber Mosaic

Virus and Tobacco Mosaic Virus Infectiona
Line Lesions in Chenopodium quinoa, percentageb Symptoms
9-9 9.0 –
34-2 18.3 –
34-12 4.0 –
10-11 7.9 –
16-13 NTc –
10-12 26.2 –
34-13 48.5 +
5-6 81.5 ++
45-4 96.8 +++
Untransformed 100.0 +++
a
The pepper plants were first inoculated with 20 µg/ml of homologous CMV, and 7 days later,
two other leaves of the same plants were inoculated with 0.5 µg/ml of homologous TMV.
b
The left half of the C. quinoa leaves was inoculated by the purified viruses as control, and the
right half of leaves was inoculated by sap extracted from leaves of challenged transformed or
untransformed pepper plants. For each plant, lesions from four halves of C. quinoa leaves
were counted and averaged. The virus multiplication level is expressed as the ratio percent-
age of average lesion number for the transgenic pepper plants to the average lesion number
for the untransformed pepper plants.
c
NT, not tested.
D. Resistance to Different CMV Isolates in the T3 Progenies

of the Homozygous Line 16-13
To test the broadness of resistance, the T3 progenies of the line 16-13 and untransformed control
plants were mechanically inoculated with three CMV isolates that induce different symptoms in
cultivar 8212. Resistance was determined by observing symptom development until the fruiting
stage. Table 3 showed the resistance of T3 plants of line 16-13 against three CMV isolates. The
Table 3 Protection Against Cucumber Mosaic Virus Isolates of

the T3 Progenies from the Homozygous Line 16-13
NS, percentagea NS, percentagea

b
Virus isolates T3 plants Control plants
Shandong 100 0
Tomato 67 0
Anhui 64 0
a
NS, percentage of plants with no symptoms.
b
Plants were inoculated with three CMV isolates in a greenhouse. Shandong
isolate was the homozygous CMV that was isolated from tobacco in Shan-
dong Province; tomato isolate was isolated from tomato; Anhui isolate was
isolated from tobacco in Anhui Province. Symptoms on chili pepper cultivar
‘8212’ caused by the isolates were as follows: Shandong isolate, vein clear-
ing and leaf mosaic; tomato isolate, vein clearing and yellowing; Anhui iso-
late, yellowing and stunting.
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574 Cai et al.
plants were highly resistant to the Shandong isolate, the homozygous virus from which the trans-
gene (CMV CP gene) was derived, and showed moderate resistance to the tomato and Anhui iso-
lates.
E. Field Test of the T2 Progeny of Line 16-13

The purpose of the field test was to evaluate coat protein–mediated protection during a complete
plant growth cycle and against aphid-mediated infection. The seedlings of the T2 progenies of ho-
mozygous line 16-13 were planted in natural pepper-growing conditions before transplanting into
the field in early July 1996. The results are shown by Fig. 8. Five days after transplantation the
T2 plants showed 30% of disease incidence (DI) whereas untransformed plants were 62% of DI.
Figure 8 The percentage disease incidence (A), average severity (B), and CMV accumulation (data from
10 random plants) (C) of T2 progeny of homozygous line 16-13 and control plants (8212) in a field test in
1996.
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Twenty days post transplantation the control plants became 100% infected, whereas the T2 plants
showed 48% to 94% of DI (Fig. 8A). The T2 plants exhibited 1.35 of average severity (AS)
whereas control plants exhibited 2.75 AS at 60 days post transplantation (Fig. 8B). Usually, when
the AS exceeds 1.50, the plant becomes stunted and does not produce fruit. We did not observe
stunted plants in T2 progenies of line 16-13. The CMV accumulation was also determined by in-
direct DAS-ELISA. Fifty-four days post transplantation the T2 plants of 16-13 showed a lower
level of CMV accumulation when compared with untransformed cultivar ‘8212’ (Fig. 8C).
F. Field Tests of the T3 and T4 Progeny of Line 16-13

Three hundred T3 progenies of line 16-13 and untransformed control plants were tested in the
field in 1997. The data from the 1997 field trial are summarized in Fig. 9 and Table 4. The DI and
AS observed in 1997 were comparable to those in 1996. Seventeen of the tested 300 transgenic
plants did not show any symptoms at harvest. A number of growth parameters are listed in Table
Figure 9 The percentage disease incidence (A) and average severity (B) of T3 progenies of homozygous
line 16-13 and control plants (8212) in the field test conducted in 1997.
Table 4 Comparison of the Horticultural Characteristics and Fruit Yield of the T3 and T4 Progenies of
Line 16-13 and Untransformed Chili Pepper in Field Trials
SP,
Year Cultivar HT, cma percentagea NFPc FWP, gd FL, cme Yield, gf
1997 16-13 57.3 5.0 25.9 86.9 10.4 7819.6

8212 49.3 33.5 19.1 59.1 8.1 5319.3
1998 16-13 NT NT 42.0 189.0 NT 17010.0
8212 NT NT 34.1 88.4 NT 7956.0
a
HT, plant height at 8 weeks post transplantation.
b
SP, stunted plant, estimated by symptom (scores 3 and 4) from 300 plants.
c
NFP, number of fruit per plant.
d
FWP, weight of fruit per plant.
e
FL, length per fruit was measured from 300 fruits.
f
Fruit yield was obtained by the total weight of 90 plants. HT, NFP, and FWP were averaged from 90 plants.
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576 Cai et al.
Figure 10 The percentage disease incidence (A) and average severity (B) of T4 progenies of homozygous
line 16-13 and control plants (8212) in a field test in 1998.
4. The T4 progenies (10,000 plants) of line 16-13 were further tested in the field in 1998, as shown
in Fig. 10 and Table 4. The DI and AS observed in 1998 were similar to those of 1997. The trans-
genic chili pepper with the CMV CP and TMV CP genes exhibited high levels of viral resistance
compared with untransformed plants under natural pepper-growing conditions. Fruit yields and
vegetative growth of the progeny of homozygous plants averaged better than those of untrans-
formed plants. The average fruit yield was 47% (1997) and 110% (1998) higher than that of the
control plant (Table 4).
G. Quality Analysis of Transgenic Dry Fruit

The quality analysis of transgenic fruits is shown in Table 5. The percentage of H2O, rough fiber,
rough fat, total ash, and insoluble ash (in HCl) of transgenic fruit is equivalent to that of the con-
trol plants. Changes in other major characteristics were not observed in transgenic fruits.
Table 5 Dry Fruit Qualitya of T3 Progenies of Line 16-13 Compared with Untransformed
Chili Pepper ‘8212’
Percentage
Cultivar H2O Rough fiber Rough fat Total ash Insoluble ash in HCl
16-13 7.50 20.62 13.10 6.62 0.46

8212b 6.26 ⬃ 10.64 20.17 ⬃ 26.08 7.11 ⬃ 12.94 5.80 ⬃ 7.50 0.11 ⬃ 0.49
a
Quality analysis of dry fruit was determined according to the Chinese National Standard.
b
Data from random sample of 10.
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IV. SUMMARY
Both cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) coat protein genes have
been transferred into chili pepper (Capsicum annuum var. Longunt) cultivar 8212 mediated by
Agrobacterium sp. Kanamycin resistant plantlets were regenerated from hypocotyls. Forty-nine
independent transformants were obtained, 22 of which showed the presence of both of CMV and
TMV coat protein genes by PCR analysis. Fifty progeny from 4 self-pollinated PCR-positive T0
plants were tested for resistance to infection by CMV, and 5 of them showed high levels of resis-
tance. Sixty-three progeny of another 6 self-pollinated PCR-positive T0 plants were challenged
with the inocula of CMV and TMV. Fifteen T1 plants were selected with high-level resistance to
both CMV and TMV infection. Ten T1 lines were shown to be homozygotes on the basis of the
results of kanamycin-resistance assay and PCR analysis of their T2 progenies. The T2, T3, and
T4 progenies, respectively, of virus-resistant homozygotes were tested in natural CMV- and
TMV-infested fields and by challenge with CMV and TMV in greenhouse tests. The progeny
from a homozygous line 16-13 showed high levels of resistance and good-quality agronomic
characteristics. Extensive molecular analyses such as PCR, Southern blot, RT-PCR, and Western
blot were carried out on the T3 progenies of line 16-13, and the results indicated that the CMV
CP and TMV CP genes were stably expressed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge Drs. Roger N. Beachy and Dennis Gonsalves and Mr. Au-
gustine Gubba for their thoughtful review of the manuscript.
REFERENCES
1. P Powell-Abel, RS Nelson, B De, N Hoffmann, SG Rogers, RT Fraley, RN Beachy. Delay of disease

development in transgenic plant that express the tobacco mosaic virus coat protein gene. Science 232:
738–743, 1986.
2. RS Nelson, SM McCormick, X Delannay, P Dube, J Layton, EJ Andoson, M Kaniewska, RK Proksch,
RB Horsch, SG Rogers, RT Fraley, RN Beachy. Virus tolerance, plant growth, and field performence
of transgenic tomato plants express coat protein from tobacco mosaic virus. Biotechnology 6:403–409,
1988.
3. RX Fang, YC Tian, GL Wang, XF Qin, MZ Yang, TY Li, BY Xu, KQ Mang, ZC Zhang, Q, Wu, RH
Zhou, FL Wang, G Zhao, XD Han. Transgene tobacco plants resistant to infection of both TMV and
CMV. Chin Sci Bull 36:524–525, 1990.
4. D Gonsalves, P Chee, R Provvidenti, R Seem, JL Slightom. Comparison of coat protein-mediated and
genetically-derived resistance in cucumbers to infection by cucumber mosaic virus under field condi-
tions with natural challenge inoculations by vectors. Biotechnology 10:1562–1570, 1992.
5. AL Gunay AL, PS Rao. In vitro plant regeneration from hypocotyl and cotyledon explants of red pep-
per (Capsicum). Plant Sci Lett 11:365–372, 1978.
6. M Fari, M Czako. Relationships between position and morphogenetic response of pepper hypocotyl
explant culture in vitro. Sci Hortic 15:207–213, 1981.
7. GC Phillips, JF Hubstenberger. Organogenesis in pepper tissue cultures. Plant Cell Tissue Org Cult
4:261–269, 1985.
8. P Sripichitt, E Nawata, S Shigenaga. In vitro shoot-forming capacity of cotyledon explants in red pep-
per (Capsicum annuum L.cv. Yatsufusa). Jpn J Breed 37:133–142, 1987.
9. S Agrawal, N Chandra, SL Kothari. Plant regeneration in tissue cultures of pepper (Capsicum annuum
L.cv. Mathania). Plant Cell Tissue Org Cult 16:47–55, 1989.
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10. N Ochoa-Alejo, L Ireta-Moreno. Cultivar differences in shoot-forming capacity of hypocotyl tissue of

chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultured in vitro. Sci Hortic 42:21–28, 1990.
11. LL Valera-Montero, N Ochoa-Alejo. A novel approach for chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) plant
regeneration: Shoot induction in rooted hypocotyls. Plant Sci 84:215–219, 1992.
12. W Shao, JD Caponetti. Callus production, organogenesis, and pantlet formation in three cultivars of
sweet pepper. J Tenn Acad Sci 68:113–118, 1993.
13. H Ezura, S Nishimiya, M Kasumi. Efficient regeneration of plants independent of exogeneous growth
regulators in bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Plant Cell Rep 12:676–680, 1993.
14. AIA Ebida, CY Hu. In vitro morphogenetic responses and plant regeneration from pepper (Capsicum
annuum L. cv. Early California Wonder) seedling explants. Plant Cell Rep 13:107–110, 1993.
15. W Liu, WA Parrott, DF Hildebrand, GB Collins, EG Williams. Agrobacterium induced gall formation
in bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) and formation of shoot-like structures expressing introduced
genes. Plant Cell Rep 9:360–364, 1990.
16. YX Zhu, Y Qu, J Wen, Y Zhang, ZL Chen. Transgenic sweet pepper plants from Agrobacterium-me-
diated transformation. Plant Cell Rep 16(1/2):71–75, 1996.
Physiol Plant 15:473–497, 1962.
18. SL Dellaparta, J Wood, JB Hicks. Maize DNAminiprep. In: R Malmber, J Messing, I Sussex, eds. Mol-
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Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989, 19–22.
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39
Transgenic Cucumber with Resistance
to Cucumber Mosaic Virus
Soryu Nishibayashi
Mitsubishi Space Software Co., Ltd., Amagasaki City, Japan
I. INTRODUCTION 579
II. HISTORY OF CUCUMBER TRANSFORMATION 580
III. PROTOCOL FOR TRANSFORMATION 580
A. Plant Material 580
B. Culture of Agrobacterium tumefaciens 580
C. Inoculation and Coculture 581
D. Cell Selection and Plant Regeneration 581
IV. EFFECT OF ACETOSYRINGONE ON TRANSFORMATION 581
V. CELL SELECTION 581
VI. EXPRESSION OF CaMV 35s PROMOTOR 582
VII. CUCUMBER MOSAIC VIRUS RESISTANCE 583
VIII. SAFETY OF TRANSGENIC PLANTS 584
REFERENCES 584
I. INTRODUCTION
Cucumber is one of the popular vegetable crops in America, Asia, and European countries. It suf-
fers from viral diseases such as cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), zucchini yellow mosaic virus
(ZYMV), and watermelon mosaic virus (WMV), which cause serious damage to both the plant
body and the fruit yield. However, in many cases, new cucumber cultivars with the characteris-
tics of viral resistance cannot be easily produced, as a result of the absence of useful plants with
the characteristics of viral resistance for breeding purposes. If there is a wild plant with the char-
acteristics of viral resistance, such a wild plant cannot be directly used for cucumber breeding,
because of genetic barriers such as sexual incompatibility between donor and acceptor plants or
the loss of desirable characteristics by breeding.
Using gene-engineering technologies, single dominant agronomic characteristics, includ-
ing viral resistance, can be directly introduced into crops, without changing the desirable charac-
teristics. Powell-Abell and coworkers (1) first proposed the possibility of plant breeding for viral
579
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580 Nishibayashi
resistance in transgenic tobacco plants, into which a TMV coat protein (cp) gene was introduced.
The strategy of using coat protein genes has since been applied for plant protection against vari-
ous viruses (2,3).
I describe here the method of Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated transformation in the
hypocotyl explants of cucumber plants (4) and CMV resistance in transgenic cucumber plants
with an introduced CMV-Y-cp gene (5).
II. HISTORY OF CUCUMBER TRANSFORMATION
The transformation of cucumber was first achieved by Trulson and associates (6), who regener-
ated transgenic cucumber plants from roots that were induced by the inoculation of inverted
hypocotyl explants with Agrobacterium rhizogenes, which harbored a binary vector plasmid with
the NOS-nptll gene. Chee (7) cocultured cucumber cotyledonary explants with Agrobacterium
tumefaciens, which harbored a binary vector plasmid with an NOS-nptll gene and obtained many
transgenic plants by regeneration via somatic embryogenesis from the cotyledonary explants.
Sarmento and coworkers (8) also used Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which harbored various bi-
nary vector plasmids with a CaMV 35s-nptll gene, and achieved transformation of cucumbers by
using petiole and leaf explants. In these reports, an nptll gene was used as a selectable marker
gene, and transgenic plants were regenerated on media containing kanamycin.
We established an Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated transformation system based
upon hypocotyl explants of cucumber line 1021 (4). The transformation system is described the
following section.
III. PROTOCOL FOR TRANSFORMATION

A. Plant Material
1. Remove the seed coats and sterilize the peeled seeds in 1.2% (v/v) sodium hypochlo-
rite solution for 10–15 minutes.
2. Rinse with sterile distilled water several times.
3. Place on hormone-free Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium (pH 5.8) for 7–10 days.
All media that are used in the transformation experiments are supplemented with 3% sucrose and
solidified with 0.2% gellite. All media are autoclaved at 120°C for 15 minutes. The culture con-
ditions in all media are constant at 23°C under a 16-hour (light)–8-hour (dark) photoperiod in a
culture room.
B. Culture of Agrobacterium tumefaciens

1. Grow the EHA 101 strain of Agrobacterium tumefaciens (9) in a liquid YEB medium
containing 50 mg/l kanamycin, 20 mg/l hygromycin B, and 25 mg/l chloramphenicol
at 23°C for 3–7 days.
2. Dilute the suspension of Agrobacterium tumefaciens to 1/100 with liquid MS medium.
The EHA101 strain harbors binary plasmid pIG121-Hm (4) or pIG121-HmCP (5), which are de-
rivatives of PBI121 (10). The pIG121-Hm has the neomycin phosphotransferase II gene (nptll),
hygromycin phosphotransferase (hph) gene, and β-glucronidase (gus) gene (11). The first intron
sequence of the catalase gene of castor bean is inserted between the CaMV 35s promoter and β-
glucuronidase gene. The plG121-HmCP is a derivative of the pIG121-Hm into which the CaMV
35s-CMV-O-cp gene was introduced.
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Transgenic Cucumber 581
C. Inoculation and Coculture

1. Cut the hypocotyls of the seedlings into 1-mm segments with a razor blade.
2. Inoculate the hypocotyl segments with the 1/100 diluted Agrobacterium tumefaciens
suspension.
3. Blot on sterilized filter papers.
4. Transfer to solidified MS coculture medium (pH 5.2) supplemented with 4 mg/l indole-
3-acetic acid (IAA), 1 mg/l N6-(2-isopentyl)adenine (2ip), and 50 or 100 µM 3⬘, 5⬘-
dimethoxy-4⬘-hydroxyacetophenone (Aldrich) and culture for 5 days.
D. Cell Selection and Plant Regeneration

1. Transfer the cocultured hypocotyl explants to the solidified MS medium (pH 5.8) sup-
plemented with 1.1 mg/l 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4-D), 0.23 mg/l 6-benzyl-
aminopurine (BAP), 1% casein hydrolysate, 500 mg/l carbenicillin, 20–30 mg/l hy-
gromycin B and culture for 4–6 weeks.
2. Transfer the tissues to solidified hormone-free MS medium supplemented with 500
mg/l carbenicillin and culture for 2–3 months. Change the medium at intervals of 4–6
weeks.
3. Transfer the regenerated plantlets to hormone-free MS medium supplemented with 500
mg/l carbenicillin in Plantaboxes.
4. Gradually acclimate plantlets for 1–2 months.
5. Transplant the acclimated plants into pots and grow in a closed greenhouse.
IV. EFFECT OF ACETOSYRINGONE ON TRANSFORMATION
Sarmento and coworkers (8) show that exposing petiole segments of cucumbers to an Agrobac-
terium tumefaciens suspension with 20 µM acetosyringone has no significant effect in enhancing
the frequency of kanamycin-resistant calli. In our study (4), the acetosyringone treatment during
coculture enhances transformation efficiency on the cut surfaces of hypocotyl explants of cu-
cumber. We suggest that the long exposure of the hypocotyl explants to Agrobacterium tumefa-
ciens with acetosyringone is more effective than short times of exposure.
The cocultured explants are transferred to MS medium containing 20 mg/l hygromycin B
for selection and plantlet regeneration. The appearance of hygromycin B–resistant calli indicat-
ing successful transformation was observed at high frequencies both with and without acetosy-
ringone during coculture. Hygromycin B–resistant calli appeared on the cut surface in 100% of
100 explants cocultured with acetosyringone treatment and in 88% of 100 explants without the
acetosyringone treatment 2 weeks after coculture (4).
In contrast, frequency of hygromycin B–resistant calli was 4% when explants were cocul-
tured for 2 days without acetosyringone. Coculture for 2 days with acetosyringone resulted in cal-
lus on 60% of the explants.
These results show that acetosyringone treatment during coculture increases the number of
transformed cells on the cut surface of cucumber hypocotyl explants.
V. CELL SELECTION
The choice of antibiotic to select the transformed cells is very important in transformation stud-
ies. Kanamycin was usually used as the antibiotic in previous reports of cucumber transformation
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582 Nishibayashi
experiments (6–8). We compared the suitability of kanamycin and that of hygromycin B for se-
lecting transformed cells (4).
In both control and Agrobacterium tumefaciens–infected explants treated with kanamycin,
the hypocotyls grew to three to four times larger than the initial explants during a 2- to 3-week
period. On the contrary, hypocotyl explants stopped growing in both control and Agrobacterium
tumefaciens–infected samples treated with hygromycin B. Kanamycin killed the nontransformed
cells slowly, and many nontransformed plantlets are regenerated from the calli. On the contrary,
hygromycin B kills nontransformed cells quickly, and the frequency of regeneration of nontrans-
formed plantlets is reduced to one third in comparison with kanamycin.
VI. EXPRESSION OF CaMV 35s PROMOTER
CaMV 35s promoter is generally used for the expression of transgenes in transgenic crops. It is
important to know the tissue cells in which the promoter is active. In transgenic cucumber plants
(4) carring an introduced gus gene, the CaMV 35s promoter-gus gene was expressed in very young
leaves that were regenerated from calli, but not in the mature leaves of both 20-cm- or 1.5-m-tall
plants (Table 1). The promoter was active in the root meristem, young cotyledons of seedlings, and
ovules of immature fruits and was silent in differentiated tissues cells of roots, hypocotyls, old
cotyledons, stems, leaves, petioles, tendrils, male flowers, and fruits (female flowers) (Table 1) (4).
Table 1 Expression of CaMV 35s-gus Gene in the Various Organs and Tissues of
Transgenic Cucumber Plants
Organ and tissue Expression of CaMV 35s-gus genea
Root
Meristem +++
Differentiated –
Stem –
Leaf
Regenerated (from calli) +++
Mature –
Petiole –
Tendril –
Male flower –
Fruit (female flower)
Ovule
Immature +++
Mature –
Others –
Hypocotyl of seedling –
Cotyledon of seedling
Young ++
Intermediate +
Old –
Seed +++
a
+++, very strong; ++, strong; +, weak; –, no detection. Control cucumber plants did not display the
expression of CaMV 35s-gus gene in the various organs and tissues.
Source: Refs. 3 and 4.
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It is interesting that the CaMV 35s promoter is inactive in most of the differentiated tissues
and organs of the transgenic cucumber plants, because it is generally considered that the CaMV
35s promoter functions in the meristematic cells of the roots, stems, leaves, and vascular bundles
of various organs.
VII. CUCUMBER MOSAIC VIRUS RESISTANCE
Transgenic cucumber plants (cv. ‘Poinsett 76’) with an introduced CMV-C-cp gene were first pro-
duced by Chee and Slightom (12). They and coresearchers investigated CMV disease develop-
ment in the transgenic lines after inoculation of the CMV-CAT strain in the greenhouse and under
field conditions (13). The inoculated plants responded with three general types of reaction: (a)
susceptible (14%), (b) symptomless (36%), and (c) delayed symptoms (50%). Fruit yields and
vegetative growth of transgenic lines averaged better than those of nontransgenic plants of the
same cultivar under field conditions.
We introduced a gene encoding the CP of CMV-O strain into a line 1021, which has a low
level of resistance to the CMV-Y strain (5). Two transgenic cucumber plants were cross-hy-
bridized with cucumber cultivar ‘Sharp 1,’ which displays sensitivity to the CMV-Y strain. Plants
(40/plant line) were inoculated with CMV-Y as described previously. The nontransgenic progeny
of the parent plants displayed sensitivity to the CMV-Y strain, as did the cv. ‘Sharp 1’ (Fig. 1).
The number of CMV-induced disease lesions on the first leaf in the nontransgenic progeny plants
was half of that in the cultivar ‘Sharp 1,’ because the progeny plants were hemizygous with re-
gard to the resistance gene in line 1021. On the other hand, the number of CMV-induced lesions
on the nontransgenic progeny plants was nine times greater than that in the line 1021. On the con-
trary, the transgenic progeny plants that contain a cp gene displayed no symptoms during the 3
weeks after inoculation with 100 µg/ml CMV-Y strain (Fig. 1), whereas control plants did dis-
play symptom appearance (5).
Figure 1 Frequencies of symptom-appeared plants in two transgenic cucumber lines after inoculation
with 100 µg/ml CMV-Y strain. S1 (cv. ‘Sharp 1’) and line 1021 as control plants. (From Ref. 5.)
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584 Nishibayashi
The cucumber cv. ‘Poinsett 76’ used by Gonsalves and associates (13) was more suscepti-
ble than the cultivar ‘Sharp 1’ and the line 1021 (5).
Our results indicate that transgenic cucumber plants with the characteristics of very strong
CMV resistance can be produced by combining natural genetic resistance and CMV-cp gene (5).
Coat protein was not detected in both leaves and cotyledons of the transgenic plants by
Western blot analysis, whereas messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) was detected in them by
Northern blot analysis (5). In recent studies, virus resistance in transgenic plants expressing a va-
riety of viral genes is caused by the posttranscriptional mechanisms leading to degradation of
viral RNA similar to the posttranscriptional gene silencing (14–16). Resistance in the transgenic
plants may be caused by RNA-mediated resistance.
VIII. SAFETY OF TRANSGENIC PLANTS
The transgenic cucumber plants are now being investigated for morphological characteristics,
fruit yield, pollen, and seed fertility, in comparison with the control plants. There were no appar-
ent differences in morphological characteristics, fruit yield, pollen, and seed fertility between the
transgenic and control plants in greenhouse studies conducted over 2 years. Furthermore, there
was no evidence of cross-hybridization between transgenic and control plants in the closed green-
house. However, cucumber plants are usually hybridized by insect-mediated pollination. There is,
therefore, a possibility of hybridization between nontransgenic and transgenic cucumber plants
by insects in natural fields. The transgenic cucumber plants should be further investigated for their
safety as food for human beings.
In the future, the transgenic cucumber plants may be demonstrated to be suitable for the
market after sufficient investigation of their safety for human beings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Dr. Roger N. Beachy for critical reading of the manuscript. I also thank Dr. Ko Shimamoto
for helpful discussion throughout the course of this study.
REFERENCES
1. P Powell-Abell, RS Nelson, B De, N Hoffman, SG Rogers, TR Fraley, RN Beachy. Delay of disease

development in transgenic plants that express the tobacco mosaic virus coat protein gene. Science 23:
738–743, 1986.
2. RN Beachy, S Loesch-Fries, NE Tumer. Coat protein-mediated resistance against virus infection. Annu
Rev Phytopathol 28:451–474, 1990.
3. ED Miller, C Hemenway. History of coat protein-mediated protection. Methods Mol Biol 81:25–38,
1998.
4. S Nishibayashi, H Kaneko, T Hayakawa. Transformation of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) plants
using Agrobacterium tumefaciens and regeneration from hypocotyl explants. Plant Cell Rep 15:809–
814, 1996.
5. S Nishibayashi, T Hayakawa, T Nakajima, M Suzuki, H Kaneko. CMV protection in transgenic cu-
cumber plants with an introduced CMV-O cp gene. Theor Appl Genet 93:672–678, 1996.
6. AJ Trulson, RB Simpson, EA Shahin. Transformation of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) plants with
Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Theor Appl Genet 73:11–15, 1986.
7. PP Chee. Transformation of Cucumis sativus tissue by Agrobacterium tumefaciens and the regenera-
tion of transformed plants. Plant Cell Rep 9:245–248, 1990.
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8. GG Sarmento, K Alpert, FA Tang, ZK Punja. Factors influencing Agrobacterium tumefaciens medi-

ated transformation and expression of kanamycin resistance in pickling cucumber. Plant Cell Tissue
Org Cult 31:185–193, 1992.
9. EE Hood, GL Helmer, RT Fraley, MD Chilton. The hypervirulence of Agrobacterium tumefaciens
A281 is encoded in a region of pTiBo542 outside of T-DNA. J Bacteriol 168:1291–1301, 1986.
10. RA Jefferson, TA Kavanagh, MW Bevan. GUS fusions: β-glucuronidase as a sensitive and versatile
gene fusion marker in higher plants. EMBO J 6:3901–3907, 1987.
11. K Akama, H Shiraishi, S Ohta, K Nakamura, K Okada, Y Shimura. Efficient transformation of Ara-
bidopsis thaliana: Comparison of the efficiences with various organs, plant ecotypes and Agrobac-
terium strains. Plant Cell Rep 12:7–11, 1992.
12. PP Chee, JL Slightom. Transfer and expression of cucumber mosaic virus coat protein gene in the ge-
neome of Cucumis sativus. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 116:1098–1102, 1991.
13. D Gonsalves, PP Chee, R Provvidenti, R Seem, JL Slightom. Comparison of coat protein-mediated
and genetically-derived resistance in cucumbers to infection by cucumber mosaic virus under field
conditions with natural challenge inoculations by vectors. Biotechnology 10:1562–1570, 1992.
mediated by untranslatable sense RNAs: Expression, regulation, and fate of nonessential RNAs. Plant
Cell 6:1441–1453, 1994.
15. M Prins, M Kikkert, C Ismayadi, W de Graauw, P de Haan, R Goldbach. Characterization of RNA-
mediated resistance to tomato spotted wilt virus in transgenic tobacco plants expressing NS(M) gene
sequences. Plant Mol Biol 33:235–243, 1997.
16. IL Ingelbrecht, JE Irvine, TE Mirkov. Posttranscriptional gene silencing in transgenic sugarcane: Dis-
section of homology-dependent virus resistance in a monocot that has a complex polyploid genome.
Plant Physiol 119:1187–1198, 1999.
www.taq.ir
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40
Transgenic Parthenocarpic and
Insect-Resistant Eggplant
Giuseppe Leonardo Rotino

Research Institute for Vegetable Crops, Montanaso Lombardo, Italy
Francesco Sunseri
University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy
Nazareno Acciarri
Research Institute for Vegetable Crops, Monsampolo del Tronto, Italy
Salvatore Arpaia
Metapontum Agrobios, Metaponto, Italy
Giuseppe Mennella
Research Institute for Vegetable Crops, Pontecagnano, Italy
Angelo Spena and Michela Zottini

University of Verona, Verona, Italy
I. INTRODUCTION 588
II. BREEDING AND BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES 589
A. Main Breeding Goals 589
B. Doubled Haploid in Breeding Program 589
C. Somatic Hybridization 589
D. Genetic Transformation 589
E. Molecular Markers 589
III. GENETIC ENGINEERING 590
A. Insect Resistance 590
B. Field Performance of Transgenic Lines 591
C. Cry1 Gene and Shoot and Fruit Borer Resistance 593
IV. PARTHENOCARPY 593
A. Introduction 593
B. Chimeric Gene DefH9-iaaM as Biotechnological Tool to Induce Parthenocarpy 594
C. Characterization of the Primary Transformed Plant 596
D. Greenhouse Evaluation of Engineered Parthenocarpic Hybrids 597
V. PERSPECTIVES 599
REFERENCES 599
587
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588 Rotino et al.
I. INTRODUCTION
Solanum melongena L. (2n = 24), also known as eggplant, aubergine, or brinjal, is an important
solanaceous vegetable crop mainly cultivated in the tropical Asian and Mediterranean countries.
Eggplant was cultivated for over 1500 years in Asia before being introduced in Europe by
the Arabs (1), and the common name probably derived from the white egglike fruits. At present,
the vegetable crop is cultivated on 1,130,000 hectares worldwide with an annual production of 17
million metric tons (2), an increase of 2.5 million metric tons in the last 4 years has been esti-
mated (Table 1).
The most important eggplant-growing countries are China (the world’s largest producer
with 48.6% and 57.2% of harvested area and production, respectively), India, Japan, Indonesia,
and Mediterranean countries such as Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, Italy, Greece, Spain, and France;
and the United States (see Table 1). Eggplant, a good source of minerals and vitamins with a total
nutritional value comparable to that of tomato, is an important and popular vegetable in the diet
of these countries. It is usually freshly marketed, although the use of frozen eggplant is spread-
ing in the developed countries.
The utilization of eggplant fruit and leaves for medicinal purposes such as treatment for di-
abetes, asthma, bronchitis, and dysuria has been reported (1,3); its tissue extracts are also reported
to promote lowering of blood cholesterol levels (1).
Eggplant is a slow-growing perennial solanaceous crop in tropical climates, whereas in the
temperate zones it behaves as an annual and its growing season can be lengthened under inten-
sive greenhouse cultivation. At the end of the life cycle, the plant reaches a height ranging from
50 to 150 cm, bearing fruits of very different size, shape, and skin color. Reported as a day-neu-
tral plant, it starts flowering at the 6th- to 10th-leaf stage, enduring for a long period. Considered
an autogamous species, it has a frequency of natural cross-pollination reported to vary from 0.2%
to 48% (4,5).
Since eggplant is highly responsive to in vitro manipulation (6), such biotechnological ap-
proaches as genetic transformation (7–9), doubled-haploid production (10), and somatic hy-
bridization (11,12) may well help to solve several of its agronomic problems.
Table 1 Worldwide Production of Eggplant
Harvested area, ha Yield, kg/ha Production, metric tons
Egypt 28,000 20,000 560,000

Sudan 4,500 24,444 110,000
Africa 42,320 18,487 782,385
United States 1,052 31,825 33,480
America 1,442 44,804 38,542
China 551,218 18,182 10,022,356
India 320,000 10,625 3,400,000
Turkey 32,600 26,074 849,999
Asia 1,060,814 15,106 16,024,802
Italy 11,000 28,609 314,700
Spain 3,500 31,429 110,000
Europe 25,650 23,692 607,700
World 1,133,940 15,442 17,510,483
Source: Based on FAO Production Yearbook. Rome: 1998.
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Transgenic Eggplant 589
II. BREEDING AND BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES

A. Main Breeding Goals
Eggplant breeding is mainly focused on release of F1 hybrids, which already have supplanted the
open-pollinated varieties, particularly in the intensive growing areas. The main goal of breeding
is to develop high-quality and pest-resistant varieties (13). In the countries where intensive and
successive cropping is practiced, the development of genotypes resistant to soilborne diseases
such as fungal wilt (Verticillium and Fusarium spp.), bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum),
and nematode infestations (Meloydogine spp.) becomes necessary. Eggplant cultivations are se-
verely damaged also by insects [e.g., Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say),
fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee), greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vapo-
rariorum Westw), thrip (Frankiniella occidentalis), mites (e.g., Tetranychus urticae, T. cinnabor-
inus), and fruit rots (e.g., Botrytis and Phomopsis spp.)].
B. Doubled Haploid in Breeding Program

Anther culture is an in vitro technique currently utilized in commercial breeding programs. The
main advantage of doubled-haploid technique is its speeding up of the procedure to obtain pure
lines for F1 hybrid release (10). Another useful application is the generation of androgenetic di-
haploid plants from tetraploid somatic interspecific hybrids; dihaploids can be more easily incor-
porated in an eggplant breeding program.
C. Somatic Hybridization
Somatic hybrids have been obtained via protoplast fusion starting from several Solanum spp. as
donor parent (12). Somatic hybridization could allow the recombination of both nuclear and cy-
toplasmic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Thus, it is a powerful tool to expand the genetic vari-
ability and introgress useful genes from wild relatives into the eggplant gene pool.
D. Genetic Transformation
Efficient Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated transformation protocols were developed for se-
lected genotypes (8,9,14); however, other genotypes may require a refinement of the technique in
order to regenerate transgenic plants.
E. Molecular Markers
Allozyme and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analyses performed on 52 S. me-
longena genotypes (27 and 25 lines of cultivated and weedy form var. insanum, respectively)
were reported (15,16). The results showed a high degree of similarity between the accessions of
each form tested (I = 0.947 by RAPD analysis); overall, the S. melongena var. insanum genotypes
differed more from the cultivated eggplants (16).
In 1998 a RAPD-based linkage map of eggplant was presented (17), confirming the low de-
gree of polymorphism detected in this species. The map was constructed on 168 F2 segregating
progenies obtained from a cross between an elite line and a bacterial wilt–resistant line. A total
of 1232 primers were screened, resulting in only 95 primers (7.7%) detecting polymorphisms.
The map consisted of 94 loci spanning 716 cM; the average linkage distance between markers of
about 9 cM and the number of linkage groups observed (13) suggested that additional markers
should be mapped (17).
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590 Rotino et al.
These first reports indicated that allozymes and RAPD markers revealed a low degree of
polymorphism in eggplant. This suggests that the use of more informative segregating popula-
tions and/or molecular marker classes, such as RFLP, amplified fragment length polymorphism
(AFLP), and microsatellites, could be desirable in order to construct a genetic linkage map use-
ful for assisted breeding and to study genome structure, organization, and introgressions.
III. GENETIC ENGINEERING

A. Insect Resistance
1. Introduction
Modified Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry genes have been widely used to obtain transgenic plants
resistant to insects (18). The level of Bt toxin expression in plants may differ, depending on plant
species, age, tissues, and organs (19). The Colorado potato beetle (CPB, Leptinotarsa decemli-
neata Say) is the most important insect pest of eggplant in Europe and America, causing heavy
economic losses (20–22). This insect has reached a prominent pest status because of its ability to
develop resistance against insecticides (23). On the other hand, the shoot and fruit borer (SFB,
Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee) is a specific insect that heavily infests eggplant in Asia (24).
Since wild-type Cry genes were unable to provide sufficient insect control because of their
low expression (14,25), transgenic eggplants resistant to SFB and CPB by expression of codon-
optimized Cry1 (26) and Cry3 genes (27–30) have been obtained, representing a very effective
means of pest control.
2. Cry3 Genes and Colorado Potato Beetle Resistance

A modified Bt gene (29,31) of Bacillus thuringiensis var. Tolworthi encoding a coleopteran in-
sect-specific Cry3B toxin was mobilized to the female parent of the commercial F1 hybrid ‘Ri-
mina’ (27). The LBA4404 Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain supporting the plasmid pBinCry3B
was employed in the transformation experiments, which were based essentially on the procedure
described by Rotino and Gleddie (9), Rotino and coworkers (25), and Arpaia and associates (27).
The plantlets were acclimated in a growth chamber, then transferred to the greenhouse. At flow-
ering, the plants were hand-pollinated. Successful transformation was evident (158 transgenic
plants were regenerated), on the basis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis for presence
of the Bt and/or NPTII gene.
The expression of the Bt gene in 93 eggplants representing 22 different transformation
events was tested by double antibody sandwich–enzyme-linked immunoassay (DAS-ELISA),
which showed that about 60% of S. melongena plants were Bt-positive. It was estimated that ap-
proximately 320 ng/ml of toxin was present in extracts of high-expressing transgenic plants. In
addition, 10 plants were also analyzed by Western blot analysis. In protein extracts of high-Bt-ex-
pressing plants a specific immunoreactive polypeptide of approximately 74 kDa comigrates with
the standard Cry3 toxin generated in Escherichia coli (Fig. 1).
The toxicity of transformed plants was tested in several in vitro bioassays with CPB larvae
through leaf disk experiments (Fig. 2) according to the protocol described by Rotino and col-
leagues (31). About 50% of the transgenic plants were toxic to neonate CPB larvae.
The inheritance of the transgene NPTII was verified by genetic analysis in several trans-
formed T2 progenies by spraying kanamycin solution and scoring for resistance/sensitivity by
looking at absence/presence of bleaching sectors in the sprayed leaves (32).
Transgenic eggplants were also produced and tested for resistance to the CPB by using a
synthetic Bt cry3A gene (30). Toxicity tests in planta and in vitro demonstrated that transformed
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kDa
Figure 1 Western blot analysis of S. melongena and E. coli extracts. Lane 1, low-expressing transgenic
eggplant; lane 2–3, high-expressing trangenic eggplant; lane 4, untransformed control plant; lane 5, Bt toxin
standard generated in E. coli; MW, molecular weight marker (Coomassie staining).
plants were resistant to neonate larvae and adult CPB. GUS expression and Southern and North-
ern analyses were performed to confirm the presence and the expression of transgenes. The pri-
mary transformants were field planted to assess their resistance to CPB. Plants having a single in-
sert of the construct, upon selfing, produced progenies cosegregating for the cry3A gene at the
expected 3:1 ratios. The resistant progeny showed a similar level of resistance to that of the
parental genotypes. The S1 progenies of the best genotypes were tested for agronomic perfor-
mance in a replicated field trial. The experimental data showed that field populations of CPB and
number of fruits per plant were significantly affected by the transgenic genotypes tested (30).
Commercial eggplant varieties, developed from the homozygous resistant offspring, could repre-
sent a possible effective means for CPB control.
B. Field Performance of Transgenic Lines

Field trials set at two different locations, Monsampolo del Tronto and Metaponto, were reported
(33,34). Transgenic eggplant lines (#3-2, #6-1, and #9-8) expressing the modified Cry3B gene
and the untransformed control line DR2 were evaluated, under natural CPB infestation, for their
agronomic value with particular attention to the insect resistance character. Fields were prepared
according to a randomized block design with four replications. Each plot measured 4.5 m by 9.6
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592 Rotino et al.
Figure 2 Insect bioassay carried out on selfed progenies of plant #9-8. The upper row shows petri plates
containing the larvae eating leaf disks cut from transgenic plants; the lower row shows larvae on leaf disks
from untransformed plants.
m and contained 96 plants. During the growing season, the insect sampling program was carried
out twice a week on 10% of randomly chosen plants, inspected for the number of CPB adults, egg
masses, and small and large larvae; surveys were carried out for 8 weeks. For each harvest, fruit
number and weight were recorded for data collection. Then, during the growing season, Cry3B
protein was analyzed by DAS-ELISA, using different tissues of transgenic eggplants. At Mon-
sampolo, the same experimental design was prepared in order to test a mix plot with 80% of trans-
genic and 20% control plants that should provide a refuge zone capable of reducing the selection
pressure against the target insect.
In the field trial of Monsampolo the beetle’s population was sizable. Whereas incoming
beetles spread quite evenly on all plots, small and large larvae were mainly found on DR2 (con-
trol) and line #6-1, expressing a low amount of toxin (33). The analysis of variance confirmed that
beetle population was significantly higher on control plants than on transgenic ones, both in the
100% field experiment (33,34) and in the 80% mixed field (Table 2) (Fig. 3).
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results showed that the Bt toxin was evenly
expressed in all the tissues. Significant reduced levels of Bt toxin were observed in line #6-1,
when compared to corresponding tissues of lines #3-2 and #9-8.
In both field trials, all transgenic lines also had significantly higher fruit production (ex-
pressed as kilograms/plant) than the untransformed control (33,34); similar results were also ob-
tained in the mixed field plot experiment (Table 2) (Fig. 4). Differences were more pronounced
at Monsampolo, where the CPB infestation level was considerably higher. Line #6-1 confirmed
its intermediate results in all cases.
The experimental data obtained in 1997 in Italy indicated that the resistance to CPB in
transgenic eggplant, already evidenced in laboratory bioassays, was confirmed in field conditions.
Transgenic plots, in fact, constantly showed lower presence of all CPB stages during the season
and higher production in the presence of a high infestation level. The observations in the mixed
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Table 2 Statistical Analyses Related to the Data Collected at Monsampolo in the Mixed Plot
(80% + 20%) Field Triala
Egg masses, Small larvae, Large larvae, Adults,

Genotype no.b no.b no.b no.b Productionc
#3-2 0.148 B 0.529 B 0.369 B 0.434 A 0.178 A

#6-1 0.184 B 0.818 B 0.582 B 0.550 A 0.082 B
#9-8 0.096 B 0.274 B 0.138 B 0.659 A 0.189 A
DR2 0.299 A 2.285 A 2.303 A 1.036 A 0.062 B
a
Different letters indicate statistically significant differences [analysis of variance–(ANOVA-LSD, α = 0.05)].
b
Per plant.
c
Kilograms per plant relative to only six data harvestings.
plot field, made by 80% transgenic plants and 20% refuge plants, showed that even in this case
the crop can withstand natural infestation by L. decemlineata and yet provide higher production.
Transgenic eggplant hybrids have been obtained; during 1999 they were under second-year field
evaluation at three different Italian locations.
C. Cry1 Gene and Shoot and Fruit Borer Resistance

Several lepidopteran-specific insecticidal Bt proteins were tested in order to evaluate their toxic-
ity on the larvae of SFB (26). Three different Cry genes were found to be toxic at low concentra-
tion, but only a synthetic Cry1Ab gene, modified according to the plant codon usage, was utilized
to perform genetic transformation of eggplant. A transgenic line that had fruits totally protected
from larval injury was selected (26). A field trial using the resistant offspring of the genotype is
planned. The use of fruit-specific promoters to express the Bt gene in eggplant was also consid-
ered as a possible next step for eggplant transformation.
IV. PARTHENOCARPY
A. Introduction
Parthenocarpy, the ability to set and develop fruits in absence of fertilization, is a desirable trait
in eggplant. Parthenocarpic marketable fruits may be obtained under environmental conditions
that normally are limiting for fruit setting and growth. Moreover, parthenocarpy may reduce the
energy and labor necessary for off-season eggplant cultivation and enhance fruit quality.
Since the commercial ripeness of eggplant fruit precedes its physiological maturity, the
presence of seeds considerably decreases the value of fruits for both the fresh and the processed
market. The detrimental effects associated with the presence of seeds are: (a) a faster and more
intense browning of the flesh after cutting, (b) an increment in the saponin and solasonin com-
pounds also responsible for the bitter taste (35), and (c) a harder flesh. These factors make seed-
containing berries unappetizing to consumers.
Outseason production of eggplant is usually achieved by cultivation in greenhouses. Hor-
monal treatment of flowers and/or heating is employed to counteract the negative effect of adverse
environmental conditions on fruit set and growth (36). For such reasons, intense breeding activi-
ties are currently in progress to obtain parthenocarpic hybrids (37). Nevertheless, the partheno-
carpic eggplant varieties available still require phytohormone treatments to produce fruits of mar-
ketable size (38).
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594 Rotino et al.
Figure 3 Colorado potato beetle infestation course at Monsampolo field trial in a mixed plot experimen-
tal design (80% transgenic plant + 20% untransformed refuge plant): egg masses (A), small larvae (B), large
larvae (C), and adults (D) per plant.
B. Chimeric Gene DefH9-iaaM as a Biotechnological Tool

to Induce Parthenocarpy
Fruit set and growth correlates with an increased level of auxin phytohormones in the developing
ovules and embryos (39), and external application of phytohormones can replace the developing
ovules to sustain fruit growth (40).
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Figure 3 (Continued).
Thus, to engineer parthenocarpic fruit development expression of a foreign gene responsi-

ble for phytohormone production has to take place during early floral and fruit development. The
DefH9, deficient homologue 9, gene is a MADS-box containing gene from Antirrhinum majus. It
is specifically expressed in the developing placenta and ovules. Its expression level in vegetative
tissues is below the detection limit of Northern blot analysis (41). The promoter and the regula-
tory sequences of the DefH9 gene were linked to the coding region of the iaaM gene from
Pseudomonas syringae pv. savastanoi in order to obtain an increase in auxin content and/or ac-
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596 Rotino et al.
kg/plant
Figure 4 Monsampolo field trial, mixed plot experimental design: eggplant production after the first six
harvests.
tivity in cells of the female reproductive organ. The iaaM gene codes for the enzyme tryptophan
monoxygenase, which converts tryptophan to indolacetamide, a percursor of indole-3-acetic acid
(IAA), the major form of auxin in plants (42). Indolacetamide is slowly converted to IAA in plant
cells, either chemically or enzymatically by hydrolases (43).
The chimeric gene DefH9-iaaM was inserted into either the plasmid pPCV002 (44) or pBin
19 (45), which also contain the selective marker NPTII conferring resistance to the antibiotic
kanamycin. The recombinant plasmid was introduced into the Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain
GV3101 for eggplant genetic transformation.
C. Characterization of the Primary Transformed Plant

Parthenocarpic transgenic eggplants showed normal vegetative growth and a phenotype indistin-
guishable from that of seed-derived plants. This confirmed that the chimeric gene DefH9-iaaM
does not interfere with the in vitro regeneration process and has no adverse effect on the pheno-
type of transgenic plants.
In all the transgenic parthenocarpic eggplants analyzed, fruit setting and normal fruit de-
velopment were achieved from both emasculated and selfed flowers under very limiting environ-
mental conditions (low temperature, low light intensity and duration). In the same conditions, the
untransformed control plants did not set fruit even from hand-pollinated flowers (41).
Experiments performed under normal environmental conditions (spring and summer) al-
lowed us to compare fruit setting and fruit characteristics in transgenic and untransformed plants.
The weight and the size of parthenocarpic eggplant fruits obtained from unpollinated flowers
were about four times higher than those of fruits derived from emasculated flowers of the corre-
sponding untransformed controls. These results showed that engineered parthenocarpic eggplants
were also superior to eggplants with a genetic tendency to parthenocarpy (Rotino, unpublished).
Expression of the DefH9-iaaM gene, analyzed by competitive reverse transcriptase poly-
merase chain reaction (RT-PCR) on polyA+RNA in transgenic young flower buds (Fig. 5), opened
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Figure 5 Expression analysis of DefH9-iaaM gene by competitive RT-PCR. Analysis was performed with
single-strand complementary (cDNA) synthesized from messenger RNA (mRNA) extracted from young
transgenic eggplant flower buds of line Tal 1/1 #1-1 (lane 1) and line DR2 #33 and #35 (lanes 4 and 5, re-
spectively). Lane 3, untransformed plant; lane 2, internal standard. An internal standard of 351 bp is present
in all lines.
flowers, and fruit at various growth stages confirmed the presence of an amplicon corresponding
to the 5⬘ end of the spliced DefH9-iaaM messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) in all the analyzed
organs of the transgenic plants, whereas no amplicon was detected in the untransformed control
plants (46). The steady-state level of expression in flower buds from independent transgenic
plants has been estimated to be in the range of 1 × 10⫺8 to 2 × 10⫺9 of the total mRNA popula-
tion. Thus, expression of the DefH9-iaaM gene starts during early flower development and is pro-
tracted to later stages of fruit development.
D. Greenhouse Evaluation of Engineered Parthenocarpic Hybrids

Winter and early cultivation of transgenic parthenocarpic eggplant hybrids in greenhouse were
performed to assess their agronomic performance in comparison to that of untransformed con-
trols and/or commercial cultivars.
The winter trial was carried out in Sicily at Vittoria, which is a typical Mediterranean zone
for this kind of production and every year about 1000 hectares of unheated plastic greenhouses is
cultivated with eggplants. In this area, winter production is obtained by spraying eggplant flow-
ers with phytohormones. Early production of transgenic hybrids was evaluated in a greenhouse
trial carried out at Monsampolo del Tronto, Italy.
At Vittoria the cultural cycle lasted from October 22, 1997 (transplanting), to June 1, 1998
(the last harvest). The data regarding the performance of the transgenic hybrid P2, obtained by
crossing the Tal 1/1 with DR2 iaaM #28-1 (41), are presented. The parthenocarpic transgenic hy-
brid was not treated with phytohormones, and the cultivar ‘Black Bell’ (as control) was either
treated or not treated with phytohormones. This experiment was arranged according to a ran-
domized block design with three replications, number of fruits and yield per plant were recorded.
Both in the early production (the first four harvests) and in subsequent harvests, the un-
transformed cultivar ‘Black Bell’ was positively affected by hormonal sprays; in fact, the number
of fruit per plant and, consequently, the yield were significantly higher in the plots subjected to
treatment than in the untreated ones (Table 3). In the early winter production the transgenic hy-
brid P2 furnished a number of fruit and a yield per plant not significantly different from those of
the sprayed plant of the cultivar ‘Black Bell.’ This is in agreement with the finding that the treat-
ment of floral buds with exogenous plant growth regulators did not affect set and growth of fruit
and production of other transgenic parthenocarpic hybrids in the same trial (46). The hybrid P2
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598 Rotino et al.
Table 3 Mean Values of Number of Fruits and Yield per Plant in the Transgenic Hybrid (P2) and in the
Cultivar ‘Black Bell’ Subjected (A) or Not Subjected (B) to Phytohormone Treatments for the Winter
Harvesting Periods Considered
Production after
Early winter production March 3, 1998
Yield in the whole
Fruits/plant, Yield/plant, Fruits/plant, Yield/plant, harvesting period,
Genotypes Treatments no. g no. g g/plant
‘Black Bell’ Aa 3.4 ab 838.0 a 14.7 b 3303 a 4141 a

‘Black Bell’ Bb 1.4 b 331.3 b 7.4 b 808 b 1139 b
P2 Bb 4.6 a 751.0 a 30.7 a 5178 a 5229 a
For each trait, different letters indicate statistically significant differences (ANOVA-LSD, α = 0.05).
a
A, opened flowers treated with phytohormones.
b
B, opened flowers not treated with phytohormones.
has long-shaped fruit with a lower average fruit weight than that of the pear-shaped fruit of the
cultivar ‘Black Bell.’ The data of the subsequent harvests confirmed that marketable winter egg-
plant production was obtained by cultivating transgenic hybrid without hormonal treatment and
under normal cultural practices.
At Monsampolo the cultural cycle lasted from March (transplanting) to July (the last har-
vest). The performance of four transgenic parthenocarpic hybrids (P3, P4, P7, and P8) and that of
the untransformed commercial hybrid DRA 1205 (De Ruiter) were compared. The trial was
arranged in a randomized block design with four replications; data were collected on flowering
date, early (the first six harvests) and total number of fruits, and yield per plant. In each harvest a
sample of fruits per plot was scored for the presence of seeds.
Among the tested hybrids, a maximal difference of 5 days in the flowering time was
recorded; the untransformed hybrid showed a medium flowering date. In such a period the trans-
genic hybrids gave a similar yield that was significantly higher than that of the untransformed hy-
brids. On average, this yield difference was 170% over that of the hybrid DRA 1205 (Table 4).
The significantly higher number of marketable fruits per plant accounted for the yield differences.
Considering the yield obtained in the whole cultural cycle, all the transgenic hybrids had a higher
production than the untransformed one, but only for the hybrid P8 this production was signifi-
cantly different from that of the control.
Table 4 Mean Values of Number of Fruits, Yield per Plant, and Presence of Seeds in Fruit in Four
Transgenic Hybrids (P3, P4, P7, and P8) and the Cultivar ‘DRA 1205’
Early production/plant Total production/plant

Flowering Presence of
Genotypes date Fruits, no. Yield, g Fruits, no. Yield, g seeds indexa
P3 5–18 1.4 a 405.7 a 15.0 ab 3719 b 0

P4 5–15 1.3 a 427.0 a 16.2 a 4163 b 0
P7 5–19 0.7 bc 442.0 a 10.2 b 4146 b 0
P8 5–20 1.0 ab 476.6 a 13.0 ab 5584 a 0
DRA 1205 5–18 0.3 c 117.5 b 13.7 ab 3105 b 2
a
Presence of mature seeds index: 0, no seeds; 1, a few seeds; 2, medium presence of seeds; 3, high presence of seeds. For
the values within each trait, at least a common letter indicates no significant difference according to Duncan’s test (α =
0.05).
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The parthenocarpic hybrids produced seedless fruits through the entire harvest at both Vit-
toria and Monsampolo (Table 4); moreover, the flesh was evenly filled.
In greenhouse cultivation, engineered parthenocarpic hybrids offer the possibility of in-
creasing winter productivity with a concomitant decrease of cultivation costs, allowing higher
early production and better quality of fruit.
V. PERSPECTIVES
Genetic engineering could be usefully employed both to enhance eggplant productivity, by intro-
ducing resistance to insects and diseases, and to improve the nutritional quality of fruits, by using
genes encoding for proteins rich in essential amino acids, vitamins, and other elements. On the
other hand, since the gene technology expands the range of genes available for breeding, it would
be desirable to perform specific risk assessment studies before releasing genetically modified
eggplant. A very important point to consider is that “eggplant is the major source of vegetables
accessible to the poorest of poor in South and South East Asia” (24). Biotechnology applied to
eggplant improvement will help to alleviate malnutrition, provided that this technology is more
freely accessible to developing countries.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The original experimental data presented are from research partially financed by the Resistenze
genetiche a stress biotici e abiotici, Biotechnologie Vegetali and Orticoltura programs of the Min-
istero Politiche Agricole (MiPA) and by the Biotecnologie program of the C.N.R. The authors
thanks Genetic Initiative European Strategical Research in Agriculture (G.IN.E.ST.R.A) for en-
couragement and support.
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41
Transgenic Cowpea, Lentil,
and Chickpea with Reporter and
Agronomically Relevant Genes
Paul F. Lurquin
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
Edgardo Filippone and Gabriella Colucci

University of Naples, Naples, Italy
I. INTRODUCTION 603
II. COWPEA 604
A. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Gene Transfer 604
C. Summary 606
III. LENTIL 607
C. Summary 607
IV. CHICKPEA 608
C. Summary 610
V. CONCLUSIONS 610
REFERENCES 611
I. INTRODUCTION
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp), and lentil (Lens culinaris
Medik.) are considered “small crops” in the Western world and hence have received little or no
attention from major biotechnology companies. Yet, these crops all have international importance
and are a significant component of the livelihood of large numbers of farmers and consumers
around the world, including many in developing countries. The world total production of pulses
for the years 1995–1997 was, on average, 56 Mton and the harvested area was 72 MHa (1). Dur-
ing the same period, chickpeas were cultivated on 11.3 MHa, giving a total yield of 8.6 Mton,
603
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604 Lurquin et al.
whereas lentils were cultivated on 3.3 MHa, giving a total yield of 2.9 Mton. Data on cowpeas are
not available because this species is often confused with beans, and, hence, international statis-
tics cannot be used for comparison. However, the total production of cowpea can be inferred from
its prevalent areas of cultivation, Africa and India: figures of 7 MHa and a total production of 5
Mton represent good estimates. Finally, chickpea, lentil, and cowpea represent about 30% of total
pulse production and harvested area.
The nutritional value of these three legumes is high, especially when combined with cere-
als. Given that most chickpea, lentil, and cowpea production as well as consumption occur out-
side the industrialized world, it is not surprising that advances in the genetic engineering of these
plants have been lagging behind those of major crops such as maize, soybean, and rice. Never-
theless, these three legumes suffer from a host of bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases and insect
damage. Conventional breeding programs have not been successful in adequately protecting these
crops. In addition, lentils are poor competitors with weeds. Therefore, a genetic engineering ap-
proach to solve the problems specified is fully warranted. For example, the availability of insect
resistance genes against bruchids could substitute for the absence of such traits in cross-compat-
ible wild cowpea species. Also, fungal resistance genes against Ascochyta rabiei and Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. ciceri could have beneficial effects if transferred into the chickpea genome.
Unfortunately, compounding the apparent lack of interest in the genetic transformation of
these plants is the paucity (and in several cases, the irreproducibility) of versatile tissue culture and
regeneration techniques that plagues most legumes. Therefore, there are few reports dealing with
the genetic transformation of these three genera. However, progress in this area is not absent; in-
deed, some international organizations such as the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
(IITA, Nigeria), the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA,
Syria), and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT, India)
have been granted by some private companies or individual scientists permission to use patented
gene coding for important resistance traits. Thanks to the active collaboration of several laborato-
ries in Europe and the United States, experiments are now in progress to overcome problems re-
lated to the in vitro regeneration and genetic manipulation of these legumes.
As in most other cases, the transformation of these genera has been tackled via Agrobac-
terium species–mediated gene transfer as well as direct gene transfer. The aim of this chapter is
to review the extent to which these approaches have been successful. We have used the terms
agroinfection and Agrobacterium species–mediated gene transfer interchangeably in order to
prevent monotony.
II. COWPEA
A. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Gene Transfer
Among the three legumes considered here, cowpea was used first in genetic engineering attempts.
For this, pieces of young leaves were cocultivated with disabled Agrobacterium tumefaciens
strains harboring a plant-expressable neo gene and subsequently plated on kanamycin-containing
medium. Kanamycin-resistant callus was obtained, but efforts to regenerate plants proved unsuc-
cessful (2,3). Little was learned from these experiments, except that cowpea tissues were
amenable to Agrobacterium species–mediated gene transfer, a characteristic that was not obvious
at the time.
Given the problems associated with cowpea callus regeneration (which have not yet been
solved), a tissue-culture-independent method was designed and tried (4). In this technique, ma-
ture embryonic axes were separated from cotyledons, sliced longitudinally, and cocultivated with
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Transgenic Cowpea, Lentil, and Chickpea 605
fully armed A. tumefaciens (pTiBo 542) carrying the binary vector pGA472 able to confer
kanamycin (geneticin) resistance to transformed plant tissues. The reasoning was that wounded
embryos would be susceptible to agroinfection and hence T-DNA transfer. Up to 10% of the
cocultivated embryos produced antibiotic-resistant calli. As expected, these calli could not be re-
generated, given the concomitant transfer of fully armed T-DNA. Nevertheless, Southern blot
analysis demonstrated presence of the neo gene in the resistant cells, indicating successful gene
transfer into embryonic cells. Next, sliced embryonic axes were cocultivated with disarmed A.
tumefaciens C58 carrying the p35SGUSINT binary vector containing the uidA reporter gene. In
these experiments, up to 50% of the embryos developed chimeric GUS-positive shoots (4). How-
ever, small-scale micropropagation experiments did not lead to the isolation of homogeneously
transformed plants (Penza and Filippone, unpublished), and selfing experiments were not con-
ducted.
One group has claimed successful production of transgenic cowpea plants after cocultiva-
tion of mature, deembryonated cotyledon explants with A. tumefaciens (5). Adventitious shoots
were regenerated by organogenesis after tissue incubation with A. tumefaciens LBA 4301 har-
boring the binary pUCD2340/pUCD2614 plasmid system. Plasmid pUCD2340 contained the hy-
gromycin-resistant (hpt) gene driven by the nos promoter. Selection of transgenic shoots was
done in shoot regeneration medium [B5 supplemented with 8 × 10–6 6-benzylaminopurine
(BAP)] containing 25 mg/l hygromycin B. Up to 15–19% of the explants produced shoots under
these conditions. Six surviving plants were obtained after rooting in the presence of hygromycin,
of which four set seeds. None of the seeds showed germination. Presence of the transgene was
demonstrated by Southern blot hybridization in an unspecified number of plant(s). It is unclear
whether the transgenic plants were chimeric or uniformly transformed and there was no follow-
up to this 1996 study. Thus, as far as we know, there is still no published evidence for heritable,
stable transformation of cowpea by infection with Agrobacterium spp.

Direct gene transfer methodologies were developed in attempts to alleviate problems associated
with plant regeneration from in vitro tissue cultures and (wrongly) assumed insensitivity of
monocots to agroinfection. In fact, the first genetically transformed legume, soybean (Glycine
max), was obtained by particle bombardment of embryonic axes (6).
Electroporation is the most versatile direct gene transfer technique as it applies equally well
to prokaryotes, microscopic eukaryotes, animal cells, and plant protoplasts and cells (7). Early re-
sults have shown that the plant cell wall does not present an insurmountable barrier to DNA up-
take by electroporation (8), an observation confirmed by later studies (9–11). On this basis, sev-
eral groups have demonstrated transient expression of transgenes after electroporation of
embryos from a variety of species (12–15). The same technique was applied to cowpea embryos
(16). In this study, mature embryonic axes were electroporated at 666 V/cm (five pulses of 99-ms
duration) with uidA constructs complexed with lipofectin or spermine and allowed to germinate
and grow for 3 days on hormone-free medium. Results showed expression of GUS in a variety of
cell types, including the meristematic cells in the apical dome, depending on the promoter driv-
ing the uidA gene. However, no efforts were made to determine whether GUS expression was
only transient or continued as the plantlets grew, perhaps as the result of DNA integrative events.
Next, instead of embryos, cells present in the terminal nodal buds of cowpea plants were
used as targets in electroporation experiments (17). For this approach, plants were allowed to
grow for 3 to 4 weeks from seeds and the apical portion of the plants was decapitated close to the
node of a fully expanded leaf. The stipule and petiole were removed to expose the nodal bud. All
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606 Lurquin et al.
Figure 1 Outline of in planta electroporation. (From Ref. 18.)
other meristematic buds below that nodal bud were also removed. The terminal buds were then
injected with 2 µl lipofectin/pGPT 1.0 DNA (containing the uidA gene interrupted by an intron)
and subsequently electroporated twice at 333 V/cm for 99 ms each, as shown in Fig. 1. A com-
plete description of this protocol is given in Ref. 18. In one experiment, 40 electroporated meris-
tems gave rise to 6 chimeric R0 branches. Three of these plants were allowed to self, and their R1
progeny analyzed for GUS expression. Of a total of 52 R1 plants, 9 were found to express GUS
in all leaf cells examined. Further, two R1 plants obtained from independent GUS+ R0 individu-
als were analyzed by Southern blot hybridization and shown to contain an integrated single intact
copy of the uidA gene with different border fragments (17). No experiments were carried out be-
yond the R1 generation.
C. Summary
In conclusion, there is presently no evidence that stable transgenic cowpea can be obtained by
agroinfection. There is, however, no reason to believe that Agrobacterium spp.–mediated gene
transfer in cowpea will never be a reality since there is good evidence that cowpea tissues are sus-
ceptible to Agrobacterium spp. and that reporter genes, selectable or screenable, can be expressed
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after cocultivation, including in regenerated plants. Rather, as has been the case with other
legumes, success will depend on a judicious choice of target tissue and in vitro culture conditions.
In planta electroporation has led to the production of seemingly stable transgenic cowpea.
However, genetic data are lacking and no transgenes of agronomical importance have been trans-
ferred with this methodology. Clearly, much more work is needed before convincing success can
be claimed. It should be noted, however, that in planta electroporation has led to the production
of pea enation mosaic virus–resistant pea lines (19).
III. LENTIL
As in the case of cowpea, there is no independently repeated, published evidence that transgenic
lentil plants can be obtained via agroinfection. Nevertheless, conditions under which Agrobac-
terium spp. can transfer T-DNA to lentil tissues have been described (20–22). Contrary to cowpea,
lentil can be regenerated both via organogenesis (23) and somatic embryogenesis (24). Thus, there
is no a priori reason that would interfere with the development of transgenics in this organism.
What, then, are the problems? First, it has been shown that different lentil cultivars (as well as pea
cultivars) vary widely in their response to A. tumefaciens (22). This was demonstrated by coculti-
vating half-embryos of four different cultivars with A. tumefaciens C58 (pGV2260/p35SGUSINT)
and scoring the proportion of GUS+ plants as well as the number of GUS+ foci present in positive
plants. Both parameters were shown to vary widely by cultivar. On the other hand, use of hyper-
virulent A. tumefaciens EHA105 did not increase the proportion of GUS+ plants or the number of
GUS+ foci per plant (22). Next, it was shown that GUS+ foci are generally small and express the
uidA gene at low levels. Finally, not all tissues used for cocultivation (shoot apex, epicotyl, root,
cotyledon, and cotyledonary node explants) responded to agroinfection (21). Here again, it seems
that what is needed is a massive and systematic exploration of cocultivation conditions, nature of
the target tissues, regeneration methodology, and possibly A. tumefaciens strains and transforma-
tion vectors.

The in planta electroporation technique as described for cowpea was also used in the case of
lentil, using again the uidA gene as a reporter (17). Eighteen R0 chimeric branches were obtained
from 100 electroporated individuals. Twenty of 88 R1 individuals were found to be GUS+ and 14
of 91 R2 plants (obtained by selfing the R1 generation) were also GUS+. Two R1 individuals were
shown by Southern blot hybridization to harbor a single integrated copy of the transgene.
The ratio of GUS+/GUS– individuals in the R2 generation indicated a strong bias against
the presence or expression of the transgene in this population. The reasons for this observation
are not known; it may be due to loss of the transgene, its inactivation (silencing), or both.
C. Summary
Progress toward the production of transgenic lentil is obviously in its infancy. It is encouraging
to note that in vitro regeneration techniques have been developed in this genus and that transgene
activity has been observed in tissues after Agrobacterium spp.–mediated transfer. As for in planta
electroporation, even though putative transgenic R2 individuals have been detected, nonmen-
delian segregation ratios are disturbing and need to be explained.
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608 Lurquin et al.
IV. CHICKPEA
Cultivated chickpeas are represented by two cultigroups, Desi and Kabuli, each consisting of sev-
eral genotypes. The former is characterized by wrinkled seeds with dark testa and is widely cul-
tivated in India and Australia. The latter, yielding larger smooth seeds with brown yellowish testa,
is cultivated in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and North America. These two cultigroups
respond differently to in vitro culture; the Desi type is more amenable to manipulation in tissue
culture.
Early results have shown that sliced chickpea mature embryos cocultivated with Agrobac-
terium spp. under conditions used for cowpea (see previous discussion and Ref. 4) gave rise to
stained chimeric (GUS+) germinating embryos (Fig. 2) and chimeric transgenic shoots (Fig. 3).
Another group later demonstrated that not all chickpea cultivars are equally susceptible to vari-
ous A. tumefaciens strains (25). For this, four chickpea genotypes, grown in either a soil-sand
mixture or agar-solidified medium, were challenged with four different, fully virulent Agrobac-
terium tumefaciens strains (A281, A6, C58, and A348). Crown gall development on these plants
was used to determine strength of interaction. All cultivars responded to all A. tumefaciens strains,
but not equally; in general, in vitro cultured plants responded better than soil-grown plants and,
in both cases, some cultivars responded better than others. “Hypervirulent” Agrobacterium sp.
strain A281 (wrongly attibuted a C58 chromosomal background in Ref. 25) proved superior to all
other strains. A. tumefaciens A281, harboring the p35SGUSINT plasmid, was subsequently used
by this group to show GUS expression in chickpea tissues derived from cocultivated zygotic em-
bryos (26).
Figure 2 One-week-old Kabuly cv. ‘Sultano’ chickpea embryo stained with X-gluc after cocultivation
with A. tumefaciens C58 C1::p35SGUS/INT as in Ref. 4. Several transgenic sectors can be distinguished.
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Figure 3 GUS+ area in a chimeric transgenic chickpea stem. All sections correspond to one single cut-up
stem obtained after Agrobacterium sp.–mediated gene transfer into a mature embryo as in Ref. 4.
Two reports have claimed success in the transformation of chickpea via agroinfection of
mature embryos, followed by regeneration of plants (27,28). Both studies basically followed the
same protocol: embryonic axes were isolated from imbibed seeds and the apex (27) or both apex
and root meristem (28) severed. These explants were then cocultivated with A. tumefaciens
LBA4404 containing the binary vector pBI121, which harbors both a screenable (uidA) and a se-
lectable marker (neo). Cocultivated embryonic axes were then cultivated on medium favoring
multiple shoot formation, that is, Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 1 mg/l
kinetin (27) or 3 mg/l 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 0.004 mg/l naphthalene acetic acid (NAA)
in MS medium also containing 4 × MS micro salts (28). Emerged shoots were then transferred to
rooting/selection medium in the presence of kanamycin. Transformation frequencies were 4%
(number of transformed plants/initial embryos) (27) and 1–2% (number of regenerated shoots/
number of transformed shoots), depending on the cultivar (28).
Both reports demonstrated presence of a transgene (uidA in Ref. 27 and neo in Ref. 28) in
transformants and expression of both markers by enzyme assay. No genetic data regarding trans-
mission of the marker genes to offspring were provided.
Recently, an Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation protocol involving the bar gene
was used successfully with varieties of the Desi type (L. Molvig, CSIRO-Canberra, personal
communication). As in the two previous reports, this method was also based on the cocultivation
of mature embryos followed by induction of multiple shoots from preexisting meristems. Selec-
tion of the transformants was performed in the presence of phosphinothricin (PPT).
By using this procedure, transgenic chickpea plants were obtained (29); the plants ex-
pressed the ech-42 antifungal gene from the antagonistic fungus Trichoderma harzianum (30).
This gene has already been transferred into tobacco and potato plants and shown to confer im-
proved resistance to pathogens (31). The pBIN-based binary vector used in chickpea transforma-
tion experiments harbored the ech-42 gene under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter with a
double enhancer and the bar gene under the same promoter with a single enhancer. Selection of
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610 Lurquin et al.
putative transformed shoots was done in the presence of 5 mg/l PPT. The transformation fre-
quency was low, near 0.1% (number of transformed plant/initial explant). Genetic data regarding
transmission of the transgene to the progeny and results of pathogen inoculation of these plants
are not yet available.

Particle bombardment has been used to detect transient foreign gene expression in chickpea ma-
ture, germinating embryos (26). Various chimeric constructs based on the uidA gene driven by an
actin, CaMV 35S, or Win6 promoter were introduced into embryonic material and checked for
expression in the growing plantlets. GUS activity was observed in epicotyls, hypocotyls, as well
as in embryonic axes. The 35S promoter from cauliflower mosaic virus proved to be superior to
the other two. No uniformly transformed plants were obtained in this study.
Transformation of chickpea via direct gene transfer has also been reported by Kar and
coworkers (32). Transformation was achieved by using a He particle gun (Bio-Rad Biolistic
1000) with mature embryonic axes as targets. Two separate plasmids were cointroduced into the
tissues, one with the selectable marker nptII and the second one harboring the cryIA(c) gene under
control of the CaMV 35S promoter containing the tobacco mosaic virus Ω translational enhancer.
Multiple shoot proliferation was induced in two Desi genotypes, in the presence of both BAP and
NAA. An average of 20 shoots were produced per embryonic axis. Transformants were selected
on kanamycin and, of a total of 24 resistant plants, all were positive by Southern analysis. The co-
transformation rate of the cryIA(c) gene was estimated to be 46%. Transformation efficiency and
genetic data regarding the transmission of the transgenes to the progeny were not reported. How-
ever, only two transgenic plants generated high levels of the full-length transcript. One of those
was tested for resistance to pod-borer insects, and larval growth was shown to be strongly reduced
relative to that of controls.
C. Summary
There is convincing evidence that Agrobacterium sp.–mediated gene transfer into chickpea has
been achieved. Undoubtedly, the keys to success were the choice of adequate plant material and
formation of multiple shoots from it. Unfortunately, since the results of crosses with transgenics
have not been published, it is not known whether transgenes can be stably transmitted to progeny
plants. Also, it is not known whether the presence of multiple copies of the transgenes (28) re-
sulted in different levels of gene expression. These questions must be addressed before engineer-
ing with agronomically important genes becomes an applied reality with chickpea.
V. CONCLUSIONS
Among the three crops considered here, solid and independently reproduced evidence for genetic
transformation has been obtained only in the case of chickpea. However, data regarding the in-
heritance of transgenes in progeny plants are totally absent in all cases. Projects to transfer fun-
gal resistance genes and protein quality genes into valuable chickpea genotypes are now in
progress in Europe and Australia. However, much more work is necessary to clarify the complex
relationships among genotypes, culture media, and transformation procedures in order to obtain
transformation frequencies comparable to those of other plant species. Transmission patterns of
transgenes to progeny also need to be determined.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
PFL acknowledges the support of a USDA/CSFL grant.
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21. TD Warkentin, A. McHughen. Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated beta-glucuronidase (GUS) gene
expression in lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) tissues. Plant Cell Rep 11:274–278, 1992.
22. PF Lurquin, Z Cai, CM Stiff, EP Fuerst. Half-embryo cocultivation technique for estimating the sus-
ceptibility of pea (Pisum sativum L.) and lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) cultivars to Agrobacterium
tumefaciens. Mol Biotechnol 9:175–179, 1998.
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23. DJ Williams, A McHughen. Plant regeneration of the legume Lens culinaris Medik. (lentil) in vitro.
24. PK Saxena, J King. Morphogenesis in lentil: plant regeneration from callus culture of Lens culinaris
Medik. via somatic embryogenesis. Plant Sci 52:223–227, 1987.
25. R Islam, T Malik, T Husnain, S Riazuddin. Strain and cultivar specificity in the Agrobacterium-chick-
pea interaction. Plant Cell Rep 13:561–563, 1994.
26. T Husnain, T Malik, S Riazuddin, MP Gordon. Studies on the expression of marker genes in chickpea.
27. GS Fontana, L Santini, S Caretto, G Frugis, D Mariotti. Genetic transformation in the grain legume
Cicer arietinum L. (chickpea). Plant Cell Rep 12:194–198, 1993.
28. S Kar, TM Johnson, P Nayak, SK Sen. Efficient transgenic plant regeneration through Agrobacterium-
mediated transformation of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Plant Cell Rep 16:32–37, 1996.
29. T De Martino, P Chiaiese, L Molvig, LM Tabe, G Colucci, E Filippone, TJ Higgins. Transgenic chick-
pea expressing a gene with antifungal potential. Proceeding of the XVth EUCARPIA Congress, 22,
1998.
30. CK Hayes, S Klemsdal, M Lorito, A Di Pietro, C Peterbauer, JP Nakas, A Tronsmo, GE Harman. Iso-
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42
Genetic Manipulation of Lettuce
Michael Raymond Davey, Matthew Sean McCabe, Umaballava Mohapatra, and

J. Brian Power
University of Nottingham, Nottingham, England
I. CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED LETTUCE 613

II. CONVENTIONAL BREEDING OF LETTUCE 614
A. Sexual Hybridization 615
B. Exploitation of the Wild Gene Pool 615
C. Disease Resistance 616
D. Insect Resistance 616
E. Herbicide Resistance 617
F. Product Quality 617
III. APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY TO LETTUCE BREEDING 618
A. Protoplast Culture and Somatic Hybridization in Lettuce 618
B. Somaclonal Variation 619
C. Direct Deoxyribonucleic Acid Uptake into Isolated Protoplasts 619
D. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Gene Transfer 619
IV. A ROUTINE PROCEDURE FOR LETTUCE TRANSFORMATION 624
V. INACTIVATION OF TRANSGENE EXPRESSION IN LETTUCE 629
A. Gene Promoters 629
B. Transgene Copy Number 630
C. Deoxyribonucleic Acid Methylation 631
VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS 631
REFERENCES 632
I. CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED LETTUCE
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is an annual, self-fertile species of the family Asteraceae (formerly
Compositae). The genus Lactuca contains approximately 100 species with 17 European, approx-
imately 10 American, 33 tropical East African, and about 40 Asian species. Lactuca sativa L. is
classified in section Lactuca, subsection Lactuca. L. serriola L. (1). The chromosome number for
this diploid species is 2n = 2x = 18, the haploid genome size can be calculated from 4C deoxyri-
bonucleic acid (DNA) values (10.6–11.2 pg) as 2.56–2.7 × 109 bp (2).
Lettuce is classified on the morphological characteristics of its fleshy leaves; the tendency
613
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614 Davey et al.
to form “heads” or “hearts” varies in different types. Seven morphological types, namely, (a) Crisp-
head, Iceberg or Cabbage; (b) Butterhead; (c) Cos; (d) Leaf or Cutting; (e) Latin; (f ) Stem or As-
paragus; and (g) the Oilseed group, are recognized by the International Code of Nomenclature for
Cultivated Plants (1). Crisphead varieties with compact, large brittle-textured heads of tightly
folded leaves have good shipping qualities. Butterhead types have crumpled, soft-textured leaves,
giving small and loose heads, which are grown mostly in Europe. Cos types are characterized by
long, oval, dark, upright green leaves, forming oblong hearts. Such plants are grown extensively
in Southern Europe and Mediterranean regions. Leaf types produce a rosette of loose leaves in-
stead of a compact head, whereas Latin lettuce cultivars are intermediate between the Butterhead
and Cos types in forming loose heads with oval leaves. Such plants are cultivated mainly in
Mediterranean and Latin American countries. Stem-type cultivars are grown in China. Their leaves
are coarse and unpalatable, but the young fleshy stems are cooked prior to consumption.
Cultivated lettuce is mainly grown as a leaf vegetable, the principal centers of production
and consumption are the United States and Europe. Economically, lettuce is the most important
vegetable crop produced for the fresh market in the United States, where over 2 billion heads are
harvested each year (3). Over 70% of the U.S. production is in California (4), where lettuce is
grown as an outdoor crop. Italy, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom are the
main producers in Europe (5). As lettuce cannot tolerate extremes of temperature, its outdoor pro-
duction in Northern Europe is confined to the summer months, and most crops are cultivated
under glass. Other areas of cultivation include Canada, South America, northern Mexico, South
Africa, the Middle East, Japan, China, and southeast Australia.
Nutritionally, lettuce contains only moderate amounts of phosphorus, iron, sodium, potas-
sium, copper, ascorbic acid, and vitamin A and is ranked about 26th among common fruits and
vegetables in terms of dietary contribution (3). However, in terms of bulk consumption, it ranks
4th behind tomato, orange, and potato in the United States (6). Lettuce also has some minor uses.
Stems of an Asparagus type (e.g., ‘Burpee’s Celtuce’) are cooked and eaten in China, nicotine-
free cigarettes are made from lettuce leaves, and in Egypt, edible oil is extracted from seeds of
some forms of lettuce. The wild species, L. virosa, is a source of lactucin and jacquinelin, which
have sedative and analgesic properties (7).
Several possibilities have been proposed for the center of origin of cultivated lettuce. These
include Egypt, the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, and southwest Asia. The most recent
opinion is that cultivated lettuce probably originated in southwest Asia, from the area around the
Euphrates and the Tigris Rivers (1). This is because the highest number of related species can be
found between these rivers and evidence suggests that agriculture was practiced in this area long
before its introduction to Egypt and the Mediterranean region. Cultivated lettuce probably spread
from southwest Asia to Egypt, as suggested by evidence on wall paintings of about 2500 b.c. and,
subsequently, to Greece and Rome, where it was described in literature dating from 550 b.c.
These early lettuces were probably Cos and Leaf types. Evidence of lettuce cultivation in north-
west Europe dates from around 1485, and the first descriptions of Cabbage lettuce appeared in
1543. Lettuce was introduced to America around 1500; that introduction ultimately led to devel-
opment of the Crisphead lettuces (1).
II. CONVENTIONAL BREEDING OF LETTUCE
An excellent account of lettuce breeding has been published (3); a summary is presented here.
Human selection, leading to the domestication of wild Lactuca species, has resulted in a decrease
in both latex content and bitter taste, loss of stem and leaf prickles, an extended vegetative growth
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Genetic Manipulation of Lettuce 615
period with head formation accompanied by tenderization of leaves, and increased seed size with
nonshattering properties (1). Modern breeding objectives for cultivated lettuce include altering
leaf shape and color and manipulating head formation from a loose to a compact, closed structure
with delayed bolting. Other targets involve the introduction of male sterility; resistance to herbi-
cides, diseases (particularly downy mildew and lettuce mosaic virus [LMV]), and insects; a
shorter growing period, accompanied by improved quality under suboptimal growth conditions
(such as reduced nitrate content during winter cultivation under glass); and extended postharvest
shelf life (1).
A. Sexual Hybridization
The practicalities of conventional lettuce breeding, i.e., effecting sexual hybridization, are hin-
dered by autogamy. The structure of the lettuce flower and the sequence of events during anthe-
sis result in a highly efficient self-fertilization system. The stamens are fused to form a tube (an-
ther sheath), onto the inside of which pollen collects as the flower opens. As the style elongates
and emerges from the anther sheath, pollen is shed onto the stigma. Lettuce flowers open once, in
a process that takes 1–2 hours. Despite the efficiency of this self-fertilization system, techniques
that can achieve 100% cross-hybridization have been developed. For example, anther sheaths can
be removed prior to style emergence, but this process is tedious and time-consuming. Therefore,
the most practical method is to wash the pollen grains from the stigma with a fine stream of water
immediately after style emergence from the anther sheath. Foreign pollen can then be applied by
touching another flower to the one that has been washed (3). It is desirable to have a seedling
marker gene from the male parent, which codes for a dominant trait such as leaf color and/or leaf
shape, to facilitate early identification of successful crosses.
B. Exploitation of the Wild Gene Pool

The gene pool from which desirable traits can be acquired by conventional breeding is limited by
the fact that cultivated lettuce is inbreeding and, to date, has been found to be sexually compati-
ble with only a few of the 100 or so species within the genus Lactuca. The three wild relatives, L.
serriola, L. saligna, and L. virosa, have been studied most extensively. L. serriola crosses freely
with L. sativa. If L. saligna is used as a female parent, it can be crossed with L. sativa or L. se-
rriola to produce fertile hybrids. L. virosa can be employed as a male or female parent in crosses
with L. sativa and L. serriola, but the resulting hybrids are sterile. However, a hybrid resulting
from a cross between L. virosa and L. sativa was made fertile by doubling its chromosome com-
plement (3). Certain Asian and South African species have potential as parents for lettuce breed-
ing, but studies on these wild relatives are incomplete (1,8).
One of the major successes in lettuce breeding utilizing a wild Lactuca species resulted in
the release of the cv. ‘Vanguard’ in 1958 and, later, ‘Vanguard 75’ (9) and ‘Salinas,’ which are
grown extensively in the United States. This was achieved by R.C. Thompson, who crossed PI
125130 (L. virosa) with a line derived from a complex L. sativa–L. serriola cross and treated the
resulting F1 hybrid with colchicine to produce a fertile amphidiploid. The latter was used in sub-
sequent backcrosses to cultivated lettuce to achieve the diploid state and, eventually, led to the
Crisphead cv. ‘Vanguard.’ Important traits derived from L. virosa included LMV resistance, re-
duced bitterness, an extensive root system, and tipburn resistance. Other useful traits have been
identified in L. serriola (downy mildew and LMV resistance), L. virosa (leaf aphid resistance),
and L. saligna (cabbage looper resistance) (10,11).
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616 Davey et al.
C. Disease Resistance
Major emphases of lettuce breeding programs are the identification and introduction of novel
genes for resistance to numerous viral and fungal pathogens (3,12). This is motivated by the con-
tinual appearance of new strains of pathogen that overcome previously developed resistance
traits. In fact, constant selection of resistance to a certain pathogen inadvertently results in in-
creased selection pressure for a pathogen that can overcome the resistance. For example, I. C. Jag-
ger was the first to report the use of breeding techniques to generate a disease-resistant lettuce cul-
tivar by selection of healthy survivors from crops of cv. ‘New York’ that had been extensively
infected by the fungal disease brown blight. Crosses made from these highly resistant lines re-
sulted in the release of the first brown blight–resistant ‘Imperial’ lines in 1926. However, a new
strain of the fungus, capable of infecting all previously resistant cultivars, soon appeared in 1932.
This would have probably destroyed the Lower Rio Grande lettuce industry, had it not been for
the development of the new resistant cv. ‘Valverde’ in 1959 (3).
1. Downy Mildew Resistance

In the lettuce industry in Western Europe, the continuous cycle of new cultivar–new strain–new
cultivar has been ongoing since 1925 with the fungal pathogen Bremia lactucae. This organism
thrives in the cool wet climate of Northern Europe and causes downy mildew, which is the most
destructive fungal disease of lettuce. Nearly all lettuce breeding programs incorporate mildew re-
sistance, and, over the years, this fungus has led to the development of more than 120 cultivars as
each new plant resistance gene is overcome by the pathogen (3,4). Interaction between B. lactu-
cae and lettuce has been defined as a gene-for-gene system (13) in which dominant resistance
genes (Dm genes) in lettuce correspond with avirulence genes in B. lactucae. Resistance based
on Dm genes remains the most important strategy in breeding lettuce with resistance to B. lactu-
cae (14). High levels of Dm gene–based resistance are found in wild Lactuca species, such as L.
virosa; several crosses have been achieved between L. virosa and L. sativa (11,15). However, the
resistance provided by this strategy is race-specific, and a strategy for a more durable broad, race-
nonspecific resistance is still sought. A potential source of complete resistance, which is thought
to be based on a different mechanism to Dm genes, also occurs in L. saligna. However, the mech-
anism and genetics of this type of resistance have yet to be studied in detail (14,16).
2. Lettuce Mosaic Virus Resistance

LMV is transmitted by aphids and is the most destructive viral disease of lettuce (17). Resistance
of lettuce to LMV is determined by two closely linked or allelic recessive genes, called mo and
g. The g gene was identified in the resistant cv. ‘Gallega de Invierno’ and was found to take the
form of virus multiplication without symptoms (18). The resistant trait was found to be a single
recessive gene (19). Similar resistance was found in three Egyptian lettuce lines, and it was as-
signed to the mo gene (20). The ‘Gallega’ source of resistance has been used in Europe to incor-
porate the g gene into many varieties of Butterhead, Cos, Crisphead, or Latin types. In the United
States, the Egyptian source was used to introduce the mo gene into a few Crisphead cultivars; the
‘Gallega’ source was used for two new Butterhead- and Cos-type cultivars (21).
D. Insect Resistance
Aphids and whitefly cause significant damage to lettuce and act as viral vectors. Hence, breeding
for insect resistance can also confer viral resistance in lettuce hybrids. Resistance to pests and dis-
eases has been identified in some cultivars of L. sativa and in wild species, such as L. serriola (22)
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and L. saligna (23). Resistance to Nasonovia ribis nigri (leaf aphid) has been identified in L. vi-
rosa and transferred into cultivated lettuce (24).
E. Herbicide Resistance
Despite the use of herbicides, weeds caused an estimated loss of $29 million in field-grown let-
tuce in the United States during 1991. Under the same conditions, but without herbicides, the es-
timated loss would have been $135 million. During 1992, in eastern Canada, weeds accounted for
an estimated loss of $2.4 million in lettuce (25). In other countries, where lettuce is grown pri-
marily as an outdoor crop, weeds cause a significant reduction in crop production and quality. On
a global basis, about 250 species are sufficiently troublesome (for crops in general) to be termed
weeds. Of these, 40% are the members of the families Poaceae and Asteraceae. Undoubtedly, the
use of herbicides has increased the efficiency of modern crop production, and herbicides are now
available for the control of weeds in most crops. However, environmental and health considera-
tions, together with the appearance of herbicide-resistant biotypes in a large number of weed
species related to the sustained use of herbicides (26), have contributed to development of alter-
natives to chemical herbicides, or at least to reduction in their use. Herbicide-resistant biotypes
have been reported from every continent (27). It has been estimated that in 1989, approximately
1 million hectares of land in the United States and 2 million hectares in Europe was infested with
triazine-resistant weeds (28). To date, resistance to at least 15 classes of herbicides has been re-
ported in more than 100 weed species (29).
The choice of herbicide and its active ingredient(s) depends upon the competing weeds; a
number of active compounds and their premixes are recommended for outdoor lettuce (25). For
example, the active ingredient pronamide is commonly used to kill annual bluegrass. Although
most lettuce varieties are highly tolerant to this compound, it is a restricted-use herbicide because
of its oncogenicity. Bensulfide is used for the preemergence control of annual grass and broadleaf
weed species in lettuce crops. Although bensulfide inhibits root growth, its exact mode of action
is not known. Benefin inhibits development of roots and shoots of grass and broadleaved weeds
by interfering with cell division. Diclofop-methyl prevents biosynthesis of lipids in grasses. Other
herbicides (active ingredients) commonly used for lettuce include chlorpropham, propyzamide,
propachlor, and trifluralin. Sometimes a mixture of several active ingredients is used. For exam-
ple, propham, diuron, and chlorpropham are mixed in the herbicide, Atlas Pink C (Atlas Crop Pro-
tection Ltd., Dewsbury, West Yorkshire, UK). The generation of herbicide-resistant lettuce could
reduce the dependence on chemical control of weeds.
Conventional plant breeding has been used to transfer sulfonylurea resistance to cultivated
lettuce from the wild species, L. serriola (30). However, the use of sexual hybridization to trans-
fer herbicide resistance is restricted, primarily because of the unavailability of the resistance
gene(s) in the gene pool and the incompatibility of herbicide-resistance source species within cul-
tivated lettuce. Somatic hybridization by protoplast fusion offers an alternative approach; the lim-
iting factor is the availability of the gene(s) in question in a Lactuca species that is amenable to
somatic hybridization with L. sativa.
F. Product Quality
1. Reduced Accumulation of Nitrate
Accumulation of nitrate in leafy vegetables is undesirable, since its consumption produces nitrite
in the human body. Nitrite combines with hemoglobin to form methemoglobin; the latter is inca-
pable of binding oxygen (31). Blue baby syndrome in humans is associated with high nitrate con-
centrations in drinking water (32). In addition, nitrite may react with secondary amines in the
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618 Davey et al.
stomach to produce carcinogenic nitrosamines, which, in the long term, may induce gastric can-
cers (33). Leafy vegetables form a major source of human nitrate intake, as the consumption of
uncooked lettuce is high, as compared with that of other leafy vegetables. Thus, efforts are being
made to limit the nitrate level in this crop (32,34). Lettuce grown without artificial light in winter
under glass can contain 5–6 g of nitrate per kilogram fresh weight, which exceeds the maximal
permissible levels (35) set by the European Union (EU) (Regulation No. 194/97), in winter-grown
(2.5 g nitrate/kg f. wt.) and summer-grown (4.5 g nitrate/kg f. wt.) lettuce (36). If these limits were
to be accepted, the lettuce industry could be in serious difficulty, unless nitrate concentration is
reduced. However, there are contradictory unpublished claims that high nitrate content in leafy
vegetables may be beneficial to human metabolism.
2. Uniformity of Size and Yield and Increased Postharvest Shelf Life

Commercially, uniformity of size at maturity and year-round cropping are important require-
ments, as uniformly sized heads facilitate handling and govern the unit price. Single cutting of the
crop is a basic requirement for efficient mechanical harvesting. Since lettuce is consumed as a raw
vegetable, its quality and appearance govern saleability. For example, immature heads lack firm-
ness, and overmature heads often have cracked, discolored ribs and a bitter flavor. Because the
crop is highly perishable and is often overproduced, an important trait for improvement is pro-
longed postharvest shelf life and, consequently, reliable shipping qualities. In this respect, Crisp-
head varieties were developed for shipping from the West Coast to the East Coast in the United
States. In order to reduce importation costs, emphasis is being given to developing cultivars for
nontraditional cropping areas (37). For example, in the United States, salt tolerance is an impor-
tant character for introduction into lettuce, as salt accumulation in the soil may limit production.
The increasing demand for winter lettuce in Northern Europe is now met by glasshouse-grown
crops. Consequently, the introduction and breeding of high-yielding varieties of different mor-
phological types, well adapted to glasshouse conditions, have become important objectives for
breeders in Europe.
III. APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY TO LETTUCE BREEDING
Biotechnology has considerable potential for the genetic manipulation of lettuce and has been in-
vestigated for a number of years. L. sativa and its wild relatives are amenable to culture, and ef-
ficient shoot regeneration systems exist for cultured organs, tissues, cells, and isolated protoplasts
of several species. One of the initial targets for biotechnology was to overcome the sexual in-
compatibility of cultivated lettuce with other Lactuca species by somatic hybridization, involv-
ing the fusion of isolated protoplasts. Tissue culture was also exploited to generate somaclonal
variation in lettuce. The development of a reliable transformation system for lettuce has allowed
rapid, specific introduction of an unlimited variety of potentially useful cloned genes into this
crop (38). Techniques such as isozyme analysis, restriction fragment length polymorphism
(RFLP) (1), and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) have also been used to inves-
tigate the lettuce genome and to identify potentially useful genes, such as those for disease resis-
tance. Construction of a lettuce genomic library has allowed cloning and characterization of po-
tentially useful genes from L. sativa. The following sections describe genetic manipulation of
lettuce with particular reference to genetic engineering using Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
A. Protoplast Culture and Somatic Hybridization in Lettuce

Protoplast fusion offers a method of circumventing both pre- and postzygotic barriers to conven-
tional sexual hybridization, permitting the introgression of complex genetic information into the
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cultivated crop. Plant regeneration from isolated protoplasts is essential for such genetic manipu-
lation. Although reports on protoplast culture and somatic hybridization are limited in lettuce and,
indeed, in other members of the family Asteraceae, plants have been regenerated from protoplasts
of L. sativa and some wild species, such as L. serriola, L. saligna, and L. virosa (39–44). The gen-
eration, through protoplast fusion, of somatic hybrids such as L. sativa [+] L. serriola (45), L. sativa
[+] L. deblis or L. indica (46), L. sativa [+] L. virosa (47), and L. sativa [+] L. tartarica or L. peren-
nis (48) has also been reported. Although somatic hybridization is a means of exploiting novel
germplasm, the application of this technology in the development of marketable lettuce cultivars
has not been fully realized. Somatic hybrids of L. sativa [+] L. virosa have been generated to trans-
fer resistance against Nasonovia ribis nigri (leaf aphid), Erysiphe cichoracearum (powdery
mildew), and Pseudomonas cichorii (bacterial rot) from wild species to cultivated species (47). Al-
though these hybrids were more vigorous than either parent, they were sterile. Somatic hybrids of
L. sativa [+] L. tartarica were sensitive to climatic conditions (48). The hybrids grew vigorously
to form a rosette, but leaf development then ceased, roots became stunted, and leaves became
necrotic. However, modification of the environmental conditions permitted growth in some of
these plants with limited seed production after pollination of a large number of capitula with dif-
ferent cultivars of lettuce. Preliminary tests revealed transfer of downy mildew resistance from L.
tartarica into cultivated species, but fertility was low. Further work is essential to generate a suf-
ficient number of fertile lettuce somatic hybrid plants that exhibit characteristics from the more
distantly related Lactuca species.
B. Somaclonal Variation
Somaclonal variant plants have been regenerated from explant-derived callus of lettuce (49,50),
and protoclonal variation arising from leaf mesophyll–derived protoplasts of L. sativa cv. ‘Cli-
max’ has been observed (51). However, to date, most of the somaclonal variants reported in this
crop had reduced vigor, chlorophyll content, and fertility, together with other morphological de-
formities (4,5).
C. Direct Deoxyribonucleic Acid Uptake into Isolated Protoplasts

There is one early report of the generation of transgenic plants after DNA uptake into protoplasts.
Thus, protoplasts isolated from expanded leaves of lettuce were electroporated in the presence of
either pCAMV CAT, carrying the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (cat) gene driven by the
CaMV 35S promoter, or pABD1 with the neomycin phosphotransferase (nptII) gene (52). The
cat gene was employed to demonstrate transient gene expression in this experimental system. Se-
lection of kanamycin-resistant plants and analysis of their seed progeny showed that resistance to
this antibiotic was inherited as a dominant Mendelian trait; integration of foreign DNA into the
genomic DNA of antibiotic-resistant plants was confirmed by DNA-DNA hybridization. Overall,
the use of direct DNA uptake into lettuce protoplasts has been superceded by simple and more re-
liable Agrobacterium sp.–based transformation systems.
D. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Gene Transfer

Exploitation of the natural ability of the Gram-negative soil bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens
and A. rhizogenes to engineer plant cells genetically has provided, undoubtedly, the major ap-
proach for gene transfer into a wide variety of crop plants of both dicotyledons and, more recently,
monocotyledons, including the major cereals. Background information relating to the molecular
basis of Agrobacterium sp.–mediated gene transfer into plants, the construction of chimeric
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620 Davey et al.
genes, and the development of vectors for gene introduction into target species are summarized
in several detailed reviews (53,54).
1. Introduction of Reporter and Selectable Marker Genes into Lettuce

Although Agrobacterium sp. are not usually considered to be natural pathogens of lettuce, the first
successful Agrobacterium sp.–mediated gene transfer into this crop reported using wild-type oc-
topine (ACH5) and nopaline (C58) strains of A. tumefaciens, as well as an engineered strain,
GV3111, containing the cointegrate vector pTiB6S3, pMON120, or pMON200, or the binary
vector pMON505 (38). Plasmid MON200 carried the chimeric nptII gene with a nos promoter
and terminator (nos.nptII.nos); this selectable marker gene was absent in pMON120. Galls were
induced on cotyledon explants from 4-day-old seedlings of the Butterhead lettuce cv. ‘Cobham
Green’ grown aseptically in vermiculite and inoculated with suspensions of the wild-type bacte-
rial strains ACH5 or C58 or the engineered strain GV3111. As expected, the unusual amino acids
octopine and nopaline were produced by tumors incited by strains ACH5 and C58, respectively.
Explants inoculated with the wild-type strain C58, or with A. tumefaciens strain GV3111, carry-
ing pMON120, produced callus only in the absence of kanamycin. In contrast, explants trans-
formed by GV1111, harboring either pMON200 or pMON505, produced callus on medium sup-
plemented with 50 mg l–1 of kanamycin sulfate. Shoots were regenerated from transformation
experiments by using the disarmed pTiB6S3. Such experiments provided the first evidence that
the lettuce genome could be manipulated by using A. tumefaciens–mediated gene delivery. How-
ever, a reliable transformation system was not achieved for the economically important Crisphead
varieties (38).
Other workers were able to transform the lettuce cv. ‘Kayser’ by using A. tumefaciens strain
LBA4404 with the binary vector pTRA415 (55). The vector carried the nptII gene, driven by the
constitutive cauliflower mosaic virus 35S ribonucleic acid (RNA) (CaMV 35S) promoter and the
β-glucuronidase (gus) reporter gene. The latter was driven either by the CaMV 35S promoter or
by the stress- or salicylic acid–inducible pathogenesis-related (PR) 1a protein-encoding gene pro-
moter isolated from tobacco. GUS activity was found to increase 3- to 50-fold in PR-gus–trans-
formed plants, indicating the transgene was expressed normally under the regulated control of the
PR 1a promoter. Cotyledon explants from 5-day-old seedlings were used as the source material
for inoculation by Agrobacterium sp.
Workers in addition to Michelmore and associates (38) also exploited vectors developed by
the agrochemical company Monsanto in early studies of lettuce transformation. For example, the
lettuce cv. ‘Lake Nyah’ was transformed by inoculating cotyledons excised from axenically grown
seedlings with A. tumefaciens carrying the cointegrate vector pMON200 (56). Transgenic plants
of lettuce cv. ‘South Bay’ were generated by using A. tumefaciens strain A208, containing an en-
gineered Ti plasmid, pTiT37SE, or the binary vector pMON9749 or pMON9793 (57). Trans-
formed plants were selected on medium supplemented with 50–100 mg l–1 kanamycin sulfate. As
in earlier investigations, expression of the gus gene in transgenic plants was confirmed histo-
chemically; DNA-DNA (Southern) hybridization confirmed the integration of the gus gene into
the genome of transgenic plants. Integration of the nptII gene into the lettuce genome was con-
firmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Early transformation studies were limited to lettuce cultivars such as ‘Cobham Green’ and
‘South Bay.’ Importantly, Crisphead varieties showed very low transformation frequencies. How-
ever, a reliable, genotype-independent protocol for A. tumefaciens–mediated transformation of 13
lettuce cultivars, including Crispheads, was developed (58). Cotyledons excised from 7-day-old
seedlings were inoculated with A. tumefaciens strain LBA4404 containing the binary vector
pMOG23 (59) derived from pBIN19. The binary vector carried the chimeric nos.nptII.nos gene
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and a CaMV 35S gus-intron reporter gene (60) inserted into a multiple cloning site between the
transfer DNA (T-DNA) borders, giving strain 0065. The introduction of pTOK47 carrying addi-
tional copies of the Ti plasmid virulence genes vir B, vir C, and vir G (61) resulted in strain 1065
with supervirulent properties. In addition to studying the role of the supervirulent plasmid in plant
transformation, investigators (58) studied the influence of actively dividing cells harvested from
suspensions of albino Petunia hybrida cv. ‘Comanche’ as nurse cultures and the effect of dilution
of the bacterial suspension on the transformation frequency.
2. Introduction of Agronomically Useful Genes into Lettuce

by Using Agrobacterium tumefaciens
a. Male Sterility. In experiments to induce male sterility in lettuce, a pathogenesis-related β-1,3-
glucanase gene linked to a tapetum-specific promoter, A9, was cloned into the binary vector
pBIN19. The construct was introduced into A. tumefaciens carrying pGV2260 prior to transfor-
mation of the cultivar ‘Lake Nyah’ (62). Expression of the chimaeric gene caused dissolution of
the callose wall of developing microspores in transgenic plants, resulting in male sterility in all
the transformants. In contrast, plants regenerated from uninoculated cotyledons excised from
seedlings of the same cultivar exhibited normal microspore development, including surface or-
namentation as revealed by scanning electron microscopy. Such plants were fertile. These results
indicated that callose degradation can be used to generate male sterile plants, which may be ap-
plicable to the production of male sterile F1 hybrid seed in lettuce.
b. Alteration of Plant Morphological Characteristics. The rolAB genes from Agrobac-
terium rhizogenes were also introduced into the lettuce cultivar ‘Lake Nyah’ (63). Transgenic
kanamycin-resistant plants exhibited more extensive root development than their nontransformed
counterparts. Leaf explants from the transgenic plants were more responsive in terms of root and
callus production and in their increased response to auxin supplied exogenously in the culture
medium. Such transgenic plants could be more drought-tolerant; expression of the rolAB genes
may increase the endogenous concentration of auxin, potentially reducing the incidence of leaf
russett spotting in these plants.
c. Coat Protein–Mediated Virus Resistance. Studies have been conducted to introduce
virus resistance into lettuce by using the coat protein–mediated approach. For example, a pub-
lished protocol (38) was used to transfer the nucleocapsid (N) protein gene of the lettuce isolate of
the tospovirus tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) into two lettuce breeding lines developed by the
Asgrow Seed Company (64). Transgenic plants, which expressed the nucleocapsid (N) protein
gene, were protected against TSWV isolates by transgenic N protein when the latter accumulated
at high concentrations or by a N transgene silencing mechanism activated by overexpression of the
gene. Posttranscriptional gene silencing was activated at a relatively early developmental stage in
homozygous compared with hemizygous seed progeny. Consequently, the homozygous progenies
showed a uniform suppression of N protein accumulation with high levels of virus resistance in all
leaves of the silenced plants. In hemizygous plants, N protein accumulated at higher levels in the
lower leaves and at reduced levels in successive leaves as measured from the base of the stems, as
a result of transgene silencing, giving moderate levels of virus resistance. By using a similar ex-
perimental approach, the coat protein gene from LMV strain O (LMV-O) was introduced into the
three virus-susceptible lettuce cultivars ‘Girelle,’ ‘Jessy,’ and ‘Cocarde’ (65). Several transformed
plants accumulated detectable levels of LMV coat protein. The first-generation seed progeny of 12
transgenic plants in which the T-DNA was integrated at a single locus were studied for protection
against LMV. The progeny from 5 of the transgenic plants exhibited resistance to LMV-O; the ef-
fectiveness of resistance to the virus was related to the developmental stage of the plants at the time
of inoculation. The authors analyzed the first- (R1) and second-generation (R2) seed progeny from
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622 Davey et al.
a cultivar ‘Cocarde’ transformant in detail and found that the homozygous, but not the hemizygous
R1 plants were resistant to LMV-O, whereas the R2 progeny from one homozygous R1 plant were
resistant to infection by LMV-O and to other strains of LMV. As in other examples of potyvirus
sequence-mediated protection, some plants exhibited complete resistance, whereas in others this
resistance was not always sustained, leading to a later development of viral symptoms. Other ex-
amples of the genetic modification of lettuce with respect to virus resistance are known (66,67);
they are discussed later.
d. Transposon Tagging of Downy Mildew Resistance. Studies reporting the cloning of
genes for resistance to downy mildew (Dm), initially found on Dm3, have been performed in
order to clarify the molecular basis for resistance to Bremia lactucae in lettuce (68). These in-
vestigations have shown that several Dm genes are located in four clusters in the lettuce genome;
Dm3 is in the largest cluster, which contains at least nine Dm genes. One hundred and ninety-two
primary transformed plants of the lettuce cultivar ‘Diana’ were generated by using A. tumefaciens
carrying constructs with the maize Ac transposase and Ds. Several seed generation (R2) plants
were screened for mutations at four Dm genes for their resistance to downy mildew. One family
of plants (dm3t524) lost resistance to an isolate of B. lactucae expressing the avirulence gene Av3,
with loss of resistance segregating as a single recessive allele of Dm3. The mutation was found
not to be due to a large deletion, as all molecular markers flanking Dm3 were present. Loss of
Dm3 activity cosegregated with a T-DNA from which Ds had been excised. Genomic DNA flank-
ing the right border of this T-DNA was isolated by reverse polymerase chain reaction. This ge-
nomic sequence was found in four to five copies in the cultivar ‘Diana,’ but one copy was absent
in all eight deletion mutants of Dm3 and altered in dm3t524, indicating tight physical linkage to
Dm3.
e. Modification of Physiological Characteristics to Delay Senescence. The T-cyt gene
from the T-DNA of A. tumefaciens, carried on the binary vector pMOG23, was introduced into
the lettuce cultivar ‘Saladin’ (69). The T-cyt gene, also known as the ipt, tmr, or gene 4, codes
for dimethylallyl pyrophosphate:adenosine monophosphate (AMP) dimethylallyltransferase, an
enzyme involved in the initial stages of cytokinin biosynthesis in plant cells transformed to tu-
morous growth after induction of crown gall disease. The Agrobacterium sp. strain used for trans-
formation also carried pTOK47, giving a supervirulent phenotype. Interestingly, kanamycin-re-
sistant shoots were initiated from inoculated cotyledon explants only when sites were deleted
within the promoter of the T-cyt gene, probably because T-cyt overexpression with the intact pro-
moter was phytotoxic. In culture, the kanamycin-resistant shoots exhibited several phenotypes,
such as gall production, dwarfism, and hyperhydricity (vitrification). Rooted kanamycin-resistant
plants recovered from their abnormal phenotype after transfer to the glasshouse and self-polli-
nated to produce viable seed. Transgenic plants exhibited increased cytokinin and chlorophyll
contents in their leaves compared to nontransformed plants. Such results suggested that the in-
troduction of the ipt gene into lettuce could provide a means to delay leaf senescence in this leafy
vegetable, reducing the necessity for elaborate and costly postharvest controlled environmental
conditions to prolong shelf life in the harvested crop. Thus, an approach similar to that already
reported in tobacco (70) in which the ipt gene is linked to a senescence-specific promoter such as
SAG12 from Arabidopsis thaliana could have application, in the longer term, in modifying the
physiological features and, in turn, delaying senescence in lettuce (Fig. 1).
f. Herbicide Resistance. The introduction of herbicide resistance into lettuce has also been
investigated, not only to generate herbicide-resistant plants per se, but also to use such reliable and
readily screenable markers to study gene expression during plant development. In vitro seed ger-
mination and recallusing of tissue explants on herbicide-supplemented medium have been used to
test the herbicide resistance of putative transgenic plants; the resistance of large numbers of
glasshouse- or field-grown plants can be assessed by either spraying with the herbicide or its lo-
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Figure 1 Delayed senescence of the lower leaves of a lettuce plant (cv. ‘Evola’) transformed with the ipt
gene linked to the Arabidopsis sp. senescence-specific promoter SAG12 (left). In contrast, senescence is
well advanced in the lower leaves of an azygous segregant (center) and a nontransformed plant (right). All
plants photographed 60 days after seed germination. Diameter of heads, 20 cm.
calized and controlled application to leaves. The advantage of localized application is that it is non-
lethal. Since field-grown lettuce competes with a number of weeds (25), as already discussed, the
introduction of resistance against a commonly used, efficient, broad-spectrum herbicide would
provide a simple and relatively inexpensive procedure for weed management in this crop.
Bialaphos, a natural tripeptide antibiotic synthesized by the Gram-positive soil bacterium Strep-
tomyces hygroscopicus, is used as a nonselective herbicide, with the active moiety phos-
phinothricin (PPT), an analogue of l-glutamic acid and two l-alanine residues. PPT is also syn-
thesized chemically as glufosinate ammonium. It is an irreversible inhibitor of glutamine
synthetase, the only enzyme that detoxifies ammonia produced during nitrate reduction, pho-
torespiration, and amino acid degradation in plant cells. After application of PPT to plants, am-
monia accumulates to a phytotoxic concentration. Streptomyces sp., which synthesizes bialaphos,
has evolved mechanisms to neutralize the toxicity of its own products. The well-studied bar gene,
encoding bialaphos resistance, was introduced into the lettuce cv. ‘Evola’ by Agrobacterium
sp.–mediated transformation of seedling cotyledons by using A. tumefaciens strains 0310 and 1310
(71). The latter strain carried the hypervirulent pTOK47 in addition to the binary vector with the
nptII and bar genes. Primary transformants were selected on shoot regeneration medium supple-
mented with kanamycin sulfate. Interestingly, the hypervirulent pTOK47 in strain 1310 resulted
in multiple insertions of T-DNA in some regenerated plants. In contrast, strain 0310 gave single-
gene inserts in all plants analyzed by Southern blotting. Axenic seedlings grew on medium sup-
plemented with glufosinate ammonium at 5 mg l–1; glasshouse-grown plants were resistant to the
herbicide at 300 mg l–1. Stable expression of the bar gene was observed in the second-generation
(R2) seed progeny. Both the nptII and bar genes segregated in a Mendelian fashion in some plant
lines in the R1 generation; herbicide resistance segregated in the expected ratio in the R2 genera-
tion in most transgenic lines. This study confirmed that herbicide resistance (Fig. 2) can be intro-
duced and stably expressed over several seed generations in lettuce.
g. Secondary Metabolite Production. Whereas most studies have focused on the trans-
formation of L. sativa, there is a report of the use of the wild-type strain LBA9402 of A. rhizo-
genes to transform leaf explants from aseptically grown seedlings of L. virosa (72). The latter
species was targeted, since it is a traditional medicinal plant with analgesic and sedative proper-
ties. Such properties are attributed to the presence of sesquiterpene lactones, which accumulate
mainly in the latex of both roots and aerial parts of the plant. Transformed roots were induced and
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624 Davey et al.
Figure 2 Nontransformed and transgenic plants of the lettuce cv. ‘Evola’ 5 weeks after seed germination
and 14 days after a second application of Challenge (Finale) herbicide (AgrEvo Crop Protection) contain-
ing glufosinate ammonium at a final concentration of 300 mg l–1. Left, nontransformed plants; center and
right, second seed generation (T2) plants derived from a homozygous line (center) and a hemizygous line
(right). Width of trays, 11.5 cm.
cultured in order to generate biomass and to facilitate analysis of secondary products. The authors
succeeded in isolating eight sesquiterpene lactones from tissues of transformed roots.
IV. A ROUTINE PROCEDURE FOR LETTUCE TRANSFORMATION
Several laboratories have generated transgenic lettuce plants by using Agrobacterium sp.–medi-
ated gene delivery. The precise details of the procedure may differ among laboratories, but sev-
eral features are common, including the use, in most cases, of seedling cotyledons as source ma-
terials for plant transformation. The advantage of such material is that it can be regenerated to
plants readily and within a short time, seedling cotyledons are of uniform size, and the procedure
is reliable with shoot regeneration from cotyledons established for a number of lettuce cultivars.
A simple, reproducible procedure, developed originally to transform 13 cultivars of lettuce (58),
has been used routinely in a number of subsequent transformation studies. It is illustrated in Figs.
3–6.
1. Seeds are surface-sterilized by immersion in a 10% (v/v) solution of bleach (0.5%
sodium hypochlorite) for 30 minutes, followed by thorough rinsing with at least three changes of
sterile distilled water.
2. The seeds are sown onto 20-ml aliquots of germination medium contained in 9-cm-di-
ameter Petri dishes with approximately 40 seeds per dish. The germination medium consists of
half-strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) (73) salts and vitamins with 10 g l–1 sucrose, lacks
growth regulators, and is semisolidified with 8 g l–1 of agar (Sigma), pH 5.8. The dishes are sealed
with Nescofilm (Bando Chemical Co., Kobe, Japan) and incubated for 7 days at 23° ⫾ 2°C with
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Figure 3 Inoculated lettuce cotyledons producing callus and shoots after culture on MS-based shoot re-
generation medium containing 30 g l–1 sucrose, 0.04 mg l–1 NAA, 0.5 mg l–1 BAP, 500 mg l–1 carbenicillin,
100 mg l–1 cefotaxime, and 100 mg l–1 kanamycin sulfate for 28 days. Diameter of Petri dish, 9 cm.
a 16-hour photoperiod provided by daylight fluorescent tubes, giving an irradiance of 200 µmol
m–2 s–1.
3. After 7 days, cotyledons are excised from the seedlings and wounded on their abaxial
surfaces with a scalpel blade, giving shallow cuts about 1 mm apart at right angles to the midrib.
Wounded cotyledons are ready for inoculation with Agrobacterium sp.
4. Bacterial cultures are initiated from –70°C glycerol stocks by plating onto a suitable
medium, such as Luria broth (74), semisolidified with 1.5% (w/v) agar and supplemented with
the appropriate combinations and concentrations of antibiotics to prevent loss of plasmid(s) from
the bacterial cells (e.g., strain 1065 is grown in the presence of 100 mg l–1 rifampicin, 50 mg l–1
kanamycin sulfate, and 5 mg l–1 tetracycline hydrochloride). Liquid cultures are established by
transferring bacteria from agar plates to 20-ml aliquots of Luria broth in 100-ml conical flasks.
The liquid medium also requires supplementation with the appropriate antibiotics (e.g., 40 mg l–1
rifampicin, 50 mg l–1 kanamycin sulfate, and 2 mg l–1 tetracycline hydrochloride for strain 1065).
Liquid cultures are incubated for 16 hours in the dark (28°C; the temperature must not exceed
30°C or plasmids will be lost from the bacterial cells) on a horizontal rotary shaker (150 rpm) and
grown to an OD600 nm of 1.1–1.6, before being used to inoculate excised cotyledons.
5. Bacterial cultures are diluted 1:1 or 1:10 (v:v) with liquid Uchimiya and Murashige
(UM) (75) medium consisting of MS salts and vitamins at full strength supplemented with 30 g
l–1 sucrose, 2 g l–1 casein hydrolysate, 2 mg l–1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 0.25 mg
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626 Davey et al.
Figure 4 Inoculated lettuce cotyledons producing callus and shoots after culture on MS-based shoot re-
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
generation medium containing 30 g l 1 sucrose, 0.04 mg l 1 NAA, 0.5 mg l 1 BAP, 500 mg l 1 carbeni-
–1 –1
cillin, 100 mg l cefotaxime, and 100 mg l kanamycin sulfate for 56 days. Diameter of Petri dish, 9 cm.
l–1 kinetin, 9.9 mg l–1 thiamine HCl, 9.5 mg l–1 pyridoxine HCl, and 4.5 mg l–1 nicotinic acid, pH
5.8.
6. Excised cotyledons are floated with their scored surfaces in contact with the 1:10 dilu-
tion of Agrobacterium sp. for 10 minutes or dipped (2–3 seconds) in the 1:1 dilution of the bac-
terial suspension. Controls (uninoculated cotyledons) are treated with liquid UM medium, but
without bacteria.
7. Twenty-milliliter aliquots of agar-solidified (0.8% w/v) UM medium are dispensed
into 9-cm Petri dishes and the surface of the medium covered with a sterile filter paper.
8. Cotyledons are blotted dry on sterile filter paper and placed with their wounded sur-
faces in contact with the filter paper overlying the UM medium in each Petri dish (eight cotyle-
dons/dish). A sterile filter paper, dipped in UM liquid medium or sterile water, is placed over the
cotyledons in each dish to keep the explants flat. The dishes are sealed with film (Nescofilm).
9. The explants are incubated for 2 days under the same conditions used for germinating
seeds.
10. Cotyledons are transferred to 20-ml aliquots of MS-based shoot regeneration medium
containing 30 g l–1 sucrose, 0.04 mg l–1 naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), 0.5 mg l–1 6-benzyl-
aminopurine (BAP), and semisolidified with 0.8% (w/v) agar, pH 5.8. The shoot initiation
medium used for Agrobacterium sp.–inoculated cotyledons also contains 500 mg l–1 carbeni-
cillin, 100 mg l–1 cefotaxime, and either 50 or 100 mg l–1 kanamycin sulfate (Fig. 3). Explants are
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Figure 5 An individual explant producing shoots after transfer to MS-based shoot regeneration medium
(as in Figs. 3 and 4) but lacking carbenicillin. Diameter of jar, 5.5 cm.
subcultured three times on this medium every 14 days. Kanamycin sulfate at 100 mg l–1 is more
efficient for the selection of transgenic plants than is 50 mg l–1 of the antibiotic.
11. Explants producing callus (Fig. 4) are transferred individually to 175-ml-capacity
screw-capped Powder Round glass jars (Beatson Clarke, Rotherham, UK), each containing 40 ml
of shoot initiation medium (Fig. 5). Carbenicillin is omitted at this stage from the medium used
to culture cotyledons inoculated with Agrobacterium sp. Shoots normally appear from cultured
cotyledons about 35 days after inoculation with Agrobacterium sp., but this interval varies with
cultivar.
12. Regenerated shoots are excised when approximately 1 cm in height and transferred
individually to 175-ml jars containing 40-ml aliquots of MS agar medium lacking growth regu-
lators but with 30 g l–1 sucrose, pH 5.8 (designated MSO). Shoots from Agrobacterium sp.–inoc-
ulated cotyledons are maintained on MSO agar medium with 100 mg l–1 kanamycin sulfate in
order to maintain a selection pressure on the transgenic shoots.
13. Rooted green plants, lacking any signs of bleaching (Fig. 6), are removed from their
containers; their are roots washed free of culture medium, and individual plants are transferred to
9-cm-diameter plastic pots, the latter containing a mixture of Levington M3 compost (Fisons, Ip-
swich, UK), John Innes No. 3 compost (J. Bentley Ltd., Barrow-on-Humber, UK), and Perlite
(Silvaperl, Gainsborough, UK) (3:3:2 by volume). Plants are enclosed in clear polythene bags and
incubated at a light intensity of 360 µmol m–2 s–1 from daylight fluorescent tubes with a 16-hour
photoperiod at 23° ⫾ 2°C for 7 days. After this time, one corner of each bag is removed, followed
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628 Davey et al.
⫺1
Figure 6 A cotyledon-derived rooted, regenerated shoot on MSO medium containing 100 mg l
kanamycin sulfate. Diameter of jar, 5.5 cm.
by a second corner on day 14. Twenty-one days later, the plants are transferred to the glasshouse
and grown to maturity.
14. The transgenic nature of kanamycin-resistant plants can be confirmed by routine mo-
lecular procedures [e.g., GUS histochemical and fluorometric assays; NPTII enzyme-linked im-
munosorbent assay (ELISA); and Southern, Western and Northern blotting], or by techniques
specific to the gene(s) integrated into target plants.
15. Regenerated transgenic (T0) plants can be selfed and progeny from the first seed gen-
eration (T1 plants) and subsequent generations selected by germinating seeds on agar-solidified
MS medium with 10 g l–1 sucrose, lacking growth regulators, but containing 200 mg l–1 kanamycin
sulfate. Such experiments allow segregation analysis to be performed in order to confirm Men-
delian inheritance.
Marked differences may occur in callus initiation and shoot regeneration from different let-
tuce cultivars (76). In some cultivars (e.g., cv. ‘Flora’), hyperhydricity may impair shoot regen-
eration. The use of suspensions of albino Petunia hybrida cv. ‘Comanche’ as nurse cells during
shoot regeneration from lettuce cotyledons has been assessed, but there was no beneficial effect
on shoot regeneration from 13 lettuce cultivars evaluated (58). Other workers also reported that
any beneficial effects of the use of suspensions of Nicotiana plumbaginifolia during shoot regen-
eration from cultured cotyledons of the cv. ‘Cobham Green’ were inconsistent (38). Some culti-
vars, such as ‘Reflex,’ were found to be transformed only when the Agrobacterium sp. strain car-
ried the supervirulent pTOK47 (58). In general, a 1:10 (v:v) dilution of the bacterial suspension
yields more kanamycin-resistant shoots than a 1:1 dilution, especially when cotyledons are in-
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fected by strain 0065, confirming that the bacterial density in the inoculum is important with re-
spect to transformation (38).
V. INACTIVATION OF TRANSGENE EXPRESSION IN LETTUCE
Although the introduction of transgenes into a range of lettuce cultivars is now routine, the com-
mercial exploitation of genetically engineered lettuce has been delayed by inconsistent transgene
expression in several cultivars. Indeed, there is a substantial body of evidence suggesting that
transgenes, which are expressed in model plants such as tobacco, may be poorly expressed in let-
tuce. Thus, in studies with lettuce infectious yellows virus (LIYV), plants of both tobacco and let-
tuce were transformed by the same three genes for resistance to this virus (67). LIYV resistance
was readily detected in transgenic tobacco after analysis of only a relatively limited number of
plants. In contrast, LIYV resistance was not observed in transgenic lettuce plants, in spite of nu-
merous attempts to detect gene expression. Other workers have performed similar studies to con-
fer virus resistance on lettuce. Thus, tobacco was transformed with a LMV coat protein (LMV-
CP) gene, and heterologous resistance to potato virus Y was detected in transgenic plants (77). In
later experiments, the same LMV-CP gene gave only poor resistance to LMV in transgenic let-
tuce plants of three European cultivars susceptible to LMV, namely, the cultivars ‘Girelle,’ ‘Jessy,’
and ‘Cocarde.’ These workers also reported that loss of resistance was more pronounced during
subsequent seed generations, an observation made by others. In this respect, evidence was pro-
vided (66) that 39 T1 lettuce plants transformed by Agrobacterium sp. carrying either a LMV coat
protein gene or an untranslatable LMV-CP gene between the T-DNA borders were resistant to
LMV when inoculated mechanically with the virus. Subsequently, only 8 of the 39 LMV-resis-
tant T1 plants produced LMV-resistant T2 seed progeny after selfing. Eighty percent of the T1
plants failed to transmit engineered LMV resistance to the T2 seed generation. Later generations
of transgenic plants were not evaluated, and details of the promoter(s) used for the transgenes
were not discussed. Several factors have been associated with transgene silencing, including the
nature of the promoter driving transgene expression, DNA methylation, and transgene copy num-
ber (78). Surprisingly, little work has been carried out on transgene inactivation in lettuce. Some
of the possible factors of transgene silencing in this vegetable are discussed later.
A. Gene Promoters
In an extensive assessment of herbicide resistance conferred by the bar gene on the lettuce cv.
‘Evola,’ it was found that only 2.5% of T0 plants carrying the CaMV 35S-bar gene selected by
their kanamycin resistance with the nptII gene on the same T-DNA as the bar gene transmitted
herbicide resistance at high frequency to the T3 seed progeny, compared with 97% for plants
transformed with the bar gene driven by the –784-bp plastocyanin promoter from pea (petE) (79).
In CaMV 35S-bar transformants, only 16% of T1 plants, 22% of T2 plants, and 11% of T3 plants
were resistant to glufosinate ammonium at 300 mg l–1. In contrast, 63% of T1 plants, 83% of T2
plants, and 99% of T3 petE-bar transgenic plants were resistant to the same concentration of the
herbicide. A CaMV 35S-nptII gene was present on the same T-DNA as the CaMV 35S-bar and
petE-bar genes. NPTII protein, as determined by ELISA, was absent in 29% of the herbicide-re-
sistant petE-bar T2 lines, indicating inactivation of the CaMV 35S promoter on the same T-DNA
as an active petE promoter. In all cases, Southern hybridization confirmed the presence of the
transgenes in kanamycin-resistant plants.
Other studies have also exploited the constitutive CaMV 35S promoter to express trans-
genes in lettuce (55,58,64,80), and some studies have utilized the nos (38,58,62,63,80,81), Mac
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630 Davey et al.
(82), petE (79,82), and ACT1 (McCabe et al., unpublished) promoters. Use of the tobacco patho-
genesis-related protein gene promoter PR1a resulted in gus gene expression after induction by
salicylic acid (55); in other investigations the Mas promoter gave root-specific expression (82).
Additionally, the tapetum-specific promoter A9 was used, as already discussed, in the induction
of male sterility in transgenic lettuce (62). More recently, McCabe and associates (unpublished)
observed a 48-fold increase in zeatin riboside equivalents in primary leaves of 60-day-old lettuce
plants of the cultivar ‘Evola’ after transformation with the ipt gene from A. tumefaciens linked to
the senescence-specific promoter PSAG12 from Arabidopsis thaliana (70).
B. Transgene Copy Number

The effect of copy number on transgene expression in lettuce and, indeed, in other plants is gen-
erally ambiguous; many reports, even in the same target plants, are contradictory (83). T-DNA in-
tegration into lettuce is often complex (38,80) (Fig. 7). In a detailed investigation of the integra-
tion, expression, and inheritance of a CaMV 35S-gus-intron gene and a nos.nptII.nos gene on the
same T-DNA, there was no clear correlation between gene copy number and transgene expres-
sion in the lettuce cv. ‘Raisa’ (80). T-DNA integration into the lettuce genome was complex after
gene delivery by the supervirulent A. tumefaciens strain 1065. Interestingly and unexpectedly,
truncation of the right side of the T-DNA, including the right border, was observed in the first seed
generation plants from one line. However, complex T-DNA integration patterns did not always
correlate with low transgene expression: about 30% of lines with a high T-DNA copy number
showed high gene expression in the first seed generation, and high gene expression stably main-
tained at least to the fourth seed generation in selected plant lines. In a low-expressing line, trans-
Figure 7 T-DNA/plant DNA junction analysis, by nonradioactive Southern hybridization to left and right
border sequences, in genomic DNA from transgenic lettuce plants (cv. ‘Evola’). Plants were transformed
with the nptII gene (adjacent to the left T-DNA border) and the luc (firefly luciferase) gene adjacent to the
right T-DNA border. Lane 1, integration of the left T-DNA border and absence of the right border; lanes 2,
3, 10, and 11, multiple transgene insertions.
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gene expression was lost in the second seed generation; another line exhibited complete gene si-
lencing to the same generation. GUS activity showed a 50-fold difference, and 16-fold variation
in NPTII protein content was detected in the first seed generation plants from different selected
kanamycin-resistant parental plants.
In other studies, increased transgene dosage was reported to accelerate posttranscriptional
transgene silencing in lettuce carrying a CaMV 35S-driven tomato spotted wilt virus N (TSWV
N) coat protein gene; TSWV N protein accumulation decreased two to four times faster in ho-
mozygous than in hemizygous plants (64). Although several reports of a 3:1 segregation of
kanamycin resistance to sensitivity among T1 plants of lettuce indicated single active T-DNA loci
(38,55,65), Southern analysis has revealed that highly rearranged T-DNA insertions are common
in transgenic lettuce. In this respect, 14 of 16 lettuce plants transformed by A. tumefaciens carry-
ing binary or cointegrate vectors with the nos.nptII.nos gene contained T-DNA insertions that
were rearranged (38). All 16 of these plants showed a 3:1 segregation of kanamycin resistance to
sensitivity.
C. Deoxyribonucleic Acid Methylation

DNA methylation has been correlated with transgene silencing in plants such as Petunia sp.
(84,85), but little information is available for transgenic lettuce. Treatment of transgenic lettuce
seedlings with the demethylating agent 5-azacytidine appeared to alleviate partial silencing of the
CaMV 35S-gus gene in transgenic plants of the cultivar ‘Raisa’ (80), although in the same ex-
periments reactivation of transgene activity did not occur in seedlings from a transgenic line in
which the same gus gene was silenced. Susceptibility of the promoter to methylation may also ac-
count for transgene silencing. For example, the CaMV 35S promoter has approximately three
times more methylation sites (59 per Kilobase) than the –784-bp petE promoter (18/kb), which
could account for the susceptibility of the CaMV35S promoter to inactivation (79).
Overall, several factors relating to the precise nature of the DNA constructs employed prob-
ably contribute to transgene silencing in lettuce. Additionally, lettuce is reported to have a com-
plex genome (86), with a high proportion of heterochromatic or repetitive DNA, which is likely
to increase the inactivation of transgenes (87). An interesting observation is that lettuce genomic
DNA cannot be digested fully with restriction endonucleases, such as SstII, PstI, and PvuII,
which contain CNG in their recognition sequence. This indicates that the lettuce genome is highly
methylated. It is well known that the insertion of transgenes into highly methylated regions of a
plant genome is associated with transgene methylation and inactivation, as in Petunia sp. (88).
The same phenomenon may also occur in lettuce. One hypothesis as to why supervirulent plas-
mids, such as pTOK47, enhance transformation frequencies in lettuce is that the insertion of mul-
tiple T-DNA copies at different plant genomic loci may increase the probability of T-DNA inte-
gration at a site in the plant genome that is not susceptible to methylation and, consequently, gene
silencing (80).
VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Reliable Agrobacterium sp.–based transformation systems have been developed for several lettuce
cultivars, yielding transgenic plants carrying reporter, selectable marker, and agronomically use-
ful genes. Although most transformation protocols have focused on the use of seedling cotyledons
for inoculation by Agrobacterium sp., there is also evidence that explants from the first true leaves
may be preferable as source material for transformation (65). To date, genetically manipulated let-
tuce is not, apparently, in commercial production, although scientists advising the European Com-
mission have given approval for production of herbicide-resistant radicchio produced by the Dutch
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632 Davey et al.
Company Bejo Zaden (89). If their advice is accepted, this will be the first genetically manipulated
plant approved in the European Union for human consumption as a fresh, unprocessed product
(90). However, Britain’s Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP) has ex-
pressed concern at the marketing of this product. Even if this approval is granted, there is a re-
quirement to understand the unpredictable gene expression often observed in lettuce. Despite these
difficulties, there remains considerable commercial investment by several international seed com-
panies in the genetic engineering of leafy vegetables, particularly with respect to increased shelf
life and disease resistance. It remains only a matter of time before such genetically manipulated
produce is available to the consumer.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Some of the original work described in this review was supported by Van der Have Research (Ref.
58, 62, 63, 69) and EU A.I.R. Project Contract No. 92-0250 (Ref. 71, 79, 80) and performed under
MAFF Plant Health Licences.
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43
Maize Food and Feed: A Current Perspective
and Consideration of Future Possibilities
Bruce R. Hamaker
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
Brian A. Larkins
The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
I. INTRODUCTION 637
II. MAIZE FROM ANCIENT TO CURRENT TIMES 638
III. FOOD USES 639
A. Maize-Based Foods 639
B. Maize Components Used as Food Ingredients 640
IV. GRAIN TYPES OPTIMAL FOR PROCESSING 640
V. FACTORS RELATED TO KERNEL TEXTURE 641
VI. BIOCHEMICAL COMPONENTS: THEIR STRUCTURE AND POTENTIAL
FOR CHANGE 641
A. Starch 641
B. Protein 644
C. Lipid 645
D. Minor Components 646
VII. CREATING TRANSGENIC MAIZE 647
VIII. MODIFIED TRAITS IN TRANSGENIC MAIZE PLANTS 649
IX. FUTURE PROSPECTS 649
REFERENCES 650
I. INTRODUCTION
Maize (Zea mays) is rated either second or third in terms of world cereal production, depending
on crop year statistics. With maize production at 577 million metric tons (MT) in 1996, it is very
close to that of wheat (585 million MT) and rice (562 million MT) (1). Nearly one half of the
world production of maize is from North America (the United States, Mexico, Canada). China is
the next largest producer at about 20% of the world’s crop. Maize is the largest animal feed grain
in the world, considering that wheat and rice are primarily food grains. However, maize is also a
637
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638 Hamaker and Larkins
major food grain in many areas of Latin America and Africa and has a large food and industrial
market in the United States. Currently, approximately 65% of the U.S. maize crop is used for an-
imal feed; about 25% is exported, and the remaining 10% is further processed into food ingredi-
ents, nonfood coatings and adhesives, and ethanol (2). Among the many products derived from
maize, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) and fuel alcohol predominated in 1998; each of these
consumed approximately 14 million MT of corn. Starch (native and modified) and non-HFCS
starch hydrolysates (glucose, oligoglucans, maltodextrins) consumed about 5.8 to 6.3 million MT
each; beverage alcohol used about 3.2 million MT, and cereals and other dry milled products used
about 3.6 million MT (2). In addition to these products, there are significant markets for by-prod-
ucts of the dry- and wet-milling processes, which include maize oil and gluten feed and meal.
In addition to the aforementioned “traditional” refined maize products, there are a number
of nontraditional products used in food, pharmaceuticals, and industrial processes. Most of these
substances are derived from maize starch. Polyols, or sugar alcohols, such as sorbitol, maltitol,
mannitol, erythritol, and hydrogenated starch hydrolysates, function principally as nonnutritive
and noncariogenic sweeteners. Cyclodextrins, or circular dextrins, are produced through an en-
zymatic process and function as carriers, or encapsulators, of food and pharmaceutical ingredi-
ents. A variety of organic acids, such as citric acid, lactic acid, itaconic acid, gluconic acid, and
glucono-d-lactone, are derived from maize starch. In the United States and elsewhere, maize
starch is processed in relatively small, but increasing, quantities to make resistant starch, which
operates as dietary fiber.
Advances in biotechnology are changing maize from simply a source of nutrients and
biopolymers for animal feed, food, and industrial applications to a biofactory that supplies novel
or altered constituents. The following sections provide a detailed review of maize uses, potential
areas for which transgenic work offers promise, traditional breeding and traits that are preserved,
maize genetic engineering methodologies, engineered traits, and current and future objectives in
transgenic maize research.
II. MAIZE FROM ANCIENT TO CURRENT TIMES
Maize probably originated in Mexico and Central America, where it was first cultivated. From
there, maize spread throughout South and North America; later it was taken to Europe. Maize is
thought to have reached Africa and Asia via Europe. All maize is classified as Zea mays. Teosinte,
Euchlaena mexicana Schrod, which is native to Mexico and Central America, is a close relative.
Controversy still exists as to whether maize actually developed from teosinte (3,4). Selection of
agronomic and, undoubtedly, quality traits by native populations produced the maize that forms
the basis for modern varieties.
Native populations that subsisted on maize used the grain in a variety of food products. The
most well-known are the alkaline-cooked foods, which are still popular today. These foods were
prepared by mixing an alkali source—leached wood ash, lye, or lime—with water and whole ker-
nel maize, then cooking and steeping the grain. Today, commercial processes use lime (calcium
hydroxide) as the alkali source. Cooked and steeped kernels were washed to remove the pericarp
or bran portion of the grain, resulting in what is known as nixtamal. The nixtamal was then ground
in a stone mill to reduce particle size and produce the cohesive doughlike material termed masa.
This intermediate was used to produce a variety of products, including tortillas, tamales, and
atoles. In other parts of what is now Latin America, indigenous peoples used maize for their sta-
ple food in other types of alkaline-cooked products and in nonalkaline-cooked products, includ-
ing flat breads, porridges, and beverages.
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Maize Food and Feed 639
III. FOOD USES

A. Maize-Based Foods
Today, maize is used to make a multitude of food products, some of which date back to pre-
Columbian civilizations. In the United States, masa-derived products (tortilla chips, corn chips,
extruded snacks) are now a huge business with annual sales in the $4 billion range. Moreover,
these snack products are gaining markets worldwide.
Other maize-derived food products in the United States are produced primarily from
dry-milled maize fractions. Dry milling is a process in which tempered, or moistened, grain (to
about 20% moisture content) is ruptured in a degerminator to produce germ, large vitreous
endosperm pieces, and smaller particle size endosperm fractions. The dry miller sells the large
vitreous fraction, free of bran and germ, as “flaking grits.” Flaking grits are used to make corn
flakes and have the highest market value of the dry-milled fractions. Other fractions, in order of
reduced particle size, include brewer’s grits, grits, meal, cones, and flour. A typical dry miller
may sell upward of 10 dry-milled fractions of different particle size for further processing.
Extruded, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals and snacks use a meal or flour as either the main or a
minor ingredient.
Elsewhere in the world, maize is made into myriad food products, many of which provide
the main source of energy, and sometimes protein, in the diets of the poor. A number of compre-
hensive reviews have been published on the common maize products eaten around the world
(5,6). Serna-Saldivar and coworkers (6) have classified these foods according to type, as follows:
• Cooked, whole grain products—either alkaline-cooked, such as hominy (United States)

and pozole (Mexico), or degerminated and debraned, such as munuca (Brazil)
• Thin unfermented porridges—such as atole (Mexico, Central America), which is a
masa brought to a slurry with water, cooked, then blended with milk, sugar, and other
flavorings; and mingau (Brazil), which is cooked maize grits or mashed immature ker-
nels cooked in water
• Thin fermented porridges—such as ogi (Nigeria), produced from naturally fermented
whole kernels that are ground, slurried, further fermented, separated from the clear liq-
uid fraction, and boiled to a thin porridge; ugi (East Africa), produced by natural fer-
mentation of slurried flour and water that is then boiled to a porridge and flavored; and
mahewu (South Africa), a boiled maize meal with wheat flour added that is then fer-
mented
• Thick porridges (unfermented and fermented)—such as ugali (East Africa), made from
maize meal gelatinized to a thick paste; to/tuwo/asida (West Africa), also made in acid
(with tamarand), alkali (with wood ash), or fermented versions; and polenta (South
America/Europe), produced by cooking grits
• Snack foods—consumed worldwide, such as popcorn and corn and tortilla chips
• Steamed foods—such as couscous (West Africa and Brazil), produced by agglomera-
tion of flour followed by steaming and drying; and tamales (Latin America), made from
masa and other ingredients that are wrapped, usually in a leaf, and steamed
• Unfermented breads—such as tortillas (Mexico, Central America), produced by the
masa process described; arepas (Venezuela), produced by grinding cooked grits to a
dough, flattened, and baked; roti/chapati (India), a flat bread mostly made from wheat,
sorghum, or millet, but also from maize; and cornbread (worldwide), made from either
cornmeal or a blend of wheat flour and cornmeal with chemical leavening agents and
flavorings
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• Fermented breads—such as injera (Ethiopia), which is maize flour mixed with water
and starter culture, fermented, and baked on one side to produce a flat bread with holes
on the unbaked side
• Nonalcoholic and alcoholic beverages—such as chicha morada (South America),
made from blue corn that is cooked in sugared water, filtered, and blended sometimes
with a fruit juice; and a variety of alcoholic maize-based beverages, ranging from the
opaque beer of Southern Africa to chicha of South America and tesguino of Mexico
B. Maize Components Used as Food Ingredients

Maize is also wet milled into its component fractions [starch, protein, oil (germ), and fiber] and
used “as is” or as starting material to produce a wide variety of ingredients that are used in food
and nonfood products. The wet-milling process involves steeping the kernels in water injected
with SO2, followed by grinding and a series of separation steps primarily using hydrocyclones
and sieves (7). Maize products derived from wet-milling include the following:
• Starch and starch-derived products—including maize starch, modified starches, dex-

trins (partially hydrolyzed starch), and starch refinery products, including glucose
syrup, high-fructose syrup, dextrose, maize syrup solids, and maltodextrins. Ethanol is
produced by using starch as the fermentative substrate.
• Protein and protein-derived products—including maize gluten feed/meal and maize oil
meal, which are used as animal feed supplements, and a small amount of commercial
purified zein.
• Oil—refined.
• Fiber—from steepwater and maize gluten feed/meal.
IV. GRAIN TYPES OPTIMAL FOR PROCESSING
Although specialty maize crops, such as sweet corn and popcorn, are commonly consumed in
some countries, the bulk of food corn is of the dent, floury, or flint endosperm types. Dent maize
kernels have an outer layer of vitreous, hard endosperm and a core and crown of floury, soft en-
dosperm. The characteristic “dent” is found at the crown. This normal maize type is used in the
U.S. dry- and wet-milling industries. Flint maize, on the other hand, contains vitreous endosperm
at the kernel crown and is generally harder than dent maize. Floury, or soft, kernels have no vit-
reous endosperm and are used for only a few kinds of prepared food.
In general, dry millers require a fairly hard maize kernel with a high percentage of vitreous
endosperm to obtain the maximal amount of the desired flaking grit product. Accordingly, “food-
type” hybrids have been developed in the United States to have harder, more vitreous kernels than
the typical dent maize grown in the central Corn Belt region. Kernels, however, should not be so
hard as to shatter during milling. Tests used to predict dry-milling performance include (a) the
kernel density, determined by gas pycnometer or alcohol displacement; (b) the milling evaluation
factor, which uses a scaled-down degerminator to measure flaking grit and total milled product
yields; and (c) kernel hardness, assessed by the tangential abrasive dehulling method or by the
Stenvert hardness test.
U.S. dent maize is typically somewhat soft for exporting, as it tends to break more easily
than harder phenotypes during shipping and handling (8). Because of export considerations, as
well as dry-milling performance, a number of public and private breeding programs have been ac-
tively developing dent germplasm with harder kernel texture (9). However, dent maize for gen-
eral export has not seen large improvements in kernel hardness. Currently, farmers either grow
food maize hybrids on contract or sell them with premiums to “short lists” of dry millers, large
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cereal processors, or commodity brokers. Through these avenues, preservation of grain identity
is achieved. However, in the general marketplace, handling facilities for identity-preserved grain
are not yet established.
In contrast to the dry-milling industry, the maize wet-milling industry has no interest in in-
creased kernel hardness. In wet milling, the main objective is to obtain a maximal yield of starch.
For this purpose, the desired kernel characteristics are a high starch content and efficient release
of starch during the milling process. Wet millers currently purchase maize on the open market and
thus do not discriminate on the basis of kernel type. However, a number of seed companies and
university research programs are working on developing improved seed types for wet milling
(10), through both classical and molecular approaches. It is generally thought that softer kernels
with dense starch packing would result in high-starch wet-milling yields.
Maize kernel types that are optimal for alkaline-cooking processes are of medium, but con-
sistent, hardness, with few stress cracks (microfissures that can appear during grain drying) (11).
Ease of pericarp removal during the washing of the nixtamal is another important factor and is
commonly selected for in breeding programs. Both yellow and white maize hybrids are used by
masa processors.
V. FACTORS RELATED TO KERNEL TEXTURE
Although the development of improved maize kernel types seems quite straightforward through
selection for improved phenotypes, the molecular basis of kernel hardness is not yet well under-
stood. A number of investigators (12–14) have studied the endosperm protein fraction as it relates
to kernel hardness, under the assumption that the “matrix protein” that surrounds starch granules
is responsible for formation of the vitreous endosperm portion of the kernel. This approach seems
reasonable, because as the physiologically mature seed begins to dessicate, protein around starch
granules should compress them, leaving virtually no air spaces and, consequently, yielding a
compact, potentially translucent endosperm. On the other hand, in the center of the endosperm,
either matrix protein is not as extensive as toward the periphery, or it is broken apart by internal
forces within the seed during drydown. This leaves a floury, or opaque, center in a dent or flint
kernel. As mentioned, dent maize also has a floury crown region. Mutant maize cultivars exist that
are entirely floury, and starch packing in these phenotypes is not dense.
The best evidence that a particular maize endosperm protein influences kernel hardness is
from studies on the changes that occur in the conversion of floury, opaque2 maize to the hard ker-
nel type known as quality protein maize (QPM). A correlation was shown between γ-zein content
and amount of endosperm modification in QPM (15). In QPM, γ-zein, the storage protein found
at the periphery of protein bodies, was found to be elevated to two to three times that of normal
maize (16). The fact that γ-zein contains a large amount of cysteine (about 7 mol %) led to the
speculation that increased levels of this protein create more disulfide bonds among the matrix pro-
teins, thereby resulting in formation of vitreous endosperm. In general, however, the factor or fac-
tors controlling the formation of vitreous, hard endosperm in normal maize cultivars are not clear.
The possibility of incorporating the modifying genes of QPM into normal maize genetic back-
grounds has been explored (17).
VI. BIOCHEMICAL COMPONENTS: THEIR STRUCTURE

AND POTENTIAL FOR CHANGE
A. Starch
Maize starch, like other cereal starches, is composed of two types of molecules, amylose and
amylopectin. Amylose is the smaller molecule and has an average molecular weight in the range
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of 106 Da (18). It is primarily a linear polymer of α-1,4 linked glucopyranosyl units with some
α-1,6 linked branches of short linear chains. Despite the branches, amylose behaves in food sys-
tems much as a linear molecule, such that in its dispersed form after starch gelatinization it aligns
and reassociates on cooling to form a gel. Amylose exists in an α-helical conformation that, be-
cause of its relatively hydrophobic interior, can form inclusion complexes with a number of lipid
compounds, as well as some other amphipathic molecules. In normal maize, amylose comprises
around 20–25%, by weight, of the total starch. Because it is much smaller in size than amy-
lopectin, actual molar amounts of amylose are higher than those of amylopectin.
Amylopectin is a very large molecule on the order of 107 or even 108 Da and is highly
branched, with α-1,6 linkages creating a “bushy,” though fairly two-dimensional, molecule (18).
The commonly accepted model of amylopectin (19) consists of three groups of linear α-1,4
linked glucopyranosyl chains (A, B, and C linear chains) of different length bound together by α-
1,6 linked branch points. The A chains, with a degree of polymerization (DPn) of about 15, are
the shortest of the linear chains and are most abundant. They are found at the terminal nonreduc-
ing ends of the branched structure and, therefore, are linked by only one α-1,6 bond to a B chain.
B chains are internal chains of larger and more variable length (DPn of about 45 to more than 100)
(20). Short B chains exist within a “cluster” of branched chains in the molecule, whereas longer
B chains span clusters. B chains contain two or more α-1,6 branch-point linkages. The single C
chain contains the one reducing end of the molecule.
Starch molecules are assembled into granular structures in the amyloplast during seed de-
velopment. Amylopectin forms crystallinelike growths within the starch granule, whereas amy-
lose is thought to exist primarily in amorphous regions of the granule. Assembly and structure of
the starch granule are reviewed by Gallant and coworkers (21).
Functionality of maize starch for food and industrial uses depends on the ratio of amylose
to amylopectin, the fine structural details of the two components, interaction and complexation
with other components, and the behavior of the starch granule itself. It has long been known that
starches with varying amylose contents behaved differently. The high amylose, or ae, maize mu-
tant contains upward of 60% amylose and is used in applications in which strong gels or films are
desired. This is due to the high retrogradation tendency of amylose. It is now known that amy-
lopectin fine structure of ae maize also differs from normal, in that it has a higher proportion of
long B chains, which makes the molecule more “amyloselike” (22). On the other hand, waxy (wx)
starch mutants are nearly devoid of amylose and form highly viscous pastes during gelatinization
that tend to break down in food systems but do not gel on cooling. Waxy maize starches are com-
monly crosslinked by using phosphoryl choride or sodium trimetaphosphate to increase the in-
tegrity of the swollen, gelatinized granule, so it will not break down when shear force is present.
In between these two wide ranges of amylose content are normal maize starches, whose func-
tionality in food systems is influenced by less dramatic changes in amylose content. For instance,
higher-amylose rice starches tend to produce harder, less sticky cooked rice than starches with
somewhat low amylose content (23).
Recent research has focused on the question of how fine structural differences of amy-
lopectin affect starch functionality and how changes in structure can be made to create starches
that will behave optimally for specific applications. Starch wet-milling companies and starch
processors have expressed interest in the creation of natural starches that behave as chemically
modified starches. In a study conducted at Iowa State University by Johnson and Baumel (24) on
estimates of economic gain due to genetic modifications to maize, a number of potentially useful
starch modifications were noted. The authors did not take into account the feasibility of making
such changes but instead concentrated on what the economic consequences would be. In terms of
starch fine structure, they reported that lengthening the A and short B chains of amylopectin could
improve gel formation, a modification that would be useful in photographic film and other appli-
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cations; the potential market impact is about $1 billion per year. Introduction of aldehyde groups
into amylose or amylopectin would provide potential crosslinking sites for improved resistance
to paste breakdown by shear or acid, with application in the food and paper industries and a po-
tential market impact of about $300 million per year. Introduction of acetylation into amylopectin
to improve low-temperature paste stability and resistance to retrogradation and to improve adhe-
sive properties has an estimated market impact of $240 million per year. Introduction of cationic
groups into either amylose or amylopectin would increase paste viscosity and water-holding ca-
pacity and could be useful in paper sizing, wastewater treatment, and protein interactions in food
and pharmaceuticals. This has a potential impact estimated at $60 million per year. Additional ex-
amples with lower estimates of economic impact include the following: the reduction of number
of intermediate and long B chains in amylopectin (estimate of $44 million per year); introduction
of 0-methyl, 0-acetyl, 0-succinyl, 0-glysocyl, or 0-galactosyl substituents in either amylose or
amylopectin ($35 million per year); increase in molecular weight of amylose ($26 million per
year); alteration of 1,4 linkages from α to β in amylopectin ($20 million per year); introduction
of anionic groups into amylose or amylopectin ($20 million per year); increase in amylose to
greater than 90% ($16 million per year); decrease in amylose to 5–10% ($16 million per year);
increase in phytoglycogen (the highly branched precursor to amylopectin) to greater than 90%
($16 million per year); decrease in molecular weight of amylose ($14 million per year); shorten-
ing of A and short B chains of amylopectin ($5 million per year); replacement of starch with cy-
clodextrin ($2 million per year); and increase in phytoglycogen to greater than 25% ($2 million
per year). In the animal feed area, the authors estimated that increasing starch digestibility to
100%, for example, by decreasing starch crystallinity, would have a potential market impact of
almost $1.5 billion per year. Many of these alterations to starch would be impossible in terms of
our current knowledge of starch biosynthesis (25). Yet, some specific changes to molecular fine
structure and ratio of starch fractions have been achieved either through identification of naturally
occurring maize starch mutants or through molecular techniques.
Naturally occurring maize starch mutants are many, and it is beyond the scope of this re-
view to cover them in detail. A list of notable starch mutants follows:
• ae—amylose extender
• wx—waxy
• bt—brittle
• sh—shrunken
• fl—floury
• du—dull
• su—sugary
Most of the mutant phenotypes, as well as the resulting functionality changes, are caused
by aberrations in the starch synthesizing enzymes that result in amylose/amylopectin ratio
changes and/or fine structural changes in the starch molecules (26). Ae maize has a high amylose
content and a higher proportion of long B chains in its amylopectin than normal maize starch, be-
cause of its lack of branching enzyme IIb (27). The wx mutant lacks granule-bound starch syn-
thase (or waxy protein) responsible for the synthesis of amylose. Both the bt and sh maize muta-
tions have low activity of adenosine diphosphate– (ADP)-glucose pyrophosphorylase, with the
two genes encoding the two subunits of the enzyme (28,29). The su1 rice starch mutant produces
highly branched structures, similar to phytoglycogen, that are caused by a reduction in the activ-
ity of the starch debranching enzyme (referred to as the R-enzyme) (30,31).
Double mutants have also been developed, including ae, du; ae, su2; ae, wx; du, h (dull
horny); du,su2; and du,wx. Double mutants of waxy include wx,fl1 and wx,sh1. A triple mutant,
ae,du,sh1, has purported special functional properties. Altering the starch synthesizing enzymes
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through such variables as activity, heat stability, and location will affect the functionality of the
starch and ultimately can lead to novel starches as well as natural starches that are optimally
suited for specific applications.
B. Protein
In common maize, protein makes up, on average, about 9% of total kernel weight and about 8%
of endosperm weight. Protein content, however, can vary considerably among maize cultivars.
Because of the high amount of glutamine in the storage protein zein, the nitrogen-to-protein con-
version factor of maize is a fairly low 5.7 (32). There are currently few commercial outlets for
maize protein (gluten feed/meal), other than animal feed supplementation. A small market exists
for purified zein, and it is produced and sold by one U.S. company. Zein has application in mois-
ture-resistant coatings for foods and pharmaceuticals, as a result of its hydrophobic nature and
ability to form films.
Maize endosperm protein, in the simplest and perhaps most meaningful classification
scheme, consists of zeins and nonzeins (16,33). After synthesis, zeins are translocated into the
lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where they accumulate and are packaged into rather
insoluble entities called protein bodies. These accretions of proteins retain their structural in-
tegrity during maturation and seed desiccation. Zeins comprise four basic subclasses of polypep-
tides, α, β, γ, and δ. Overall, zeins comprise about 70% of endosperm proteins in normal maize
cultivars (33). The major storage protein is α-zein, which accounts for about 80% of the total zein
fraction. The remaining zeins are mostly β and γ-zeins. The relatively more hydrophilic γ-zein is
highly disulfide-linked (7 mole percent cysteine) and is located at the periphery of the protein
body. It serves as a structural protein, promoting protein body formation and retention of α-zeins
in the ER. The nonzein fraction is a heterogeneous group of proteins that comprises cytoplasmic
and cell wall proteins that have various metabolic, transport, and structural roles in endosperm
cells.
A number of maize mutants that affect zein proteins have been identified (reviewed in Ref.
34). The best known is the opaque2 mutant, which causes elevated lysine and tryptophan content
(35). The opaque2 gene encodes a transcription factor that regulates synthesis of genes encoding
the 22-kDa α-zein protein and a ribosomal inactivating protein (36,37), among others. The mu-
tation causes reduced synthesis of zeins, resulting in a lower proportion of the major lysine-defi-
cient protein in the seed. Additionally, a pleiotropic increase in lysine-containing nonzein proteins
can occur (38). A higher nonzein content, together with lower zein content, produces seeds with
appreciably higher levels of lysine and tryptophan. The enhanced synthesis of lysine-containing
proteins was found to correlate with the levels of a cytoplasmic protein, elongation factor 1-α
(eEF1A) (39). An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) measuring eEF1A that permits
rapid screening of breeding lines for lysine content has been developed.
The floury kernel phenotype of opaque2 is unacceptable for preparation of most types of
maize-based foods, and it increases susceptibility to insect and fungal infestation. Modifier genes
were introduced by workers at CIMMYT in Mexico (40) and in South Africa (41) that effectively
convert the soft opaque2 kernel to the vitreous, hard phenotype. The modified opaque2 mutants
were designated QPM. As discussed, studies by Larkins and colleagues (15,16) showed that
higher synthesis of γ-zein was related to the formation of the hard endosperm in these genotypes.
Few other protein mutants of maize have been as well characterized as opaque2. The
floury2 mutant produces abnormally shaped protein bodies that result from the accumulation of
an unusual 22-kDa α-zein protein. Coleman and associates (42) showed this to be due to a muta-
tion in the signal peptide sequence of a 22-kDa zein gene, preventing cleavage of the protein and
its translocation into the lumen of the ER. Floury2 causes a reduction in the synthesis of all
classes of zein proteins, overexpression of BiP, an ER-resident chaperonin (43), and elevated ly-
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sine content. The presence of α-zein protein at the surface of the protein bodies results in some-
what higher in vitro protein digestibility. This was also observed in an opaque mutation in
sorghum that causes highly irregularly shaped protein bodies (44).
Potential U.S. economic benefit of improving protein quality, quantity, and availability was
estimated by Johnson and Baumel (24). The primary motivation for U.S. research into improving
maize proteins is increasing the value of the grain for animal feed, although in developing coun-
tries with high maize consumption, improvements in nutritional value would benefit people as
well. The economic predictive study found that increasing protein content would potentially lead
to the greatest increase in value. If protein were increased from 8.7% to 16.7%, a potential mar-
ket impact of $3.4 billion per year could be realized. Increasing protein digestibility of maize an
additional 10 percentage points (84% to 94% in poultry, 82% to 92% in swine, and 73% to 83%
in cattle) could add $840 million per year. If lysine content were doubled from 0.3% to 0.6% (seed
basis) with a concomitant increase in protein by 0.3%, the authors predict a benefit of $490 mil-
lion per year. Increasing lysine without increasing protein would reduce this to $370 million per
year. An increase in the high-methionine-containing zeins could enhance value by $360 million
per year. Increasing albumin protein and sulfur-containing amino acids could increase maize
grain value by $310 and $260 million per year, respectively. As in the potential economic impact
assessment of maize starch alterations, the authors qualified their predictions by noting that it is
not clear that these changes can be made. In fact, in the area of proteins, many of these changes
do appear possible, either through use of existing mutants or through genetic engineering.
C. Lipid
Maize has between 3.5% and 5% oil in the kernel, but high-oil genotypes are commercially avail-
able with greater than 6% oil. Six percent is the content at which animals have shown a signifi-
cant positive feed response compared to response to normal maize (45). Oil contents have been
reported up to 24% in an inbred, but high-oil maize routinely ranges up to 9% or 10%. Although
there is a sizable commercial market for refined maize oil, most oil is used in livestock feed. The
advantage of high-oil maize is economic, based on replacement of the oil added to feed rations.
The increased cost of high-oil hybrid maize seed must therefore weigh positively against the mar-
ket cost of supplemental feed fats and oil. As a high-energy human food, particularly for children
and other nutritionally vulnerable groups, high-oil maize would be valuable in developing coun-
tries.
High-oil maize has been shown in numerous feeding trials to be advantageous to poultry
and livestock. For chickens, the weight gain and feed conversion ratio were superior in diets using
6% to 13% oil maize compared to 4.5% oil maize. In growing-finishing pigs, high-oil maize
(7.5%) performed better in terms of average gain (kilograms) per kilogram feed compared to nor-
mal maize (3.5% oil) (46).
In terms of oil composition, maize oil has a favorable fatty acid profile, considering its high
level of about 62% linoleic acid (18:2) and fairly high level of about 24% oleic acid (18:1) (46).
Additionally, this is a stable oil, because of the low level of less than 1% of linolenic acid (18:3)
and relatively high levels of the antioxidant tocopherols. Triacylglycerols make up nearly 80% of
unrefined corn oil, the remainder consists of phospolipids/glycolipids (about 9%), sterols (4.5%),
di- and monoacylglycerols (4%), hydrocarbons/sterylesters (3%), and about 1% free fatty acids.
As oil content increases, the proportion of triacylglyerols increases, and the fatty acid composi-
tion tends toward a somewhat higher level of oleic acid. Although the bulk of lipids in the maize
kernel are found in the germ, the endosperm contains about 1% lipid. Although seemingly in-
significant, endosperm lipid is subdivided about equally into nonstarch and starch fractions. En-
dosperm lipids are different in composition from the predominating germ lipids and can affect
starch gelatinization behavior. Nonstarch lipids originate either in the aleurone layer that contains
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mainly triacylglycerols or in other endosperm cells in the form of free fatty acids. Starch lipids
are composed of monoacyl lipids, mainly free fatty acids and lysophospholipid. There is evidence
that these lipids complex with helical sections of the amylose chains (47).
There exists a wide variation in fatty acid profiles of maize lipids that is ascribed to geno-
typic variability. In an extensive study, oleic acid levels were found to range from 14% to 64%,
and linoleic acid levels ranged from 19% to 71% (48). The general trend was that increasing one
of these two fatty acids resulted in lowering of the other.
Opportunities exist to improve maize lipid composition through molecular approaches
(49,50). Recent research in the nutrition field has shown that fatty acid composition of oils in the
diet ultimately affects fat composition in meat. Because maize is the largest feed crop in the
world, it is conceivable that future development of maize with a more desirable fatty acid profile
would improve meat fatty acid profiles.
D. Minor Components
1. Phytate
Phytic acid is synthesized in maize and other seed grains as a phosphorus storage and resupply
sink, as well as, in the phytate form, a macrostore for the cations K, Mg, and Ca and a microstore
for Mn, Fe, and Zn (51). Phytic acid is myo-inositol 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexakisphosphate. It has been of
interest principally to nonruminant animal and human nutritionists, because it can bind essential
cationic minerals in the diet and make them unavailable for use. Its presence in the diet, therefore,
can lead to deficiencies of phosphorus and other minerals. For example, iron absorption is
strongly inversely correlated to phytate content (52). More recently, a concern of environmental-
ists to reduce phosphorus runoff from animal feedlots has heightened interest in reducing phytate
content in maize. Johnson and Baumel (24) estimate that an increase in available phosphorus con-
tent from 20% available to 60% (achieved through reduction in phytate levels) would translate to
increased value for the U.S. maize crop of about $200 million per year.
In the maize seed, the majority of phytate (about 90%) is found in the germ scutellum and
the remainder in the aleurone. Up to 90% of stored phosphate is in the form of phytate, and it is
deposited in protein bodies. Raboy (51) identified two low–phytic acid maize mutants with re-
ductions in kernel phytic acid phosphorus of 33% and 66%. The latter mutant, lpa1, showed a
molar equivalent increase in inorganic phosphorus that would be available to the animal and good
agronomic and yield traits (53). Preliminary chick feeding results from the latter study suggested
that phosphorus was more available and, correspondingly, there was less phosphorus in excreta.
Enhanced knowledge of the synthetic pathway leading to the phytic acid end product will permit
the manipulation of the amount of phytate in the maize seed through molecular biology tech-
niques.
2. Minerals
There is currently a great deal of interest in finding ways to increase the amount of minerals and
vitamins in grains. This new focus has arisen out of studies conducted in developing countries that
showed that deficiencies in key micronutrients may profoundly affect the growth and develop-
ment of children (CRSP studies). The minerals most needed in developing countries are iron, io-
dine, and zinc.
Maize germ contains the majority of minerals in the seed. Kernel minerals present in high-
est quantity are phosphorus (largely in the phytic acid form) and potassium. Iodine, iron, and zinc
are present on average at about 400, 30, and 15 mg/kg grain, respectively. Broad ranges of min-
eral content have been shown for these three essential minerals, particularly for iodine and iron,
and, accordingly, there is now research directed at increasing content of iron in maize that is used
in high-maize-consuming developing countries (G. Edmeades, personal communication, 1998).
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3. Vitamins
Key vitamins deficient in diets of the world’s poor are likewise targets for improvement in maize,
as well as in other grains. Maize is relatively high in the lipid-soluble tocopherols, or vitamin E,
and the B family of vitamins, in particular niacin, thiamine, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, and ri-
boflavin. In maize, niacin is present in a bound form, making it unavailable, though it can be re-
leased with alkaline treatment, such as is used in the masa process. Maize also has a significant
amount of β-carotene, the provitamin A. There is a sufficient range in β-carotene content among
inbreds and hybrids to be of interest in breeding programs focused on improving maize nutritional
quality.
VII. CREATING TRANSGENIC MAIZE
Although Zea mays possesses significant genetic diversity, there are many traits that cannot be al-
tered through conventional breeding. However, there is immense potential for improving the food
and feed value of the seed through genetic engineering. In the past few years, the potential of this
technology has been validated through the creation of insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant
maize hybrids. The enhancement or creation of traits influencing nutritional value, milling prop-
erties, and product development will soon follow.
An essential step in creating transgenic maize was the discovery of methods to introduce
genes into single cells and regenerate them into fertile plants. There are several review articles de-
scribing maize transformation (54,55), and the 1999 synopsis by C. L. Armstrong (56) presents a
nice overview of the developments that led to the successful transformation and regeneration of
maize plants (57,58). Unfortunately, transformation and regeneration of monocots did not prove
to be as facile as in dicots, in which cocultivation of leaf disks or young embryos with Agrobac-
terium tumefaciens containing a genetically engineered Ti plasmid allowed the efficient produc-
tion of a number of different transgenic crop species (59). Indeed, it required patient and diligent
research for nearly 15 years to identify the right set of conditions to regenerate maize plants from
single cells, develop a procedure for the delivery of genes into these cells, and find selectable
marker genes to identify transformation events among them. Today, the creation of genetically en-
gineered maize plants is a routine, though not trivial procedure, and it is practiced in many labo-
ratories. Nevertheless, there remain many opportunities to improve maize transformation by ex-
tending the range of transformation-competent genotypes, increasing the number (efficiency) of
events per transformation, delivering a smaller number (one or two) of transgene copies or better
yet obtaining gene replacement via homologous recombination, and identifying effective selec-
table markers that do not rely on antibiotic or herbicide resistance.
Although transformation of maize protoplasts was shown to be possible (60,61), the most
widely used procedure for creating transgenic plants utilizes callus obtained from young (9 to 10
days after pollination) embryos. Thus far, the best genotype for obtaining this regenerable tissue
is a hybrid derived from a cross between A188 and B73. After embryo culture on induction media,
a few totipotent cells in the scutellum become competent for regeneration and form a friable cal-
lus that produces somatic embryos. This so-called type II embryogenic callus provides the start-
ing material for creating transgenic plants.
As a monocot, maize is not easily infected by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, and early at-
tempts to use the Ti plasmid for gene delivery into maize cells were not terribly efficient (62,63).
Consequently, the first experiments to engineer maize genetically relied on the ballistic delivery
of deoxyribonucleic acid– (DNA)-coated metal particles into embryogenic cells via the “gene
gun” or “helium gun” (64,65). This procedure proved to be highly successful, and most of the trans-
genic maize lines in production today were created by this technique (66–69). Alternative proce-
dures for forcibly delivering DNA into maize cells involve vortexing with silicon carbide fibers or
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electroporation. Fundamentally, silicon carbide “whiskers,” as they are called, work in much the
some way as bombarded metal particles in that they penetrate the cell wall and carry DNA into the
protoplast. Several laboratories have reported routine success with this technique, e.g., Frame and
coworkers (70), but the procedure has not been widely exploited. Electroporation of cells creates
holes in the plasma membrane, allowing DNA to enter the cell. This procedure has been used to
transform intact and wounded maize tissues (71–73), but the efficiency and reproducibility of elec-
troporation are not high, and consequently it has not seen widespread application.
The forcible introduction of DNA into plant cells by biolistics or silicon carbide whiskers
can lead to stable gene transformation. In fact, it is possible to introduce multiple genes on dif-
ferent plasmids simultaneously. Consequently, the transgene of interest can be contained on one
vector, while the selectable marker gene is carried on another (66). Cells competent for DNA
transformation do not discriminate! However, the gene in the vector DNA can undergo several
fates once it enters the cell, and this leads to a variety of arrangements and rearrangements, such
that it is not uncommon for there to be multiple copies of the transgenes in a variety of organiza-
tions. Unfortunately, the presence of too many copies of a transgene can lead to a phenomenon
called gene silencing, which can affect expression of the transgene as well as related endogenous
genes (cosuppression) (74). The basis of gene silencing and cosuppression is poorly understood,
but they appear to be related to the number and expression level of the transgenes. In order to ob-
tain effective, stable expression of transgenes, it is important to identify transformed plants that
contain a relatively small number of transgenes, i.e., one to three.
The problem of gene silencing as a consequence of multiple transgene insertions is much
less common with transformation events mediated by the Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefa-
ciens. This may be because transfer DNA (T-DNA) transformation is a more highly regulated
process than what occurs with naked DNA (75). This fact, along with the observation that large
DNA fragments can be transferred via the T-DNA, provided incentive to develop cereal transfor-
mation mediated by the Ti plasmid. Initial success with this technique was reported for studies
with rice (76,77), and the approach was quickly adapted for barley (78) and maize (79–81). A
number of laboratories are currently using this technique, and in the future it could be that
T-DNA–mediated transformation of maize with Agrobacterium tumefaciens will become the
standard procedure for making transgenic plants.
Several selectable marker genes have been shown to work effectively for identifying maize
transformants. One of the most commonly used is the bar gene, which confers resistance to phos-
phinothricin and bialaphos (57,58). Other selection systems are based on resistance to hy-
gromycin via the hpt gene (82), resistance to kanamycin and G418 via neomycin phosphotrans-
ferase II (71), and resistance to glyphosate via EPSP synthase genes (83,84). Concern has been
raised about the safety of incorporating antibiotic resistance genes into crop plants, as it might
lead to the spread of resistance genes to other organisms. However, vertical transmission of an-
tibiotic resistance genes has not been observed. Although early versions of some transgenic crops
contain antibiotic resistance markers, these genes are becoming less commonly utilized. The de-
velopment of alternative selection strategies, such as the green fluorescent protein (85), continues
to be an active area of research for developing genetically engineered crops.
Methods for obtaining site-specific gene insertions are being developed for plants, includ-
ing maize. One approach makes use of prokaryotic systems of site-specific genetic recombina-
tion; the other relies on homologous recombination. The bacteriophage P1 contains Lox se-
quences that are subject to recombination through the activity of the Cre protein (86); the Flp
recombinase system targets FRT sequences (87). With both of these examples, the target se-
quences for recombination, Lox or FRT, are placed in the genome of one plant to provide the in-
sertion site for a genetically engineered trait. The gene encoding this trait, which has been trans-
formed into a second plant, is introduced by mating the two. Experimental results with a
nonregenerable maize cell culture using the Flp recombinase system have provided evidence of
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the utility of this approach (88). Gene targeting by homologous recombination has been demon-
strated for several eukaryotes, but to date there has only been one successful report for plants (89).
The development of an efficient system for gene targeting by homologous recombination in plants
would clearly be a milestone, as it would eliminate the problems associated with gene silencing
and cosuppression. It appears that one of the main factors limiting this procedure is transforma-
tion efficiency, as it was only possible to obtain homologous recombination when a very large
number of transformation events was created (89).
VIII. MODIFIED TRAITS IN TRANSGENIC MAIZE PLANTS
In 1990 the first transgenic maize plants were reported (57), but there have been only a few pub-
lications describing genetically engineered traits in maize. One of the first success stories was the
creation of plants resistant to insects. This was accomplished by expressing a gene encoding the
Bt toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis (84). The systemic production of Bt in corn was found to pro-
vide a significant level of protection against the European corn borer, with a commensurate en-
hancement in yield. Another valuable trait introduced into crop plants, including maize, is resis-
tance to herbicides, such as glyphosate (59). Although insect and herbicide resistance is mainly
of value to the farmer because it reduces production costs, these traits clearly benefit the consumer
by reducing prices (better yield!) and by causing less harm to the environment than convention-
ally applied pesticides and herbicides. It has also been found that, as a consequence of reduced
insect damage, Bt corn has a lower incidence of fungal infection, resulting in lower levels of fu-
monisin, a potent toxin that can cause fatal diseases in livestock and esophageal cancer in humans
(90). Consequently, Bt corn could be healthier to eat than normal maize varieties.
Thus far, only a few genes have been engineered for expression in developing maize seeds.
Russel and Fromm (91) used promoters from several endosperm-specific genes to target expres-
sion of a β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter protein successfully. In so doing, they demonstrated the
utility of this approach. However, there are only two reports of maize seeds used to produce a ge-
netically engineered protein. Hood and associates (68) produced avidin, a glycoprotein found in
eggs, and Zhong and colleagues (69) produced aprotinin, a serine protease inhibitor that can be
used as a therapeutic agent, in transgenic maize seeds. Neither the avidin nor the aprotinin gene
constructs used in these studies utilized a seed-specific (embryo or endosperm) promoter, and
only a small amount (0.1%) of extractable protein was obtained. However, it appears these ex-
periments were primarily conducted to demonstrate the potential for using maize seed as a biore-
actor to obtain commercially valuable proteins.
IX. FUTURE PROSPECTS
A number of laboratories are currently engaged in experiments to modify the biochemical path-
ways of seeds in order to alter the nature of the protein, starch, and oil they contain (92). We ear-
lier noted the potential economic value of this for maize (24). In a preliminary report (93), scien-
tists at DuPont described results of experiments to increase the lysine content of maize seed by
expressing genes encoding feedback-insensitive aspartokinase and di-hydropicolinic acid syn-
thase by using endosperm- and embryo-specific promoters. Although the endosperm promoter
was not effective, the embryo promoter resulted in seeds with 50% to 100% higher levels of free
lysine. Seeds of these plants would be valuable for feeding livestock, but the lysine would likely
be lost from processed foods prepared from such genotypes.
Although there are few reports describing experiments to modify the starch, protein, and oil
content of maize seeds, there is clearly a great deal of work being done to accomplish these goals.
Perhaps the most advanced research is occurring in industrial laboratories; that could explain the
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sparse record of published results. However, the rate of progress could also be explained on the
basis of the time required to develop materials for analysis. It takes several generations to move
the transgene into a genetic background that is sufficiently uniform to assess the gene’s impact.
On the basis of the technical successes that have been demonstrated with reporter and model gene
experiments, it is clear that genetic engineering of polymer synthesis and biosynthetic pathways
in the maize endosperm and embryo is possible.
As previously noted, there are many opportunities to improve the techniques for creating
transgenic plants and regulating the expression of the transgenes within them, and these topics
will clearly be important areas for future research. In addition, there remains much to learn about
the biochemical characteristics of starch (25), oil (49), and storage protein (Coleman, 1997) syn-
thesis, and the ways these polymers interact to create the key phenotypic characteristics (hard-
ness, vitreousness) of the mature kernel and influence its processing during wet and dry milling.
Likewise, the biochemical aspect of the functional characteristics of maize flour is poorly under-
stood. Understanding the biochemical and genetic basis of these traits will require the systematic
analysis of normal and mutant genotypes that influence the key phenotypic traits, and it will no
doubt require a multidisciplinary research approach involving geneticists, biochemists, and food
scientists. Nevertheless, with the rapid development of genomics tools (94), which include data
bases of gene sequences and tagged mutants, we can anticipate that our understanding of the ge-
netic and biochemical basis of key agronomic and food processing traits will increase rapidly. The
substantial potential for genetic engineering to improve the nutritional value and utility of maize
for making food products is tremendous, and there are many opportunities, providing the con-
sumer embraces the products afforded by this technology (95).
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44
The Transformation of Onions and
Related Alliums
Colin C. Eady
New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research Ltd., Christchurch, New Zealand
I. INTRODUCTION 655
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF ALLIUMS SUITABLE FOR MODIFICATION
BY TRANSFORMATION 656
A. Resistance Traits 656
B. Quality Traits 659
C. Breeding Attributes 660
III. HISTORY OF ALLIUM TRANSFORMATION RESEARCH 660
B. Microprojectile Bombardment of Garlic Allium sativum L. 664
IV. CONCLUSION 665
REFERENCES 666
I. INTRODUCTION
Onion (Allium cepa L.) and its close relatives, garlic (A. sativum), leek (A. porrum), and chives
(A. schoenoprasum), are members of the Liliaceae family. They have been grown as vegetable
crops throughout the world since 3000 b.c. Allium vegetables are the fourth largest group of
commercially produced, nonleguminous vegetables after potatoes, cassava, and tomatoes. Their
combined annual production around the world was 53 × 106 MT in 1998 (1).
Despite the huge commercial importance of this vegetable group, biotechnological advances
in Allium species have lagged behind those in other commercially important vegetable species. For
example, the first routine Solanum species transformations were reported in 1985 (2) yet success-
ful Allium species transformation was only reported in 1998 (3). There are many reasons for the
slow application of biotechnological techniques to Allium species. First, Allium species are bien-
nial monocotyledons, which require specific day-length and temperature requirements for normal
growth. This characteristic has produced a range of different cultivars adapted to specific environ-
ments. Biotechnological protocols that can be successfully applied to particular cultivars may not
be transferable to others. Second, some Allium species, e.g., garlic and shallot, are poorly fertile
and predominantly maintained by vegetative propagation, restricting the use of sexual reproduc-
655
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656 Eady
tion in biotechnological techniques. Third, many cultivars are open-pollinated and maintain high
levels of heterozygosity and thus variability. This limitation leads to difficulties in obtaining clearly
defined responses to biotechnological procedures, such as in vitro culture and selection systems.
Fourth, crop alliums have very large genomes (4), which have been reported to be more difficult
to transform (5). In addition, many molecular biological techniques, such as Southern hybridiza-
tion, genomic cloning, and polymease chain reaction (PCR), are more difficult to apply to larger
genomes. Finally, allium breeding has traditionally been confined to small, specialized companies
that lack the resources needed for technologically advanced research.
Despite these facts, a few research groups have persevered with allium research and have
made considerable contributions to our knowledge about allium genetics. Research in allium in-
terspecific hybridization (6–9), clonal propagation (10), and sulfur metabolism (11–13) and the
nature of cytoplasmic male sterility (14) is particularly noteworthy, as are recent advances in our
understanding of onion cytoplasmic and nuclear genomes (15). Research activity is set to gain
momentum since the purchase of many small, specialized allium seed companies by multina-
tionals. These companies are investing in techniques such as dihaploid production, transforma-
tion, and biochemical assessment of specific characteristics (e.g., pungency) to complement tra-
ditional breeding methods. The application of these techniques to Allium species should allow the
modification of traits that otherwise would be extremely difficult or impossible to improve by tra-
ditional breeding techniques. In addition, the increasing use of F1 hybrid varieties from male ster-
ile lines and improved molecular marking of cultivars allow exclusive ownership of the parent
material, a commercially important factor. Finally, as latecomers to the biotechnology from
which many crops have benefited allium researchers can take advantage of studies performed on
other species since the 1980s. This capacity reduces the risk that this technology will fail to de-
liver economic returns.
This chapter summarizes the history of Allium species transformation research and outlines
current techniques and the results of their application.
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF ALLIUMS SUITABLE

FOR MODIFICATION BY TRANSFORMATION
Genes are being identified from all life-forms and indeed being created de novo in order to find
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences that can confer beneficial characteristics for medical,
agricultural, and industrial use. This is a complex and difficult process, and the genes available
today will no doubt be but a small fraction of those available in the future. Genes that may con-
fer benefits in Allium species may be identified by looking at successes in other crop species. In
addition, some genes involved in specific Allium species attributes have been isolated, e.g., alli-
nase (16,17) and sucrose-sucrose fructosyltransferase (18), creating the potential for such attrib-
utes to be modified by manipulating these genes. To date genes with a proven commercial appli-
cation have not been put into Allium species, apart from the bar gene encoding resistance to the
herbicide phosphinothricin (Eady et al., unpublished). A summary of some, but by no means all,
of the traits that could be potentially altered in Allium species by transformation is presented in
the following discussion.
A. Resistance Traits
1. Herbicide Resistance
The creation of Allium sp. lines with resistance to herbicide is now possible. The insertion of the
bar gene, which provides resistance to phosphinothricin, has produced onion tissue capable of
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The Transformation of Onions 657
regenerating in the presence of phosphinothricin, the active ingredient in the herbicide Basta
(Eady et al., unpublished). EPSP synthase genes (AroA) (19) encoding tolerance to glyphosate
(Roundup), the bxn gene encoding resistance to Bromoxynil (20), or mutant AHAS or CsrL-L
genes from Arabidopsis species that code for resistance to sulfonylurea herbicides (21,22) could
also be introduced into Allium species.
Herbicide resistance is a particularly useful trait to introduce into onions because their slow
germination rate, upright narrow leaves, and slow growth make them particularly sensitive to
early season weed competition. Such competition can decrease yields by 70% or more (23). At
present the only effective management of weeds is by strategic use of expensive herbicide cock-
tails applied at specific times throughout the growing season or by manual hoeing, which is dif-
ficult and labor-intensive, especially at the seedling stage.
2. Disease Resistance
Rabinowitch and Brewster reviewed viral, bacterial, fungal, and insect pathogens of Allium
species in 1990 (24). Present management of pests and diseases of Allium species requires the
use of integrated pest management (IPM) programs (25). Although genetic transformation is un-
likely to eliminate the need to implement an IPM program, the approach could be simplified by
transforming cultivars so that they better withstand the effects of pests or diseases.
a. Fungal Resistance. The major fungal pathogens of onion roots and bulbs include
white rot (Sclerotium cepivorum), pink root rot (Pyrenochaeta terrestris), fusarium basal rot
(Fusarium oxysporum), and neck rot (Botrytis allii). Presently, such pathogens are controlled by
fungicides in combination with particular curing and storage regimens (26).
Control of onion white rot by fungicides is becoming increasingly difficult and other dis-
ease control options are being investigated. The application of diallyl disulfide (DADS) in fallow
years to stimulate sclerotial germination shows promise but is expensive and difficult to apply. A
limited degree of natural protection to onion white rot has been identified in some cultivars of
onion and garlic (27). Outside the crop species, but within the Allium species family, only one
source of complete onion white rot resistance has been identified in an accession of A. stipitatum
(Kik, personal communication). Biological control, using Trichoderma species, has also had
some success in areas of low to medium onion white rot infestation (Stewart, personal communi-
cation). Antifungal resistance genes could also be used to combat fungal pathogens. Such genes
have been identified in plants (28). They include pathogenesis-related genes PR-2 and PR-3
(chitinases and glucanases) (29–31), which act synergistically to prevent hyphal growth (32);
PGIP genes encoding polygalacturonidase-inhibiting proteins, which inhibit enzymes released by
the fungus that break down the plant cell wall (33); PR-5 genes encoding ribosome-inactivating
proteins, which specifically act on fungal ribosomes (34); and genes encoding plant defensins, a
class of small polypeptides that interfere with fungal cell wall extension (35). An antimicrobial
gene from onion has also been used to confer resistance to Botrytis cinerea (36). In addition, ox-
alate oxidase genes have been transformed into plants and shown to inhibit fungal invasion by
detoxifying oxalic acid, the toxin produced by the fungi (37).
Our research team has isolated an Allium sp. root alliinase that may be responsible for the
production of sulfur compounds that are released into the soil and stimulate dormant fungal scle-
rotia to germinate. Experiments are currently underway to determine whether antisense technol-
ogy can be used to reduce the expression of this gene in the root, thus reducing the release of sul-
fur compounds into the soil and consequently reducing sclerotial germination. Nonplant genes that
may combat invasion by onion fungal pathogens include the antimicrobial genes outlined in Sec.
II.A.2.b. Unfortunately, host-pathogen interactions are often very specific and a screening program
would be necessary to identify which, if any, of these gene products has activity against specific
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658 Eady
fungal pathogens of Allium species but lacks activity against beneficial VA mycorrhiza. Gene dis-
covery programs are advancing rapidly and identifying new genes for applications such as con-
ferring fungal resistance. Testing their potential is difficult and likely to hinder their introduction
to Allium species.
b. Bacterial Resistance. Bacterial diseases of onion, such as leaf blight (Xanthomonas
spp.), soft rot (Erwinia spp.), and sour skin/slippery skin (Pseudomonas spp.), cause severe dam-
age. The unpredictable nature of these essentially facultative pathogens, which take advantage of
poor environmental conditions, makes the development of spray-based control strategies difficult
(38). Controlled atmosphere storage can reduce the effects of these diseases. However, in poor
seasons the disease may take hold while the crop is still in the field. Antimicrobial genes, like
those encoding for small channel-forming peptides such as magainins and cercopins (39), have
been added to potato extract and shown to have a potent antibacterial effect (40). T4 lysozyme is
another antibacterial gene that has been demonstrated to confer tolerance to bacterial pathogens
(41). An antimicrobial gene from onion has also been shown to be active against gram-positive
bacteria (42). However, this research is not complete and a greater understanding of temporal and
spatial expression profiles and engineering of the structural gene to produce stable proteins with
greater activity will enable advances in this technology to be made in the future. In addition, as
with antifungal genes, it is likely that new genes will soon be discovered with many potential an-
tibacterial properties. Again methods to assess these genes rapidly for activity in vivo will be re-
quired to check the efficiency of the technology in Allium species.
c. Viral Resistance. Allium species suffer from many viral infections (43). The worst af-
fected are the vegetatively propagated Allium species such as garlic and shallot. Under vegetative
propagation there is no “cleansing” sexual round of propagation to eliminate non-seed-transmit-
ted viruses. Consequences are gradual virus build-up and significant decrease in yield. Po-
tyviruses (e.g., onion yellow dwarf virus, leek yellow stripe virus), carlaviruses (e.g., garlic latent
virus, shallot latent virus (43), and garlic and shallot virus X (44) are the most devastating Allium
species viruses. Although in vitro elimination is possible (45,46), in-built resistance would pro-
vide a simpler solution. The development and insertion of engineered viral protein genes (e.g.,
P1, P3 (47), or CI (48)) or gene sequences (e.g., Nib (49) or CP (50)) have proved to be effective
measures to prevent viral overload (51). Since 1996 researchers have isolated and sequenced coat
protein gene sequences from Allium carla (52) and potyvirus types (53,54). With this knowledge
it should be relatively straightforward to engineer and express these sequences in Allium species
to induce resistance.
d. Insect Resistance. The orders Hemiptera, Thysanoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and
Coleoptera all contain Allium species pests (55). Sap sucking onion thrip (Thrips tabacii) is con-
sidered to be the major insect pest problem for Allium species, with damage levels on untreated
crops reaching up to 55%. As well as causing physical damage, they spread viral diseases (55).
Thrips are difficult to control by conventional means, although biological control, partial plant re-
sistance, and chemical control measures do exist. Thrips resistant to the major chemical control
group, the synthetic pyrethoids, have been reported (Stewart, personal communication), present-
ing a serious control problem. The transformation of Allium species with genes conferring resis-
tance to thrips could reduce dependence on the limited existing control measures. Insertion of the
tryptophan decarboxylase gene from Catharanthus roseus into tobacco reduced whitefly (Be-
misia tabacii) emergence by 98.5% compared to that in nontransgenic controls (56). The inser-
tion and expression of protease inhibitors also reduced insect feeding (57), as has the insertion of
lectin genes, e.g., from snowdrop (58). By directing expression of these genes to the sap through
phloem-specific promoters (59) it may be possible to target these insects without expressing the
foreign genes in other parts of the plant. For the Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera orders (and
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maybe the Thysanoptera) the use of specific insecticidal protein genes from Bacillus thuringien-
sis (Bt genes) may provide a control strategy. Specific forms of the gene are effective against cer-
tain insects (60). Bt genes have been engineered and introduced into plants to confer resistance
(61) and are currently being used to improve the commercial production of cotton and corn,
among other crops.
e. Nematode Resistance. Many types of nematode are capable of infecting Allium
species. However, they are not considered a major pest and are at present well controlled by soil
fumigants (62). Genetic engineering does offer the opportunity to control parasitic Allium species
nematodes, such as root knot nematodes, which feed from giant transfer cells that are induced by
the nematode to form in the plant. Two strategies have been developed to combat these types of
nematode (63). The first relies on expression of a gene whose product is directed against the nem-
atode or its secretions; the second relies on the specific expression of a phytotoxic product in the
giant transfer cells so that the nematode has no structure upon which to feed.
B. Quality Traits
1. Pungency
The secondary metabolite pathway leading to the production of onion pungency has been studied
in great detail since 1992 (11,64). Unlike ⬃90% of flowering plant species, the Allium species do
not accumulate significant pools of organic sulfur as cysteine or methionine. Instead a unique sec-
ondary pathway converts cysteine to several forms of S-alk(en)yl-cysteine sulfoxides (ACSOs)
(65). The cleavage of these ACSOs by the enzyme alliinase, upon disruption of the cell, produces
volatile flavor, odor, and lachrymatory compounds (“pungency”), as well as pyruvate and ammo-
nia (66). Manipulation of the levels of these compounds may allow mild or pungent onions to be
produced. Our research team has isolated some of the alliinase genes responsible for this process
(67) and is currently regenerating transformed plants containing antisense versions of the allinase
gene in an attempt to modify onion pungency. Other enzymes involved in the production of the
ACSOs are being investigated (68). Identification and manipulation of these genes may allow the
more subtle modification of the various components that make up onion pungency. For example,
specific oxidases that can oxidize S-allyl-l-cysteine, a precursor of S-allyl-cysteine sulfoxide,
have been detected in garlic (69). Upon lysis of Allium species cells the ACSOs react with alli-
inase to produce thiosulfinates and a subsequent cascade of additional organosulfur compounds.
Work is currently being undertaken at the University of Wisconsin by Irwin Goldman’s group to
determine which thiosulfinates are derived from which ACSOs and identify those responsible for
particular health benefits such as antiplatelet activity (70). This biochemical understanding, to-
gether with a knowledge of the genes responsible, may one day make it possible to improve the
nutritional value of alliums further.
2. Carbohydrates
Allium species are among only 15% of flowering plants (71) that store the majority of their car-
bohydrate reserves as fructans (fructose and sucrose polymers). Many reasons for this have been
proposed, including roles as an osmoregulant, cryoprotectant, and a source of stored carbohydrate
that can be rapidly remobilized during the breaking of dormancy (72). The ability of Allium
species to produce and store complex fructans could be useful. Fructans are being seen as an in-
creasingly healthy component of the human diet (73) and are also used in products such as wash
softeners, biodegradable plastics, and, in the inulin form, artificial sweeteners (74). Researchers
have already demonstrated that it is possible to manipulate fructan products and levels by the in-
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660 Eady
troduction of specific sucrose-sucrose-fructosyltransferases (SSTs) (18) or fructan-fructan-fruc-

tosyltransferases (FFTs) isolated from onion (75). This work has led to the production of fructan-
containing beets. SSTs or FFTs from onion could be useful in the further customization of car-
bohydrate content in such beets. The manipulation of fructan assimilation or degradation in
Allium species via transformation may affect the health benefits of these vegetables as well as the
storage characteristics, solids content, and sweetness of Allium species crops.
3. Other Quality Characteristics

Color, size, shape, number of skins, storage abilities, solid content, quercetin level, and sweetness
are desirable traits in onion. The ability to engineer any of these traits precisely in alliums does
not yet exist, although soon it may possible to alter fructan composition to enhance some of these
traits (outlined earlier). Many genes involved in color regulatory pathways have been character-
ized and successfully introduced into other plants (76). The very existence of white, yellow, and
red onions indicates that color pathways are present and that it should be possible to introduce an-
thocyanin regulatory genes specifically to modify Allium species color.
C. Breeding Attributes
1. Male Sterility
The major onion cultivars now being released are hybrids, derived from crosses with male sterile
germplasm. The principal source of male sterile S cytoplasm can be traced to a single plant iden-
tified in 1925 in Davis, California. Although other sources have been reported (e.g., T cytoplasm),
they require complex fertility restoration (14). Considerable effort is underway to find new
sources of cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) in onion (14) and leek (77,78). The transfer of CMS
from onion to leek by protoplast hybridization experiments has been achieved. However, the
functionality of such somatic fusions has not been clearly demonstrated (79).
The ability to engineer sterility in Allium species would remove the limitation of essentially
a single source of CMS, thus greatly enhancing the potential for new hybrid seed production. En-
gineered sterility, based on the barnase/barstar genes (80), is being used in the production of hy-
brid oilseed rape and could be applied to onion hybrid seed production.
2. Other Breeding Attributes

Other attributes sought by onion breeders include clonal seed production through apomixis and
ability to manipulate flowering. This latter characteristic could help in the production of hybrid
seed, which is often unreliable as a result of asynchronous flowering. At present these character-
istics are beyond the scope of Allium species genetic engineers. However, it may one day be pos-
sible to manipulate them as our understanding of the physiological, biochemical, and genetic
characteristics of these systems improves.
III. HISTORY OF ALLIUM TRANSFORMATION RESEARCH
Like other monocotyledonous crop plants, such as rice, maize, wheat, barley, and asparagus, Al-
lium species have been and still are among the most recalcitrant agriculturally important species
to transform.
A crop species may be considered recalcitrant to transformation if one or more of the fol-
lowing restrictions apply: (a) specific DNA delivery techniques are required; (b) transgenic plants
can only be regenerated from specific tissues or cultivars; (c) posttransformation selection has to
follow precise protocols; or (d) the transformation frequency of initial explants is low.
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The most common transformation methods applied to recalcitrant crops are Agrobacterium
tumefaciens–mediated transformation and microprojectile bombardment (81–84), although many
alternative DNA delivery systems are available (85).
The tissue used for transformation in recalcitrant monocotyledonous species is usually de-
rived from embryo cell types (86). These cells are very plastic with respect to their regeneration/
differentiation potential. In addition, their cell wall structure may be more amenable to Agrobac-
terium species attachment than that of cells from other monocotyledonous tissue whose wall
structure may inhibit Agrobacterium species attachment (87).
Initial transformation of such embryogenic cultures is usually achieved by dedifferentiat-
ing the tissue with an initial culture on a dedifferentiating induction medium (88). However, this
is not always necessary. Work in our laboratory (unpublished) demonstrates that direct secondary
somatic embryo production occurs to produce chimeric secondary embryos. In both systems it is
apparent that the initial transgenic tissue is still dependent upon nontransgenic tissue. Killing the
nontransgenic tissue too early can prevent the transgenic tissue from surviving (unpublished ob-
servations). Thus, precise selection is often required in recalcitrant crops to promote the growth
of transgenic sectors until they are large enough to survive unaided, at which point selection lev-
els can be increased.
The general requirements outlined for transforming recalcitrant crops have been recognized
in Allium species for some time (10). More specific research has targeted the various aspects of
Allium species transformation: DNA delivery systems have been investigated (89–91) and in
some cases optimized (90,92). Both Agrobacterium species–mediated and biolistic delivery of
DNA have been shown to be efficient in Allium species tissues (90–94). Regulatory sequences re-
quired for a high level of constitutive expression in Allium species have been identified (90,91,
94,95). In all cases the CaMV35s promoter was shown to drive the highest levels of expression
in Allium species tissues. Regeneration systems suitable for Allium species transformation ex-
periments have been developed (10) and have been improved for immature embryos (96,97), ma-
ture embryos (98–100), and protoplasts (101). Levels of appropriate selectable agents for select-
ing transformants have only been determined in one study (102). Such experimentation is fraught
with difficulty as optimized selectable levels can only be accurately determined once transgenic
plants are available. Refinements based on these initial determinations are now possible and have
been facilitated by use of the green fluorescent protein gene (gfp), a viable reporter gene that al-
lows transgenic cells to be observed in situ during such selection experiments (103).
This work has led to the first routine Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation pro-
tocol for onion from immature (94) and mature embryos (Kik et al., personal communication). In
addition, two less reliable microprojectile transformation protocols for onion (92) and garlic (93)
have been developed. Protocols for an Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation system
and a microprojectile transformation system are outlined in the discussion that follows.

1. Introduction
Two methods for transforming Allium cepa by using Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated trans-
formation have been developed. The method of Eady and colleagues involves the use of imma-
ture embryos and was developed with the aid of the green fluorescent protein reporter gene gfp
(103). It has been repeated over successive seasons on several cultivars using a variety of T-DNA
constructs (unpublished results). Seeds are currently being produced from bulbs generated by this
transformation process in order to demonstrate the stability of inheritance. The method of the Al-
lium species group at CPRO-DLO (Wageningen, The Netherlands) (unpublished) has only re-
cently been developed. It uses mature embryo-derived cultures for Agrobacterium species–
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662 Eady
mediated transformation. Transformation via this system has been identified by using the histo-
chemical reporter gene, gus (104). Transformants are presently regenerating so that transforma-
tion can be confirmed by Southern analysis.
2. Transformation of Immature Embyros [94]

a. Bacterial Strain and Plasmids. Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404, con-
taining the binary vector pBIN m-gfp-ER (103) or pCambia (105), was used. Cultures were
grown overnight, with shaking, in 50 ml Luria broth (LB) medium containing appropriate selec-
tive agents. The following morning cultures were replenished with an equal volume of LB con-
taining antibiotic and 100 µM acetosyringone and grown for a further 4 hours. Agrobacteria were
isolated by 10-minute centrifugation at 4500 rpm and resuspended in an equal volume of P5 (90)
containing 200 µM acetosyringone.
b. Transformation Procedure. Field-grown umbels of Allium cepa L. were used as a
source of immature embryos and isolated (90). Batches of 40 embryos were isolated, cut into ⬃1-
mm lengths, transferred into 0.8 ml of agrobacteria, vortexed for 30 seconds, and placed under
vacuum (⬃25 mm Hg) for 30 minutes. Immature embryos were then blotted dry on filter paper
before transfer to P5 medium (⬃40 embryos per plate). After 6 days cocultivation embryo pieces
were transferred to P5 containing 200 mg/l timentin and an appropriate selection agent (12 mg/l
geneticin or 5 mg/l Basta). Embryo pieces were cultured in the dark under the same conditions
described for the production of secondary embryos (97). Cultures were transferred to fresh
medium every 2 weeks. After three to four transfers, growing material (90) was transferred to P5
plus 25 mg/l geneticin or 5 mg/l Basta, respectively, and grown for a further three to four trans-
fers. During this time pieces of putative transgenic tissue that reached ⬃3 mm2 and were identi-
fied as fluorescing green under blue light (475 nm) excitation were transferred to regeneration
medium (97) plus 20 mg/l of geneticin or 5 mg/l Basta, respectively. Shoot cultures were main-
tained for 12 weeks and developing shoots transferred to 1/2 Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium
(106) plus an appropriate selection agent to induce rooting. Rooted plants were either transferred
to 1/2 MS plus 120 g/l sucrose to induce bulbing or transferred to soil in the greenhouse (12 hours
12°–23°C day, 12 hours 4°–16°C night). Bulbing in greenhouse-grown plants was induced in
plants naturally by increasing daylength. After 50% of the tops had fallen, bulbs were lifted and
air-dried. Bulbs greater than 45 mm in diameter were cold-stored for 4 weeks to induce floral
meristems prior to planting for seed production.
c. Analyses of Transformants. For GFP expression, tissue was examined by observation
under a fluorescence microscope (excitation 475 nm, emission 510 nm) (103). Larger tissues with
high levels of expression were observed by using fluorescence stereomicroscopes or hand-held
flourescent lanterns.
Studies with the gfp reporter gene demonstrated that transient gene expression is first ob-
served after 3 days of cocultivation (Fig. 1a). Variation between embryo pieces was large, but
good initial transfer was recorded if 30% of immature embryo pieces had >20 GFP-positive cells.
Over 90% of transiently expressing cells stopped fluorescing during the first 4 weeks of selection.
However, up to 16% of initial tissue pieces produced stable expressing sectors (Fig. 1b). Geno-
type, condition of the embryo, size of the embryo, cocultivation conditions, and selection param-
eters all affected stable sector establishment.
Transgenic sectors were transferred to regeneration medium after 10–16 weeks. They
responded in the same way as nontransgenic, embryo-derived cultures and produced shoots
(Fig. 1c). Up to 2.7% of stable sectors produced shoot cultures from which plants were obtained
(Table 1). Shoot cultures placed on rooting medium containing a selective agent produced ac-
tively growing roots that fluoresced (Fig. 1d). In differentiated structures most fluorescence was
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Figure 1 (a) GFP expression in embryo tissue after 5 days of cocultivation (× 50). (b) Independent GFP
positive tissue (× 5). (c) GFP positive onion shoot culture (× 5) under blue light (left) and white light (right).
(d) Two GFP negative (left) and two GFP positive (right) roots (× 10). (e) Transgenic onion plant being
grown in the field (× 0.3).
observed in root tips, whereas in shoots fluorescence was obscured by red autofluorescence from
the chlorophyll and could only be seen in young leaves or stomatal guard cells.
Southern analysis was used to confirm transformation and transgene copy number of the re-
generated onion plants (94) (Fig. 2). Approximately 80% of transgenic plants contained single-
copy inserts, suggesting that integration of transgenes via Agrobacterium species–mediated trans-
formation in Allium species is similar to that in other plant species. Chromosome counts in the
primary transformants tested showed a diploid (2n = 16) chromosome complement (94).
Currently, these plants are being grown in the field (Fig. 1e) to maturity to assess the effect
of transformation on phenotype and to generate seed to check the stability of the transgene in fu-
ture generations. Genes encoding antisense alliinase and genes encoding resistance to the herbi-
cide phosphinothricin have been transferred to onion embryos. Plants are in the process of being
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664 Eady
Table 1 Summary of Three Transformation Experiments
Embryos Stable GFP

Number of contaminated sectors after Independent
Experiment embryos isolated (%) 8 wks plants Positive Southern
1 ⬃360 40 15 (4.6) 2 (0.6) 1 of 1 tested

2 ⬃440 0 44 (10) 12 (2.7) 9 of 9 tested
3 ⬃520 60 11 (2.4) 3 (0.7) 2 of 2 tested
Numbers in parentheses represent the percentage of transformants from uncontaminated embryos.
Figure 2 (a) Southern analysis of HindIII digested DNA from primary transformants probed using the gfp
gene: Bluescript plasmid containing the gfp gene (uncut) 1 copy number control (lane 1), 10 copy number
control (lane 2), blank (lane 3), nontransgenic onion (lane 4), 7 transgenic onion plants (lanes 5–11), blue-
script plasmid containing the gfp gene (uncut) 10 copy number control (lane 12), 1 copy number control
(lane 13), blank (lane 14), nontransgenic onion (lane 15), 6 transgenic onion plants (lane 16–21). (b) South-
ern analysis of EcoRl digested primary transformants: transgenic onion (lane 22). Markers from lambda
HindIII lanes (not shown).
regenerated from these embryos and will be analyzed for their altered pungency levels or their
ability to grow in the presence of phosphinothricin.
B. Microprojectile Bombardment of Garlic Allium sativum L.

1. Suspension Culture Preparation
Garlic suspension cultures of clone RAL27 (107) were collected by vacuum filtration onto filter
paper and transferred on the paper to basal medium. After 1-day cultivation, cells were ready for
bombardment.
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2. Plasmid Deoxyribonucleic Acid

pBIN-121 (Clontech, Palo Alto, CA), containing the gus reporter gene and nptII selectable gene,
was isolated by alkaline lysis and purified by using CsCl2. Isolated plasmid was resuspended at
1 mg ml–1 for use in bombardment.
3. Bombardment Conditions
The suspension cells were bombarded by the Bio-rad PDS 1000/He system (108). Seven mil-
ligrams of 1.6-µm-diameter gold particles in 100 µl of sterile water were vortexed for 2 minutes.
During vortexing, 10 µl of plasmid DNA, 40 µl of spermidine (0.1 M), and 100 µl of CaCl2(2.5
M) were added and the mixture vortexed for a further 3 minutes. The gold was isolated by quick
pulse centrifugation and resuspended in 120 µl of 100% ethanol. Twelve microliters of this were
transferred to macrocarriers just prior to bombardment. For all bombardments, tissue was placed
9 cm from the rupture disk. The gap distance was 1 cm and the macrocarrier-to-stopping-plate
distance was 6 mm. Rupture disks (1100 psi) were used and the vacuum pressure in the chamber
was drawn to 26 inches Hg to reduce frictional drag.
4. Analyses of Transformants
Successful initial transfer was confirmed by GUS assays on sample tissue. Tissue was then trans-
ferred to medium containing the selecting agent, paromomycin sulfate, at 100 mg l–1. Cells were
maintained at 16-hour daylength at 26°C on this medium by fortnightly transfer to fresh medium.
Putative transgenic leaf primordia were observed between 12 and 16 weeks. These were regener-
ated and transferred to the greenhouse after 12–13 months of culture. Putative transgenic shoots
were analyzed for the presence of the gus or nptII genes by PCR and Southern analysis. PCR-am-
plified gus and nptII fragments were obtained from two of the five putative transformants. South-
ern analysis indicated that in these two lines the fragment for nptII was present in both, but that
gus was only present in one. Both fragments were isolated by enzymes that cut within the T-DNA,
so integration into the garlic genome could not be confirmed.
IV. CONCLUSION
Transformation has the ability to produce incremental improvements in existing commercial cul-
tivars with otherwise desirable characteristics. As gene discovery programs progress and our un-
derstanding of gene regulation, plant-microbe interactions, biotic and abiotic stresses, and plant
biochemical characteristics advances, transformation will become an increasingly important tool,
complementing conventional plant breeding of many crop species. However, for this to eventuate
in recalcitrant systems, such as the Allium species, further advances in gene transfer technology
are required.
As the knowledge to apply transformation technology to Allium species continues to pro-
gress, so too must our knowledge of the effect of transgenics on human health and the environ-
ment. It is easy to focus only on the potential benefits of transgenics to humankind. However,
these benefits must be balanced against potential problems, and risk must be correctly assessed.
Several potential problems (109–111) have been identified, and in some cases answers have been
found (112). Care must be taken over decisions to release new transgenic crops while such ques-
tions remain unanswered. Allium crops are difficult to grow so it is extremely unlikely that trans-
genic alliums will ever become a weed problem. Crossing of transgenic Allium species with re-
lated wild species is also very improbable as few are readily cross-compatible without human
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666 Eady
intervention (113). The species are not wind-pollinated so the limited quantities of pollen shed
will not contaminate the surrounding environment in the unlikely event that this should be a con-
cern; in fact, the flowering stage is only required for seed production and not for crop production.
This makes allium crops excellent candidates for field release studies and may assist allium plant
breeders as they try to emulate genetic advances achieved in other crops.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Fig. 1 (a, d, e, f ), Fig. 2, and the method described in Sec. III.A.2 are reproduced with permission
from Springer-Verlag GmbH & Co. KG and have appeared in a journal article published by
Springer Verlag: CC Eady, RJ Weld, CE Lister. Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated transfor-
mation and regeneration of onion (Allium cepa L.). Plant Cell Reports. (2000) 19:376–381. Sec-
tion III.B.1 is used with the kind permission of J. M. Myers and P. W. Simon.
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45
Potato Transformation Produces
Value-Added Traits
Lawrence M. Kawchuk
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
I. INTRODUCTION 673
II. AGRONOMIC TRAITS 674
III. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS 675
IV. RESISTANCE 676
A. Insects 676
B. Fungi 676
C. Bacteria 677
D. Viroids 677
E. Viruses 677
V. CONCLUSIONS 687
REFERENCES 687
I. INTRODUCTION
Potato (Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum L.) is one of the most important food crops in the
world. Production worldwide is approximately 293 million tons per annum and covers more than
18 million hectares. Consumption per capita in developing countries is rapidly increasing and has
reached 14 kg per annum but is still far less than the European 86 kg or North American 63 kg,
contributing to expectations of continued world expansion.
Potato is one of the most frequently genetically engineered crops since solanaceous plants
have been relatively simple to transform. As a vegetatively propagated crop, potato provides
many advantages in expressing transgenic traits and heterologous products. For example, trans-
genes are not diluted through meiosis, germplasm integrity is easily maintained, and the tuber
provides an economical eukaryotic expression system. Various strategies have been developed to
produce transgenic potato with improved agronomic performance, expressing economically im-
portant products, and exhibiting disease and pest resistance (Table 1).
673
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674 Kawchuk
Table 1 Transgenic Potato: Improved Agronomic Performance, Economically Important Products, and
Pest and Disease Resistance
Trait Gene Plant host Reference
Agronomic
Tuber size and number Invertase Potato (1)
ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase Potato (2)
Potato (3)
Carbohydrate partitioning Invertase inhibitor Potato (4)
Starch binding protein Potato (5)
Nutritional value Seed albumin Potato (6)
Vitamin A Rice (7)
Physiological traits Antifreeze Potato (8)
Commercial product
Starch composition Glycogen synthase Potato (9)
Starch synthase Potato (10)
Vaccines Enterotoxin Potato, tobacco (11)
Cholera toxin B Potato (12)
Proteins Insulin Potato (13)
Monoclonal antibody Tobacco (14)
Single-chain antibody Potato (15)
Resistance
Insect
Colorado potato beetle Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxin cry III Potato (16)
Tuber moth Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxin cry V Potato (17)
Aphid Resistance gene Mi Tomato (18)
Hornworm Proteinase inhibitor II Tobacco (19)
Fungi
Late blight Glucose oxidase Potato (20)
Beta-1, 3-endoglucanase Potato (21)
Early blight Endochitinase Potato, tobacco (22)
Black scurf Endochitinase Potato, tobacco (22)
Gray mold Endochitinase Potato, tobacco (22)
Bacteria
Soft rot Glucose oxidase Potato (20)
Blackleg T4 lysozyme Potato (23)
Viroids
Spindle tuber viroid Ribozyme Potato (24)
Ribonuclease Potato (25)
II. AGRONOMIC TRAITS
Several advances have been made in improving or modifying various agronomic characteristics
associated with potato tubers. For example, tuber size was altered through modification of sucrose
metabolism (1). Cytosolic localization of a yeast invertase gave rise to a reduction in tuber size
and an increase in tuber number per plant, whereas apoplastic targeting led to an increase in tuber
size and a decrease in tuber number per plant. Transgenic potato plants were also developed in
which the expression of adenosine diphosphate– (ADP)-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase)
was inhibited by antisense ribonucleic acid (RNA) (2). This resulted in the reduction of starch for-
mation in tubers, and up to 30% of the dry weight of the transgenic potato tubers was represented
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Potato Transformation 675
by sucrose and 8% by glucose. The process of tuber formation also changed, resulting in signifi-
cantly more tubers both per plant and per stolon. A fivefold increase in activity of AGPase,
achieved by transformation with the Escherichia coli AGPase gene glgC-16, resulted in a sucrose-
to-starch conversion that increased roughly in proportion to the increase in AGPase activity (3).
This conversion of sucrose could potentially reduce cold-temperature sweetening and the associ-
ated dark-colored processed products. However, the increased conversion into starch in the trans-
formed tubers was accompanied by an increased rate of starch turnover.
Efforts to improve processing quality have focused on altering the tuber carbohydrate me-
tabolism. Potato plants transformed with Nt-inhh complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA),
encoding a putative vacuolar homolog of a tobacco cell wall invertase inhibitor, reduced cold-in-
duced hexose accumulation by up to 75%, without any effect on potato tuber yield (4). Process-
ing quality of tubers was greatly improved without changing starch quantity or quality. Another
strategy involved a gene that was identified by the ability of its product to bind to potato starch
granule (5). Reduction in the protein level of transgenic potatoes led to a reduction in the phos-
phate content of the starch. The reduced phosphate content in potato starch has some secondary
effects on its degradability, as the respective plants displayed a starch excess in leaves and re-
duced in cold sweetening in tubers.
In an attempt to improve the nutritional value of potato, the seed albumin gene AmA1 from
Amaranthus hypochondriacus was successfully introduced and expressed in a tuber-specific and
constitutive manner (6). There was a striking increase in the growth and production of tubers in
transgenic plants and also of the total protein content with an increase in most essential amino
acids. Expressed protein was localized in the cytoplasm as well as in the vacuole of transgenic tu-
bers. Other improvements in potato nutritional value are expected, similar to the recombinant
DNA technology recently used to allow biosynthesis of provitamin A in rice endosperm (7).
Many other potato agronomic improvements are predicted as genes are isolated and char-
acterized. For example, expression of a synthetic antifreeze protein in potato plants reduced elec-
trolyte leakage and increased tolerance to freezing (8). Other advances include the development
of tubers resistant to bruising by reducing polyphenol oxidase and potato plants resistant to
glyphosate herbicide.
III. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
Starch is a major constituent of potato tubers. A chimeric gene containing the patatin promoter
and transit-peptide region of the small-subunit carboxylase gene, directed expression of E. coli
glycogen synthase (glgA) to potato tuber amyloplasts (9). Tubers from transgenic potato lines
were found to have a novel potato starch with reduced phosphorus content and a very high degree
of branching of the amylopectin. Carbohydrate partitioning was also modified in potato plants
transformed to produce antisense RNA for a full-length granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS)
cDNA that determines the presence of amylose in reserve starches (10). In those cases in which
total suppression of GBSS activity was found, both GBSS protein and amylose were absent, giv-
ing rise to tubers containing amylose-free starch. Modified carbohydrate partitioning is becom-
ing increasingly important in producing carbohydrates with commercial applications.
Alternatives to cell culture systems for production of recombinant proteins could make very
safe vaccines at a lower cost. Genetically engineered plants facilitate expression of candidate vac-
cine antigens with the goal of using the edible plant organs for economical delivery or oral vac-
cines. Transgenic tobacco and potato plants were made with genes encoding binding subunit of
E. coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LT-B) or an LT-B fusion protein with a microsomal retention se-
quence (11). The plants expressed the foreign peptides, both of which formed oligomers that
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676 Kawchuk
bound the natural ligand. Mice immunized by gavage produced serum and gut mucosal anti-LT-
B immunoglobulins that neutralized the enterotoxin in cell protection assays. Feeding mice fresh
transgenic potato tubers also caused oral immunization. Similarly, transgenic potatoes engineered
to synthesize a cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) pentamer with affinity for GMI ganglioside in-
duced serum and intestinal CTB-specific antibodies in orally immunized mice (12). The cyto-
pathic effect of cholera holotoxin (CT) on Vero cells was neutralized by serum from mice immu-
nized with transgenic potato tissues. After intraileal injection with CT, the plant-immunized mice
showed up to a 60% reduction in diarrheal fluid accumulation in the small intestine. These results
demonstrate the ability of transgenic plants to generate protective immunity in mice against a bac-
terial enterotoxin.
Heterologous expression of important proteins in potato plants is another area expected to
expand. Transgenic potato plants have been produced that synthesize human insulin, a major in-
sulin-dependent diabetes mellitus autoantigen (13). To direct delivery of plant-synthesized in-
sulin to the gut-associated lymphoid tissues, insulin was linked to the C terminus of CTB. Trans-
genic potato tubers produced 0.1% of total soluble protein as the pentameric CTB-insulin fusion.
Nonobese diabetic mice fed transformed potato tuber tissues containing microgram amounts of
the CTB-insulin fusion protein showed a substantial reduction in pancreatic islet inflammation,
and a delay in the progression of clinical diabetes.
An example of the plants’ ability to process heterologous molecules correctly is the pro-
duction of functional antibodies (14). Furthermore, addition of the endoplasmic reticulum reten-
tion signal KDEL to the C terminus of single-chain antibody fragments (scFvs) resulted in sig-
nificantly improved expression levels in transgenic potato (15). Addition of the KDEL motif is a
simple and straightforward tool to stabilize in planta cytosolic expression of many scFvs.
IV. RESISTANCE
A. Insects
Progress has been made in developing resistance to pests that attack potato. Transgenic potato
lines containing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cryIIIA delta-endotoxin gene controlled first-instar
Colorado potato beetle (CPB) larvae in bioassays, and no CPB larvae developed past the second
instar on any of these plants (16). There was good correlation between insect control and the lev-
els of delta-endotoxin RNA and protein. Transgenic potato cultivars resistant to CPB are com-
mercially available in Canada and the United States. Resistance to the tuber moth (Phthorimaea
operculella) in potato plants expressing the cryV Bt transgene has also been reported (17). Other
examples of insect resistance that could be beneficial in potato include resistance against the
aphid Macrosiphum euphorbiae observed in susceptible tomato transformed with the nematode
resistance gene Mi that belongs to the nucleotide-binding, leucine-rich repeat family of resistance
genes (18) and resistance to the tobacco hornworms (Manduca sexta) in transgenic tobacco plants
expressing the potato proteinase inhibitor II gene (19).
B. Fungi
Transgenic potato plants expressing a fungal gene encoding glucose oxidase, which generates
H2O2 when glucose is oxidized, exhibited resistance to potato late blight caused by Phytophthora
infestans (20). Similarly, potato plants that were transformed with the soybean beta-1,3-endoglu-
canase cDNA via Agrobacterium tumefaciens delivery (21) exhibited increased resistance to P.
infestans. Disease resistance in transgenic potato and tobacco plants was also reported after the
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insertion of a gene encoding an antifungal endochitinase from the mycoparasitic fungus Tricho-
derma harzianum (22). Selected transgenic lines were highly tolerant or completely resistant to
the foliar pathogens Alternaria alternata, Alternaria solani, and Botrytis cinerea and the soil-
borne pathogen Rhizoctonia solani.
C. Bacteria
Transgenic potato plants expressing a fungal gene encoding glucose oxidase exhibited strong re-
sistance to a bacterial soft rot disease caused by Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora (20). This
resistance to soft rot was apparently mediated by elevated levels of H2O2, because the resistance
could be counteracted by exogenously added H2O2-degrading catalase. Control of E. carotovora
was also observed in transgenic potato lines that synthesized bacteriophage T4 lysozyme (23).
D. Viroids
A hammerhead ribozyme [R(–)] targeting the minus-strand RNA of potato spindle tuber viroid
(PSTVd) and a mutated nonfunctional ribozyme [mR(–)] have been designed, cloned, and tran-
scribed (24). Transgenic potato plants expressing the functional ribozyme were resistant to
PSTVd. Transgenic potato lines and progeny expressing the yeast-derived double-stranded RNA-
specific ribonuclease pac1 also suppressed PSTVd infection and accumulation (25). Double-
stranded regions in PSTVd molecule and/or replicative intermediates may be targeted by pac1
gene product in the transgenic potato plant.
E. Viruses
Potato is particularly subject to virus diseases, in part because vegetative propagation allows a
virus several years to accumulate over successive generations. Strategies to control viruses need
to be effective against viruses with diverse particle morphological characteristics, host ranges,
vector specificities, and genome organizations. The potential targets for disruption of the virus in-
fection process include entry, disassembly, translation, replication, encapsidation, movement, and
transmission. Since 1986 (26), there have been more than 100 reports of plants with genetically
engineered virus resistance. Several mechanisms that are not necessarily mutually exclusive have
been proposed to explain the resistance observed with the various strategies. Many of these strate-
gies have been or may be used to control viruses that infect potato.
1. Coat Protein Gene

Genetically engineered plant virus resistance was first reported by Powell and coworkers (26). A
cDNA clone of the tobacco mosaic tobamovirus (TMV) coat protein gene was constitutively ex-
pressed in Nicotiana tabacum, and plants that accumulated coat protein developed no disease
symptoms or showed delayed symptom development when inoculated with TMV. The first report
of genetically engineered plant virus resistance in potato described the use of the coat protein
gene of potato potexvirus X (PVX) to delay symptom development and reduce virus accumula-
tion (27). Genetic engineering of plant virus resistance using the coat protein gene is the most
widely examined strategy and has been reported for plant viruses with single-stranded positive-
and negative-sense RNA, double-stranded RNA, and DNA genomes (Table 2). Protection has
been observed for plant viruses with differing particle morphological characteristics, genome or-
ganization, host range, and vector specificity. Resistance developed by expressing a coat protein
gene has been reported for viruses from 15 groups.
The level of resistance conferred by coat protein genes is variable and depends on the virus
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678 Kawchuk
Table 2 Genetically Engineered Virus Resistance Using Viral Coat Protein Genes
Virus group Virus Abbreviation Plant Host Reference
Alfamovirus Alfalfa mosaic virus AlMV Tobacco (42)

Tobacco (128)
Tobacco, tomato (57)
Alfalfa (129)
Tobacco (130)
Carlavirus Potato virus S PVS N. debneyiia (62)
Potato (41)
Cucumovirus Cucumber mosaic virus CMV Tobacco (50)
Tobacco (61)
Tobacco (131)
Tobacco (132)
Cucumber (133)
Tobacco (121)
Squash (122)
Geminivirus Tomato yellow leaf curl virus TYLCV Tomato (47)
N. benthamianaa (134)
Enamovirus Pea enation mosaic virus PEMV Pea (135)
Ilarvirus Tobacco streak virus TSV Tobacco (136)
Luteovirus Potato leafroll virus PLRV Potato (31)
Potato (32)
Potato (34)
Potato (35)
Tobacco (137)
Potato (36)
Potato (37)
Potato (38)
Potato (39)
Potato (33)
Nepovirus Arabis mosaic virus ArMV Tobacco (63)
Grapevine chrome mosaic virus GCMV Tobacco (138)
Grapevine fanleaf virus GFLV Tobacco (139)
Tomato ringspot virus TomRSV Tobacco, N. benthamianaa (140)
Pomovirus Potato mop top virus PMTV N. benthamianaa (141)
Potexvirus Cymbidium mosaic virus CyMV N. benthamianaa (142)
Potato aucuba mosaic virus PAMV Tobacco (143)
Potato virus X PVX Tobacco (44)
Potato (27)
Potato (28)
Potato (29)
Potato (30)
Tobacco (144)
Potyvirus Bean yellow mosaic virus BYMV N. benthamianaa (145)
Lettuce mosaic virus LMV Tobacco (66)
Maize dwarf mosaic virus MDMV Corn (67)
Papaya ringspot virus PRSV Tobacco (64)
Papaya (146)
Plum pox virus PPV N. benthamiana, N. cleve- (147)
landiia
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Table 2 (Continued)
Virus group Virus Abbreviation Plant Host Reference
Potyvirus Potato virus Y PVY Potato (29)

(continued) Potato (28)
Tobacco (40)
Potato (90)
Tobacco (124)
Peanut stripe virus PstV N. benthamianaa (148)
Soybean mosaic virus SMV Tobacco (59)
Tobacco etch virus TEV Tobacco (118)
Watermelon mosaic virus WMV N. benthamianaa (60)
WMV2 Squash (149)
Squash (122)
Zucchini yellow mosaic virus ZYMV N. benthamianaa (60)
Melon, tobacco (150)
Squash (149)
Squash (122)
Tenuivirus Rice stripe virus RSV Rice (45)
Tobamovirus Pepper mild mottle virus PMMV Pepper (151)
Tobacco mosaic virus TMV Tobacco (26)
Tomato (65)
Tobacco (48)
Tobacco (46)
Tobacco (152)
Tobacco (120)
Tobacco (153)
Tobacco (154)
Tobacco (56)
Tobacco (124)
Tomato mosaic virus ToMV Tomato (155)
Tobravirus Tobacco rattle virus TRV N. benthamianaa (128)
Tobacco (51)
Tobacco (52)
Tospovirus Tomato spotted wilt virus TSWV Tobacco (156)
Tobacco (157)
Tobacco (58)
Tobacco (158)
Lettuce (159)
Tobacco (123)
Tomato chlorotic spot virus TCSV Tobacco (123)
Groundnut ringspot virus GRSV Tobacco (123)
a
Nicotiana spp.
and host. Variability of resistance has also been observed within individual transformed lines
since the random insertion of the coat protein gene into the genome can influence expression lev-
els. In general, expression of a virus coat protein gene reduces symptom expression, slows virus
movement, and reduces titers of closely related viruses. For example, reduced symptoms, move-
ment and titers were observed in potato plants expressing the coat protein gene of PVX (27–30),
potato leafroll luteovirus (PLRV) (31–39), potato potyvirus Y (PVY) (28,29,40), and potato carla-
virus S (PVS) (41).
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680 Kawchuk
Resistance often depends on the level of coat protein expression, as observed with alfalfa
mosaic alfamovirus (AlMV) (42), plum pox potyvirus (PPV) (43), PVX (27,44), rice stripe
tenuivirus (RSV) (45), TMV (46), and tomato yellow leaf curl geminivirus (TYLCV) (47). Plants
expressing higher levels of coat protein exhibited a greater level of protection. Resistance to TMV
was attenuated by exposing transgenic plants to elevated temperatures that reduced coat protein
but not viral RNA (48). Protoplasts from virus-resistant transgenic plants are also resistant, sug-
gesting that protection occurs at the cellular level (49).
Experiments designed to determine the mechanism of the resistance suggest that the coat
protein interferes with virus disassembly. Resistance to TMV was reduced by removing 5⬘ sub-
units of the TMV particle as occurs during cotranslational disassembly (49) and there was a lack
of resistance to AlMV (42), cucumber mosaic cucomovirus (CMV) (50), TYLCV (47), TMV
(49), and tobacco rattle tobravirus (TRV) (51,52) when plants were inoculated with viral RNA.
Partial transencapsidation of viruses has been observed with heterologous coat protein of trans-
genic plants (53,54), resistance was not reduced by the introduction of mutations into regions of
the AlMV coat protein that are important in RNA interactions (55), and mutations in the TMV
coat protein gene showed a strong correlation between the strength of subunit interactions and the
level of resistance (56). Finally, increased virus concentrations were observed to reduce resistance
conferred by the coat protein gene of TMV (26), AlMV (57), tomato spotted wilt tospovirus
(TSWV) (58), soybean mosaic potyvirus (SMV) (59), and watermelon mosaic potyvirus (WMV)
(60). The practical usefulness of coat protein–mediated resistance will depend on the level of in-
oculum during cultivation.
Interestingly, there are also several examples that suggest a mechanism independent of
virus disassembly. Coat protein levels do not correlate with resistance levels to CMV (61), PLRV
(32), PVY (29), and TSWV (58). Similar levels of resistance were observed in plants inoculated
with virus or RNA of PVX (44) and PVS (41,62). Furthermore, resistance was not influenced by
increasing inoculum levels of CMV (50), arabis mosaic virus (ArMV) (63), PLRV (32), or PVS
(41,62).
Various levels of specificity have been reported for the resistance conferred by coat protein
genes. In general, the highest resistance is to the virus from which the coat protein gene was de-
rived. A correlation between the level of protection and the homology of the coat protein gene to
that of the inoculated virus has been reported for carlaviruses (62), potyviruses (43,59,64), and
tobamoviruses (64). However, exceptions include the lettuce mosaic potyvirus (LMV) coat pro-
tein gene, which confers complete protection to PVY but no protection against tobacco etch po-
tyvirus (TEV) even though these viruses have considerable sequence homology (66), and maize
dwarf mosaic potyvirus (MDMV) provided protection against the unrelated maize chlorotic mot-
tle carmovirus (MCMV) (67).
2. Nonstructural Virus Genes

Several other virus genes have been used to engineer resistance, including the replicase, move-
ment protein, and protease genes (Table 3). Unlike the expression of coat protein, the develop-
ment of resistance with nonstructural genes usually requires the expression of an incompatible or
defective protein that interferes with virus replication, movement, or maturation of virus proteins.
This strategy has been used to engineer resistance to members of 12 plant virus groups and pro-
vides resistance ranging from specific resistance for the isolate from which the transgene was de-
rived to resistance to unrelated viruses.
Transgenic plants expressing the putative 54-kDa protein encoded by the TMV replicase
were completely resistant to TMV, even at inoculation concentrations 1000-fold greater than
those that overcame resistance with the coat protein gene (68). This strategy has been applied to
viruses from nine groups including potato virus X (69,70) and potato virus Y (71). Resistance lev-
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Table 3 Genetically Engineered Resistance Using Nonstructural Virus Genes
Virus group Virus Abbreviation Plant host Reference
Replicase
Alfamovirus Alfalfa mosaic virus AlMV Tobacco (161)
Tobacco (162)
Tobacco (163)
Tobacco (164)
Tobacco (72)
Tobacco (73)
Tobacco (165)
Geminivirus African cassava mosaic virus ACMV N. benthamianaa (166)
Tomato yellow leaf curl virus TYLCV N. benthamianaa (134)
Potexvirus Potato virus X PVX Tobacco (69)
Tobacco, N. clevelandiia (70)
Potyvirus Potato virus Y PVY Tobacco (71)
Plum pox virus PPV N. benthamianaa (167)
Sobemovirus Rice yellow mottle virus RYMV Rice (74)
Tobamovirus Tobacco mosaic virus TMV Tobacco (68)
Tobacco (169)
Tobacco (170)
Pepper mild mottle virus PMMV N. benthamianaa (171)
Tobravirus Pea early browning virus PEBV N. benthamianaa (173)
Tombusvirus Cymbidium ringspot virus CyRSV N. benthamianaa (174)
Movement
Comovirus Cowpea mosaic virus CPMV N. benthamianaa (177)
Potexvirus Potato virus X PVX Potato (81)
Tobacco (178)
White clover mosaic virus WclMV N. benthamianaa (179)
Tobacco (78)
Tobacco (180)
Tobacco (178)
Protease
Tobacco vein mottling virus TVMV Tobacco (84)
a
Nicotiana spp.
els varied between transformed lines but were frequently higher than that observed using coat
protein genes but extremely specific for the virus or isolate from which the replicase was derived.
For example, potato plants transformed with the PVYO replicase gene were highly resistant to the
homologous PVYO strain but not PVYN (71). Resistance obtained with a replicase gene has been
reported to involve two independent mechanisms influencing virus replication and movement
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682 Kawchuk
(72,73). Transgenic rice encoding the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of rice yellow mottle
sobemovirus (RYMV) also suppressed virus multiplication (74). In the most resistant line, tran-
scription analysis indicated that the resistance derives from an RNA-based mechanism associated
with posttranscriptional gene silencing. Similar resistance was reported for plants expressing the
PLRV replicase (75).
Cell-to-cell movement of viruses can involve a virus-encoded movement protein that inter-
acts with the plasmodesmata to increase the size exclusion limit (76,77). Tobacco plants trans-
formed with a defective TMV movement protein gene or with the movement protein gene from
BMV, a virus that cannot move within tobacco, are resistant to TMV (78,79). Similarly, Tacke and
coworkers (80) expressed modified movement proteins of PLRV in potato and observed broad-
spectrum resistance to PLRV and unrelated PVX, and PVY. Resistance to PVX also was observed
in potato plants expressing modified movement proteins of PVX (81). The broad-spectrum resis-
tance induced by movement protein to viruses from five groups may be a consequence of defec-
tive or heterologous movement proteins competing with functional movement proteins for a lim-
ited number of target sites within the plasmodesmata.
Several plant viruses encode polyproteins that are processed by virus-encoded proteases.
For example, the potyviruses produce a single polyprotein that is cleaved into mature virus pro-
teins by three virus-encoded proteases (82). There are a limited number of examples of inhibiting
polyprotein processing and all have involved potyviruses. When Vardi and associates (83) trans-
formed tobacco with the PVY NIa protease, they observed that 2 of 50 plants were resistant to
PVY. The authors suggested that changes during cloning may have produced dysfunctional pro-
tein. Similarly, resistance to TVMV in tobacco was conferred by genetically modified proteases
(84).
3. Untranslatable Virus Sequences

Virus untranslatable nucleic acids have been exploited in engineering resistance to viruses from
nine groups (Table 4). Antisense RNA and untranslatable sense RNA sequences derived from dif-
ferent regions of the viral genome have been used, including coat protein (32,34,40,44,50,85),
movement protein (80,86), or replicase genes (87–89). Potato transformed with antisense RNA
of the PLRV coat protein gene (32,34), a mutated sense RNA of the PLRV movement protein
gene unable to produce detectable amounts of protein (80), or untranslatable sense and antisense
constructs of the PVY coat protein gene (90) were resistant to the viruses from which the se-
quences were derived. The resistance is believed to involve an interaction of complementary virus
and transgene sequences that disrupt translation, replication, stability, or access of host mole-
cules. Resistance levels differ, depending on the sequence and virus being examined. High levels
of resistance were observed with antisense RNA against specific plant viruses (32,87,91) but, sur-
prisingly, other reports describe only limited protection against low levels of inoculum (44,50,
85).
Sequences complementary to virus RNA have been developed to target sequence-specific
ribozymes that catalyze biochemical restriction of single-stranded RNA at a specific sequence.
Transgenic plants expressing a ribozyme specific for TMV or CMV RNA reduced virus titers
(92,93). However, antisense RNA was reported to be as effective as the ribozyme (92).
4. Virus Replicated Sequences

Virus satellites and defective interfering molecules are parasites that rely on the associated helper
virus for replication and have been reported to attenuate virus symptoms and multiplication (94–
96). Transgenic plants expressing satellites or defective interfering sequences of viruses from six
different groups have been developed (Table 5). Inoculation with the helper virus multiplies the
transgene sequence, leading to a level of protection that is independent of inoculum levels and the
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Table 4 Genetically Engineered Virus Resistance Using Virus Untranslatable Nucleic Acid Sequences
Antisense RNA
Tobacco (85)
Geminivirus Tomato golden mosaic virus TGMV Tobacco (87)
Tomato yellow leaf curl virus TYLCV N. benthamianaa (181)
Potato (34)
Potato (182)
Nepovirus Tomato ringspot virus TomRSV Tobacco, N. benthamianaa (140)
Tobacco (88)
Cymbidium mosaic virus CyMV N. occidentalisa (183)
Potyvirus Bean yellow mosaic virus BYMV N. benthamianaa (145)
Potato virus Y PVY Potato (40)
Tobacco (90)
Zucchini yellow mosaic virus ZYMV Melon, tobacco (150)
Tobacco (92)
Tobacco (86)
Sense RNA
Tobacco (40)
Potato (90)
Tobacco (89)
Tobacco (119)
Tobacco (158)
Tobacco (185)
Tobacco (86)
Tymovirus Turnip yellow mosaic virus TYMV Rapeseed (190)
Ribozymes
a
Nicotiana spp.
expression level of the transgene sequence (97,98). The virus-amplified transgene sequences are
eventually encapsidated in helper virus coat protein and are transmitted along with the helper
virus (97,99,100).
Full-length infectious virus clones of CMV or PVX expressed by transgenic plants con-
ferred resistance to related viruses (101,102). Resistance may occur at several points during virus
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684 Kawchuk
Table 5 Genetically Engineered Virus Resistance using Virus-Replicated Sequences
Satellites
Tobacco (98)
Tobacco (121)
Tomato (191)
Nepovirus Tobacco ringspot virus TobRV Tobacco (99)
Umbravirus Groundnut rossette virus GRV N. benthamianaa (192)
Defective interfering sequences
Beet curly top virus BCTV N. benthamianaa (193)
Tombusvirus Cymbidium ringspot virus CyRSV N. benthamianaa (195)
Replicative virus clones
a
Nicotiana spp.
multiplication, analogously to the original cross-protection phenomenon reported by McKinney

(103). This strategy is a valuable tool in studying the mechanisms responsible for resistance.
However, expression of a PLRV full-length clone was lethal in potato (104), and, as with satel-
lites and defective interfering RNA, the potential application of replicating and complex con-
structs for developing resistance may be limited because of ecological concerns related to re-
combination.
5. Heterologous Genes
Heterologous proteins that confer plant virus resistance were identified (105–107) (Table 6). Re-
sistance to PLRV, PVX, and PVY was reported in potato and tobacco expressing a pokeweed ri-
bosome-inhibiting antiviral protein (105), and potato plants expressing a 2⬘-5⬘ oligoadenylate
synthetase, a component of the mammalian interferon-induced antiviral response, were resistant
to PVX (107). Using the ACMV transactivatated promoter confined expression of the ribosome-
inhibiting protein and the virus to cells involved in the primary infection (108). Expression of a
double-stranded RNA yeast ribonuclease in plants provided resistance to ToMV, CMV, and PVY.
The ribonuclease is thought to attack the double-stranded RNA that occurs during replication of
many plant viruses (109). Expression of a rice cysteine proteinase inhibitor gene also induced re-
sistance against two important potyviruses, tobacco etch (TEV) and potato virus Y (PVY), in
transgenic potato plants (110).
Nicotiana benthamiana expressing single-chain plantibodies specific for the coat proteins
of artichoke mottled crinkle tombusvirus (AMCV) or TMV exhibited virus-specific resistance
(106,111). The expression of plantibodies to low-copy genes expressed early in the virus infec-
tion process such as the replicase may prove even more effective. Finally, isolation of the N gene
that confers resistance to TMV facilitated the development of TMV-resistant transgenic tobacco
and tomato plants (112–114). The N gene, a member of the Toll-IL-1 nucleotide binding–leucine-
rich repeat (LRR) class of plant resistance genes, encodes two transcripts, N(S) and N(L), via al-
ternative splicing (115). Only transgenic plants containing a cDNA-N(S)-bearing intron III and
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Table 6 Genetically Engineered Virus Resistance Using Heterologous Genes
Antiviral
Luteovirus Potato leafroll virus PLRV Potato, tobacco (105)
Potato (196)
Potexvirus Potato virus XPVX Potato, tobacco (105)
Potato (107)
Potato (196)
Tobacco (197)
Potyvirus Potato virus Y PVY Potato, tobacco (105)
Potato (196)
Tobacco (110)
Plantibody
Furovirus Beet necrotic yellow vein virus BNYVV N. benthamianaa (199)
Tombusvirus Artichoke mottled crinkle virus AMCV N. benthamianaa (106)
Resistance gene
Tobacco (114)
Tomato (113)
Tobacco (115)
Ribonuclease
Tobamovirus Tomato mosaic virus ToMV Tobacco (109)
Cucomovirus Cucumber mosaic virus CMV Tobacco (109)
a
Nicotiana. spp.
containing 3⬘ N-genomic sequences, encoding both N(S) and N(L) transcripts, exhibit complete
resistance to TMV. Heterologous proteins represent a diverse strategy with enormous potential
for virus control that may be specific to a particular virus or provide resistance to several unre-
lated viruses.
6. Future Developments
Strategies for engineering virus resistance have increased rapidly since the initial report of trans-
formation with the TMV coat protein in 1986. New strategies for engineering resistance to potato
viruses will evolve from the characterization of pathogen- and host-derived genes, virus genome
organization and expression, and the process of virus infection including disassembly, replica-
tion, encapsidation, movement, and transmission. Strategies are not necessarily independent of
one another, and it is possible that resistance involves protein, nucleic acid, and other interactions.
For example, homology-dependent silencing is a relatively recent mechanism that may also op-
erate in many virus control strategies (116). This posttranscriptional mechanism causes suppres-
sion of transgene expression, possibly by methylation, and only requires sequence similarity be-
tween the transgene and virus to produce resistance (117). Experiments have confirmed that
resistance to TEV (118), PVX (88), and PVY (119) involves homology-dependent silencing.
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686 Kawchuk
Gene expression can be localized in specific tissues (120,39), optimized to coincide with
the virus infection (108), and adjusted to achieve the highest possible levels of resistance. In ad-
dition to potentially improving yield and quality, engineered virus resistance may reduce trans-
mission by vectors (Table 7) and thereby reduce the use of pesticides. Furthermore, several strate-
gies may be combined to increase the level and number of viruses that the host is resistant. Yie
and coworkers (121) were able to increase resistance to CMV by expressing satellite RNA and
the coat protein gene in tobacco. Barker and colleagues (36) transformed PLRV-resistant germ-
plasm with the PLRV coat protein gene and reported the resistances were additive. Progress has
also been made in combining the coat protein gene of more than one virus in a single transformed
plant. Potato plants transformed with the coat protein genes of PVX and PVY were resistant to
both viruses (29). Similarly, plants transformed with the coat protein genes of CMV, watermelon
mosaic potyvirus (WMV2), and zucchini yellow mosaic potyvirus (ZYMV) (122) or tomato spot-
ted wilt tospovirus (TSWV), tomato chlorotic spot tospovirus (TCSV), and groundnut ringspot
virus (GRSV) (123) exhibited resistance to the viruses from which the sequences were derived.
A sequence expressing TEV nuclear inclusion proteinase, TMV coat protein, and SMV coat pro-
tein from a single self-processing polypeptide was used to produce transgenic tobacco resistant
to TEV, TMV, and PVY (124).
Several concerns have been expressed regarding the production of transgenic plants resis-
tant to viruses. One concern is the possibility of recombination between a virus and virus-derived
genes within the plant, creating a virus with new characteristics. Such recombinations have been
reported to occur between viruses and transgenes of the cowpea chlorotic mottle bromovirus
(CCMV) (125) and ACMV (126), but similar opportunities occur in mixed infections. Using the
Table 7 Influence of Genetic Engineering on Vector Transmission
Virus group Virus Vector Plant host Reference
Cucumovirus Cucumber mosaic virus Aphid Tobacco (98)

Tobacco (61)
Cucumber (133)
Tobacco (164)
Geminivirus Tomato yellow leaf curl virus Whitefly Tomato (47)
Luteovirus Potato leafroll virus Aphid Potato (31)
Potato (33)
Potato (34)
Potato (35)
Potato (37)
Potato (38)
Potato (39)
Potato (33)
Potato, tobacco (105)
Pomovirusa Potato mop top virus Fungus N. benthamianab (141)
Potexvirus Potato virus X Aphid Potato (29)
Potyvirus Potato virus Y Aphid Potato (29)
Tobacco etch virus Aphid Tobacco (91)
Potato, tobacco (105)
Tenuivirus Rice stripe virus Planthopper Rice (45)
Tospovirus Tomato spotted wilt virus Thrips Tobacco (157)
a
Previously classified as a furovirus.
b
Nicotiana spp.
www.taq.ir
smallest possible fragment of the virus genome should reduce the possibility for recombination.
Another concern is the potential for transformed potato plants to outcross with weedy species.
However, many potato growing areas do not have weedy species that hybridize with potato, and
where such species coexist, the incorporation of resistance in a weedy species could reduce virus
reservoirs. Risk associated with a particular strategy depends on the gene, and each transformant
must be evaluated individually. Overall, most examples to date have considerable merit, pose
minimal risk, and represent a nucleic acid or protein equivalency in that the molecule occurs nat-
urally. For additional details on the generalities of transgenic technologies against viruses, see
Chapter 15.
V. CONCLUSIONS
An increasing number of potato plants genetically engineered to express value-added traits are
being developed and released for commercialization. Many strategies have been developed to im-
prove agronomic performance by producing economically important products and exhibiting dis-
ease and pest resistance. Presently, the greatest impediments to further development of geneti-
cally engineered traits in crops such as potato, are business rather than science-related.
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46
Transgenic Sweet Potato with Agronomically
Important Genes
Motoyasu Otani and Takiko Shimada

Ishikawa Agricultural College, Nonoichi, Ishikawa, Japan
I. GENERAL 699
II. AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFACIENS–MEDIATED TRANSFORMATION 702
A. Target Tissues for Transformation 702
B. Embryonic Callus Induction 702
C. Factors Affecting Transformation Efficiency 703
D. Plant Regeneration from Hygromycin Resistance Calli 703
E. Histochemical GUS Assay of Transgenic Plants and Their Vegetatively
Propagated Progenies 706
F. Integration of Foreign DNA into the Genome of Transgenic Plants 706
G. Inheritance of Introduced Genes 706
H. Comparison with the Direct Gene Transfer 706
III. AGROBACTERIUM RHIZOGENES–MEDIATED TRANSFORMATION 709
A. Production of Transgenic Plants Mediated by Agrobacterium rhizogenes 709
B. Morphological Characteristics of Ri-Transgenic Plants 709
C. Production of Ri-Transgenic Plants Possessing nptII and gusA Genes 710
D. Inheritance of Ri-Transformed Phenotypes 711
IV. TRANSGENIC SWEET POTATO WITH AGRONOMICALLY IMPORTANT GENES 711
A. A Coat Protein Gene of Sweet Potato Feathery Mottle Virus-S 711
B. Fatty Acid Desaturase Gene 711
C. Granule-Bound Starch Synthase Gene 712
D. Genes for Insect Resistance 712
V. PROTOCOLS 712
A. Protocol for Agrobacterium tumefaciens–Mediated Transformation 712
B. Protocol for Agrobacterium rhizogenes–Mediated Transformation 713
VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS 713
REFERENCES 714
I. GENERAL
Sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] ranks seventh in annual production among the food
crops in the world (1). The cultivation area of this plant species is localized mainly at low lati-
699
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700 Otani and Shimada
tudes of South America, South Asia, and South Africa and spreads as far as some regions of Eu-
rope and the United States. The ancient civilization area of sweet potato was tropical America,
and at the end of the 14th century it was transported to the Old World. In Japan, the sweet potato
was introduced from China to Kagoshima in the Kyushu area at the beginning of the 17th cen-
tury, by way of Ryukyu Islands, then rapidly spread to Honshu. A famous savant in the Edo era,
Konyo Aoki (1698–1769), made an effort to propagate sweet potato. Today, it is called Kara-imo
(Chinese potato) or Ryukyu-imo (Ryukyu potato) in Kyushu, and Satsuma-imo (Kagoshima po-
tato) in Honshu (2).
Sweet potato is not only a good source of energy, supplying sugars and other carbohydrates,
but also a nutritive food containing calcium, iron, and other minerals and vitamins, particularly
vitamins A and C. It is also used for food processing as well as for starch and alcohol. Its pro-
ductivity is very high: an average of 25 t/ha in Japan. Moreover, it does not require large amounts
of fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals and is rather tolerant of environmental stresses.
Therefore, the sweet potato is one of the most important crops for securing a stable food supply
and has potential to alleviate some global environmental problems in the 21st century. Recently,
the research on sweet potato in Japan has been designed to develop alternative uses for creating
new ways to utilize the entire plant (3). New cultivars have been developed, for example, a culti-
var to allow utilization of sweet potato tops (foliage and stem), as human food, not only livestock
feed; cultivars created for high starch production, high-carotene-content cultivars, and a high-an-
thocyanin-content cultivar (4). New improved cultivars are awaited to sustain the production and
use of this crop in the 21st century. However, the conventional breeding program based on sexual
hybridization of sweet potato is limited by its sterility and cross-incompatibility. To overcome
such limitations, novel approaches such as somatic hybridization and genetic transformation, es-
pecially the latter, must be incorporated into sweet potato breeding.
Biotechnology is not well developed for sweet potato because of the difficulty of estab-
lishing an efficient and reproducible system for plant regeneration from cultured tissues or cells.
A number of reports have been published on the regeneration of sweet potato, using various tis-
sues of various cultivars with varying levels of efficiency and reproducibility (5). However, there
is a severe limitation of genotypes for regeneration, and efficiency is still low. In 1996 Otani and
Shimada developed an efficient and variety-independent method for the production of embryo-
genic callus from meristem tissues using a medium containing altered plant growth regulators, pi-
cloram, dicamba, or 4-fluorophenoxyacetic acid (4FA) (6). Otani and coworkers have established
an efficient method for the production of transgenic sweet potato plants via Agrobacterium tume-
faciens–mediated transformation using embryogenic calli (7).
A few reports on the transformation of sweet potato have been published (Table 1). Dodds
and colleagues (8) and Otani and associates (9) obtained transgenic sweet potato plants integrated
with Ri transfer deoxyribonucleic acid (T-DNA) and/or gusA and nptll genes by using Agrobac-
terium rhizogenes, although those transgenic plants showed abnormal morphological character-
istics due to integrated Ri T-DNA. By using a direct gene delivery system, Murata and cowork-
ers (10) obtained transgenic plants regenerated from transformed protoplasts of a genotypically
limited cultivar, and Parakash and Varadarajan (11) regenerated transgenic calli from bombarded
leaves and petioles. On the other hand, transgenic plants have been produced by cocultivation of
storage roots with A. tumefaciens (12), leaf disks (13), and embryogenic callus (7,14).
To date, the genes introduced into sweet potato have been marker and/or selectable marker
genes and resistant genes for insect and virus diseases (7,10,12,13). We have introduced some
agronomically important genes by using our transformation system. They are a fatty acid desat-
urase gene for low-temperature tolerance, granule bound starch synthase (GBSS) gene for the
modification of starch structure, and a coat protein complementary DNA (cDNA) of a sweet po-
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Table 1 Summary of Published Studies Concluded on Transformation of Sweet Potato
Cultivar Target tissue Vector/method used Genes Observations/remarks Reference (year)
Not stated In vitro whole A. rhizogenes Synthetic sequence Transgenic plants Dodds et al. (8) (1991)
Transgenic Sweet Potato
plant
‘Jewel,’ TIS-70357 Leaves and peti- Particle bombardment gusA nptII Transformed calli Prakash and Varadarajan (11) (1992)
oles
Five cultivars Leaves A. rhizogenes 15834, etc. gusA, nptII Transgenic plants Otani et al. (9) (1993)
(‘Chugoku 25,’ etc.)
‘Jewel’ Storage roots A. tumefaciens LBA4404 gusA, nptII, cowpea Transgenic plants Newell et al. (12) (1995)
trypsin inhibitor,
snowdrop lectin
‘White Star’ Embryogenic A. tumefaciens EHA101 gusA, nptII Transgenic plants Gama et al. (14) (1996)
callus
‘Chikei 682-11’ Mesophyll proto- Electroporation hpt, SPFMV-S coat Transgenic plants Murata et al. (10) (1997)
plasts protein gene
‘Nanging’ Embryogenic Particle bombardment
callus
‘Kokei 14’ Embryogenic A. tumefaciens EHA 101 gusA, hpt Transgenic plants Otani et al. (7) (1998)
callus
‘Jewel’ Leaves A. tumefaciens C58C1 cryIIIA, nptII Transgenic plants Moran et al. (13) (1998)
‘Kokei 14,’ Embryogenic A. tumefaciens EHA 101 NtFAD3, hpt Transgenic plants Otani et al. (in preparation)
‘Beniazuma’ callus
‘Kokei 14’ Embryogenic A. tumefaciens EHA 101 GBSS, hpt Transgenic plants Kimura et al. (24) (1998)
callus
701
tato feathery mottle virus (SPFMV-S) for virus resistance. The present chapter describes a sim-
ple, efficient, and reproducible method for production of transgenic sweet potato plants using
Agrobacterium tumefaciens as well as A. rhizogenes. We also describe the characteristics of
transgenic plants and stability of the integrated genes.
II. AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFACIENS–MEDIATED TRANSFORMATION

A. Target Tissues for Transformation
We used embryogenic calli of sweet potato as target tissues for A. tumefaciens–mediated trans-
formation. The embryogenic calli were yellow and friable and produced numerous embryoids
when transferred onto LS medium (17) supplemented with abscisic acid (ABA) and GA3; the em-
bryoids developed into plantlets at high frequency when transferred onto the plant growth-regu-
lator-free medium.
Newell and associates (12) obtained transgenic plants from disks of storage roots of sweet
potato cv. ‘Jewel’ by Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation. The storage root may not
be a good material for obtaining regenerated plants in sweet potato, because the culture responses
varied with the genotypes, and moreover cultivars having the ability to regenerate plants from
storage root disks are rare (15). For the same reason, leaf disks are not suited for transformation
study, even though adventitious shoots regenerate at a high frequency in the limited genotypes
(16). On the other hand, we obtained embryogenic calli from all 11 cultivars tested at relatively
high frequencies by using altered plant growth regulators (6). The method of A. tumefaciens–me-
diated transformation using embryogenic callus might overcome the genotypic differences in ge-
netic transformation of sweet potato.
B. Embryogenic Callus Induction

Embryogenic calli were induced from shoot meristems of in vitro plants of sweet potato [Ipomoea
batatas (L.) Lam.] cultivars ‘Kokei 14’ and ‘Beniazuma,’ the most important cultivars for table
use in Japan, using LS medium containing 1 mg/1 4-fluorophenoxyacetic acid (4FA) or picloram,
3% (w/v) sucrose, and 0.32% (w/v) gellan gum, according to the method of Otani and Shimada
(6). In our previous study using a medium supplemented with 1 mg/l picloram, more than 50%
of the shoot apices formed embryogenic calli in all 11 genotypes cultured. In ‘Kokei 14’ and ‘Be-
niazuma,’ around 90% of the shoot meristems produced embryogenic calli (Fig. 1). These em-
bryogenic calli were maintained at 26°C in the dark and proliferated by subculture on the same
fresh medium every month.
C. Factors Affecting Transformation Efficiency

We examined three factors, strains of Agrobacterium, inclusion of acetosyringone, and culture pe-
riod of embryogenic calli, before bacterial inoculation, related to efficient transformation in sweet
potato. Transient expression of GUS was examined with 1.5 g fresh weight of embryogenic calli
per treatment after 3 days of cocultivation. The transient GUS expression varied with the bacte-
rial strain. A. tumefaciens strain EHA101/plG121-Hm gave the highest GUS spots; the other bac-
terial strains gave no [for LBA4404/pTOK233 (18)] or very few spots (average six spots per gram
fresh weight for R1000/pBl121). Gama and coworkers (14) also succeeded in obtaining trans-
genic sweet potato plants by using the same bacterial strain, EHA101. These results suggested
that the supervirulent strain, EHA101, might be suited to the transformation of sweet potato.
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Transgenic Sweet Potato 703
Figure 1 Embryogenic calli from shoot apices of the sweet potato cultivar ‘Kokei 14’ on medium con-
taining 1 mg/l 4FA.
The effect of acetosyringone on transient GUS expression was tested by using 14-day-old
calli of the cultivar ‘Kokei 14’ and A. tumefaciens strain EHA101/plG121-Hm. As shown in Table
2, the addition of acetosyringone to both infection and cocultivation media clearly promoted the
transient expression of GUS.
Embryogenic calli were infected with A. tumefaciens strain EHA101/plG121-Hm 3, 6, 10,
14, and 21 days after the beginning of subculture. The calli cultured for a short period (3 and 6
days) gave few GUS spots, and 14-day-old calli gave the largest number of GUS spots (Table 2).
These findings clearly show that a 14-day culture period before bacteria infection was needed to
obtain efficient expression of gusA gene in embryogenic callus ‘Kokei 14.’ Similar results were
obtained in embryogenic callus of ‘Beniazuma’ (Fig. 2)
D. Plant Regeneration from Hygromycin-Resistant Calli

The embryogenic calli infected with A. tumefaciens strain EHA101/plG121-Hm were cultured on
hygromycin-containing media for 60 days. These calli produced several hygromycin-resistant
calli, whereas uninfected embryogenic calli on the same media did not. The average number of
Table 2 Effect of Actosyringone and Preculture Period on Trangient

GUS Expression in Embryogenic Callus of Sweet Potato
No. of GUS spots/g fresh weight of

embryogenic calli
Culture period (days) Acetosyringone (+) Acetosyringone (–)

3 514.7 ⫾ 21.5 —
6 840.9 ⫾ 242.2 —
10 1054.4 ⫾ 255.6 —
14 1526.6 ⫾ 266.7 382.2 ⫾ 115.4
21 922.8 ⫾ 32.4 —
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Figure 2 Transient GUS expression in embryogenic callus of the sweet potato cultivar ‘Beniazuma’ after
3 days of cocultivation with Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA101/plG121-Hm.
hygromycin-resistant calli produced per gram fresh weight of infected embryogenic calli was
10.7. These hygromycin-resistant calli produced numerous somatic embryos on the somatic em-
bryo formation medium containing hygromycin (Fig. 3). The hygromycin-resistant plantlets were
developed from these somatic embryos on the plant formation medium. An average of 53.1% of
hygromycin-resistant calli regenerated plantlets. All of the regenerated plants grew further and
rooted on the plant-growth-regulator-free LS medium supplemented with 25 mg/l hygromycin.
Regenerated plants were transferred to pots containing a vermiculite and perlite mixture (3:1) and
maintained at 26°C under a 16-hour photoperiod in a growth chamber for 14 days. Then, these
regenerated plants were grown in a greenhouse. The transgenic plants grew normally (Fig. 4) and
formed storage roots after 3 months (Fig. 5). Five transgenic plant independently regenerated
from hygromycin-resistant calli were analyzed to determine phenotypic characteristics, such as
the color of apical immature leaf, color of mature leaf, shape of mature leaf, stem color, number
of storage roots per plant, fresh weight of storage roots, skin color of storage roots, and flesh color
of storage roots. No morphological differences were observed between untransformed plants and
transgenic plants (Table 3).
E. Histochemical GUS Assay of Transgenic Plants and Their

Vegetatively Propagated Progenies
Histochemical analysis of GUS activity was carried out on fully expanded leaves and storage
roots of the plants regenerated from hygromycin-resistant calli. The tissues of regenerated plants
were stained blue, indicating the expression of gusA gene, but not those of control plants. GUS
expression was also observed in storage roots harvested after 3 months of cultivation in pots,
whereas those of untransformed control plants did not show any GUS activity.
Leaves on the shoots freshly sprouting from harvested storage roots of transgenic plants
also showed GUS activity (Fig. 6), suggesting that the gusA gene was transmitted to their vege-
tatively propagated progenies. We observed GUS activity in their fourth vegetatively propagated
progenies. Since sweet potato is commonly propagated by using storage roots, this suggests the
usefulness of genetically engineered sweet potato for the practical breeding of sweet potato.
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Figure 3 Numerous somatic embryos produced from hygromycin-resistant calli.
Figure 4 Transgenic plants (left three pots) and an untransformed plant (right pot) established in soil and
grown for 2 months in a greenhouse.
Figure 5 Storage roots formed on untransformed (left) and transgenic plants (right).
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706
Table 3 Characterization of Independent Transgenic Sweet Potato Lines
Transgenic plant lines
Characters Control #1a #5 #6 #7 #11
Copy number of T-DNA 0 3 3 2 2 1

Apical immature leaf Green Green Green Green Green Green
color
Mature leaf color Green Green Green Green Green Green
Mature leaf shape Heart shape with Heart shape with Heart shape with Heart shape with Heart shape with Heart shape with
small lobe small lobe small lobe small lobe small lobe small lobe
Stem color Green Green Green Green Green Green
Number of storage roots 5 4 7 5 5 5
per plant
Fresh weight of a stor- 26.1 ⫾ 8.8 13.4 ⫾ 2.9 24.2 ⫾ 4.7 21.7 ⫾ 7.7 25.7 ⫾ 7.3 34.3 ⫾ 6.8
age root (g) ⫾ SE
Skin color of storage Red Red Red Red Red Red
roots
Fresh color of storage Light yellow Light yellow Light yellow Light yellow Light yellow Light yellow
roots
a
Plant line #1 was grown for 2 months in the greenhouse.
Otani and Shimada
Figure 6 Histochemical GUS assay in the second vegetatively propagated progenies of transgenic plants.
Storage roots of five independent transgenic plants (TV2) and untransformed plant (C).
F. Integration of Foreign DNA into the Genome

of Transgenic Plants
Genomic blot analysis was performed for transgenic plants regenerated from five independent
hygromycin-resistant callus lines. A Sacl/Xbal fragment of the gusA gene was used as a hy-
bridization probe (Fig. 7a). Since there is only one Hindlll site in the T-DNA region, hybridizing
fragment(s) of different lengths indicated that the T-DNA was integrated at different location(s)
in the sweet potato plant genome. The copy number was determined by the number of hybridiz-
ing fragments. Fig. 7b shows that the number and size of hybridizing fragments varied with the
transgenic plant line. Transgenic plant lines possessed one to three copies of T-DNA.
G. Inheritance of Introduced Genes

Since ‘Kokei 14’ is self-incompatible, one of the transgenic plants and a nontransformed ‘Kokei
14’ plant were crossed with ‘Chikei 682-11,’ which is compatible with ‘Kokei14.’ The F1 seeds
were germinated and the seedlings were investigated for GUS expression and hygromycin resis-
tance.
The F1 plants of a transgenic plant and ‘Chikei 682-11’ showed a segregation ratio of one
GUS-positive and hygromycin-resistant to one GUS-negative and hygromycin-sensitive, indicat-
ing that T-DNA was inserted at a single locus. Harvested storage roots of F1 plants and leaves on
the shoot freshly sprouting from the roots also showed GUS activity, suggesting that the gusA
gene was transmitted to their progenies. We also observed GUS activity in the vegetatively prop-
agated progenies of these F1 plants.
H. Comparison with Direct Gene Transfer

In 1997 Murata and coworkers (10) obtained transformed sweet potato plants from both electro-
porated protoplasts and biolistically transformed suspension cultures. However, some problems
remain, such as genotypic variation for transformation efficiency and inefficiency in the selection
of the transformed cells. Moreover, transformation by direct gene transfer methods often results
in complex integration (19–21). Production of transgenic plants having a low copy number (one
to three) of integrated genes by the A. tumefaciens–mediated transformation method presented
here has an advantage over this method.
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Figure 7 Transformation vector and Southern blot analysis. (a) Schematic diagram of a part of the T-DNA
region of transformation vector pIG121-Hm. RB, right border; LB, left border; NP, nopaline synthase pro-
moter; NT, nopaline synthase terminator; 35S, 35S promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus; INTRON, the first
intron of catalase gene of castor bean; NPTII, gene for neomycin phosphotransferase; GUS, gene for β-glu-
curonidase; HPT, gene for hygromycin phosphotransferase. Cutting sites of restriction enzymes are indi-
cated: BamHI (B), EcoRI (E), HindIII (H), SaII (S), SacI (Sc), XbaI (X). (b) Southern blot analysis of five
independent transgenic plants. DNA was digested with HindIII and allowed to hybridize to the gus probe:
lanes 1–5, transgenic plants (No. 1, 5, 6, 7, and 11 shown in Table 4), which were regenerated from inde-
pendent hygromycin-resistant calli; lane C, untransformed control plant.
III. AGROBACTERIUM RHIZOGENES–MEDIATED TRANSFORMATION

A. Production of Transgenic Plants Mediated by
Agrobacterium rhizogenes
Hairy roots were produced on the wounded sites, for example, on the cut surface of excised peti-
ole inoculated with A. rhizogenes. There were no significant differences in pathogenicity among
the bacterial strains. On the other hand, genotypic differences in the frequency of hairy root for-
mation were observed among the sweet potato cultivars when leaf disks were inoculated with A.
rhizogenes strain A13 (Table 4). ‘Chugoku 25,’ ‘Kanto 18,’ ‘Kokei 14,’ and ‘Shinya’ produced
hairy roots at a low frequency (23.5–27.8%), and the other cultivars produced hairy roots at a
higher (51.4–88.6%) frequency.
Adventitious shoot formation was observed when hairy roots were cultured on 0.32% (w/v)
gellan gum–solidified LS medium containing neither antibiotics nor PGR under continuous light.
Regeneration of complete plants was obtained in 5, cultivars (‘Chugoku 25,’ ‘Chugoku 35,’ ‘Hi-
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Table 4 Varietal Differences in Hairy Root Formation Induced by A. rhizogenes Strain A13
Cultivar No. of leaf disks inoculated No. of leaf disks forming hairy roots (%)
‘Bise’ 31 25 (80.6)
‘Chugoku 25’ 73 18 (24.7)
‘Chugoku 35’ 30 13 (43.3)
‘Hi-Starch’ 37 25 (67.6)
‘Kanto 18’ 34 9 (26.5)
‘Kanto 94’ 33 19 (57.6)
‘Kokei 14’ 36 10 (27.8)
‘Kyukei 17-3043’ 78 52 (66.7)
‘Naeshirazu’ 35 18 (51.4)
‘Norin 2’ 38 25 (65.8)
‘Okinawa 100’ 31 18 (58.1)
‘Shinya’ 34 8 (23.5)
‘Yamakawamurasaki’ 35 31 (88.6)
‘W51’ 40 30 (75.0)
Ipomoea trichocarpa 37 34 (91.9)
(wild relative)
Starch,’ ‘Kyukei 17-3043,’ and ‘Yamakawamurasaki’) of 10 cultivars tested. The percentages of

hairy roots with shoots formed were 50% for ‘Chugoku 25,’ 100% for ‘Chugoku 35,’ 80% for ‘Hi-
Starch,’ 40.9% for ‘Kyukei 17-3043,’ and 41.7% for ‘Yamakawamurasaki.’ These findings sug-
gest that there are varietal differences in shoot regeneration from hairy roots. Shoot formation was
not improved by the addition benzyladenine of (BA) (0.5 and 2 mg/l) to regeneration medium.
B. Morphological Characteristics of Ri-Transgenic Plants

The adventitious shoots formed on the hairy roots grew and rooted on the 0.8% (w/v) agar-solid-
ified LS medium. These plantlets were habituated and transplanted to the experimental field of
Ishikawa Agricultural College. All of these plants survived.
All plants regenerated from the hairy roots showed Ri T-DNA-induced morphological char-
acteristics. Aerial parts showed weak apical dominance and had short internodes (Fig. 8). The av-
erage stem length was about one-fifth of that in the normal plants. Stem length varied among the
transgenic plants regenerated from each hairy root line. The leaves were wrinkled and smaller
than normal. The shape of the flower was changed dramatically: hairy root–derived plants had
small and star-shaped flowers. Pollen fertility of hairy root–derived plants was similar to that of
normal plants: i.e., more than 90% of pollen grains were stained by 0.5% acetocarmine solution
in both hairy root–derived and untransformed plants. The hairy root–derived plants had abundant
roots with extensive branching and smaller storage roots.
Interestingly, the numbers of storage roots in the plants regenerated from the hairy root was
equal to that of normal plants. The average fresh weight of the storage roots in hairy root–derived
plants was 3.6 g, whereas that in normal plants was 39.4 g.
The storage roots of both hairy root–derived and normal plants were incubated at 28°C to
allow adventitious shoots to sprout from them. The former formed few adventitious shoots and
the shoots grew more slowly than the latter, whereas the storage roots of the former showed ex-
cessive rooting with intensive branching. Their vegetative progenies also exhibited similar mor-
phological characteristics.
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Figure 8 Morphological abnormalities of regenerated plant of the cultivar ‘Chugoku 25’ transformed by
A. rhizogenes. Aerial parts of transformed plant (left) and untransformed plant (right). C, untransformed
plant; T, transformed plant.
Since dwarfness is one of the important characteristics in crop breeding, a short internode
in transformed plants is a desirable character. However, the subterranean parts of the transformed
plants showed abundant roots with extensive branching and smaller storage roots as described
earlier. The transgenic tomato plants transformed with only the rol B gene of Ri-T-DNA were
characterized by a reduction in both internode length and apical dominance; their root system was
similar to that of untransformed plants (22). The subterranean parts of the transgenic sweet po-
tato plant with the rol B gene or rol C gene should be compared with those of transgenic plants
with the intact Ri plasmid T-DNA introduced.
C. Production of Ri-Transgenic Plants Possessing nptll and gusA Genes

One plant each was regenerated from six hairy root clones of ‘Yamakawamurasaki’ induced by
A. rhizogenes C8 possessing a binary vector, pBI121. All regenerated plants produced miki-
mopine. Shoots of these regenerated plants were transferred to LS medium containing 100 mg/l
kanamycin. Three of the regenerated plants produced many roots days after the transfer, whereas
the other plants did not form any roots. In our preliminary study using hairy roots transformed by
wild-type A. rhizogenes, no root formation or root growth was observed on the medium contain-
ing 100 mg/l kanamycin. Thus, these three plants, which formed many roots on kanamycin-con-
taining medium, were defined to be resistant to kanamycin. Root tips and leaf disks of the
kanamycin-resistant plants were stained with 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-glucuronide (X-gluc)
for 16 hours and the expression of the gusA gene was confirmed. Integration of nptll and gusA
genes was also confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
In the present study, 50% (three of six) of hairy roots obtained were doubly transformed by
Ri plasmid T-DNA and pBI121 T-DNA without any selection pressure.
We have reported here not only the successful transformation of Ri-T-DNA into sweet po-
tato, but also the transformation of foreign genes mediated by A. rhizogenes C8 harboring a bi-
nary vector, pBI121. Since whole plants can be regenerated at a high frequency from hairy roots
transformed by A. rhizogenes, the binary vector system of the Ri plasmid may be efficiently ap-
plied for genetic transformation in some genotypes of sweet potato.
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D. Inheritance of Ri-Transformed Phenotypes

Two transgenic ‘Chugoku 25’ plants (one transformed by A. rhizogenes strain A13, and the other
by the strain 15834) and a nontransformed ‘Chugoku 25’ plant were crossed with nontransformed
‘Yamakawamurasaki’ plants.
The germination rate was 84.6–100%. There were no clear differences in germinability be-
tween the transformed and nontransformed F1 seeds. Morphological phenotypes and opine syn-
thesis of the F1 seedings derived from the cross between the transgenic plants and nontransformed
‘Yamakawamurasaki’ segregated Ri-transformed phenotype: about 70% of these progeny demon-
strated typical hairy root traits such as short internodes, short hypocotyl, and wrinkled leaf. The
segregation data were consistent with the integration of one independent, dominant Ri T-DNA
locus.
IV. TRANSGENIC SWEET POTATO WITH AGRONOMICALLY

IMPORTANT GENES
A. A Coat Protein Gene of Sweet Potato Feathery Mottle Virus-S
Sweet potato feathery mottle virus severe strain (SPFMV-S) is the most serious virus disease in
sweet potato in Japan. It causes decolored transverse bands of varying width on the surface of tu-
bers, which reduce the commercial value. Farmers purchase the virus-free seedlings, but the prob-
lem of reinfection remains.
Murata and associates (10) introduced the coat protein gene of SPFMV-S into the proto-
plasts of sweet potato, cv. ‘Chikei 682-11’ to produce virus-resistant plants. The transgenic plants
expressing the SPFMV-S CP gene had a lower tiler of virus than the nontransgenic plants after
inoculation with SPFMV-S, indicating the suppression of virus proliferation in the transgenic
plants. We also transformed the SPFMV-S CP gene into the commercially valuable sweet potato
cultivar ‘Kokei 14’ by using the A. tumefaciens–mediated system described. Studies of the virus
resistance in the transgenic plants are in progress.
B. Fatty Acid Desaturase Gene

The degree of unsaturation of fatty acids is an important factor for metabolic adaptation of higher
plants to temperature stress [reviewed by Sommerville and Browse (23)]. We introduced the mi-
crosomal ω-3 fatty acid desaturase gene isolated from tobacco (NtFAD3) that confers desatura-
tion from linoleic acid (18:2) to linolenic acid (18:3) into sweet potato to improve cold tolerance
(24). The fatty acid composition in roots was modified in the transgenic sweet potato plants:
linoleic acid (18:2) content decreased from 53.6% in nontransgenic plants to 45.9% in transgenic
plants and linolenic acid (18:3) content increased from 11.3% to 20.8%. The transgenic sweet po-
tato plants expressing NtFAD3 gene might have the potential not only to demonstrate resistance
to chilling, but also to modify the nutritional quality and improve storage characteristics. Studies
on the transgenic sweet potato plants are in progress.
C. Granule-Bound Starch Synthase Gene

The reserve starch in sweet potato tubers might be increased or unique starch valuable for food
or industrial purposes might be produced by genetic engineering of plants. The sweet potato
starch is composed of about 16% amylose; the remainder is amylopectin. GBSS is a key enzyme
in the formation of amylose in starch. We introduced GBSS cDNA from sweet potato under
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CaMV 35S promoter into ‘Kokei 14’ by A. tumefaciens–mediated transformation (25). One trans-
formed plant from 22 regenerated hygromycin-resistant plants had amylose-free starch in tubers,
in which the endogeneou GBSS gene was cosuppressive with the introduced GBSS cDNA. Visser
and associates (26) obtained amylose-free-starch potato by the introduction of antisense GBSS
cDNA. We have obtained amylose-free sweet potato by sense GBSS cDNA. The results clearly
demonstrate that in storage roots of sweet potato, starch composition is altered by either sense or
antisense RNA.
D. Genes for Insect Resistance

The sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius ssp.) is the major insect pest and the most important
constraint in tropical regions (27). The genes for various types of protease inhibitors and some
Bacillus thuringiensis genes to control coleopteran species have been demonstrated to confer in-
sect resistance properties when introduced to plants (28). Newell and coworkers (12) successfully
introduced the cowpea trypsin inhibitor gene (CpTI) and the GNA gene encoding a mannose-spe-
cific lectin from snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis L.) into the sweet potato cultivar ‘Jewel’ by using
A. tumefaciens. Moran and associates (13) transformed sweet potato plants of the ‘Jewel’ cultivar
with the cryIIIA delta-endotoxin gene from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis (Btt), using
A. tumefaciens. Biological tests with sweet potato weevil were developed under controlled con-
ditions and field conditions. Although the level of the CryIIIA toxin in the transgenic plants was
low, the transgenic plants showed resistance against sweet potato weevil and the damage in the
tubers of some transgenic plants was lower than that in untransformed plants under both condi-
tions.
V. PROTOCOLS
A. Protocol for Agrobacterium tumefaciens–Mediated Transformation
1. Media
Media used in the following protocol are listed in Table 5.
2. Induction of Embryogenic Callus

1. Place shoot meristems (0.5 mm in diameter) of in vitro plants onto LS medium (17) for
embryogenic callus induction and culture at 26°C in the dark.
2. Maintain embryogenic calli by subculture on the same fresh medium every month. Use
the calli subcultured at least three times for the transformation study.
3. Transformation
1. Culture the Agrobacterium sp. for 2 to 3 days at 26°C on Luria broth (LB) (28) medium
supplemented with 50 mg/l kanamycin, 50 mg/l hygromycin B, and 1.5% (w/v) agar.
Then transfer the colony of bacteria to liquid LS medium and shake at 100 revolu-
tions/minute for 30 minutes in the dark at 26°C.
2. Soak the embryogenic calli in a bacterial suspension for 2 minutes and blot dry with
sterile filter paper to remove excess bacteria.
3. Then transfer the calli onto coculture medium and culture for 3 days in the dark at
26°C.
4. Wash the infected calli three times with sterile distilled water supplemented with 500
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Table 5 Media Used for Tissue Culture and Transformation of Sweet Potato
Stage Medium composition Culture period
Embryogenic callus induction LS medium, 1 mg/l 4FA or picloram, 30 g/l sucrose, 3.2 14 days
and proliferation g/l gellan gum, pH 5.8
Bacterial infection LS medium, 1 mg/l 4FA or picloram, 10 mg/l actosy- 2 minutes
ringone, 30 g/l sucrose, pH 5.8
Coculture LS medium, 1 mg/l 4FA or picloram, 10 mg/l actosy- 2 to 3 days
ringone, 30 g/l sucrose, 3.2 g/l gellan gum, pH 5.8
Selection LS medium, 1 mg/l 4FA or picloram, 25 mg/l hy- 50 to 60 days
gromycin B, 500 mg/l carbenicillin, 30 g/l sucrose,
3.2 g/l gellan gum, pH 5.8
Somatic embryo formation LS medium, 4 mg/l ABA, 1 mg/l GA3, 25 mg/l hy- 14 to 21 days
gromycin B, 500 mg/l carbenicillin, 30 g/l sucrose,
3.2 g/l gellan gum, pH 5.8
Plant formation LS medium, 0.05 mg/l ABA, 25 mg/l hygromycin B, 14 to 21 days
500 mg/l carbenicillin, 30 g/l sucrose, 3.2 g/l gellan
gum, pH 5.8
Plant growth LS medium, 30 g/l sucrose, 3.2 g/l gellan gum, pH 5.8
mg/l carbenicillin; then transfer onto selection medium. Cultures were carried out at
26°C in the dark.
4. Selection and Regeneration of Transgenic Plants

1. After 2 week culture on the selection medium, wash the calli again as described, then
transfer to fresh selection medium. Subculture the calli on fresh medium every 2
weeks.
2. After 60 days of culture on the selection medium, transfer the calli onto the somatic
embryo formation medium and culture at 26°C under a 16-hour photoperiod 38 µmol
m–2 s–1 from daylight fluorescent tubes.
3. After 21 days of culture on the somatic embryo formation medium, transfer the somatic
embryos formed from hygromycin-resistant calli onto the plant formation medium for
germination.
B. Protocol for Agrobacterium rhizogenes–Mediated Transformation

1. Culture Agrobacterium rhizogenes for 16 hours at 27°C in a liquid YEB medium (30).
2. Immerse the apical one-third to one-fifth of fully expanded leaves of in vitro sweet po-
tato plants into bacterial suspensions for 10 minutes.
3. Place the inoculated leaf disks on sterilized moist paper in a glass petri dish and incu-
bate at 26°C in the dark for 3 to 5 days.
4. Transfer the leaf disks onto 1% (w/v) agar or 0.32% (w/v) gellan gum–solidified LS
medium supplemented with 500 µg/ml Claforan (Hoechst) and incubate under the
same conditions, after cocultivation.
5. Establish bacteria-free root lines after excision of single roots and propagate them on
LS medium supplemented with 400 µg/ml Claforan and 0.32% (w/v) gellan gum with
three subcultures.
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6. Transfer the hairy roots (30 to 40 mm in length) onto 0.32% (w/v) gellan gum–solidi-
fied LS medium containing neither antibiotics nor plant growth regulators and culture
at 26°C under continuous light at 38 µmol m–2 s–1 from daylight fluorescent tubes.
VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS
A simple, efficient, and reproducible method for the transformation of commercial varieties of
sweet potato mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens was established by using embryogenic calli
as target tissues. A. tumefaciens strain EHA101/plG121-Hm used in the present study contained
a binary vector, genes for β-glucuronidase (gusA) and hygromycin resistance (hpt). About 10 hy-
gromycin-resistant cell clusters were produced from 1 g fresh weight of the infected embryogenic
calli. The hygromycin-resistant plantlets were regenerated from 53.1% of the hygromycin-resis-
tant calli. Histochemical GUS assay and Southern hybridization analysis indicated that these
plants were stably transformed. The copy number of introduced genes was one to three. Trans-
genic plants grew normally and formed storage roots after 3 months of cultivation in a green-
house. By using the efficient A. tumefaciens–mediated transformation system, we introduced
agronomically important genes, for example, a virus disease resistance–related gene, a cold tol-
erance–related gene, and a carbohydrate-modifying gene, into sweet potato.
Transformation was also accomplished by infection with Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Trans-
genic sweet potato possessing not only Ri-T-DNA but also nptll and gusA genes were obtained
from hairy roots infected with A. rhizogenes containing the binary vector pBl121 in addition to
the wild-type Ri plasmid. Leaf disks of in vitro plants were inoculated with different A. rhizo-
genes strains. Numerous hairy roots were induced on the leaf disks by both agropine-type and
mikimopine-type strains. Whole plants transformed with Ri-T-DNA were regenerated from the
hairy roots in five cultivars. These plants had wrinkled leaves, altered shape of flowers, reduced
apical dominance, shortened internodes, small storage roots, and abundant, frequently branching
roots that showed reduced geotropism.
Because of its high production yield of biomass, sweet potato is an attractive plant species
as a target of “molecular farming.” Recent developments of genetic engineering have allowed the
production of various biomolecules such as carbohydrates, fatty acid, high-value pharmaceutical
polypeptides, industrial enzymes, and biodegradable plastics in transgenic plants (31). Trans-
genic plants may become attractive and cost-effective alternatives to microbial and animal sys-
tems for the production of biomolecules.
The sweet potato is expected to be one of the most important crops globally in the 21st cen-
tury, and its potential will be further developed by genetic engineering.
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47
Genetic Enrichment of Barley:
Opportunities and Challenges
Seedhabadee Ganeshan, Monica Båga, and Ravindra N. Chibbar

I. INTRODUCTION 717
II. BARLEY IMPROVEMENT 718
A. Traditional Breeding 718
B. Mutation Breeding 718
C. Wide Hybridization 719
D. Biotechnological Approaches 720
III. GENETICALLY ENGINEERED BARLEY 724
A. Herbicide Resistance 724
B. Pest Resistance 724
C. Improvement of Barley Quality 725
D. Novel Uses 727
IV. PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES 727
REFERENCES 729
I. INTRODUCTION
Barley is the world’s fourth major cereal crop in acreage and production, surpassed by wheat,
maize, and rice (1). Formerly the third founder cereal of Old World Neolithic agriculture after
einkorn and emmer wheats (2–4), barley has gradually developed a diverse and unique niche of its
own, with continued prominence in today’s agriculture. Its domestication occurred in the Fertile
Crescent about 10,000 years ago from brittle, two-rowed forms, bearing similarity to Hordeum
spontaneum (4), which is considered to be the wild ancestor of cultivated barley, Hordeum vulgare
L. (2,5). The primary center of diversity in Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Iran and a secondary
center in Ethiopia are believed to harbor many wild species of barley (6), constituting, along with
other wild species, about 30 species in the genus Hordeum (7).
The estimated world production of barley for the period 1999–2000 was around 128 mil-
lion tons (8). The projected global production for the 2000–2001 period was about 133 million
tons (8), and generally the production of barley hovers around these figures, depending on global
marketing trends and environmental dicta. Significant increase in grain yields beyond the stag-
nant trend is likely to be attained with input from newer technologies (9).
NRCC No. 43788 717
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718 Ganeshan et al.
Barley is mostly used as animal feed and as malt for the production of alcoholic beverages.
In some parts of the world, barley is also used as human food. Extensive effort is being under-
taken to improve barley quality for expanded consumption by humans. The main areas of focus
include starch quality and protein composition and content. Besides food uses, there has also been
interest in using specialized barley starches for industrial purposes. In this review available op-
tions for the genetic enrichment of barley are assessed, with particular emphasis on the biotech-
nological approaches that have opened up new vistas in this regard.
II. BARLEY IMPROVEMENT
Because of barley’s economic importance, considerable resources have been allocated for its im-
provement. Classical breeding approaches have been and will continue to be the foundation of all
improvement initiatives. However, limitations such as lack of genetic variability, availability of
desirable traits for introgression, and genetic complexity of some traits are often encountered in
conventional breeding programs. To supplement these shortcomings, alternative resources have
been deployed in breeding programs.
A. Traditional Breeding
Barley breeding programs have been undertaken to improve varieties in terms of a number of char-
acters, dictated by producer and consumer demands and environmental constraints. Although
higher yields are conceivably the primary objective (10), other agronomic characters that indirectly
affect grain yield and quality are also given due consideration. Some of the attributes, such as days
to maturity, straw strength, plant height, disease resistance, malting quality, and protein content,
are constantly being addressed. Among the breeding methods in practice are the bulk method, com-
posite cross, pedigree, backcrossing, and single-seed descent. The choice of method depends on
the objectives and resources available. The merits and demerits of these approaches can be found
in plant breeding textbooks and are not discussed here. Suffice to mention that barley breeding has
been a successful venture to date, leading to substantial yield increases. Lodging resistance, dis-
ease resistance, reduction in height, and increase in harvest index have been instrumental compo-
nents contributing to yield increments (11). Newer malting varieties have additionally improved
grain quality with respect to increases in plumpness, malt extract, α-amylase activity, and diasta-
tic power (12). With the advent of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) marker–assisted selection, fur-
ther progress is being made toward incorporation of desirable traits, qualitative as well as quanti-
tative. Although breeding efforts over the years have been highly successful, dwindling of the
genetic diversity might stall progress in the development of more improved cultivars. Therefore,
alternative genetic resources are being sought for subsequent incorporation into breeding pro-
grams.
B. Mutation Breeding
Induced mutation is one method that has been proven to generate new sources of genetic vari-
ability. Mutation breeding involves the use of mutants either directly as new cultivars or via their
incorporation into breeding programs to generate a valuable source of germplasm. Barley resis-
tant specifically to powdery mildew was the first disease-resistant mutant to be generated by mu-
tation breeding (13). Subsequently, mutant cultivars in many other crops have been released. As
of December 2000, 2252 accessions were listed in the FAO/IAEA Mutant Varieties Database, of
which 1072 were cereals, including 269 barley accessions (14).
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Genetic Enrichment of Barley 719
Induced mutants of barley with superior agronomic and quality attributes have been gener-
ated and incorporated into many breeding programs. Although in the past few decades induced
mutation was mainly focused on developing disease-resistant and high-grain-protein varieties
(14), more favorable results were obtained with respect to lodging resistance (15,16), days to ma-
turity (17–19), and grain protein content (20–23). Induced mutation for disease resistance is best
exemplified by the X-ray-induced mutant of the barley cultivar ‘Heine’s Haisa,’ which exhibits
resistance to Erysiphe graminis f. sp. hordei, the causal agent of powdery mildew (24). Other mu-
tants related to improved brewing and malting quality have also led to the release of new varieties
(25). Mutant varieties with improved grain protein content are also available (25). More recently,
mutational analysis was used to dissect the complex genetics of kernel rows in barley (26). It was
shown that at least 12 gene loci (hex-v and 11 int) were involved in spike development of lateral
florets, including size, awn development, fertility, and kernel development. Crosses involving a
double mutant (int/int) with a hex-v mutant produced progenies exhibiting exceptional six-row
type with prominent large spikes and thick culms.
It is evident that mutation breeding has played an important role in barley improvement and
is likely to have more significant impact on the development of improved barley varieties. Phys-
ical and chemical mutagenic treatments currently available have been adequate but produce a
large number of wasteful mutants, which consume enormous resources in terms of time, space,
and labor. Thus, other means of generating genetic variation are being explored to allow a more
targeted and/or controlled change.
C. Wide Hybridization
The genetic erosion that results from the disappearance of exotic germplasm (e.g., land races) and
stringent selection and use of a limited pool of germplasm for breeding purposes over the years
has led to an interest in wild species and genera for wide crosses. Various barley improvement
programs have been delving into the possibilities of identifying and introgressing genes from wild
Hordeum species into cultivated barley. However, crossability of barley with other Hordeum
species is very low (27). Specifically, chromosome pairing in interspecific hybrids is poor, except
for those derived from H. bulbosum and H. spontaneum (28). Nonetheless, useful agronomic
traits such as disease resistance and stress tolerance from many Hordeum species have been ex-
pressed in hybrids or backcross progenies (29). Attempts at generating intergeneric hybrids with
Hordeum species have also progressed considerably and extensive analyses of the subject have
been published elsewhere (29,30). It is interesting to note that intergeneric hybrids involving
combinations of Secale, Agropyron, or Elymus species with Hordeum species outnumber the in-
tergeneric hybrids made with H. vulgare (28). This is possibly a reflection of the closer phyloge-
netic relationship among wild genera within the tribe Triticeae than to domesticated barley. Irre-
spective of the crossing combinations, useful agronomic traits have been identified in Hordeum,
Elymus, Agropyron, and Secale species, and the possibility of their hybridization with cultivated
barley or other Hordeum species augurs well for the introgression of such traits (29).
The potential of alien gene introgression is likely to be fully realized as research continues
to overcome some of the bottlenecks encountered with regard to crossability, hybrid sterilty, ex-
pression of introgressed genes, elimination of undesirable traits incorporated as a result of link-
age drag, and selective elimination of chromosomes in hybrids. There are some strategies to over-
come some of these barriers (for details refer to Ref. 31). For example, chromosome doubling can
be used to circumvent hybrid sterility in F1 hybrids. Hybrid embryos with undeveloped or poorly
developed endosperms can be rescued by tissue culture techniques.
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720 Ganeshan et al.
D. Biotechnological Approaches
Biotechnology has unequivocally become an integral part of barley improvement programs. The
access to additional gene pools has become a possibility as a result of the development of tissue
culture and transgene technologies. For a long time, barley was considered to be recalcitrant to
both technologies. However, major obstacles have now been overcome. DNA-based markers pro-
vided the breeder with another tool to select for desirable traits, thereby allowing more effective
selection and also expediting the breeding process. The use of in vitro culture for barley im-
provement has been three-pronged, viz., induction of variation, doubled haploid production, and
genetic transformation.
1. Tissue Culture and Somaclonal Variation

An essential requirement for the success of tissue culture is availability of an efficient regenera-
tion system. Significant progress has been made over the years in barley tissue culture. Various
sources of explants have been used for culture, including immature embryos, immature scutella,
immature inflorescences, ovaries, ovules, anthers, microspores, apical meristems, mature em-
bryos, and leaf bases. Immature tissues have been the preferred source of explants because of
their responsiveness in culture. However, in recent years there has been interest in using meris-
tems and mature embryos as explants. An obvious advantage of such explants is that they are
readily available. Regardless of the source of the explant, plant regeneration can occur by either
organogenesis or embryogenesis, via an intermediate callus induction phase.
It was thought that an in vitro selection system, as a novel source of variability, could mimic
the type of selection employed by breeders and thus identify variant cell lines resistant to a par-
ticular stimulus. The concept of in vitro culture–induced variation (somaclonal variation) (32)
further heightened interest in the possibility of inducing more genetic variability. The occurrence
of chromosomal variability in callus and plants derived from ovarian tissue cultures of a Hordeum
vulgare × Hordeum jubatum hybrid was already recognized as having potential for the generation
of new chromosomal combinations and mutations and overcoming barriers inherent in conven-
tional introgressive breeding techniques (33). A similar approach was explored with hybrid plants
recovered by embryo rescue from a Hordeum vulgare × Elymus canadensis (Canada wild rye)
cross (34). Canada wild rye exhibits winter-hardiness, drought tolerance, and resistance to barley
yellow dwarf virus, but crosses with barley result in sterile F1 hybrids. The tissue culture–derived
regenerants showed evidence of chromosomal recombination. Many other studies have reported
on the occurrence of aneuploids, polyploids, and chromosomal rearrangements in cultured cells
of barley (e.g., 35–38). Several studies have attempted to capitalize on this tissue culture–induced
variation. Heritable somaclonal variation was observed in Hordeum spontaneum, although chro-
mosomal numbers and aberrations were not detected (39). Improved resistance to the net blotch
pathogen was observed in barley plants regenerated from callus cultures subjected to selection on
medium supplemented with the toxin produced by the pathogen (40). However, resistance was
also observed in unselected controls, indicating that the observed resistance could be attributed
to somaclonal variation. Resistance to Helminthosporium sativum was also observed in barley
plants regenerated from callus cultures selected on partially purified toxins from the pathogen
(41). Barley plants derived from callus cultures exhibited tolerance to the herbicide chlorsulfuron
as a result of selection on media containing the herbicide (42). Increased tolerance to glyphosate
was reported in some progenies of plants regenerated from callus subjected to glyphosate selec-
tion (43).
Unfortunately, somaclonal variation also impacts barley regenerants negatively, often lead-
ing to undesirable characteristics. In studies on malting quality of tissue culture–derived barley
lines, it was found that most of the lines had poor malting quality (44). Besides undesirable char-
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acteristics in progenies of tissue culture–derived barley plants, genotype-dependent differences in

the frequency and extent of the agronomic performances were observed (45). The evaluation of
field performance of progenies from protoplast-derived barley plants did not show any abnormal
phenotypes, but some agronomic characteristics were affected (46). Because of the adverse ef-
fects of somaclonal variation, it has been suggested that identification of useful regenerants from
transformation experiments might be precluded (47). In a 1998 study on the performance of prog-
enies of transgenic barley plants, somaclonal variation was deemed to be unforeseeably high, in
the range of 14–60% (48). The report also claims that somaclonal variation was accentuated by
the transformation procedure.
With conflicting reports on the occurrence of somaclonal variation in barley, there is clearly
a need to revisit research on somaclonal variation with a new perspective. The high frequency and
severity of somaclonal variation observed in some studies could be due to culture media compo-
nents, which are constantly being altered to improve the responsiveness of cultured explants, i.e.,
to increase embryogenic callus induction and regeneration frequencies. Better callus induction
and regeneration frequencies may not necessarily translate into production of normal plants. The
low callus induction and regeneration frequencies obtained in earlier studies may not have been
opportune for development of the undesirable variants. Most studies have indicated morphologi-
cal uniformity among tissue culture–derived barley plants and infrequent occurrence of so-
maclonal variants (49–51). It has been suggested that either the barley genome could be tolerant
to tissue culture environments or aberrant cell lines are at a competitive disadvantage during re-
generation, thereby lowering the number of regenerated variants (52). Considering the few re-
ports about useful somaclonal variants in barley and the inability to maximize culture-induced
variation, it is not surprising that the euphoria surrounding somaclonal variation in barley has de-
clined. The potential for creation of genetic variability does exist, especially with regard to cul-
ture of wide hybrids that would otherwise be infertile. In vitro culture in combination with muta-
genic treatments could also be used to generate variants.
2. Doubled Haploid Production

Haploid breeding has become a significant component of barley breeding programs. Haploidy
initiation followed by chromosome doubling allows homozygosity to be achieved in a single gen-
eration. Since improvement of inbreeding crops such as barley entails development of true breed-
ing, homozygous lines by hybridization of two or more parental lines (53), followed by repeated
selfing and selection (54), haploid breeding is an expedited approach to achieving similar results.
At any stage of a breeding program, doubled haploids can be initiated, and the number of cycles
of recombination (before homozygosity is attained) is at the discretion of the breeder (55,56).
There are several methods of haploid production in barley, including the bulbosum tech-
nique, haploid initiator gene method, ovary, anther, and microspore culture. Several reviews have
been published on haploid production and use in barley breeding (e.g., 56–58,53). The bulbosum
technique evolved from observations that wide hybrids obtained by embryo rescue from H. vul-
gare × H. bulbosum crosses were haploid in nature (59). Because of the possibility of producing
haploids from a wide range of genotypes, this method has been favored for the production of dou-
bled haploids in the past (60). The haploid initiator gene (hap), a result of induced mutation in
barley, can also lead to the production of haploids (61). The advantage of using this approach is
that in vitro culture can be obviated, but the inability to distinguish spontaneous doubled haploids
from hybrid embryos and the imperative use of only genotypes carrying the hap gene have not
led to the widespread use of this technique (53).
Haploid production via anther and microspore culture has become a method of choice be-
cause of the potentially large number of plants that can be generated. Requirements for andro-
genic culture are, however, critical for the success of efficient regeneration. Factors such as
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722 Ganeshan et al.
growth conditions of the donor plants and media components have been the subject of many stud-
ies, and significant improvements have been made in the responsiveness of anther and microspore
culture. Although genetic instability and genotype dependency have been reported in plants de-
rived from androgenic cultures, some progress toward circumventing these drawbacks has been
made. One of the problems that still must be addressed is the observed distorted segregation ra-
tios in doubled haploids derived from androgenic cultures (62–64). Nonetheless, androgenic dou-
bled haploids are being used in plant breeding programs and have surpassed doubled haploid pro-
duction by the bulbosum method (53).
The contribution of doubled haploid production in barley breeding has been fully recog-
nized, as shown by the release of several varieties. Its implications for barley breeding are likely
to expand further. In conjunction with mutagenesis, haploid production has been suggested to be
useful in generating true-to-type mutants (65). By using such an approach several doubled haploid
mutants of barley have been identified (66). However, the use of the haploid system is not restricted
to the generation of doubled haploids for breeding programs. The prospects for using the haploid
system for barley transformation also cannot be disregarded. Microspores are single-celled hap-
loid entities that have been suggested to be attractive targets for transformation (67), and the prac-
ticality of such an approach has been demonstrated. For example, transient expression has been
observed in electroporated microspores (68) and in those transformed by particle bombardment
(69). Stable transformation of microspores (discussed later) has also been achieved.
3. Transgenic Plant Production

A suitable vehicle for DNA delivery; an appropriate target cell, tissue, or organ; and an efficient
tissue culture regeneration system are pivotal to the success of transgene technology in barley. Al-
though in planta transformation of barley plants has been attempted by macroinjection of DNA,
results have not been encouraging enough to warrant further in-depth studies. For example, DNA
from a two-row barley plant was injected into developing seeds of a six-row waxy barley (70). A
few plants had normal starch composition and displayed two-row phenotype, but mendelian seg-
regation was not observed in the progeny. Plasmids carrying the NPTII gene have also been in-
jected into floral tillers (71), with inconclusive results. Application of plasmid DNA to stigmas
(71) and inoculation of florets at anthesis with Agrobacterium sp. (72) are other approaches that
have been tried to no avail. Several other attempts at DNA uptake by germinating seeds (73), by
imbibing of embryos in DNA suspensions (74) and by electrophoretic transfection of seeds, have
been equally unsuccessful. Moreover, such transformation systems are not specifically targeting
meristematic cells, which would otherwise provide a degree of assurance as to the inheritance of
integrated DNA in subsequent generations (52).
Microinjection of DNA and electroporation of cells have also been explored as potential
DNA delivery systems. Although microinjection can be viewed as an elegant means of introduc-
ing DNA, it has the disadvantage of requiring highly specialized resources and skills. Besides
being cumbersome, DNA delivery has to be precise, and the microinjection process should not
inflict substantial injury to the cells. Since only a low number of cells can be microinjected be-
cause of the labor-intensive nature of the technique, there is a need for a highly efficient culture
system for regeneration of treated cells. Potential target cells for microinjection are zygotic
proembryos and microspore-derived proembryos (52). Multiple microinjections of proembryos
have only produced putative primary chimeric transformants, a phenomenon ostensibly apparent
when dealing with gene transfer to clumps of cells (75). Recent advances in improving efficiency
of regeneration from barley microspore cultures could refurbish the microinjection technique.
Electroporation is a more subtle approach to transfer DNA to cells and tissues. Although
initially protoplasts were investigated as the main targets for electroporation, plant cells and tis-
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sues have also been subjected to electroporation for the uptake of DNA. Many studies have used
barley protoplasts for transient expression assays, using either electroporation (e.g., 76,77) or
polyethylene glycol (PEG) (e.g., 78,79). Thus, the protoplast system seems to be an ideal target
for DNA uptake by either electroporation or PEG-mediated transformation, except that some of
the limitations of the techniques need to be addressed. Establishment of viable protoplasts re-
quires specific culture conditions, is highly genotype-dependent, tends to lose morphogenic po-
tential in long-term cultures, and is a laborious process (80). Somaclonal variation is another
problem often encountered with protoplast regeneration. It has been suggested that use of barley
protoplasts derived from primary callus from young scutella, microspores, or anthers may allevi-
ate some of the problems associated with plant regeneration (81). Nonetheless, stable transfor-
mation of barley via PEG-mediated uptake of DNA by protoplasts has been reported (82).
Currently the method of choice for the transformation of barley is the microprojectile DNA
delivery system. The physically harsh nature of this technique has not been a deterrent to the ef-
ficient regeneration of plants. Many reports on the use of this technique for barley transformation
have been published (e.g., 83). Principles and parameters governing the microprojectile delivery
system have been the subject of many studies and reviews (84) and are not discussed here. Im-
provements are constantly being made to the bombardment parameters in order to maximize ef-
ficiency of barley transformation. Most of the limitations encountered with protoplast transfor-
mation methods are nonexistent when using particle bombardment. Target cells or tissues are
readily available and respond adequately upon culture, provided optimal culture conditions have
been established in preliminary experiments. However, the haphazard nature of integration of the
transgene in the genome has been an issue of concern with regard to multiple integration sites, re-
arrangements, truncations, gene stability, and unstable expression (85).
The use of Agrobacterium sp. for the transformation of barley has now been established
(86–88). Considering the resources being allocated to research aimed at perfecting the process in
several laboratories around the world, it is likely to become the method of choice. It is a cheaper
alternative to particle bombardment, requiring simpler manipulative steps.
Thus far, DNA delivery systems have been discussed with ephemeral allusion to the target
cells or tissues. An efficient transformation system is strongly dependent on the competency of
the explant to be a recipient and the regeneration frequency of such an explant. It is therefore im-
perative that some time be devoted to carefully identifying the most appropriate target tissue. In
barley, scutella from immature embryos have been the preferred material because of their re-
sponsiveness to in vitro regeneration. However, isolation of scutella is a time-consuming and
labor-intensive process. Moreover, the scutella are not readily available and best response in cul-
ture is obtained from scutella ranging in size from 0.5 to 1.0 mm. Prolonged storage of the heads
prior to isolation of scutella also reduces responsiveness. Because of these limitations with
scutella, attempts have been made at identifying explants that are easily accessible and equally
responsive. Regeneration from young leaf tissue–derived callus of barley was reported as early as
1988 (89). However, interest in leaf tissues has not been widespread, as evidenced by the limited
reports of success. The use of barley leaf tissue as a potential explant was reviewed in a 1999
study, wherein all four genotypes under investigation regenerated plants (90). Further studies with
a larger number of genotypes would confirm the suitability of this system for regeneration and
transformation.
Mature embryos and meristems are appealing sources of explants because of the ease with
which they can be obtained and manipulated. Callus induction from isolated apical meristems of
barley was reported in 1975 (91). Subsequently, several reports have alluded to the competency
of apical meristems together with the adjoining leaf tissues for somatic embryo induction and
plant regeneration in barley (92–94). Most often mature embryos, seedlings, leaf bases, and
meristems are mentioned as one explant, since their physical separation as individual explants is
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724 Ganeshan et al.
not mandatory to induce callus from and around the meristem tissues. Direct induction of multi-
ple shoots from bombarded shoot meristematic cultures, without a callus induction phase, has
also been achieved (95,96). Such a system may have the added advantage of reducing somaclonal
variation. For mature embryos of barley, there is one successful report of callus induction and
plant regeneration (35). No further studies using mature embryos as explants have been reported.
Other potential explants for transformation include immature ovaries, immature inflores-
cences, and anthers/microspores. Since the first report on the culture of unfertilized ovaries of bar-
ley (97), not much progress has been made in improving this culture system, in spite of its po-
tential for the production of homozygous dihaploid plants. An improvement in regeneration
frequencies was reported, provided ovaries were collected when pollen grains were at the trinu-
cleate stage (98). Good regeneration was reported from immature inflorescences in the size range
of 1.5–3.5 mm (99), but further progress in culturing immature inflorescences of barley has not
been accomplished. The critical stages of ovaries and inflorescences to respond in culture may
have been deterrent factors in exploring these explants for further use. Recent improvements in
anther/microspore culture of barley offer another promising system for transformation. Trans-
genic plants from barley microspores have been reported (100,101), and research is likely to in-
tensify, especially with Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation to make this system
more efficient.
III. GENETICALLY ENGINEERED BARLEY
Despite the limited successes in barley transformation as compared to that in many other cereal
crops, several useful traits have already been introduced in barley. Although disease resistance is
one of the important aspects of barley improvement, malting and brewing qualities are also be-
coming targets of investigation through manipulation of enzymes involved in these processes.
Protein engineering for enhancing the feed and food value of barley is another area of focus. Al-
though modification of starch composition could be a possible target, today there is no obvious
use for barley starch with high amylose or high amylopectin content.
A. Herbicide Resistance
Serious yield losses can occur in barley as a result of weed infestation. Although tillage practices
and crop rotations can reduce weed populations to some extent, recourse to herbicide applications
is sometimes necessary. However, the herbicide has to be chosen carefully. It has been reported
that barley is sensitive to many herbicides at varying stages of growth (102). The incorporation of
herbicide-resistant genes into barley by transformation may alleviate this situation, allowing ef-
fective control of weeds. Caution should nevertheless be exercised when using herbicides, and
they should only be used in conjunction with an integrated weed management program. One of
the first reports on the production of fertile transgenic barley by microprojectile bombardment
employed a plasmid carrying the bar gene (103). Another study reported on the successful use of
isolated barley microspores as target for biolistic transformation with a construct carrying the bar
gene, wherein Basta-resistant plants were regenerated (100). Thus, besides serving as a selective
system for regeneration from transformed cells in cultures, regenerated transformants are resis-
tant to the herbicide Basta. However, Basta-resistant barley plants have not been commercially
exploited so far.
B. Pest Resistance
Barley, like other crops, is prone to a number of pests, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and insects.
Yield as well as the quality of the grains for malting, feed, or food uses can be significantly af-
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fected without appropriate control measures. By far the best way to protect barley crops is by fol-
lowing sound agricultural practices such as crop rotation and by using resistant varieties. Only as
a last resort should chemical control be undertaken. The use of pesticides is being discouraged
mainly because of environmental concerns. Moreover, the costs associated with pesticides and
their application may outweigh the returns. Although agricultural practices can be followed reli-
giously, resistance or tolerance of varieties may not last, because of changes in pest populations,
environmental conditions, and extensive use of a particular variety over a number of years, which
could lead to a breakdown in resistance. Therefore, plant breeders are constantly breeding for re-
sistance to pests. The limiting factors, however, are the lack of or inability to identify resistance
genes in existing barley varieties and the difficulty in introgressing resistance genes from wild
species, if any, into barley cultivars. The recently improved genetic engineering systems for bar-
ley are likely to play important roles in this respect. A number of candidate genes potentially ca-
pable of directly or indirectly contributing to enhanced pest resistance have been cloned (see Ref.
47 for a review). For example, coat protein–mediated resistance to barley yellow dwarf virus was
demonstrated in transformed barley (104). When using complementary DNA (cDNA) of virus
coat protein genes for transformation of barley, coat protein–mediated resistance to barley mild
mosaic bymovirus and barley yellow mosaic bymovirus was observed (105). Enhanced resistance
to Botrytis cinerea in excised leaves of barley was demonstrated by transformation with the stil-
bene synthase gene encoding synthesis of trans-resveratrol, a phenolic phytoalexin (106).
It is interesting to note that a number of genes related to insect resistance, bacterial disease
resistance, and fungal disease resistance that have been cloned from barley have been transformed
into tobacco or wheat. The barley trypsin inhibitor gene Cme was introduced into wheat imma-
ture embryos by particle bombardment, and regenerated plants were shown to reduce survival rate
of Angoumois sp. grain moth significantly (107). In a study attempting to enhance fungal disease
resistance in a quantitative manner, three barley genes encoding antifungal proteins were used for
combinatorial expression in transgenic tobacco (108). The three barley genes encoded a class II
chitinase, a class II β-1,3-glucanase, and a type I ribosome inactivating protein. Similarly, the
precursor of small antibacterial proteins, hordothionins, present in barley endosperms, was ex-
pressed in tobacco to study expression, processing, sorting, and biological activity (109). In vitro
toxicity assays with hordothionins extracted from transgenic tobacco showed toxicity similar to
that of the barley hordothionins on the bacterial plant pathogen, Clavibacter michiganensis subsp.
michiganensis. The recent advances in barley tissue culture and transformation might encourage
use of such genes for barley transformation.
C. Improvement of Barley Quality

1. Malting Barley
Malting barley quality is dependent on the inherent desirable traits that have been incorporated
by breeders in response to specific demands by the malting industries. However, malting quality
is also influenced by environmental conditions, which could adversely affect grain quality and re-
sult in rejection of the barley for malting. Visual inspection of the grains is the first assessment
for malting potential; it focuses on plumpness, uniformity, and good color (110). If the visual in-
spection deems the barley to be good for malting, then more detailed protein and germination
tests are performed to ascertain its malting potential (111). High protein content in barley grains
is not desirable for malting, since it reduces the amount of extract produced from the malt. Malt
destined for brewing should have high extract, an acceptable level of soluble protein, and the nec-
essary starch degrading enzymes with optimal activity. The malting process is considered to pro-
ceed optimally if there is extensive endosperm degradation or modification during the germina-
tion stage of malting, with concurrent degradation of cell walls and protein leading to exposure
of the starch granules (112).
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726 Ganeshan et al.
Since barley is an important commodity for malting purposes, there is a need for produc-
tion of high-quality grains. In this regard studies have been undertaken to render some of the bio-
chemical modifications during malting more efficient. The cell wall polysaccharides can create a
highly viscous solution during malting and brewing, and rapid degradation of these wall materi-
als is desirable (113). The (1,3–1,4)-β-glucans are major cell wall polysaccharides in barley
(114), and their complete degradation by (1,3–1,4)-β-glucanase during germination is essential
for the production of good-quality malt. However, (1,3–1,4)-β-glucanase is inactivated at tem-
peratures above 55°C (115). To overcome this limitation during the kilning process, which occurs
from 40°C to 85°C, a codon-optimized thermostable (1,3–1,4)-β-glucanase gene from Bacillus
sp. was engineered for optimal expression in transgenic barley (116). A subsequent study showed
that the modified transgene driven by an α-amylase gene promoter displayed temporal and spa-
tial expression patterns in scutella and aleurone layer during germination (117). As opposed to
extensive degradation of cell wall materials and proteins during malting, the conversion of starch
needs to be minimal, if the end use of the malt is brewing and distilling (111). The enzymes in-
volved in this process are α-amylases, β-amylases, and limit dextrinase or pullulanase. A 1999
report on the increased activity of pullulanase in barley grains by coexpression of thioredoxin
(118) could be useful in more efficiently hydrolyzing α-(1,6) linkages in amylopectin fractions
of starch during brewing and distilling processes.
2. Nutritional Quality
There has been an increasing interest in improving the feed and food value of barley. Over 5% of
the barley produced in the world is consumed as food (110); highest consumption occurs in North
African countries at a rate of 65 kg/person/annum (119). The high dietary fiber content and its
possible health benefits have led to improvement strategies that could popularize its consumption.
However, the low content of lysine and threonine reduces its nutritional value for humans and
monogastric animals. Therefore, attempts have been made to increase the levels of essential
amino acids. High-lysine barley genotypes have been developed but have not been commercially
acceptable because of the shrunken seed phenotype associated with elevated lysine content (120).
Biotechnological approaches using transformation technology are also being explored. For ex-
ample, the expression of mutant Escherichia coli genes encoding lysine feedback–insensitive
forms of aspartate kinase and dihydrodipicolinate was studied in barley (121). Primary transfor-
mants carrying the modified aspartate kinase gene showed a 14-fold increase in free lysine and
an 8-fold increase in free methionine. Mature seeds from transformants carrying the dihy-
drodipicolinate synthase gene showed a twofold increase in free lysine, arginine, and asparagine
and a 50% decrease in free proline. These results indicate that lysine and methionine levels can
potentially be enhanced by this approach.
As in malting barley, the high level of (1,3–1,4)-β-glucans can affect the feed value of bar-
ley, making it a low-metabolic-energy feed for poultry. In 2000, the codon-optimzed thermostable
(1,3–1,4)-β-glucanase, as mentioned earlier but driven by the D hordein gene promoter, was
transformed into barley by using Agrobacterium sp. (122). The transgenic lines were reported to
have 40 times more recombinant enzyme than produced in the endosperm of the previously re-
ported transgenic malt. Like (1,3–1,4)-β-glucans, arabinoxylan (another endosperm cell wall
polysaccharide) has antinutritional value for monogastric animals. To hydrolyze the arabinoxy-
lans, endo-1,4-β-xylanase of microbial origin has been added to the feed. To develop a more ef-
ficient system, a modified xylanase gene of fungal origin (123) driven by either a rice or a barley
endosperm-specific promoter has been transformed via Agrobacterium sp. into barley (124). Al-
though the estimated expression level was only 0.037% of total seed protein, there is scope for
further improvement, possibly by optimized codon usage (124).
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Barley for human consumption still requires extensive research and is yet to be in signifi-
cant demand, in spite of increased usage as food (110). Barley has been reported to have several
health benefits, such as reducing heart disease, colon cancer, and rate of absorption of sugar (ben-
eficial to diabetics) (125), which are most likely due to the high level of β-glucans. Although β-
glucan is not desirable in malting and feed barley, it is considered to be a neutraceutical for hu-
mans in this respect.
D. Novel Uses
Barley is always thought of as a malting or feed crop and will continue to be important for such
purposes. However, the potential for using barley for other end uses does exist. In the food in-
dustry it has found minor uses in wheat bread, soups, porridge, breakfast cereals, stews, bakery
foods, and production of maltose syrups. Improvement of barley to cater to the primary niche
markets, i.e., feed and malt, is an ongoing task and will not be surpassed by improvement for any
other potential use. Novel uses of barley may arise from genetic engineering approaches, for ex-
ample, in the production of enzymes, oral vaccines, antibodies, pharmaceuticals, and vitamins.
The report on the large-scale production of xylanase in barley grains (124) is encouraging for ex-
ploring production of other industrial products in barley. Specialty starches for industrial pur-
poses could also be produced in barley. For example, the production of industrial starch films is
influenced by the amylose/amylopectin ratio among several other factors (126). High amy-
lopectin content has been reported to decrease flexibility, burst resistance, and tensile strengths of
films (127). Potato, corn, wheat, and rice starches have been studied for their bioplastics proper-
ties (128), and similar uses of barley starches as thermoplastic materials could be explored. In
2000, an antibody (scFv) against carcinoembryonic antigen was engineered and expressed in the
leaves and seeds of rice and wheat, as an example for the production and storage pharmaceuticals
in cereals (129). Such an approach could also be attempted with barley for similar or other types
of antibodies or vaccines. Novel uses for barley are still in the exploratory phase and not exten-
sively researched, possibly because of the priority of improvement in its primary uses as feed,
malt, and food.
IV. PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES
From being recalcitrant to in vitro culture and transformation, barley can now be considered with
conviction to be amenable to both. The number reports of success that have appeared are indeed
encouraging, and this decade will most likely see a spurt of reports dealing with barley harboring
desirable genes incorporated by direct gene transfer. Although particle bombardment will con-
tinue to be extensively used, the capability Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation systems
provide, has given transgenic barley research further impetus.
However, there is a certain naïveté in harboring the notion that Agrobacterium sp.–medi-
ated transformation will offer advantages such as more organized integration of a defined segment
of DNA at low copy numbers, with higher, stable expression of transgenes as opposed to particle
bombardment. Events such as DNA rearrangements, deletions, and multiple copy number and in-
sertion sites are also observed with Agrobacterium sp. transformation (for a recent review see Ref.
130). Multiple copies of transgenes and integration sites have been linked to gene silencing,
mostly believed to be a result of transgene hypermethylation. As early as 1992, it was recognized
that DNA methylation had a significant role to play in the stability of foreign DNA in barley
(131). The report suggested that the DNA to be transferred must have a certain methylation pat-
tern for stability of the foreign DNA. Barley transformants generated by particle bombardment
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728 Ganeshan et al.
exhibited loss or variable expression levels of transgenes in some of the progeny (103). Agrobac-
terium sp.–mediated transformation of barley has also been reported to generate transformed
lines with multiple insertions and transgene silencing (86). Furthermore, the transformation fre-
quency obtained in this study was comparable to that obtained by particle bombardment.
As barley becomes more amenable to transformation, more reports are expected to allude
to the issue of transgene stability and silencing. It is therefore imperative to identify ways to cir-
cumvent these problems. Since transgene silencing is often associated with multiple copies in-
serted at a single site or dispersed throughout the genome, it has been suggested that only trans-
genic plants carrying a single copy of the transgene be selected and advanced (132,133).
However, introduced transgenes can also suppress expression of endogenous genes, if there is ap-
preciable sequence homology. Part of this problem can be prevented by using different promot-
ers for driving the expression of the transgenes (85). Stable integration and expression of trans-
genes have been shown to be improved by flanking trangenes with sequences of matrix
attachment regions (MARs), thereby possibly shielding the transgene from influences of sur-
rounding chromatin (134). Since barley has about 80% repeat DNA (135), this strategy employ-
ing MARs might prove to be useful in reducing transgene silencing, resulting in efficient expres-
sion of the transgenes.
Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation could also be used to deliver more spe-
cialized vectors carrying large inserts such as bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs). Such an
approach has been used for the transformation of tobacco, by the use of a binary bacterial artifi-
cial chromosome (BIBAC) vector (136). This approach is particularly appealing for transforma-
tion with regard to large fragments of DNA with several genes. Several recent reports have indi-
cated clustering of genes affecting traits on specific chromosomal segments. For example, there
are several reports pertaining to the existence of clusters of genes along chromosomal segments
that are involved in disease resistance (e.g., 137–139). Such clusters have been identified in bar-
ley (140,141) and could potentially be used for the transformation of barley by using the BIBAC
system, when BAC libraries containing such clusters become available.
Ongoing research must continue to unravel further the biochemical events or pathways af-
fecting the malting and feed quality attributes. Information thus obtained could be used to over-
express, down-regulate, or knock out specific genes for altered characteristics. Similarly, efforts
need to be directed toward better understanding the importance of amylose and amylopectin in
the malting process. Whereas waxy barley has been reported to have reduced cell wall modifica-
tion (112), high-amylose barley has been reported to have other characteristics that adversely af-
fect malting (142). However, many of the genes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of starch
in cereals have now been cloned (143) and could be used for targeted modification of starch com-
position for malting. The characteristics of barley starch granules also determine the ease of
breakdown of the starch. The large A-type and small B-type granules are more prone to degrada-
tion at different efficiencies during germination. However, because of their resistance to degra-
dation by amylolytic enzymes during brewing, carryover of any remaining small granules into
malt can affect brewing (111). Therefore, barley grains with higher concentrations of large A-type
granules might be more desirable for brewing.
It is evident that opportunities for genetically engineering barley abound. Therefore, prior-
ities need to be laid out as to the most important aspects of barley improvement for immediate
consideration. Limitations due to availability of culture and/or transformation systems can now
be considered insignificant. The general concept of having to establish systems capable of high
transformation frequencies is a vagary to be given less importance. Resources should rather be
directed toward production of useful transformation events. In other words, more consideration
should be given to producing stable transformants and specialized constructs and maximizing
transgene expression.
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48
Transgenic Coffee
Maria Filomena Carneiro

Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical, Oeiras, Portugal
John I. Stiles
Integrated Coffee Technologies, Inc., Honolulu, Hawaii
I. INTRODUCTION 737
II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 738
III. MOLECULAR IMPROVEMENT OF COFFEE 739
A. Insect Resistance 739
B. Quality Traits 740
IV. PROSPECTS 742
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS 744
REFERENCES 745
I. INTRODUCTION
Coffee is a major commercial crop and is second only to petroleum in value as a commodity in
world trade. It is the major component of foreign exchange of a number of countries in Latin
America, Africa, and Asia. Although not a primary source of food, coffee provides employment
and social benefits for millions of people in developing countries and constitutes the major source
of foreign exchange needed to buy goods and technology.
There are about 11.2 million ha of coffee worldwide and more than 6 million tons of cof-
fee, worth approximately (U.S.) $10 billion, is grown annually. Brazil and Colombia are the first
and second largest producers. Together these two countries are responsible for about 45% of the
world’s coffee production. Although there are many species of the genus Coffea, only two of
them, Coffea arabica (Arabica) and Coffea canephora (Robusta), are widely cultivated. Other
species, such as C. liberica, C. dewevrei, and C. racemosa, are only cultivated to satisfy local con-
sumption. About 75% of the world’s commercial coffee is Arabica. Essentially all coffee produc-
tion in Latin America is Arabica. Some is also produced in African countries, such as Ethiopia
and Kenya.
C. arabica is native to the highlands of southwestern Ethiopia and was introduced to the
American continent from tropical Africa in the first decades of the 18th century. It is generally
grown at altitudes between 1000 and 2000 meters. It is thought that all C. arabica plants are de-
737
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738 Carneiro and Stiles
rived from a single plant collected by the Botanical Garden of Paris. Because of this derivation
and because of its allotetraploid origin, C. arabica is characterized by low genetic diversity; thus,
there is a lack of resistance to the main pests and diseases in most varieties of C. arabica. The ma-
jority of cultivars present homogeneous agronomic behavior characterized by high susceptibility
to many pests and diseases and very low adaptability. The cup qualities of C. arabica, together
with its autogamous and perennial characteristics, led to the development of homogeneous plan-
tations all over the world.
Coffea canephora has a wide geographic distribution, extending from the western to the
central tropical and subtropical regions of the African continent, from Guinea and Liberia to
Sudan and the Uganda forest, with a high concentration of types in the Democratic Republic of
Congo (old Republic of Congo Kinshasa). C. canephora, or Robusta, as it is commonly called,
grows at low altitudes (about 850 m) and accounts for 80% of African coffee production. How-
ever, Robusta has also been cultivated in South America and Asian countries.
Conventional coffee breeding is a long process involving different methods, namely, selec-
tion from a wild population followed by hybridization and progeny evaluation, backcrossing, and
interspecific crossing. It takes more than 30 years to obtain a new cultivar by using any of these
methods. Because of the long breeding cycle and the lack of diverse germplasm, coffee is a good
candidate for manipulation by genetic transformation. Furthermore, in vitro coffee tissue tech-
niques including plant regeneration systems have been developed. Thus, the basic technology for
manipulation of coffee plant cells at the cellular and molecular levels is available, making coffee
a suitable crop for genetic transformation.
Several important agronomic traits could be considered for a coffee biotechnology pro-
gram, namely, resistance to diseases and insects, resistance to herbicides, drought tolerance,
cold/freezing tolerance, short maturation cycles, controlled ripening, and regulation of caffeine
content. When multiple genes are responsible for the traits, as are the genes responsible for
cold/freeze tolerance or drought resistance, the molecular approach is difficult to apply.
In this chapter we review the success already obtained in coffee transformation and the en-
gineering of the first coffee plants carrying agronomic traits, which include Bt genes from Bacil-
lus thuringiensis for resistance to coffee leaf miner and fruit-expressed 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-
carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase and ACC oxidase genes that are responsible for the synthesis of
ethylene, which governs fruit ripening and shortening of maturation cycles. We will review work
on the gene encoding xanthosine-N7-methyltransferase, one of the genes responsible for caffeine
biosynthesis. Finally, we draw perspectives and discuss the scope of further studies and prospects
for transgenic coffee production in the near future.
II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The technology of transgenic plant production can have an important and immediate impact on
solving problems such as resistance to pests and diseases. In the future, as our understanding of
more complex genetic systems increases and this technology is integrated with conventional
breeding technology, biotechnology will have an increasingly important impact on the develop-
ment of improved coffee cultivars. Using traditional breeding methods, it is possible to cross sex-
ually compatible species and introduce sets of genes and chromosomes. Repetitive backcrossing
to recover lines with the necessary commercial qualities is a long process in woody species such
as coffee (1). Because of the time-consuming backcross process an alternative approach is desir-
able to solve some of the major problems of coffee production. Genetic engineering is an attrac-
tive and realistic option for solving this problem.
Theoretically, genetic engineering can be used to introduce any gene from any origin, ef-
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Transgenic Coffee 739
fectively increasing the germplasm pool to include all organisms. However, one of the major lim-
itations of genetic engineering is the lack of useful genes, since only a small number of useful
genes have been characterized at the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) level in sufficient detail to im-
part precise and predictable phenotypes on whole plants.
Traits such as disease and insect resistance can be found in plant germplasm and in some
cases have been shown to be controlled by a single locus. However, as yet, no classical plant dis-
ease resistance gene has been used to impart resistance to a heterologous host. However, trans-
genic plants with resistance to diseases, herbicides, and insect damage have been produced by
using genes from both plant and nonplant sources (1).
Fraley and collaborators demonstrated that direct gene transfer was possible by using re-
combinant DNA technology (2). This ability to transfer genes among organisms without sexual
crossing provides breeders with new opportunities to increase efficiency in developing new vari-
eties and to add new and unique traits not present in the germplasm available for sexual crosses.
The first reference to genetic transformation technology using the Agrobacterium species–medi-
ated technique was published in 1983 (2–4). In the first experiments, protoplasts were used. Sub-
sequently methods based on leaf and stem explants were developed, making it possible to link
high-efficiency transformation with good regeneration capacity (5). After this breakthrough, many
important traits were targeted for introduction into important crop plants, inducing resistance to
insects, viruses, herbicide tolerance, and to the improvement of the seed storage proteins.
The first report on tissue culture of coffee was in 1970 (6) and in 1997 the first transgenic
plants were reported by several research groups for a number of different characteristics, includ-
ing resistance to coffee leaf miner, controlled ripening, and caffeine content regulation (7–11). It
is clear that an enormous amount of effort was exerted in the 1990s in the area of coffee genetic
transformation. The original coffee cell culture research focused on optimization of protocols for
optimization of in vitro regeneration systems, both for plant production and for application of ge-
netic engineering. A number of different approaches have been developed, including somatic em-
bryogenesis, adventitious bud formation, cell suspension culture, and protoplast culture. Some of
these regeneration systems have been successfully adapted to genetic engineering of coffee with
reasonably high levels of transformation efficiency (12,13). Agrobacterium species–mediated
transformation, direct gene transfer, and particle bombardment have all been adapted to coffee
(14–20). With the development of transformation technology, research has begun on the intro-
duction of specific agronomic traits, including resistance to insects such as coffee leaf miner and
coffee berry borer, control of fruit ripening by using the ACC oxidase and ACC synthase genes,
and regulation of caffeine content.
III. MOLECULAR IMPROVEMENT OF COFFEE

A. Insect Resistance
The most important insects that affect coffee are Perileucoptera coffeella (coffee leaf miner), Hy-
pothenemus hampei (coffee berry borer), and some Meloidogyne species (nematodes). Coffee
leaf miner is the most serious insect pathogen affecting coffee plants in Brazil. The crop losses
can extend to 50%, and Coffea arabica varieties grown in Brazil are highly susceptible to this in-
sect. Coffee berry borer causes great losses in certain countries where this insect is endemic. The
control of both insects has been through cultural practices and insecticides, which greatly increase
production costs and also lead to environmental pollution. Biological control programs using par-
asitoid wasps have been instituted to control the coffee berry borer in several countries, such as
Colombia and Kenya. However, coffee berry borer is still a major problem in many coffee-grow-
ing regions. The use of resistant coffee varieties would be an ideal control method. However, there
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are no known resistance genes to the coffee berry borer, and even if resistance could be found, it
would take many years to develop acceptable commercial varieties of coffee by conventional
breeding. Genetic engineering can have a significant role in development of resistant varieties by
allowing the introduction of effective genes for control of the insects and shortening the time nec-
essary to obtain new resistant varieties.
As previously mentioned, the Bt toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis is effective in leaf miner
control. Bacillus thuringiensis is a gram-positive bacterium that produces specific proteins toxic
to some species of insects (21). The insecticidal activity of Bacillus thuringiensis is due to bod-
ies of crystalline inclusions produced during the sporulation of the bacteria. There are several va-
rieties of Bacillus thuringiensis, which differ in the structure of the Bt protein and the range of in-
secticidal activity. Most Bt toxins are effective against Lepidopterae species, but some are also
toxic to Dipterae and Coleopteran and occasionally some other insects. The characterization of
the activity of B. thuringiensis toxins against the coffee leaf miner and the development of a trans-
genic coffee plant expressing the selected toxin genes are valuable tools for assessing the impact
of a transgenic approach on an obligate endocarp pest that feeds on perennial crops. Studies have
now demonstrated that Bt toxins have activity against the coffee leaf miner (Perileucoptera cof-
feella). Immunocytochemical and biological assays revealed that the crystal proteins Cry IA (c)
and Cry IB are toxic to P. coffeella and that the corresponding genes can be inserted into coffee
by genetic transformation to yield coffee plants resistant to leaf miner (22,23). The results demon-
strated that the coffee leaf miner is susceptible to at least two Bacillus thuringiensis δ endotox-
ins, Cry IA (c) and Cry IB (23). This work represented the first step in assessing the potential for
insect resistance in a transgenic perennial tropical crop.
Transgenic plants of C. canephora (genotype 126) were obtained for the first time by cocul-
tivating somatic embryos with A. rhizogenes (A4) and disarmed strains of A. tumefaciens
(LBA4404) by using a modified binary plasmid, pBIN19. The transfer DNA (T-DNA) region of
pBIN19 contains the GUS gene with the PIV2 intron, a gene conferring resistance to chlorsul-
furon, a herbicide, and a wild-type or synthetic Cry IA(c) gene, which is active against the coffee
leaf miner. The CryIA (c) gene is under the control of the EF1σ-A1 promoter (24), which was
demonstrated to be expressed in coffee by transient expression studies (19). The herbicide-resis-
tant selectable marker gene used was csr-1-1 (25), which confers resistance to chlorsulfuron. This
gene was used under the control of the p70S promoter, which is a modification of the 35S CaMV
promoter, in which the enhancer sequence was duplicated. The different constructs were intro-
duced into Agrobacterium sp. LBA440, by triparental conjugation. Transgenic plantlets were re-
generated through somatic embryogenesis. Stable integration of the T-DNA into coffee genome
was verified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Southern blot assays (7). Leroy and col-
laborators (8) have now obtained more than 100 transformed plants each of C. canephora and C.
arabica by this protocol. Expression of the cry1A(c) gene was verified by Western blotting in the
majority of the regenerated plants. Some of the transgenic plants have demonstrated resistance to
leaf miner in bioassays. Field trials to test the effectiveness and genetic stability of these trans-
genic coffee plants are being carried out in French Guyana (8). This is the first report of transfor-
mation of C. canephora and C. arabica plants with an agronomic trait.
At the Centre de Coopération Internationale de Recherche Agronomique pour le
Développement (CIRAD), tests to evaluate Bt genes for activity against the coffee berry borer are
also under study. A large research program is also currently under way in Colombia to produce
coffee berry borer–resistant transgenic plants of the variety ‘Columbia’ (20).
B. Quality Traits
Quality traits are those that impart an improved plant product. In coffee examples of quality traits
are uniformity of ripening, shorter maturation cycles, higher total soluble solids, larger bean size,
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increased bean density and texture, caffeine content, and improved aroma and taste (26,27). Sig-
nificant progress has been made on two of these quality traits, control of ripening and control of
caffeine content.
1. Control of Ripening
Coffee beverage quality is critically dependent on bean quality. Unripe beans give poor cup qual-
ity and if mixed with ripe beans result in a lower-quality product. Growth regulators and selective
harvest can be used to alleviate the problem of nonuniform ripening but have the disadvantages
of fruit fall and increased costs of production. The lack of uniform ripening also limits the effec-
tiveness of mechanical harvesting and certain hand harvesting techniques that strip all of the fruit
off the plants at one time. Ethylene controls many physiological and developmental processes in
higher plants, including fruit ripening in climacteric plants. Coffee has now been shown to be a
climacteric plant (9). The inhibition of ethylene synthesis has been achieved by the supression of
ACC synthase and ACC oxidase genes by using antisense or cosuppression (28).
One approach to achieving uniformity of ripening is the inhibition of ethylene synthesis
during the final stages of fruit maturation. The cloning of the genes involved in ethylene biosyn-
thesis, ACC synthase and ACC oxidase, will make it possible to test this hypothesis. Neupane and
collaborators reported the cloning of fruit-expressed ACC synthase and ACC oxidase comple-
mentary DNAs (cDNAs) (9). Reverse transcriptase PCR was used with degenerate primers spe-
cific for highly conserved regions of ACC synthases and ACC oxidases. The PCR products were
then used as probes to screen a coffee fruit cDNA library, and full-length clones for each gene
were obtained. Northern blotting experiments using these clones showed conclusively that coffee
is a climacteric plant (9).
If ethylene production can be significantly reduced, fruit development should be blocked at
the mature green stage. Synchronous ripening can then be induced by treatment of the plants with
an ethylene-releasing chemical such as ethrel. Plants transformed with antisense genes to both
ACC synthase and ACC oxidase have been produced and are awaiting field trials.
In other experiments, the ACC oxidase gene was tested in antisense orientation in order to
obtain coffee transgenic plants exhibiting reduced ethylene production (LF Pereira, personal
communication, 1999). Preliminary results of this study allowed the verification of the transient
expression in embryogenic tissues. The regeneration of plants is still in progress.
2. Control of Caffeine Content

The coffee beans of C. arabica and C. canephora can contain more than 1% and 2% caffeine, re-
spectively. Caffeine has been described as a stimulant that causes wakefulness, increases motor
activity, enhances fatty acid metabolism, and has been commonly used in the treatment of mi-
graine. However, there is a growing belief that the ingestion of large quantities of caffeine can
have adverse effects on health (29). Consequently decaffeinated coffee consumption increased
significantly in the early 1970s. The extraction of caffeine from the seed by using organic solvents
was first reported in 1905 (30). Today, a number of sophisticated processes are in use, including
treatment with hot water, supercritical carbon dioxide, and organic solvents such as dichloro-
methane and ethylacetate. Some consumers have health concerns about the decaffeination
process, which have limited the decaffeination market. Also, even the best decaffeination treat-
ments damage the beans and remove additional compounds, resulting in decreased cup quality.
Species within the genus Coffea have reduced levels of or even no caffeine and C. arabica vari-
eties such as ‘Laurina’ have reduced levels of caffeine. A breeding program to obtain plants with
reduced levels of caffeine would take more than 30 years.
Although caffeine is an important secondary metabolite of coffee, tea, and a number of
other beverages, little is currently known at the molecular level about the caffeine biosynthetic
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pathway. At this time only one gene of this pathway has been isolated. Moisyadi and collabora-
tors reported the isolation of a cDNA encoding the first enzyme of the caffeine biosynthetic path-
way xanthosine-N7-methyltransferase (10,11). Xanthosine-N7-methyltransferase was purified,
and a partial amino acid sequence was obtained from fragments regenerated by partial tryptic di-
gestion. On the basis of the amino acid sequence, degenerate polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
primers were constructed and were used to amplify a segment of the gene, using cDNA syn-
thetized from young leaf messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) as template. The PCR product was
then used to screen a leaf cDNA library, and several clones containing the entire coding sequence
were isolated. The sequence of xanthosine-N7-methyltransferase deduced from the cDNA does
not show significant homology to other known proteins but contains several consensus sequences
common to N-methyltransferases (11). Proof of the identity of this cDNA has been obtained by
heterologous expression in tobacco, which does not normally have xanthosine-N7-methyltrans-
ferase activity (JI Stiles, unpublished). The xanthosine-N7-methyltransferase cDNA has been in-
serted in antisense orientation into a transformation vector, and coffee plants have been trans-
formed by the Agrobacterium sp.–mediated system. Plants have been recovered and are currently
being analyzed for structure of the transgene, xanthosine-N7-methyltransferase mRNA levels,
xanthosine-N7-methyltransferase enzyme activity, and caffeine levels (10). Preliminary results in-
dicated that transgenic callus that produced only about 3% of the normal amount of caffeine could
be recovered.
IV. PROSPECTS
Biotechnology will play an important role in the future of the coffee industry. As a tropical crop,
coffee is grown under conditions of high disease pressure and limited capital for purchase of pes-
ticides. Since cup quality is a major factor in determining price and demand, especially for the
higher-end gourmet market, breeding resistant cultivars is an especially arduous undertaking be-
cause both the agronomic and the quality factors must be managed. The ability to impart resis-
tance by the introduction of single genes into existing highly accepted varieties through biotech-
nology will offer solutions much faster than traditional breeding program.
As is the case with most other crops, coffee biotechnology has focused much effort on dis-
ease and insect resistance. Like most tropical crops, coffee can be severely damaged by fungal
and insect pathogens. Treatment with fungicides and insecticides is expensive, often beyond the
means of small-scale farmers; ecologically damaging; and at times not highly effective. For ex-
ample, coffee berry borer exists within the coffee fruit for a significant portion of its life cycle,
making it difficult to control by chemical means. This relationship is somewhat analogous to that
of maize with European corn borer. This insect is also difficult to eliminate with chemical treat-
ments when it is in the maize plant. However, maize genetically engineered to express the Bt toxin
is effective for control. Transgenic Bt maize in the United States has increased yields as much as
14% without the use of chemical pesticides (31). The losses reported for coffee berry borer range
as high as 96%, depending on the location (32), and there is no known resistance gene. Effective
biotechnology-based control using Bt or some other insecticidal protein would make a major con-
tribution to the profitability of coffee production in many areas of the world. A secondary benefit
is the reduction in fungal infections associated with coffee berry borer damage. Vega and Mer-
cadier report that H. hampei can act as a vector for fungi such as the aflotoxin-producing As-
pergillus flavus and A. ochraceus (33). Ochractoxin A, produced by A. ochraceus and occasion-
ally a few other Aspergillus species, is a major concern in the European Union and is having
serious economic consequences in several producing countries.
Broad-spectrum fungal resistance, such as that imparted by hydrolytic enzymes that attack
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the fungal cell wall, has great potential. Because of the growing environment of coffee, fungal
diseases present severe problems. In addition to the major fungal diseases, coffee berry disease
(Colletotrichum kahawae) and rust (Hemileia vastatrix), there are a number of less widespread
diseases capable of inflicting significant losses caused by a variety of other fungi such as Fusa-
rium and Micena species. Although coffee rust can be controlled by the use of resistant varieties,
the resistance genes for most of these varieties are from the ‘Timor Hybrid,’ a natural C. arabica
× C. canephora hybrid. However, many coffee buyers consider the cultivars developed from the
‘Timor Hybrid’ to be of inferior quality, presumably as a result of the introduction of genes from
the lower-quality C. canephora along with the resistance genes. The introduction of specific fun-
gal disease resistance genes into susceptible but high-quality C. arabica cultivars by using bio-
technology would alleviate this problem.
Biotechnology can also play a role in ameliorating abiotic stresses. One of the most dis-
ruptive events in the coffee industry is a sudden freeze. Not only does it decrease income to pro-
ducers through destruction of crops; coffee processors and roasters are also affected by the con-
comitant large price fluctuations that affect the commodity markets. It would be of great
economic advantage to all segments of the industry if coffee had the ability to withstand the rel-
atively brief and light freezes that are occasionally encountered in certain coffee growing regions.
The mechanisms involved in cold acclimation and freezing tolerance are just beginning to be un-
derstood at a level necessary for intervention by biotechnology. Coffee may be an ideal candidate
for such intervention since even a small increase in cold/freezing tolerance would make a major
economic difference. Membrane damage is thought to be the primary site of freeze injury (34).
Multiple changes occur in plants as a result of cold acclimation, including changes in the lipid
composition, accumulation of sucrose and other sugars, and accumulation of certain proteins that
help to stabilize the membranes such as late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins and highly
hydrophilic proteins such as the Arabidopsis COR15σ protein (34). Intervention to stabilize
membranes by manipulating one or more of these factors may give coffee the ability to survive
most low-temperature stresses found in the normal growing regions.
Although most quality traits are complex and not understood at a level to allow intervention
by biotechnology, there are two potential areas for the application of biotechnology, control of fruit
ripening and production of caffeine-free plants. One project currently under way is the production
of caffeine-free coffee plants. As described, Moisyadi and collaborators isolated the first gene
unique to the caffeine biosynthetic pathway. This gene, xanthosine-N7-methyltransferase, is now
being used in antisense to inhibit the caffeine biosynthetic pathway (10,11). The resulting coffee
should have increased quality since only the caffeine will be removed and other changes resulting
from the chemical decaffeination process will not have occurred. The caffeine-free coffee will also
have added value since the cost of decaffeination will be eliminated. Biotechnology may also be
used to control the fruit ripening process in coffee better, as described previously.
Most other coffee quality traits are too complex to be manipulated by the currently avail-
able biotechnologies. However, certain defects may be reduced or eliminated. For example, Ro-
busta coffees have elevated levels of methylisoborneol (MIB). At this time it is not clear whether
MIB is a product of the plant or of associated microbes. In either event, biotechnology could be
utilized to eliminate MIB and the associated off flavor.
Much criticism has been targeted at the utilization of antibiotic resistance genes as selec-
table markers for genetic transformation of plants. Recently a number of new markers that give
the plant cell the ability to utilize new carbon sources have been described. These marker genes
select for transformed cells by giving them the ability to grow on a medium that cannot support
the growth of untransformed plant cells. One such system uses the phosphate-6-mannose iso-
merase gene to give plant cells the ability to grow on mannose (35). This system is reportedly up
to fivefold more efficient than traditional selectable markers that cause cell death.
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New genetic transformation techniques that result in greatly increased transformation effi-
ciencies are also being developed. Smith and collaborators, reported an electroporation-based
pollen transformation system that yields up to 44% transgenic plants (36); a transformation sys-
tem with such efficiency would not need a selectable marker system. This system could also be
used to introduce more complex molecules such as those needed for site-specific mutagenesis.
Two approaches show promise for introducing precise genetic modifications into specific plant
genes without the introduction of transgenes. Kren and collaborators (37) reported site-specific
alteration of the factor IX gene in rat liver hepatocytes at an efficiency of 40% by using a chimeric
RNA/DNA oligonucleotide in the absence of any selectable markers. This chimeric oligonu-
cleotide pairs with the homologous sequence in the genome and causes a mismatch repair or gene
conversion event that produces the desired site-specific change. Although the size of alterations
using this technology is relatively small, it could be used to insert a small deletion or nonsense
mutation into a specific gene, replacing the antisense or cosuppression technologies currently uti-
lized to silence plant genes. A second approach is the use of recombination proteins, such as the
Escherichia coli RecA protein, to increase homologous recombination (38). Enhanced homolo-
gous recombination could be used to inactivate genes as described for the chimeric RNA/DNA
but is more versatile in that larger alterations could also be produced. For example, an allele im-
parting resistance to a specific pathogen could be isolated from any species of Coffea and inserted
at the homologous disease resistance locus in C. arabica without the introduction of other unde-
sirable genes, producing a resistant cultivar with all of the other attributes of the original cultivar.
As knowledge about the structure and function of disease genes increases, it may even be possi-
ble to design new alleles to increase disease resistance or overcome breakdowns in resistance that
inevitably occur.
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Advances in cellular, developmental, and molecular genetics, combined with traditional breed-
ing, can target and achieve improvements in specific agronomic, processing, and consumer qual-
ities. Although a major agricultural product, only now is coffee benefiting from the technological
developments at the cellular and molecular levels. The first field trials of plants of C. canephora
and C. arabica resistant to leaf miner, plants of C. arabica engineered for uniform ripening of
fruits, and C. arabica with low levels of caffeine are just now beginning. From an economic per-
spective, caffeine-free coffee can have a considerable impact on reduction of production costs and
maintenance of quality and flavor characteristics of the beverage. This can represent a large ben-
efit in countries like the United States, where the decaffeination market represents about 22% of
the 2.4 billion pounds of product consumed annually.
Although still preliminary, the results already obtained are an important first step in devel-
oping the genetic transformation mechanisms that will be required to utilize the potential of plant
biotechnology fully. These initial results will give coffee biotechnologists and breeders the basic
tools to develop plants resistant to the main coffee pests and diseases, plants resistant to herbi-
cides, and plants with other specific characteristics, including cold/freeze and drought tolerance,
and alteration of the amino acid content involved in coffee flavor such as cysteine and methion-
ine.
The combination of conventional breeding methods and biotechnology has led to many new
possibilities for crop improvement. In decade of the 1990s saw many important events in the de-
velopment of coffee biotechnology and genetic transformation occurred, following the first suc-
cessful transient expression results in the 1980s. As we move into the third millennium we antic-
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ipate the development of many new cultivars, with resistance to coffee leaf miner, coffee berry
borer, and many other diseases. Improved varieties with uniformity of ripening, reduced matura-
tion cycles, and caffeine-free beans will also become available.
Presently, the world is becoming more conscious of the environment and food safety issues.
The distribution of coffee plants with resistance to pests, diseases, and herbicides will diminish
the risk of environmental damage caused by continuing high-level of use of pesticides. Coffee
plants engineered to resist diseases better will also increase food safety. Currently fungal con-
tamination and resulting toxin production are serious concerns. The cautious use of transgenic
plants will prevent environmental pollution and food safety problems and reduce the cost of cof-
fee production, benefiting both producers and consumers.
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genes as dominant selectable markers in plant cells. Eur Mol Biol Org J 2:987–995, 1983.
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5. RB Horsch, J Fry, NL Hoffmann, D Eichholtz, SG Rogers, RT Fraley. A simple and general method
6. G Staritsky. Embryoid formation in callus cultures of coffee. Acta Bot Neerl 19:509–514, 1970.
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de génes d’intérêt agronomique dans l’espèce Coffea canephora Pierre par transformation avec Agro-
bacterium sp. Proceedings of 17th Colloquium of International Coffee Science Association (ASIC),
Nairobi, 1997, pp 439–446.
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Jourdan, G Bossard, C Lacombe, C Fenouillet. Genetically modified coffee trees for resistance to cof-
fee leaf miner: Analysis of gene expression, insect resistance and agronomic value. Proceedings of
18th Colloquium of International Coffee Science Association (ASIC), Helsinki, 1999, pp 332–338.
9. KR Neupane, S Moisyadi, JI Stiles. Cloning and characterisation of fruit-expressed ACC synthase and
ACC oxidase genes from coffee. Proceedings of 18th Colloquium of International Coffee Science As-
sociation (ASIC), Helsinki, 1999, pp 322–326.
10. SM Moisyadi, KR Neupane, JI Stiles. Cloning and characterisation of a cDNA encoding xanthosine-
N7-methyltransferase from coffee (Coffea arabica). Acta Hortic 461:367–377, 1998.
11. SM Moisyadi, KR Neupane, JI Stiles. Cloning and characterisation of xanthosine-N7methyltrans-
ferase, the first enzyme of the caffeine biosynthetic pathway. Proceedings of 18th Colloquium of In-
ternational Coffee Science Association (ASIC), Helsinki, 1999, pp 327–331.
12. MF Carneiro. Coffee biotechnology and its application in genetic transformation. Euphytica 96:167–
172, 1997.
13. MF Carneiro. Advances in coffee biotechnology. AgBiotechNet 1:1–7, 1999.
14. J Spiral, V Petiard. Protoplast culture and regeneration in coffee species. Proceedings of the 14th Col-
loquim of the International Coffee Science Association (ASIC), San Francisco, 1991, pp 383–391.
15. CR Barton, TL Adams, MA Zarowitz. Stable transformation of foreign DNA into Coffea arabica
plants. Proceedings of the 14th Colloquium of the International Coffee Science Association (ASIC),
San Francisco, 1991, pp 460–464.
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16. CA Ocampo, LM Manzanera. Advances in genetic manipulation of the coffee plant. Proceedings of
14th Colloquium of International Coffee Science Association (ASIC), San Francisco, 1991, pp 378–
382.
17. J Grèzes, B Thomasset, D Thomas. Coffea arabica protoplast culture: Transformation assays. Pro-
ceedings of 15th Colloquium of International Coffee Science Association (ASIC), Montpellier, 1993,
pp 745–747.
18. J Spiral, C Thierry, M Paillard, V Petiard. Obtention de plantules de Coffea canephora Pierre (Robusta)
transformés par Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Comptes Rendus Acad Sci 316 (Série III), 1–6, 1993.
19. J van Boxtel. Studies on genetic transformation of coffee by using electroporation and the biolistic
method. PhD dissertation, University of Wageningen, 1994.
20. M de Peña. Development of a stable transformation procedures for the protoplasts of Coffea arabica
cv Colombia. PhD dissertation, University of Pardue, 1995.
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Lemans. Transgenic plants protected from insects attack. Nature 327:33–37, 1987.
22. Guerreiro Filho, P Denolf, R Frutos M Peforoen, AB Eskes. L’identification de toxines de Bacillus
thuringiensis actives contre Perileucoptera coffeella. Proceedings of 15th Colloquium of International
Coffee Science Association (ASIC), Monpellier, 1993, pp 329–335.
23. Guerreiro Filho, P Denolf, M Peforoen, B Decazy, AB Eskes, R Frutos. Susceptibility of coffee leaf
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crops resistant to endocarpic insects. Curr Microbiol 36:175–179, 1998.
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London: Elsevier Applied Science, 1988, pp 235–262.
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Fruit Crops. New York: CAB International, 1992, pp 401–420.
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49
Transgenic Linseed Flax
Alan McHughen
I. INTRODUCTION 747
II. TISSUE CULTURE IN VITRO 748
III. TRANSFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND METHODOLOGY 749
A. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Linum Genetic Transformation 749
B. Selectable Markers 751
IV. OTHER ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY 751
A. Epidermal Stripping 751
B. Preculture 752
C. Coculture Duration 752
D. Chimeras 753
V. OTHER IMPROVEMENTS 754
A. Particle Bombardment 754
VI. APPLICATIONS 755
VII. VALUE-ADDED TRAITS 756
VIII. POTENTIAL WEED CONTROL APPLICATIONS 757
IX. REGULATORY ISSUES 757
REFERENCES 758
I. INTRODUCTION
Linseed, flax, or flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) is an ancient crop grown throughout the tem-
perate regions of the world, but nowhere, except perhaps Canada, is it a major crop. The name
usitatissimum means “most useful.” The stems can be used for fiber, the seeds for oil, and the meal
for feed (1). It is also the root of many common words. Some derivations are obvious (e.g., flaxen,
as an adjective; linen, the textile derived from the bast fibers;) linoleum, the original flooring prod-
uct made from both the fiber and the oil). Others are less apparent: line, from the long straight
fibers; lingerie, made from the comfortable high-quality textile, even linnet, the European finch,
which eats flaxseeds; and lint.
Most of the terms now relate to products from other sources: modern linoleum is made from
vinyl, and most lint comes from cotton. However, flax (linseed) oil is still unsurpassed as an in-
747
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748 McHughen
dustrial oil in the production of paint, varnish, and linoleum and as a concrete sealant (2). The
suitability of flax/linseed oil for these purposes is due to the high proportion of α-linolenic acid,
resulting in a top-quality drying oil. Unfortunately, this same α-linolenic acid causes the oil to
turn rancid quite rapidly, and thus the traditional oil cannot be used for commercial edible oil pur-
poses (3). To overcome this limitation, mutations with reduced α-linolenic acid have been in-
duced and identified in linseed cultivars; these have been developed into commercial cultivars for
use in the human food oil market (3,4). There are renewed interest in and demand for linseed flax
in fiber/textile as well as in industrial oil markets, largely due to the “natural” and “environmen-
tally friendly” components of linseed flax production relative to those of the synthetic modern al-
ternatives.
Unfortunately, Linum usitatissimum L. has limited genetic resources, as it has few close rel-
atives amenable to crossing to introduce novel traits. Because of this limitation, gene transfer
technology allows a much greater access to beneficial genetic traits than for many other crop
species. For example, conventional breeding technology could not provide such traits as novel
herbicide resistance to the crop because no interfertile germplasm with the desired herbicide-re-
sistant trait exists. Similarly, the major commercial product of this crop, linseed oil, is a high-
quality industrial drying oil with a stable but relatively small market. In order to increase market
opportunities for flax producers, the characteristic oil might be modified by using gene transfer
technology to yield different types of oil for different markets. Gene transfer technology for this
(or any) species would be facilitated by reliable in vitro tissue culture and regeneration system, a
reliable gene delivery/cell transformation system, and an efficient selection/regeneration system
yielding fertile transgenic plants.
Linseed flax has a long history of manipulations in vitro, as it has been quite amenable to
many tissue culture techniques, including regeneration from protoplasts as well as from hypo-
cotyl, cotyledon, and leaf-derived callus. The ease with which plants can be regenerated from var-
ious flax seedling tissues, especially the hypocotyl and cotyledon, greatly facilitates its use in crop
improvement programs requiring the production of fertile transgenic plants. The application of
gene transfer technology also had an early start with linseed, as it was among the first crop species
to be genetically transformed with disarmed Agrobacterium species, and one of the first crop
species transformed with genes of potential agronomic value. Currently linseed is the target of
“molecular” crop improvement programs in several countries, although it remains a relatively low
priority in each of them.
II. TISSUE CULTURE IN VITRO
Link and Eggars (5) reported that Linum species would regenerate shoot buds from decapitated
flax seedlings, giving the impression that shoot regeneration in vitro might be simple. In spite of
that early promise, in vitro studies exploiting the potential for linseed did not emerge until the
1970s. Then, a number of investigators studied linseed tissues in vitro to address a range of phys-
iological and developmental questions. Ibrahim (6) provided a start in publishing satisfactory cul-
ture media, then Rybczynski (7) and Gamborg and Shyluk (8) studied factors affecting tissue
growth and shoot regeneration in different cultivars. Murray and coworkers (9) contributed a sem-
inal paper, suggesting that the shoot initials from regenerating hypocotyls in vitro might have a
single-cell origin. Lane (10,11) also contributed to the growing body of knowledge of linseed
physiological requirements for satisfactory tissue culture and shoot regeneration. Basic mor-
phogenic studies with linseed still appear [e.g., Nataraja and Ravi (12)] but usually relate to spe-
cific cultivars or peculiar results. General improvements in the culture media and conditions con-
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Transgenic Linseed Flax 749
tinue to be reported, for example, by Bretagne and coworkers (13), who found thidiazuron to be
generally beneficial to linseed regeneration.
Whereas shoot regeneration via organogenesis was simple in linseed stem or hypocotyl tis-
sues in vitro, anther culture to produce haploid plants was, and still is, difficult. Sun (14) reported
on preliminary experiments of linseed anther culture, but there were no subsequent reports of the
degree of success. In spite of interest from a number of sources, linseed was recalcitrant to anther
or microspore culture. Eventually, Nichterlein and Freidt (15) were able to report on plant regen-
eration from isolated microspores, to be followed by incorporation of androgenic techniques in a
linseed breeding program (16). Later Canadian scientists were able to report anther culture suc-
cess with their linseed cultivars (17).
Almost all reports of plant regeneration in linseed are based on a shoot organogenic
process, in which shoots arise on the cultured tissues, then are excised and transferred to a dif-
ferent medium for rooting, prior to establishment as whole plantlets in soil. Although this method
can be satisfactory, there are several advantages to also having an embryogenic system. Pretova
and Williams (18) studied linseed embryos in vitro to try to develop an embryonic regeneration
system, but the standard organogenic systems remain the preferred and most efficient means of
obtaining regenerant linseed plants.
Others investigated protoplast culture. Barakat and Cocking (19) first reported linseed re-
generation from protoplasts, but this work seems not to have been pursued further. Zhan and
coworkers (20) reported protoplast work on the related species L. marginale, and Qing and Bind-
ing (21,22) used protoplasts of L. usitatissimum L. and L. suffruticosum L. in their attempts to ob-
tain transgenic plants. Linseed has not been very amenable to protoplast manipulations, but var-
ious groups continue to develop the field. Roger and associates (23) tried immobilization of
protoplasts to elicit a morphogenic response.
Finally, root tissues have caused problems, in that shoot regeneration from root tissue is
rare, having been reported only once (24). It seems odd that a plant species so amenable to direct
and indirect (i.e., via callus) shoot organogenesis, and subsequent rooting of regenerant shoots,
would be so difficult in attempts to induce regeneration through other means, such as via em-
bryogenesis, or from protoplasts, anther and microspore culture, or root tissue. Nevertheless, for
transformation studies, the tissue culture and whole plant regeneration systems available are suf-
ficient. For further information on the tissue culture aspects of Linum species, see the review by
McHughen (25).
III. TRANSFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND METHODOLOGY
Linseed flax is quite amenable to in vitro culture and whole plant regeneration (usually via shoot
organogenesis), with any of several different starting tissues. However, the most prolific regener-
able tissue seems to be the hypocotyl; hence it has been a popular starting material for transfor-
mation studies.
A. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Linum Genetic Transformation

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a naturally occurring genetic engineering agent. In the wild, it at-
taches to an exposed cell of a susceptible plant and transfers a piece of transfer deoxyribonucleic
(T-DNA), into the host plant cell, where the T-DNA is incorporated into the cell’s genome. The
functional genes carried on the T-DNA are expressed by the infected cell, ultimately resulting in
cell growth proliferation manifestation of crown gall disease. Modified strains of Agrobacterium
sp. maintain the ability to transfer pieces of DNA but delete the disease-related genes; such strains
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750 McHughen
are called disarmed. By using standard microbiological methods, one can introduce genes of in-
terest into the modified (disarmed) Agrobacterium sp. strain, then mix the bacteria with suscep-
tible plant tissue in vitro and let nature take its course.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens causes crown gall in Linum sp. (26), so this biological agent
could potentially be used to transfer DNA to flax for crop improvement purposes. More direct ev-
idence was provided when Hepburn and coworkers (27), using wild-type strains, documented the
molecular process of flax genetic transformation in the lab. In theory, it would seem obvious and
straightforward then to take similar but disarmed (nononcogenic) strains of Agrobacterium sp.
containing a selectable marker (the most common of which is nptII, an antibiotic resistance
marker) construct in the T-DNA and apply them to regenerable flax tissues in vitro. The flax cells
successfully transformed would then be identified or selected (on the basis of expression of the
introduced selection marker gene) and regenerated to whole plants. Flax is highly self-fertile, so
the putative transformed regenerants/selectants could be allowed to self-pollinate; progeny could
then be tested to confirm their transgenic nature and also to document segregation ratio.
In practice, it is not that simple. Although the disarmed Agrobacterium sp. seems quite ef-
ficient at transforming flax cells of regenerable (usually hypocotyl or cotyledon) tissues in vitro,
the resulting regenerants tend to be nontransformed “escapes” (28). Flax was one of the first crop
species to have active research on Agrobacterium sp.–based genetic transformation (29–31), but
it was not until 1988 that the first transformed flax plants were confirmed by progeny analysis
(32).
Since then, several specific protocols to generate transgenic linseed flax plants by using
nononcogenic strains of Agrobacterium sp. have been published, and none of the protocols was
particularly simple or efficient. Zhan and associates (33) avoided some of the problems associ-
ated with Agrobacterium tumefaciens by using the closely related Agrobacterium rhizogenes and
regenerated transgenic linseed shoots. However, A. rhizogenes has its own problems (particularly
troublesome are those related to regenerant phenotype and infertility) and has not been followed
up as vector of choice for Linum sp. plant transformation, although it is still useful for the study
of other aspects of genetic transformation such as development of root formation (34).
The problem with Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transformation in linseed flax seems to be
that the cells susceptible to Agrobacterium sp. transformation tend not to be competent for shoot
regeneration. When the bacteria encounter the hypocotyl in vitro, for example, it seems that ei-
ther they preferentially transform cells not competent for regeneration or the successfully trans-
formed cells lose their competence to regenerate shoots (28).
In either case, cellular transformation is not a problem, as Agrobacterium sp. strains carry-
ing the uid-A (GUS) construct have shown the capacity to transform a large proportion of cells in
the flax hypocotyl (35). A common feature of the successful protocols is either to stimulate these
transformed cells to regain regenerable competence or to select the relatively few transformed
cells maintaining shoot regenerability more effectively. However, none of the successful proto-
cols is particularly efficient; in the best about 20% of Agrobacterium sp.–inoculated tissues give
rise to a transgenic linseed flax plant (36–38). In any case, the trick to acquiring transgenic lin-
seed flax plants is to combine cellular competence for transformation with competence for shoot
regeneration; the competence can be either simultaneous or sequential: first transformation, then
regeneration.
The undesirable limited gene pool in Linum sp. seems to have provided at least one advan-
tage. Basic transformation techniques can be applied to many different genotypes. Techniques de-
veloped for transformation of Canadian linseed cultivars also seem to work for Eastern European
flax cultivars (e.g., Ref. 39) and also for dual-purpose (fiber and oil) Egyptian cultivars (40). Chi-
nese cultivars have also been transformed with Agrobacterium sp. (41), as have, as noted, French
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and Czech cultivars. With each of these, however, fine-tuning may be required to optimize the
protocol for maximal efficiency.
B. Selectable Markers
One of the limitations of this method was relatively low efficiency, which was due mainly to a
high incidence of escapes (wild-type nontransformed shoots appearing under selection condi-
tions). Without selection at all, in the most successful inoculation procedure only about 2% of re-
generant shoots are actually transformed (36). As this proportion is very low even under opti-
mized conditions, and verification is extremely tedious and labor-intensive (because of the large
number of shoots generated), an efficient selection system is desirable. Linseed flax hypocotyls
placed on a regeneration medium readily produce shoots. Adding kanamycin to the medium prior
to inoculation eliminates shoot formation entirely, indicating suitability of kanamycin as a selec-
tion agent for the nptII gene in transformation studies. Inoculating hypocotyls with Agrobac-
terium sp. carrying nptII in the T-DNA results in a reduction in the number of shoot regenerants,
as one might expect in a perfect selection system. Unfortunately, most if not all of the shoots are
escapes (28), as determined with subsequent assays for transformation. What appears to be oc-
curring is that the Agrobacterium sp. does transform a certain number of cells in the hypocotyl
[as determined by using the uidA gene followed by the X-Gluc histochemical assay on
hypocotyls, as shown by Dong and McHughen (35)]. Those transformed cells express nptII,
which detoxifies kanamycin passing through the cells, thus protecting neighboring, nontrans-
formed cells from the effects of the selection agent. It seems it is the nearby protected, nontrans-
formed cells that preferentially regenerate into shoots (42).
Another approach to overcome this limitation of the selection agent was to try other selec-
table marker genes and agents in linseed flax. Bretagne-Sagnard and Chupeau (38) tried spectin-
omycin as a selection agent and had good success at producing transgenic linseed flax of Euro-
pean cultivars.
The McHughen lab continued to investigate nptII as the selection gene of preference, try-
ing to increase transgenic regenerant selection efficiency by testing varied concentrations of
kanamycin and also other aminoglycosidic antibiotics such as G418 in the selection medium (36).
Other selectable markers were tried also. One very effective one is pat, which confers resistance
to phosphinothricin. Using this gene not only was very good for selection in vitro, but also pro-
vided excellent herbicide resistance in field trials with the transgenic linseed (43). However, be-
cause of other technical and nontechnical considerations, we returned to nptII as the selectable
marker of choice.
IV. OTHER ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY

A. Epidermal Stripping
Regeneration from linseed flax hypocotyl explants seems to result primarily from epidermal cells
(9) whereas the cells transformed by Agrobacterium sp. tend to occur and proliferate around the
cut ends of the hypocotyl explant. Unfortunately, the regenerated shoots usually arise from non-
transformed epidermis tissue (28). To overcome this problem, Jordan and McHughen (32) used
tweezers to peel the epidermis from along the hypocotyl, thus removing the cells less susceptible
to Agrobacterium sp. transformation and simultaneously causing injury along the length of the
hypocotyl, simulating greater Agrobacterium sp. virulence. An added benefit of this epidermal
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752 McHughen
stripping was the reduction in occurrence of “escape” shoots, most of which arise from the non-
transformed epidermal cells. The lower number of overall regenerant shoots made subsequent se-
lection and analyses simpler and less labor-intensive, and the overall process became more effi-
cient. Of course, it also removes the major source of regenerable cells, the reason for choosing
the hypocotyl. In any case, this procedure led to the production of fully fertile transgenic flax
plants that passed the foreign genes to their progeny in a normal mendelian manner (32).
B. Preculture
Another modification to the basic procedure is the preculture of hypocotyls prior to Agrobac-
terium sp. inoculation. The idea behind this is to stimulate the transformation-competent cells to
become regeneration-competent as well. As noted earlier, hypocotyl cells respond well to regen-
eration medium by generating shoots prolifically. Similarly, hypocotyl cells are quite amenable
to transformation by Agrobacterium sp., but they tend not to be the same cells at the same time.
By judicious timing, it should be possible to inoculate at a time when the hypocotyl cells are start-
ing to respond to the regeneration stimuli in the medium yet are still competent and responsive to
Agrobacterium sp. transformation.
McHughen and associates (44) found that when the explants were cultured for a period of
9 to 12 days on regeneration medium prior to removal of the epidermis, significantly more trans-
formed shoots were regenerated when compared with either no preculture or a 3- to 7-day precul-
ture period. They speculated that the cells become competent for regeneration during the precul-
ture stage. Inoculation after this period results in transformation of cells already in regeneration
mode, and those cells, now transformed, simply carry on with the shoot regeneration program.
Cells transformed without a preculture period might be inhibited from subsequently regenerating
shoots, possibly because of stress caused by the presence of the Agrobacterium sp., the selective
agent (in this case, kanamycin), or other components of the medium. Whatever the reason, it is
clear a preculture period increases transformant production.
Subsequent studies using the intron-containing uidA (GUS) gene construct (45) showed
that longer preculture periods result in a reduced overall incidence of cellular transformation (35).
This finding indicates that at least some transformation-competent cells lose that capacity during
the preculture period. Presence of fewer transformed cells, yet greater numbers of transgenic
shoots indicates that these conditions lead to preferential regeneration from transformed cells.
C. Coculture Duration
Increasing the efficiency of recovery of transgenic flax plants from Agrobacterium sp. led to an
investigation of coculture duration. In most plant transformation studies, the modified Agrobac-
terium sp. is mixed with the plant tissue for a few minutes, then plated on a standard culture
medium (lacking antibiotics or other selection agents) for 2–3 days. After this short period, the
plant tissues are transferred to a selection medium containing anti–Agrobacterium sp. agents to
eliminate the vector organisms. If a coculture duration shorter than about 2 days were used, fewer
transformation events ultimately resulted. If the period was increased to more than about 3 days,
the Agrobacterium sp. overgrew and smothered the plant tissue (resulting in production of no
transgenic plants). In order to try to increase coculture duration without Agrobacterium sp. over-
growth, Dong and McHughen (35) placed a layer of sterile filter paper on top of the coculture
medium. The inoculated hypocotyls were placed on top of the paper and could remain there for
several days without Agrobacterium sp. overgrowth. Using this setup, different coculture dura-
tions were then investigated, with the standard 2- to 3-day coculture as the control. Using the in-
tron containing uidA gene as the scorable marker facilitated scoring of cellular transformation.
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The results showed that the optimal coculture duration for cellular transformation (as determined
by the transient expression histochemical assay) was 5–7 days, representing a 2- to 15-fold in-
crease (depending on other culture factors) over the standard 2- to 3-day period.
D. Chimeras
“Escape” regenerants have been a well-known part of plant transformation studies from the be-
ginning. A less recognized phenomenon is that a regenerant plant, having passed all the requisite
assays and tests for transformation, may give rise to seed progeny with fewer than expected or
even no transmission of the transgene. Mendelian genetics dictates that a single locus insertion
into a typical plant cell is hemizygous; self-pollination of the plant should result in a 3:1 positive-
to-negative phenotypic segregation ratio in the progeny. Although most transgenic regenerants
follow this pattern, some have a much higher proportion of positive progeny, indicating multiple
insertion loci. It is easy to explain no positive progeny casually: either the plant was an escape, or
the inserted construct was unstable. But how does one explain fewer than predicted positive prog-
eny, say, 1 positive and 16 negative?
Chimeras are plants composed of cells of two (or more) distinct genotypes. It is not un-
usual, particularly with a shoot organogenic regeneration system (such as is common in linseed
flax), to have more than one cell contribute to a shoot primordium. If the contributor cells are ge-
netically distinct, say, one is transgenic, the other wild type, then the growing shoot will contain
cells representing the two distinct genotypes. If the transgenic cell lineage contributes to any sub-
stantial proportion of the regenerant plant, it will score positive in the various tests for transfor-
mation. However, if it fails to contribute to the germ line, then the entirety of the gametes will be
from the wild-type cells; none of the seed progeny will carry the transgenes. More commonly, the
transgenic cell line contributes to only a portion of the gametes, yielding fewer seed progeny than
would be expected from conventional mendelian genetics.
Chimeric regenerants can be easily detected by using the intron-containing uidA gene con-
struct (45). As shoots arise on the hypocotyl (or whatever inoculum tissue), they can be excised
for transfer to rooting or elongation medium. At this time, a small disk of shoot is excised and
used for the histochemical X-Gluc assay. Since all cells in the shoot are derived from cell lines
also represented in the disk, the disk serves as a full representative of the shoot. If the disk is fully
negative in the X-Gluc assay, the associated shoot can be discarded as an escape. If the shoot is a
chimera, only those transgenic cell lines stain indigo in the disk assay.
Using this marker, Dong and McHughen (46) showed that the incidence of chimeric shoots
was much higher than previously thought or expected. Up to about 45% of regenerant linseed flax
putative transformant shoots were actually chimeras, composed of both wild-type and transgenic
cell lines. Most interesting are the chimeras composed of two or more transgenic cell lines.
Chimeras are only relevant in regenerants themselves, as chimeras do not persist or appear in seed
progeny. This means fully transformed (genetically solid) plants can in many cases be recovered
from chimeras. One method is to test more seed progeny that ordinarily necessary under
mendelian rules (if the germ line cells are derived from at least some transformed cell lines). An-
other method is internode propagation of the regenerant shoot and testing of several subregener-
ants. Finally, if researchers are desperate, genetically solid plants can be recovered from chimeras
by culturing assay-positive leaf pieces from the chimeric plant on selective medium and regener-
ating shoots from any resulting callus (42,46).
Optimizing the conditions for regenerable cellular transformation (not necessarily the same
as greatest cell transformation) and combining this with an efficient selection strategy led to an
overall transformation efficiency of about 16% (i.e., 100 inoculated hypocotyls would yield about
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754 McHughen
16 transgenic regenerants) (36). Although this rate is not particularly efficient compared to, say,
that for tobacco or some other species, it is quite workable for crop improvement programs.
The recovery of transgenic flax plants using Agrobacterium sp. as a vector system remains
inefficient as a result of the relatively high incidence of chimeras and the relatively high propor-
tion of escapes. The technical difficulties continue to be the assessment of the large number of re-
generant shoots and the poor proportion of solid transgenics from among them.
V. OTHER IMPROVEMENTS
Mylnarova and Pretova (37) developed an Agrobacterium sp. transformation system based on in-
oculation of hypocotyl-derived callus in an attempt to overcome some of these complicating fac-
tors. Ordinarily, callus is avoided, as the spontaneous mutations that occur in callus (somaclonal
variation) might interfere with the agronomic performance of the resulting transgenic line. How-
ever, they encouraged callus growth to provide more cells for potential transformation and re-
generation. They were indeed successful at increasing the efficiency to about 25% while reduc-
ing the incidence of escapes.
Taking different approach, Bretagne and colleagues (13) worked on improving the tissue
culture and regeneration components of the process and found that thidiazuron improved the
shoot regeneration response.
Another innovative attempt to increase linseed transformation efficiency involved using not
Agrobacterium tumefaciens but its cousin, Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Zhan and associates (33,
34) used this bacterium and maintained an active program generating linseed transformants over
several years. Unfortunately, they were not able to report an overall increase in transformation ef-
ficiency with recovery of transgenic plants.
A. Particle Bombardment
An alternative to the Agrobacterium sp. gene transfer system is the particle gun, or biolistic
method. Although Agrobacterium sp. can get the job done, it is neither efficient nor simple. The
use of Agrobacterium sp. may entail potential other, nontechnical difficulties, such as intellectual
property infringement or regulatory obstacles to commercial release of the final product. Al-
though the particle gun certainly also may evoke intellectual property and regulatory issues, they
might be simpler or less onerous. In any case, a particle gun transformation method might pro-
vide a functional alternative to Agrobacterium sp., especially where the obstacles to the latter
prove prohibitive.
Gene transfer by particle bombardment can be a rapid and simple means for delivering
functional DNA to intact cells and tissues (47,48). The concept is simple enough: the DNA of
choice is affixed to microparticles that are shot, using a blast of gas or even gunpowder, into await-
ing tissues in the trajectory flight path. At least some of the particles become embedded in the cell,
thus delivering the DNA, which is then somehow inserted into the cell’s genome. Although the
likelihood of any one particle’s succeeding is minuscule, the system seems to work because large
numbers of particles can be shot into large numbers of cells. Transient expression of reporter
genes such as β-glucuronidase (GUS) can be used to optimize factors affecting the success of par-
ticle bombardment–mediated DNA delivery. In practice, it is not usually as simple as the concept
might indicate. However, transgenic plants of several species have been generated from particle
bombardment, including soybean (49,50), tobacco (51,52), rice (53), and wheat (54). Linum
species, would also seem to provide a suitable target, as they readily regenerate shoots in vitro.
Linseed flax hypocotyls, for example, could be bombarded and cultured on a standard regenera-
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tion medium. As with the Agrobacterium sp. method, regenerating shoots could be excised and
assayed for transient foreign gene expression early and quickly. Those shoots with no expression
could be discarded, allowing the positive shoots to continue rooting, growth, and maturation.
Wijayanto and Wijayanto and McHughen documented a successful biolistic process to gen-
erate transgenic linseed flax (55,56). Testing and optimizing a number of variables, Wijayanto
bombarded intact flax hypocotyl tissues with gold particles coated with plasmid DNA carrying
the β-glucuronidase (GUS) (uidA) and neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) genes (55). Opti-
mization of the parameters was facilitated by transient expression assays of the uidA gene.
Among the critical variables (i.e., those providing significant differences in results) were
hypocotyl preculture period, bombardment distances, degree of bombardment chamber vacuum,
quantity of DNA that adhered to the microparticles, and size of the microparticles. In analyzing
progeny from 10 transgenic regenerant lines, Wijayanto found that 7 lines segregated in a 3:1
ratio, suggesting a simple, single mendelian insertion. One line segregated according to a likely
15:1 ratio, suggesting two mendelian insertional loci. One was a chimera (only 2 of 66 progeny
were positive; self-pollinated progeny from those 2 positive plants segregated in a normal 3:1
manner). One other line was either unstable or an escape, in that none of the progeny was trans-
genic (56).
It is difficult to compare the technical efficiency of the two methods (Agrobacterium sp. vs.
biolistic) directly. The facile calculation would indicate the Agrobacterium sp. method is superior
to the biolistic, in that many hypocotyls must be shot in order to recover one transgenic regener-
ant. However, many hypocotyls can be prepared and shot by the particle gun with the time and
effort required to inoculate hypocotyls with the appropriate Agrobacterium sp. Furthermore, if the
results from Wijayanto continue (and there’s no indication that they wouldn’t), the biolistic
method appears to reduce the incidence of chimeric regenerants (to about 10%) and escapes (also
to about 10%) dramatically. Both represent substantial improvements over the Agrobacterium sp.
method, which yields up to 45% chimeric regenerants and many escapes.
VI. APPLICATIONS
Like those of most plant species, early studies of genetic transformation in Linum sp. largely in-
vestigated basic processes and addressed fundamental questions of genetics, physiology, or other
aspects of biology.
These studies need not involve regeneration of transformed plants but can use simple trans-
formed cells or callus, as in that by Roberts and coworkers (57), who used transformed callus to
study the effect of transposable elements. Others have used transformed Linum sp. to study other
aspects, for example, the use of introduced transposable elements in flax to identify and isolate
potentially useful genes such as the L6 gene for rust resistance (58,59). Cloning of a specific dis-
ease resistance gene represents a major advance in the understanding of phytopathological rela-
tionships with wide applicability to similar relationships in other crop species.
Most effort, however, has been and will likely continue to be invested in genetically trans-
forming Linum sp. for a practical application. Not surprisingly, the first gene constructs available
for transformation were developed to address problems in other crop species, and linseed flax
happened to face similar issues. These, of course, were herbicide resistance genes. Linseed is a
poor biological competitor, so weeds are invariably a concern to producers, and although con-
ventional weed control is available, it is expensive and based on herbicides developed for larger
and more lucrative crops.
Fortunately, several herbicide resistance genes were developed early, usually by the com-
panies producing the herbicide. Linum sp. was among the first crop species to benefit from these
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756 McHughen
constructs, as glyphosate (Roundup) resistance, sulfonylurea (e.g., Glean, Ally, Amber) resis-
tance, and glufosinate (Liberty) resistance all were quickly inserted and field tested in commer-
cial linseed flax genotypes (see Sec. VIII).
With respect to the other major agronomic problems that molecular genetics has been tar-
geting, disease resistance and insect depredations, linseed flax is relatively well off in having
fewer problems with these than other major crop species. Conventional breeders have done a su-
perb job of overcoming the most common diseases in linseed [Melampsora lini, (rust)], and few
insects seem to have linseed at the top of their menu, although certainly insects can and do occa-
sionally cause problems for linseed flax farmers. Because of this and the issue of priorities, there
does not seem to be much activity in transforming linseed with, for example, Bacillus thuringien-
sis (Bt) construct to confer resistance to lepidopteran insect pests. Although this trait would be
useful in certain years, in certain locations, the problem is not important or common enough in it-
self to justify a higher cost to producers. Similarly, the value added by insertion of a disease re-
sistance gene would probably not be sufficient to entice producers to pay a premium for the seed,
at least not until the pathogens overcome and break down current levels of resistance.
Other agronomic characteristics for which linseed would be an early research candidate in-
clude mechanisms to deal with environmental stresses such as salt tolerance (e.g., 60) or cold tol-
erance (61), although neither of these has been reported to have been inserted into linseed to date.
VII. VALUE-ADDED TRAITS
Whereas most of the applications of genetic transformation of Linum sp. have been in weed con-
trol, there are several other, nonagronomic breeding objectives being pursued and tested. Proba-
bly the most exciting is in oil profile modification. Linseed has a relatively simple oil profile of
approximately 5% palmitic, 5% stearic, 25% oleic, 15% linoleic, and 50% linolenic (these fig-
ures vary according to genotype, location, year, etc.), and this profile is amenable to manipulation
by a range of different mechanisms (4). One good example, although not transgenic, is edible oil
linseed developed by mutation breeding (3,4), which has an oil profile similar to that of the high-
quality sunflower or safflower oils. This mutation work shows that linseed can be genetically
modified to produce a commercially viable vegetable oil for human consumption. It should be
possible to use recombinant technology to achieve the same end by reducing the activity of δ-15
desaturase; this would result in a dramatic reduction of linolenic acid, to provide an oil profile
similar or identical to that of the mutants. At least two groups are actively working on this re-
search (Scheffler, personal communication, 1998). The advantage here is overcoming the public
reluctance to consuming mutated foods such as Linola.
Several recent developments in plant oil modification using gene transfer technology to
produce new and useful fatty acid profiles have been reported (e.g., 63–65). Although these tend
to be developed and tested on other oil crops, especially Brassica sp., there is no reason to sus-
pect they would also not work in Linum sp.
If this is the case, it should be possible to generate linseed cultivars that produce one of
many different types of oil by manipulating the fatty acid biosynthetic pathway. These might in-
clude industrial oils as well as those for mass and specialty (niche) edible markets, for example,
change in the proportions of fatty acids to result in a cocoa butter–type oil (66). The “health” or
functional food markets are also being targeted with products made from modified linseed culti-
vars.
Apart from direct crop value, the linseed plant is being investigated for use as a simple or-
ganic manufacturing plant. Linseed as a crop is fairly simple to grow, has no close relatives, is al-
most exclusively self-pollinating, does not readily outcross, and generates relatively large
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amounts of oil, both on an area basis and on a seed basis. Into this biological background one
might place a gene coding for a high-value protein or protein by-product, then let the plant grow
in the field and manufacture large quantities of the (ideally) valuable product (Moloney and Hol-
brook, personal communication, 1998).
VIII. POTENTIAL WEED CONTROL APPLICATIONS
Flax is a poor biological competitor. Many common broadleaf and grassy plants successfully out-
compete linseed, even when present in low populations, so good weed control is essential for
maximal crop production. Although chemical herbicides are available for weed control, they are
expensive and somewhat limited in their utility.
The earliest agronomic genes isolated and cloned confer resistance to herbicides. Linseed
flax has been transformed with several of these genes, including those conferring resistance to
glyphosate [the active ingredient in Roundup (Monsanto)], glufosinate [the active ingredient in
Basta and Liberty (AgrEvo)], and sulfonylurea [the active ingredient in, e.g., Ally (DuPont)].
Transgenic linseed lines were generated and field-tested for each of these characteristics;
however, only the sulfonylurea-resistant lines were considered for commercial release. The
glyphosate-resistant lines, tested in collaboration with Monsanto, did not perform well enough in
preliminary field trials to warrant continued evaluation (67). The glufosinate-resistant lines,
tested in collaboration with AgrEvo, did perform well, and in fact one line was entered into the
national cultivar registration trials, in which the agronomic performance was measured as being
unaffected by the genetic transformation. The degree of herbicide resistance afforded by the ac-
tivity of the gene was also considered commercially viable, but the line was not advanced for
commercial release (43).
The gene conferring tolerance to sulfonylurea herbicides was isolated by Haughn and
coworkers (68). The gene, from Arabidopsis sp., codes for a modified acetolactate synthase
(ALS) protein that has reduced affinity for the herbicide. Sulfonylurea herbicides attack the ALS
in susceptible plants. Providing linseed with an additional and alternate functional ALS may
allow the plants to escape the damaging effects of the herbicide in soil residue trials. McHughen
(69) transferred this gene to commercial linseed flax cultivars in an attempt to address this soil
residue problem.
Transformed lines with the sulfonylurea tolerance gene have been tested in field trials since
1989. Initially about 30 different linseed lines were evaluated. Over the course of several years,
most of the lines were eliminated as a result of either poor agronomic performance or poor her-
bicide tolerance (which was due to poor expression of the transgene). Eventually two transgenic
lines remained. Both seemed to offer full herbicide resistance with no agronomic penalty (70–73).
One of these lines was presented to and approved by Canada’s national cultivar registration com-
mittee in February 1994 and issued its certificate of variety registration in 1996 (71). More re-
cently, the same gene was introduced into Russian linseed cultivars (39) with the same ultimate
objective.
IX. REGULATORY ISSUES
Linseed flax is an international trade commodity. In addition to the usual regulatory oversight of
any new cultivar, including variety registration; acquisition of intellectual property protection
under plant breeders’ rights, patents, or other systems; and the usual international phytosanitary
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758 McHughen
inspections, transgenic linseed invokes various “genetically modified” organism regulations in

each country of cultivation, transit, or destination. These regulations can be confused and oner-
ous with little, if any coordination among nations. Even within nations, often confusion and am-
biguity result from lack of clarify about which regulations exist and apply, and which agency ad-
ministers them. Ordinarily, transgenic crops are scrutinized for variety registration by the
appropriate agriculture department and for food safety by a health department; animal feed safety
is often administered by another department, and, of course, environmental concerns are the re-
sponsibility of an environment department. To date, only one transgenic linseed has reached reg-
istered cultivar status, ‘CDC Triffid’ (71). In order to join other linseed cultivars in commercial
production in Canada, ‘CDC Triffid’ needed, in addition to regular cultivar registration, approval
from various government departments concerned with feed safety, human food safety, and envi-
ronmental effects. In order for it to enter international trade, it was evaluated by the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States for human food and animal feed usage, and
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) for cultivation and marketing. Even with these
approvals, ‘CDC Triffid’ must be segregated from conventional linseed while other international
jurisdictions complete their respective evaluations. Currently, the only transgenic linseed in com-
mercial production and international commerce is ‘CDC Triffid.’ That trade is limited to Canada
and the United States.
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50
Antimicrobial Peptides from Macadamia
Nuts: Potential Source of Novel Resistance
in Transgenic Crops
Kemal Kazan, John P. Marcus, Ken C. Goulter, and John M. Manners

The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
I. INTRODUCTION 763
II. GENETIC ENGINEERING OF PLANTS FOR ENHANCED RESISTANCE TO DISEASES 763
III. ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF MACADAMIA ANTIMICROBIAL PEPTIDE 1 766
IV. CONSTITUTIVE EXPRESSION OF MACADAMIA ANTIMICROBIAL PEPTIDE 1 IN
TRANSGENIC CANOLA 767
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 769
REFERENCES 769
I. INTRODUCTION
Plant diseases caused by fungal, viral, and bacterial pathogens are responsible for most heavy
crop losses encountered in agriculture. Large stands of monoculture crops are especially suscep-
tible to diseases that are difficult to control by conventional breeding or other means. Resistance
genes currently present in the germplasm may be inadequate for certain diseases. In addition, new
races of pathogens that overcome resistance genes may arise in a short period. Historically, heavy
applications of chemical fungicides have often been required to minimize the crop losses. How-
ever, since chemical fungicides have potentially deleterious environmental and health conse-
quences, it is desirable to enhance the plant’s ability to combat diseases. Genetic engineering
methods provide an attractive alternative to other more conventional approaches.
II. GENETIC ENGINEERING OF PLANTS FOR ENHANCED

RESISTANCE TO DISEASES
Genes that can be potentially deployed in transgenic plants for enhanced resistance can be
broadly classified into three categories. Defense-related genes encode proteins that either (a) act
763
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764 Kazan et al.
directly against pathogens (e.g., antifungal proteins), (b) act against pathogenicity factors such as
toxins, or (c) initiate and enhance the plant’s natural defense responses (e.g., product of natural
resistance and signaling genes).
Antifungal genes encode proteins that either are induced as part of the plant defense re-
sponse or are simply present constitutively, acting as antifungal agents. These genes have been
discovered by differential screening of messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNAs) in infected resis-
tant tissues that are not expressed constitutively in uninoculated tissue (1) or by simple screening
of proteins against fungal spore germination and hyphal growth (2). Some of the antifungal genes
encode enzymes such as chitinase and β-1,3 glucanase, which inhibit the fungal growth by hy-
drolyzing chitin and glucan of the fungal membranes (3). Another group of defense-related pro-
teins with antimicrobial properties are the cysteine-rich antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) com-
monly found in many plant species (4), which include plant defensins, lipid transfer proteins
(LTPs), and thionins, which contain two, three, or four disulfide bridges for stabilization of short
α helices (4). Representatives of these proteins have been isolated from the seeds of many plants.
Other major groups of antimicrobial proteins are thaumatinlike proteins (TLPs) (5), ribosome in-
activating proteins (RIPs) (6), and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins (7). TLPs, which are pep-
tides of 15–26 kDa, show homology to sweet protein isolated from the fruit of Thaumatococcus
danielle (8). They include osmotin from tobacco (9), zeamatin from maize (10), and other patho-
gen-inducible TLPs from cereals (8). RIPs directly affect the protein synthesis machinery in sen-
sitive plant, fungal, and animal cells (11). PR proteins accumulate in plants in response to infec-
tion (12). Although the function of most PR proteins is not known, some of them show toxicity
to fungi or other pathogens (1).
Constitutive expression of antifungal proteins including glucanase (13), chitinase (14,15),
pathogenesis-related protein 1 (16), osmotin (17), defensin (18), thionin (19), and a lipid transfer
protein (20) in transgenic plants have been shown to be useful for enhancing resistance against
pathogens.
Genes encoding proteins that are effective inhibitors of pathogenicity factors have also been
proven useful. A well-known example of this strategy is the expression of a gene for detoxifica-
tion of tablotoxin produced by the bacterium Pseudomanas syringae pv. tabaci (causative agent
of the wildfire disease) in transgenic tobacco plants. Expression of this gene in tobacco resulted
in a strong reduction in symptom formation by bacterial infection (21).
In contrast to the other two categories of defense genes, products of natural resistance (R)
and defense signaling genes do not have direct antimicrobial activity against pathogens but func-
tion through activation of the plant’s own defense system. Recognition of the pathogen-derived
signals by the products of resistance genes usually activates downstream defense responses,
which may include synthesis of phytoalexins, deposition of cell wall materials, and production of
hydrolytic enzymes, reactive oxygen species, and antimicrobial proteins (22,23). However, it is
not certain yet whether genes determining resistance in one species can also function in another
species against different pathogens. This can only be determined empirically by transformation
experiments.
In contrast to race-specific resistance determined by natural resistance genes, protection af-
forded by AMPs can be broader in spectrum. Therefore, AMPs may be more suitable for deploy-
ment especially against necrotrophic pathogens for which no gene-for-gene resistance mecha-
nisms are available. However, regardless of their modes of action, large-scale exposure of a
transgenic crop expressing defensive proteins to pathogenic fungi may render these proteins less
effective. Therefore, novel forms of resistance should be continuously identified for potential de-
ployment in transgenic crops. This task can be achieved by surveying the plant germplasm for
novel plant compounds with antimicrobial activity. Once proteins that show in vitro antimicro-
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Antimicrobial Peptides from Macadamia Nuts 765
Figure 1 Strategy for the isolation and application of antimicrobial peptides. Seed extracts with promis-
ing activities are purified and tested against pathogenic fungi in bioassays. Proteins with high antimicrobial
activity are further characterized and their amino acid sequence determined. Corresponding antimicrobial
peptide (AMP) genes are cloned and expressed constitutively in transgenic plants. Finally, transgenic plants
expressing AMPs are then evaluated for enhanced resistance to the pathogens.
bial activity against important pathogens have been identified, genes encoding such proteins can
be cloned and expressed in transgenic crop plants for enhanced protection (Fig. 1).
Native plants in Australian flora represent a relatively unexplored source of antimicrobial
proteins (24,25). To identify such proteins with antimicrobial properties, we have screened crude
seed extracts of approximately 250 accessions of Australian native plants. As a result of this sur-
vey, protein extracts from Macadamia integrifolia (Proteaceae) kernels were shown to exhibit
promising antimicrobial activity against some of the economically important diseases. At least
four peptides showing antimicrobial activity against a number of pathogens have been purified
and their amino acid sequences determined and compared with the sequences of other proteins in
the data bases. Two of the macadamia peptides were found to be similar to plant defensin–type
AMPs previously identified in other plants. Another AMP showed similarity to portions of vi-
cilin-type seed storage proteins (to be reported elsewhere). One of the peptides, called macadamia
antimicrobial peptide 1 (MiAMP1), did not show similarity to any of the previously identified
peptides (26). Complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA) clones corresponding to antimi-
crobial macadamia peptides have been isolated and fully sequenced to identify signal peptide se-
quences that mediate proper expression of the peptides.
AMPs from macadamia seeds have been routinely tested against plant and mammalian cells
before being transferred to crop plants to ensure that there are no toxicity problems associated
with these peptides. Although various other AMPs (e.g., cecropin and derivatives) isolated from
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766 Kazan et al.
sources other than plants (e.g., bacteria) have afforded a reasonable level of protection in trans-
genic plants (27), commercialization of such plants would be potentially more difficult than that
of plants expressing proteins derived from edible plants. It is, therefore, envisaged that transfer-
ring antimicrobial genes from edible macadamia nuts to other crop species would be more easily
accepted by consumers.
In this chapter, antimicrobial properties of MiAMP1 against important pathogens of canola
and its expression in transgenic canola as a novel source of antimicrobial gene for enhanced dis-
ease protection are described.
III. ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF MACADAMIA

ANTIMICROBIAL PEPTIDE 1
Purification of macadamia antimicrobial peptide 1 (MiAMP1) from the nut kernels of macadamia
has been reported previously (26). Purified MiAMP1 was tested in vitro against a number of
fungi. Antimicrobial activity assays were done in a medium described previously (2). Briefly, fun-
gal spores or hyphal fragments were incubated in microtiter plates in the presence of varying con-
centrations of MiAMP1 peptide. A period of 24–48 hours of incubation was used for growth-in-
hibition measurements. The percentage growth inhibition was measured by following the
absorbance at 600 nm and comparing experimental growth rates to those of the control. In these
assays, purified MiAMP1 was active against a number of fungi, including Leptosphaeria macu-
lans and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, important pathogens of canola and other grains. Germination
and growth of L. maculans and S. sclerotiorum spores were inhibited by low concentrations of
MiAMP1. Fig. 2 shows the growth curves of L. maculans in the presence of various concentra-
Figure 2 In vitro inhibitory activity of macadamia antimicrobial peptide 1 (MiAMP1) on the growth of
Leptosphaeria maculans (causative agent of black leg disease of canola). Fungal mycelial fragments are in-
cubated either in the presence of various concentrations of MiAMP1 peptide or with water as control.
Growth inhibition was evident after 40 hours of incubation and was highly correlated with the concentration
of peptide used in the bioassay.
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Figure 3 Inhibition of Sclerotina sclerotiorum spores after 24 hours of incubation in the presence of 50
µg/ml MiAMP1 (right) and untreated control (left). Untreated germinating spores remain intact; MiAMP1
causes strong inhibition and distortion of the fungal hyphae.
tions of MiAMP1. Although low concentrations also inhibited the growth of S. sclerotiorum, the
level of inhibition diminished rapidly after 24 hours. Figure 3 shows the clear inhibition of S. scle-
rotiorum spores after 24 hours of inhibition in the presence of 50 µg/ml MiAMP1, which caused
marked morphological distortion of hyphal growth. Mammalian and plant cells treated in vitro
with high concentrations of MiAMP1 (100 µM) did not show any loss of viability (26).
The nucleotide and amino acid sequence of MiAMP1 was previously reported (26). The
amino acid sequence of MiAMP1 contains a 26-amino-acid signal peptide and a 76-amino-acid
mature peptide, which contains six cysteine residues. The highly basic nature of MiAMP1 (pI
10.1) is thought to be important to antimicrobial activity, as positively charged residues often play
roles in the interaction of peptides with negatively charged fungal membranes.
IV. CONSTITUTIVE EXPRESSION OF MACADAMIA ANTIMICROBIAL

PEPTIDE 1 IN TRANSGENIC CANOLA
Purified MiAMP1 was active against the most important pathogens of canola (Brassica napus L.),
a major crop grown for its oil in Canada, India, China, and Europe. Crop losses due to these two
pathogens may reach up to 95%, as fungicides are not very effective for eliminating the infec-
tions. In addition, breeding for resistance has not been effective because of a lack of resistant
germplasm. Therefore, it is envisaged that canola could benefit greatly from the introduction of
the MiAMP1 gene.
To express MiAMP1 peptides in transgenic plants, a binary vector harboring MiAMP1
cDNA (including the 26 aa signal peptide) has been constructed under the control of an enhanced
double CaMV 35S RNA promoter. This construct also contained a second gene cassette confer-
ring hygromycin resistance as a plant-selectable marker. The 35S-MiAMP1 construct was trans-
ferred into canola (Brassica napus L.) plants by using an Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated
transformation technique. In these transformation experiments, double haploid lines derived from
canola cultivars Westar and Oscar were used. Consequently, 10 Westar and 8 Oscar plants were
generated and the transgenic status of the plants was confirmed by molecular analyses. These pri-
mary transgenic plants were selfed and their progeny were germinated on a medium containing
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768 Kazan et al.
hygromycin. Hygromycin-resistant progeny from these 18 lines were then further characterized
by Northern and Western blot analysis. In these analyses 7 of 10 Westar and 6 of 8 Oscar lines
showed a detectable level of MiAMP1 expression. MiAMP1 peptides were detected in the leaf tis-
sue of transgenic plants by Western blot analyses (Fig. 4). These results were then confirmed by
Northern blot analyses (Fig. 4). These plants are currently being evaluated for disease resistance
against L. maculans and S. sclerotiorum. MiAMP1 peptides in canola leaves are possibly secreted
into intercellular spaces, as previously demonstrated in tobacco transformed with the 35S-
MiAMP1 construct (K. Kazan, unpublished). This could be potentially important for inhibiting the
two canola pathogens, which invade intercellular spaces during infection. In fact, initial inocula-
tion experiments undertaken with tobacco plants transformed with the 35S-MiAMP1 gene con-
struct suggested a small but significant reduction (20–25%) in lesion development after infection
with the tobacco pathogen Cercospora nicotianae (causative agent of frog eye disease) (K. Kazan,
unpublished).
The use of macadamia antimicrobial peptides as a novel source of resistance in transgenic
crop plants represents a potentially promising strategy for the management of plant diseases that
are difficult to combat otherwise. However, for successful application of antimicrobial genes and
corresponding peptides in engineering disease resistance in transgenic plants, AMPs should be
evaluated for certain characteristics. First of all, the peptide should be highly toxic to the patho-
gen(s) of interest and exhibit minimal toxicity toward plant and mammalian cells. Second, the pre-
cursor peptide should be correctly processed and expressed in a suitable location of the plant cells
where it is most likely to encounter the pathogen of interest. Expression of the peptide in plant cells
should be at sufficiently high concentrations to cause growth inhibition of the pathogen. It would
also be a benefit if the expressed peptide were resistant to fungal and plant proteases. MiAMP1
meets most of these criteria. Production of MiAMP1 peptides in canola did not cause any notice-
able effect on the phenotype of these plants, confirming the results of our previous in vitro test with
tobacco cell cultures, which indicated that MiAMP1 was not toxic to plant cells (26). It was also
demonstrated that the signal peptide was correctly removed from the preprotein.
Recently, the three-dimensional (30) structure of MiAMP1 has been resolved by using nu-
clear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy techniques. On the basis of the 3D structure of the
peptide certain amino acid residues that may be important in providing resistance have been iden-
tified. Using this 3D structure we have attempted to increase the activity of MiAMP1 by in vitro
mutagenesis. Structural variants of MiAMP1 were generated, expressed in Escherichia coli, then
purified. Some of these variants displayed greater antimicrobial activity than that of the native
Figure 4 Detection of MiAMP1 in the leaves of transgenic canola by Western (upper panel) and North-
ern blot (lower panel) analysis. C, protein or RNA samples from untransformed control plants; MiAMP1,
MiAMP1 purified from macadamia nuts.
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peptide (to be reported elsewhere). We are now in the process of introducing genes encoding these
variants into canola plants.
V. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
One of the major goals of plant improvement is to develop crops with resistance to diseases. Re-
cently, it has become apparent that host plant resistance can be enhanced by application of gene
transfer technologies. Expression of genes encoding novel antimicrobial proteins in macadamia
represents a promising strategy to achieve this goal for important crop plants. Genetic engineer-
ing techniques can also be applied to the improvement of disease-resistant macadamia plants.
This obviously requires development of a genetic transformation system for macadamia. As a first
step toward development of such a system, the transformation techniques used in other tree
species should be reviewed with respect to possible adaptation to macadamia transformation. If
a genetic transformation system were available for macadamia, antimicrobial peptides from
macadamia or other sources could be overexpressed in the seed tissue under the control of either
constitutive or seed-specific promoters. Antimicrobial proteins might be useful for increasing the
resistance of nuts to anthracnose (caused by Colletotrichum spp.) and to macadamia husk spot
(caused by Pseudocercospora spp.). Expression of these peptides in other tissues may also be ef-
fective against Phytophthora cinnamoni, which produces a trunk cancer and may kill young
macadamia seedlings.
The future strategies involving AMP genes from macadamia will be directed toward im-
provement of antifungal efficacy against specific pathogens, increasing the spectrum and dura-
bility of resistance. Site-directed mutagenesis of macadamia peptides based on 3D structure has
already been shown to increase the activity of native MiAMP1, and similar structure-function
analyses can be applied for further improvement of other macadamia peptides. Research on the
mode of action of macadamia AMPs would be useful in determining the potential target mole-
cules in the pathogen. This knowledge could then be used to design new AMPs and to enhance
the effectiveness of chemical fungicides currently used to control fungal pathogens. Durability
and spectrum of the AMP-mediated resistance could also be enhanced by combinatorial expres-
sion of AMP genes. As the modes of action of the AMPs may differ, this approach could lead to
synergistic or additional enhancement of disease resistance in transgenic plants. To complement
these approaches, suitable transgene expression strategies should be considered to maximize the
level of AMP expression required for antimicrobial efficacy. It may be equally important to con-
trol and regulate spatial and temporal accumulation of AMPs in transgenic plants for optimal dis-
ease control.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is partially funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation. We thank
Ms. N. Willemsen for her assistance in Western and Northern blot analyses.
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51
Transgenic Oilseed Brassicas
Constantine E. Palmer
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Wilf A. Keller
I. INTRODUCTION 773
II. BREEDING OBJECTIVES IN BRASSICA OILSEED IMPROVEMENT 774
III. THE PRODUCTION OF TRANSGENIC OILSEED BRASSICAS 775
A. Plant Regeneration 775
B. Gene Transfer and Plant Transformation 775
C. Selection and Characterization of Transgenics 776
IV. TRANSGENIC TRAITS IN OILSEED BRASSICAS 777
A. Herbicide Tolerance 777
B. Pathogen- and Insect-Tolerant Transgenic Oilseed Brassicas 778
C. Pollination Control Systems 779
D. Protein Modification in Transgenic Oilseed Rape 779
E. Seed Oil Modification in Transgenic Oilseed Brassica 781
F. Miscellaneous Transgenic Oilseed Brassica 781
V. TRANSGENE STABILITY 781
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 783
REFERENCES 784
I. INTRODUCTION
Oilseed brassicas are now established as a major source of vegetable oils for a variety of uses
(1–3). This group is the third most important vegetable oil source after soybean and palm. This
popularity can be attributed to the relatively wide adaptability of these species, which can be
grown from subtropical to cool temperate regions. The crop is grown mainly for the oil, which is
40–45% in seed, but the meal is also valuable as a feed source, having about 40% protein on a dry
weight basis.
Rapeseed, which includes Brassica napus, B. rapa, B. juncea, B. carinata, B. nigra, and
Sinapis alba, is of Asian origin and contains high levels of erucic acid and glucosinolates. These
are both undesirable in the oil and meal for domestic use and as feed. Through conventional
breeding, both components were essentially removed or reduced to very low levels and the so-
773
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774 Palmer and Keller
called double low, which refers to low erucic acid and low glucosinolates, characterizes canola
(2,4,5). Canola is defined as containing less than 2% erucic acid in the seed oil and less than 30
µmole of aliphatic glucosinolates per gram of oil-free meal. As a consequence, there are several
types of these oilseeds grown: high erucic acid rape (HEAR), low erucic acid rape (LEAR), and
canola.
Among the brassica oilseeds, Brassica napus is the most widely grown, but others such as
B. rapa, B. juncea, B. carinata, B. nigra, and Sinapis alba are also significant oilseeds. Some of
these, e.g., B. juncea, are better adapted to water stress conditions compared to B. napus and B.
rapa, and significant research efforts are aimed at the development of canola quality in these
oilseeds (1). However, a significant amount of noncanola high-quality rapeseed is still grown,
some for industrial purposes (6).
As with the improvement of any crop, improvements in brassica oilseeds necessitate the in-
trogression of desirable genes from related species into these crops. The ease of such introgres-
sion depends on the relatedness of the species under consideration and the availability of the
genes of interest. Where such genes are not available as natural variants in the population or from
closely related species, mutagenesis is sometimes employed to increase the level of genetic vari-
ation (7). In addition, tissue culture–induced somaclonal variation may be a source of useful ge-
netic variation (8). Plant tissue culture and biotechnology are playing increasingly important roles
in the improvement of brassica oilseeds and techniques such as embryo rescue and the generation
of doubled haploid plants through microspore culture are valuable adjuncts to brassica oilseed im-
provement programs. Even with these techniques, progress in brassica oilseed improvement will
still be limited by the available genetic variation and that which can be induced by mutagenesis.
Advances in molecular biology, plant cell culture, and genetic engineering have enor-
mously increased the range of genes available for transfer to plant cells. It is now possible to iden-
tify and isolate genes from any organism, transfer them to plant cells, and have them produce the
desired gene products. As a consequence, the limitations to conventional plant breeding imposed
by reduced genetic variability can be addressed through genetic engineering as there are no spe-
cies or incompatibility barriers. Members of the Brassicaceae are well suited for genetic engi-
neering and in vitro cell and tissue culture, and a variety of transgenic oilseed brassicas have been
developed (9–12). The purpose of this review is to highlight recent developments in the produc-
tion of transgenic oilseed brassicas. No attempt is made to cover the topic exhaustively as there
are a number of excellent reviews to which the reader is referred (5,10,11,13,14).
II. BREEDING OBJECTIVES IN BRASSICA OILSEED IMPROVEMENT
In any crop improvement program, the overall objective is to increase yield and adaptation to en-
vironmental conditions. To meet this objective, the genetic variation available must be exploited.
By conventional breeding methods, the major limitation to crop improvement is likely to be the
availability of germplasm from which desirable genes can be readily introgressed into the plant
of interest. Wide hybridizations and mutagenesis are two techniques used to increase the range of
germplasm. However, these are not without limitations.
In brassica oilseeds, seed mutagenesis was successful in the production of plants that had
altered fatty acid composition in the seed oil (7,15). In these species, breeding objectives such as
disease resistance, lodging resistance, increase in oil content, reduction in antinutritional compo-
nents of the seed oil, and meal, and shatter resistance have been achieved to some degree by con-
ventional breeding methods. However, some objectives such as the manipulation of seed oil fatty
acid composition toward homogeneity may not be achievable by conventional means. As an ex-
ample, the objective of superhigh erucic acid accumulation in rapeseed appears to be limited by
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Transgenic Oilseed Brassicas 775
the lack of erucic acid esterification of the SN-2 position of the glycerol molecule. This places a
theoretical limit of 66% erucic acid on the seed oil. Some unrelated species have the capacity to
esterify the SN-2 position with erucic acid quite readily. However, this enzyme system cannot be
transferred to rapeseed by conventional means.
With the application of molecular biological techniques, such genes can be isolated, cloned,
and transferred to rapeseed. With these techniques, genes from the entire biological world are po-
tentially available for transfer into oilseed brassicas. As a consequence, almost any crop im-
provement objective is achievable by this extension in the range of available germplasm, coupled
with plant biotechnology techniques. Notwithstanding this optimism, most transgenic traits are
currently single genes and polygenic traits are more difficult to manipulate.
III. THE PRODUCTION OF TRANSGENIC OILSEED BRASSICAS
The development of plant tissue culture and plant regeneration techniques applicable to brassicas
along with transformation methods forms the basis for the production of these transgenic plants.
The general aspects of plant regeneration have been addressed elsewhere in this volume and the
treatment here is restricted to the brassicas.
A. Plant Regeneration
Plant regeneration at high frequency can be achieved from a variety of explants, cotyledonary
petioles, hypocotyl segments, roots, stem segments, thin cell layers, leaf disks, floral stalks, em-
bryos, protoplast, and microspores (8,11,12,14,16–22). Frequency of regeneration is under ge-
netic control as some genotypes are highly responsive and others are recalcitrant (23,24). Other
factors such as hormone regimen, explant source, and age affect regeneration frequency (25,26).
Plant regeneration occurs mainly through organogenesis for most explants but somatic em-
bryogenesis occurs in a number of cases (27,28). In isolated microspore culture regeneration oc-
curs through direct embryogenesis with all developmental stages of embryogenesis recognizable.
Mature embryos germinate into seedlings and entire plants are recovered. In some cases, espe-
cially in which the mode of plant regeneration is organogenesis, vitrification reduces the fre-
quency of plant recovery. Manipulation of the medium conditions can reduce the occurrence of
vitrified shoots and increase plant recovery (29).
B. Gene Transfer and Plant Transformation

In all seed brassicas, there are a number of methods utilized for the transfer of genes into plant
cells. Most of these methods require an efficient plant regeneration system from either single cells
or complex tissues. There are a number of recent reviews and research articles on this topic on
brassicas specifically and oilseeds in general, and the reader is directed to these reviews (8,14,
30–33) and other sections of this volume as only a few cases are referred to in this chapter.
The most widely used gene transfer technique in oilseed brassica is Agrobacterium species–
mediated gene transfer. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is usually the vector of choice and is compat-
ible with a number of brassica species and genotypes as well as explants (11,12,14,30,33). Even
isolated microspores of oilseed brassicas have been transformed by using this vector (31). The ef-
ficiency of Agrobacterium species–mediated transformation is dependent on a number of factors
(32) but can be as high as 50% (34).
Agrobacterium rhizogenes is sometimes used as a vector with relatively high efficiency of
gene transfer (35–37), although induction of transformed roots and subsequent shoot regenera-
tion from these roots are usually required.
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The use of microinjection to deliver deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) directly to the nucleus
was reported to result in the recovery of transgenic plants from microinjected microspore-derived
proembryos (38). This is the only reported case of transgenic plant recovery by DNA microin-
jection. However, this method is potentially useful because of the precision of DNA delivery and
ability to select the targets for microinjection (39).
Particle bombardment is a widely used gene delivery method for species that are not read-
ily amenable to Agrobacterium sp. infection. Its use has been successful in the regeneration of
transgenic plants from cultured and isolated brassica microspores (40,41). The method is attrac-
tive for its high efficiency compared to that of Agrobacterium sp., but there is a tendency for mul-
tiple copy insertions and potential instability of the transgenics.
C. Selection and Characterization of Transgenics

For most transformation methods, only a small number of cells are infected with the introduced
DNA and the majority of the cell population do not contain the gene of interest. To give these
transformed cells a selective advantage for growth and organ differentiation, it is necessary to
screen them at an early stage after infection. To this end, some selectable marker is incorporated
into the construct along with the gene of interest. Antibiotic resistance genes are commonly used,
such as neomycin phosphotransferase (NPTII), which confers resistance to kanamycin and other
aminoglycoside antibiotics.
Hygromycin phosphotransferase of Escherichia coli origin (hpt), which confers resistance
to hygromycin, and aminoglycoside-3-adenyltransferase (aadA), the gene responsible for resis-
tance to spectinomycin and streptomycin, are suitable selection markers for Brassica napus
(42,43).
Herbicide-resistance genes such as bar gene, which confers resistance to both bialophos,
and d+l-phosphinothricin, as well as the pat gene (phosphinothricin acetyltransferase), are fre-
quently used as selectable markers (29). Among the selectable markers used in oilseed brassicas,
kanamycin is the predominant marker. However, there is evidence that it limits regeneration in
brassicas (44,45). To be effective as a selectable marker, the agent should reduce the incidences
of escapes and be nondetrimental to transformed cell growth and morphogenesis, and the gene
product should be expressed at a high level. Nontransformed tissue should have very low en-
dogenous tolerance to the selective agent.
A positive selection employing the enzyme phosphomannose isomerase, which allows
transformed cells to use mannose as a carbon source, has been applied successfully to brassica
oilseed transformation (46).
1. Characterization of Transgenics
After in vitro selection and plant regeneration, it is essential that the introduced gene be stably in-
tegrated into the host genome and efficiently expressed. There are several methods commonly
used to verify gene integration and expression.
1. Putative transformants can be assayed for a selectable marker enzyme system such as
neomycin phosphotransferase or phosphinothricin acetyl transferase activity in the tis-
sues.
2. The existence of GUS activity in putative transformed tissues is a commonly used
assay. The E. coli enzyme β-glucuronidase (uidA) gene is incorporated into the plas-
mid construct used for transformation. The existence of transformed tissue can be de-
termined by chromogenic assay for the enzyme by using the appropriate substrate.
Though this method is frequently used, endogenous GUS activity has been reported in
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brassica species (47), and results can be confused by the presence of Agrobacterium
sp. in the plant tissues.
3. Polymerase chain reaction is used to amplify integrated sequences (48).
4. Well-established Southern and Northern hybridization techniques are used.
Once transformants are identified, stable inheritance can be determined by self-pollination.
Not only is the gene of interest expressed in the transgenic plant, the marker genes are as
well. For example, with kanamycin resistance as a selectable marker, the tissues of the plant con-
tinue to be resistant to the antibiotic. For environmental reasons (49,50), it may be desirable to
remove the marker genes. This has been achieved in brassicas by using a cotransformation pro-
cedure (51–53). The rationale is that with two different transfer DNAs (t-DNAs) in the Agrobac-
terium sp., insertion of both followed by segregation at meiosis will yield some plants that have
the transgene but without the marker.
It may also be possible to excise the marker directly (54). In addition to the inheritance of
selectable marker genes, there is now evidence that during transformation, DNA outside the
T-DNA borders can be transferred and integrated into the plant genome (55). This finding has im-
plications for the stability and authenticity of transgenics.
IV. TRANSGENIC TRAITS IN OILSEED BRASSICAS

A. Herbicide Tolerance
Herbicide-resistance genes were among the first to be engineered into plant cells and to be com-
mercialized and allow the use of a number of postemergence, nonselective herbicides in weed
control. This can be attributed to, among others, the enormous importance of weed control in crop
production, existing knowledge of the physiological and biochemical characteristics of herbicide
action, and single-gene control of the traits. In addition, herbicide-tolerant traits permit the use of
the chemical as a selection agent during transformation. There are four classes of herbicides for
which transgenic oilseed resistance has been obtained (Table 1). Glufosinate-ammonia resistance
is conferred by the bar and pat genes, the former derived from Streptomyces hydroscopicus and
the latter from Streptomyces viridochromogens. Resistant plants detoxify the herbicide by acety-
lation, whereas susceptible plants are killed by ammonia toxicity as a result of inhibition of the
ammonia-metabolizing enzyme glutamine synthetase (29).
Table 1 Herbicide-Tolerant Transgenic Oilseed Brassica
Plant species Resistant trait Gene Reference
Brassica napus Basta, phosphinothricin bar genea DeBlock et al., 1989 (29)
Brassica napus Basta, phosphinothricin Pat geneb Oelck et al., 1991 (59)
Brassica napus Glyphosate [(N-phosphonomethyl)] EPSPSc Parker et al., 1991 (56)
glycine
Brassica napus Acetohydroxy acid synthase csr1-1d Miki et al., 1990 (57)
Brassica napus Acetohydroxy acid synthase csr1-1d Blackshaw et al., 1994 (60)
Brassica napus Oxynil herbicides Nitrilasee Freyssinet et al., 1995 (58)
a
Streptomyces hydroscopicus.
b
S. viridochromogenes.
c
5-Enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase gene, CP4 Agrobacterium sp. strain.
d
Arabidopsis sp. gene.
e
Klebsiella ozaenae.
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Glyphosate- (Round-Up) resistant canola was developed by transfer of a mutant gene of the
enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP) synthase of microbial origin to B. napus
(56). Brassica napus plants tolerant to chlorsulfuron and related herbicides were obtained by
transformation with a mutant gene for acetolactate synthase isolated from Arabidopsis sp. (57).
Transgenic brassica oilseed plants resistant to bromoxynil were also produced by insertion
of a bacterial gene (Klebsiella ozaenae) that codes for a nitrilase enzyme to detoxify the herbi-
cide (58). Those herbicides are photosynthetic inhibitors of most dicots.
Many of these transgenics have been developed commercially, mostly with B. napus, but
the availability of efficient transformation methods and gene constructs will allow ready intro-
duction of these genes into B. rapa, B. nigra, B. carinata, and Sinapis alba. These resistance traits
have demonstrated good yield performance and are inherited in a mendelian fashion (59–62).
B. Pathogen- and Insect-Tolerant Transgenic Oilseed Brassicas

Oilseed rape production is hampered by a number of pathogens and insect pests, and crop losses
can be severe. Chemical and biological controls are not always effective and are sometimes un-
desirable. Pathogens such as Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm) ces. et De not., the causative agent
of blackleg; Sclerotinia sclerotiorum; and Pyrenopeziza brassicae Raw. are not easily controlled
by conventional means.
Knowledge of the biological characteristics of these fungi has allowed the use of gene
transfer technique in the development of plants with high tolerance to these pathogens. Chitinases
that hydrolyze chitin, a major component of fungal cell walls, have been engineered into oilseed
rape and the transgenics have exhibited a high degree of pathogen tolerance (Table 2) (63–67).
Transgenic rape plants expressing an oxalate oxidase gene derived from Hordeum vulgare roots
showed enhanced resistance to Sclerotinia sp. The enzyme destroys the oxalate, which is required
Table 2 Transgenic Pathogen- and Insect-Tolerant Oilseed Rape
Plant species Resistant trait Gene Reference
Brassica napus Blackleg, Sclerotinia sp. Chitinase Grison et al., 1996 (63)
Brassica napus Blackleg, Sclerotinia sp. Chitinase Grezes-Besset et al., 1995 (64)
Brassica napus Blackleg Pea defense gene Wang et al., 1999 (65)
DRR206
Brassica napus Fungal 5⬘355 Bean chitinase Broglie & Broglie, 1994 (66)
Brassica napus Damping off Bean endochitinase Broglie et al., 1991 (67)
Brassica napus Blackleg PR peroxidase of Sty- Kazan et al., 1998 (70)
losanthes humilis
Brassica napus Sclerotinia sp. Oxalate oxidase Freyssinet et al., 1995 (69)
Brassica napus Sclerotinia sp. Oxalate oxidase Thompson et al., 1995 (68)
Brassica napus BWYV Viral coat protein Laucke et al., 1995 (71)
Brassica napus CaMV Viral coat protein Hervé et al., 1993 (72)
Brassica napus CaMV, TYMV, TMV None Spak et al., 1991 (73)
Brassica napus TYMV Viral noncoding region Zaccomer et al., 1993 (37)
Brassica napus Insect, Plutella sp., Xy- Bt Cryl Ac Stewart et al., 1996 (80)
lostella sp.
Brassica napus Coleopteran insects Proteinase inhibitor OG1, Bonade-Bottino et al., 1998 (81)
CII
Brassica napus Coleopterans Cysteine proteinase in- Girard et al., 1998 (82)
hibitor
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for fungal infection (68,69). A peroxidase gene from Stylosanthes humilis conferred some mea-
sure of resistance to blackleg (70).
Several reports indicated that viral diseases of oilseed rape could be alleviated by expres-
sion of coat protein in transgenic plants (37,71–74).
The expression of insecticidal proteins such as those derived from Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt), cholesterol oxidases, and proteinase inhibitors in transgenic plants is of increasing value in
the management and control of plant insect pests (75–79). Some of these proteins, especially Bt-
derived proteins and the proteinase inhibitors, have provided some degree of control of pests such
as diamond back moth, Plutella xylostella L., and flea beetle, Phyllotreta spp., in transgenic
oilseed rape (Table 2) (80–82).
C. Pollination Control Systems

In oilseed brassica and other crop species, one objective is the development of hybrids that are
likely to be superior to inbred lines in agronomic and other characteristics. For such development,
a pollination control system is required. Although self-incompatibility and nuclear and cytoplas-
mic male sterility (CMS) exist as pollination control systems, these are not always stable and may
not be available in the desired germplasm. A number of pollination control systems that use mo-
lecular biology and plant biotechnology methods have been reported (83–86).
In B. napus, male sterility was introduced by expression of ribonuclease (RNase) genes
from Aspergillus oryzae and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens specifically in the tapetal cells of anthers,
thus disrupting normal pollen development (84,87). These genes were linked to the bar gene,
which confers herbicide resistance, allowing rogueing of the male fertile plants. Male fertility was
restored by expressing an RNase inhibitor gene, barstar, in other plants (85). This represents a
very elegant system of pollination control and is well established in oilseed brassica. Since CMS
is associated with mitochondrial function, attempts have been made to transfer the mitochondrial
gene to produce male sterile oilseed rape plants, as with the T-urf13 gene of CMS-T maize (86).
In other transgenic oilseed brassica disruption of reproductive development has implications for
pollination control (88–90).
D. Protein Modification in Transgenic Oilseed Rape

There is considerable interest in the use of plants for the production of specialized proteins and
other components of industrial, pharmaceutical, and nutritional interest. Seed storage protein
modification for enhanced economic value as feed or food is also of interest. The production of
plant-based recombinant enzymes for industrial uses is advantageous in low cost of production,
stability, and potential for long-term storage. To exploit plants as a vehicle for such production it
is necessary to manipulate the appropriate metabolic pathways and (or) the heterologous expres-
sion of desirable genes from other species, in plants.
In oilseed brassica, the oil-free meal is a useful source of animal feed and attempts have
been made to modify the protein quality, especially the content of lysine and methionine (Table
3) (91–98). Stable increases in methionine content of B. napus were achieved by transfer of the
methionine-rich 2S albumin protein gene from Bertholettia excelsa (Brazil nut) to rapeseed (96),
and significant increases in lysine levels were reported by the expression of bacterial genes for di-
hydrodipicolinic acid synthase and aspartokinase in rapeseed (98). Other modifications to seed
storage proteins have been noted in transgenic brassica (99–101). The oilbody proteins, oleosins,
which may constitute 8–20% of the total seed protein (102) in oil seeds, are ideal targets for the
production of fusion proteins as this simplifies both isolation and purification. There are a num-
ber of reports demonstrating the heterologous expression of oleosin genes in oilseed rape of both
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Table 3 Transgenic Oilseed Rape Engineered for Modified Protein Production
Plant species Modified trait Gene Reference
Brassica napus Increased lysine, cysteine, Antisense cru- Kohno-Murase et al., 1995 (91)
methionine ciferin
Brassica napus Increased lysine, cysteine, Antisense cru- Kohno-Murase et al., 1995 (92)
methionine ciferin
Brassica napus Increased lysine, cysteine, Antisense napin Kohno-Murase et al., 1994 (93)
methionine
Brassica napus Storage protein Chimeric 2S albu- Denis et al., 1995 (94)
min
Brassica napus Storage protein Chimeric 2S albu- Denis et al., 1995 (95)
min
Brassica napus Increased methionine in Brazil nut albumin Altenbach et al., 1992 (96)
storage protein
Brassica napus Increased methionine in 2S albumin deClercq et al., 1990 (97)
storage protein
Brassica napus Increased lysine Bacterial DHDPS Falco et al., 1995 (98)
and AKa
Brassica napus 2S seed protein napA promoter Stålberg et al., 1998 (99)
Brassica napus 2S seed protein Modified napA Stålberg et al., 1996 (100)
promoter
Brassica napus Oilbody protein Soybean oleosin Sarmiento et al., 1997 (103)
Brassica napus Oilbody protein Arabidopsis sp. Plant et al., 1994 (104)
oleosin pro-
moter
Brassica napus Oilbody protein Oleosins Hills et al., 1993 (105)
Brassica napus Oilbody proteins Maize oleosin Lee et al., 1991 (106)
Brassica carinata Oleosin Oleosin-hirudin Chaudhary et al., 1998 (107)
Brassica napus Oilbody protein β-Glucuronidase Kühnel et al., 1996 (108)
Brassica napus Oleosin Hirudin Parmenter et al., 1995 (109)
Brassica napus Seed oilbodies β-Glucuronidase Rooijen & Moloney, 1995 (110)
Brassica napus Seed protein Phytaseb Verwoerd and Pen, 1996 (111)
Brassica napus Root proliferation, peroxi- Nonec Agostini et al., 1997 (112)
dase production
Brassica napus 2S storage protein Enkephalins Vanderkerckhove et al., 1989 (101)
Brassica napus Low glucosinolates Tryptophan, de- Chavadej et al., 1994 (113)
carboxylase
a
Genes derived from Corynebacterium dap A.
b
Genes derived from Aspergillus niger.
c
Transformation with Agrobacterium rhizogenes.
commercial and experimental interest (103–110). Significant production and recovery of the an-
ticoagulant protein hirudin and the enzyme glucuronidase were obtained by oleosin fusion pro-
tein expression in oilseed rape (105–108). Increase in phytase occurred in seeds of B. napus ex-
pressing a fungal phytase gene (111), and levels of indoleglucosinolates were reduced by
modification of tryptophan metabolism (112). High levels of phytase and glucosinolates are nu-
tritionally undesirable in the seed meal, and with genetic manipulation significant reductions have
been achieved. Even without specific targeting, protein modification can occur in transgenic
oilseed rape, as in B. napus transformed with Agrobacterium rhizogenes, which showed increased
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levels of root peroxidase (113). Use of the appropriate promoters and gene modifications is re-
quired for high-level gene expression, as in some cases the targeted changes were not achieved
(114).
E. Seed Oil Modification in Transgenic Oilseed Brassica

Improvement in total seed oil yield increase and qualitative differences in the oils are important
aspects of oilseed rape production. Although conventional breeding is useful in these improve-
ments, the advent of plant molecular biology and advances in lipid biochemistry now form the
bases for plant lipid manipulation so that the potential exists to synthesize almost any storage lipid
in plant cells (5,115–120). Among the oilseed crops, brassica species are particularly amenable
to genetic manipulation of the seed oil as they, in most cases, respond well to in vitro culture tech-
niques, making regeneration of transgenic plants from transformed cells relatively easy. Also,
very good germplasms have been accumulated over decades of conventional breeding. For these
and other reasons, oilseed rape is regarded as a model crop for genetic manipulation (120), and it
was the first transgenic crop with altered seed composition grown commercially in the United
States (5). It would appear that metabolic engineering of oilseed rape toward the production of
seed oils for industrial, nutritional, nutraceutical, and other uses is poised for significant advances
as our understanding of the genetic mechanisms and regulatory control of fatty acid diversity in
plants continue to increase. There are a number of excellent reviews of seed oil modification in
crop plants (5,13,117,118,120–123) to which the reader is referred as experimental details are not
repeated here. The purpose is to highlight in tabular form the current status of seed oil modifica-
tion in transgenic oilseed rape (Table 4).
Even though the potential exists to produce oils of any fatty composition in oilseed rape,
there are limitations yet to be resolved. In high-laurate transgenic rapeseed, very low levels of lau-
rate were incorporated into the SN-2 position of the glycerol molecule. This places a theoretical
limit on laurate oils at 66% (12,124). A similar situation exists with the quest for superhigh eru-
cic acid rapeseed, because even when trierucin could be detected in the seed oil, the content of
this fatty acid seldom exceeded 60% (125–127). An understanding of the basis for this limitation
will be key to further advances in qualitative modification of seed oil composition.
F. Miscellaneous Transgenic Oilseed Brassicas

The category of miscellaneous transgenic oilseed brassica includes transgenics that are primarily
of experimental interest, although some are of potential commercial value (Table 5) (147–157).
The use of antisense technology to reduce seed chlorophyll content is applicable to the removal
of the green seed problem in canola (147). Some transgenic oilseed brassica are of value in the
decontamination of polluted land sites, as genes for metal accumulation and chemical detoxifi-
cation can be expressed in these species (148). The studies on promoters and gene expression in
transgenic oilseed rape also have commercial implications (149,150). Other transgenics are use-
ful in studies of plant hormone metabolism and the expression of specific enzymes (151–157).
V. TRANSGENE STABILITY
The general assumption is that once the introduced gene is integrated into the genome, its ex-
pression and stability are assured. A body of evidence now indicates that this is not the case and
transgenes can be silenced and even endogenous gene expression can be affected by the intro-
duced gene (158–162). As a result of this phenomenon, the transgene phenotype may not be dis-
tinguishable from the nontransgenic. This condition presents some difficulty in monitoring the
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Table 4 Oilseed Rape with Genetically Modified Seed Oil Composition
Brassica napus Laurate accumulation 12:0 acyl carrier thioester Voelker et al., 1992 (128)
(BTE)
Brassica napus B. rapa Altered saturated fatty Stearoyl-acyl carrier pro- Knutzon et al., 1992 (129)
acids tein desaturase anti-
sense
Brassica napus Medium-chain fatty Medium-chain hydrolase Safford et al., 1993 (130)
acid modification and acyl carrier Protein
Brassica napus Medium-chain fatty Malonyl CoA-ACP Verwoert et al., 1994
acid modification transacylasea (Es- (131)
cherichia coli)
Brassica napus Increased palmatate 16:0 ACP thioesteraseb Jones et al., 1995 (132)
Brassica napus Erucic acid content Erucoyl-CoAc acyltrans- Wolter et al., 1995 (146)
ferase
Brassica napus Polyunsaturates Fatty acid desaturase and Hitz et al., 1995 (133)
Acyl-ACP thioesterase
Brassica napus Erucic acid content L-PAT acyltransferased Lassner et al., 1995 (121)
Brassica napus eicosenoic acid content SN-1 acylglycero-3-Pe Weier et al., 1998 (134)
acyltransferase
Brassica napus Erucic acid content SN-2 acyltransferase gene Zou et al., 1997 (126)
(SLC1-1)
Brassica napus 8:0 and 10:0 fatty acid ch Fat B2 thioesterase Dehesh et al., 1996 (135)
levels
Brassica napus Erucic acid content LPAAT (Limnanthes dou- Weier et al., 1997 (136)
glasii)
Brassica napus Stearate levels Acyl-AcP thioesterase Hawkins and Kridl, 1998
(Mangosteen) (137)
Brassica napus Stearate levels Modified acyl-acyl carrier Facciotti et al., 1999 (138)
protein thioesterase
Brassica napus VLCFAS β-Ketoacyl-CoA synthase Han et al., 1998 (139)
(KCS) (Brassica napus
Brassica napus Fatty acid composition L-PAAT (Limnanthes Wilmer et al., 1998 (140)
douglasii)
Brassica napus Erucic acid content LPAAT Münster et al., 1998 (141)
Brassica napus Saturated fatty acids Stearoyl-acyl carrier pro- Jain et al., 1998 (142)
tein desaturase (SAD)
(flax)
Brassica napus Unsaturated fatty acids ∆5 desaturase (Mortierella Knutzon et al., 1998 (143)
alpina)
Brassica napus Fatty acid composition Homomeric acetyl CoA Roesler et al., 1997 (144)
carbonylase (Arabidop-
sis sp.)
Brassica napus Fatty acid composition Escherichia coli fabH 3- Verwoert et al., 1995
ketoacyl-acyl carrier (145)
protein synthase III
a
Escherichia coli gene.
b
Cuphea hookeriana gene.
c
Limnanthes douglasii gene.
d
L. douglasii gene.
e
E. coli gene.
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Table 5 Miscellaneous Transgenic Oilseed Brassica
Brassica napus Seed chlorophyll content cab Antisense Morissette et al., 1998
(147)
Brassica napus Cadmium resistance Human metallothionein II Misra and Gedama, 1990
(148)
Brassica napus GUS expression tapetal Oleosin-like promoter + Hong et al., 1997 (149)
cells GUS
Brassica napus Pollen expression of GUS PGUb promoter + GUS Hong et al., 1997 (150)
Brassica napus Kanamycin resistance NPTII deVries and Wackernagel,
1998 (151)
Brassica napus Modified cytokinin levels tzs Roeckel et al., 1998 (152)
Brassica napus Modified cytokinin levels AT2S1-ipt Roeckel et al., 1997 (153)
Brassica napus Agravitropism R1-plasmid (Agrobacterium Iversen et al., 1996 (154)
rhizogenes)
Brassica napus Reduced gravitropism Rt-plasmid A. rhizogenes Legue et al., 1996 (155)
Brassica napus GS overexpression Cytosolic GSa (soybean) Downs et al., 1994 (156)
Brassica napus GUS Mannopine synthase + GUS Stefanov et al., 1994 (157)
a
Transformation with Agrobacterium rhizogenes.
b
Polygalacturonase.
transgenics under growth conditions and for reliable production of gene products (163). Such si-
lencing can be the result of transcriptional or posttranscriptional events (158,160,161) and can be
influenced by environmental conditions such as heat stress (164). It is generally accepted that
transgene inactivation is related to gene copy number, extensive DNA methylation of the pro-
moter, and (or) transgene, and the homology between transgenes and endogenous genes (160).
The latter, which is referred to as cosuppression, can lead to inactivation of both the transgene and
the homologous endogenous gene.
Although transgene inactivation has been extensively studied in many species, there are
very few reports for brassica species. Both physical loss of the transgene and loss of gene ex-
pression were observed in F1 lines of transgenic B. napus (165). In a population of transgenic B.
napus, some gene inactivation of the transgene for phosphinothricin (PPT) resistance was ob-
served after selfing and backcrossing with nontransgenic rapeseed plants (166). Although trans-
gene stability was not evaluated, differences in expression were noted for herbicide-resistant and
marker traits in oilseed rape during two cycles of seed production (167). Homology-dependent
transgene inactivation of an endogenous gene was reported in B. napus, in which silencing of the
S-locus genes in self-incompatible plants caused a breakdown of self-incompatibility (168). This
result was related to the level of DNA methylation of the endogenous gene.
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
There is now increased momentum in the drive to commercialize transgenic oilseed brassica, at
least in North America. A significant portion of the cultivated brassica oilseed acreage in 1999
was seeded to transgenic oilseed rape (169) that had a number of genetically modified character-
istics. Certain traits are single-gene-mediated and are relatively easy to manipulate. Conse-
quently, herbicide-tolerant and insect- and disease-resistant transgenics will be the most promi-
nent ones cultivated. Fatty acid and storage protein modifications in oilseed rape are now
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receiving extensive attention as a result of advances in lipid biochemistry, gene isolation, and ma-
nipulation, and cell culture techniques. With these advances, prospects are good for the produc-
tion of a wide variety of plant-derived oils and other lipids for nutritional, nutraceutical, and in-
dustrial uses. These plants will also be useful as bioreactors for the production of medicinal and
pharmaceutical proteins because of the advantages mentioned in the previous sections.
To date, no transgenic oilseed brassicas expressing polygenic traits such as those for flow-
ering time, vernalization, and plant architecture have been uncovered. To improve plant perfor-
mance, this point should be addressed, and the Arabidopsis thaliana model should prove useful
in the manipulation of these traits once genes are mapped, identified, and assigned function in this
species.
The production of oils of homogenous fatty acid composition is far from being assured in
transgenic oilseed rape. There are a number of examples of plants with seed oil of close to ho-
mogenous fatty acid composition, and it may be fruitful to examine the biochemical and physio-
logical bases for oil accumulation in such plants to identify any limitations in transgenic oilseed
rape fatty acid biosynthesis and accumulation.
Compared to conventional breeding, the production of transgenic oilseed brassicas is quite
rapid. Depending on the species and transformation method, plants can be obtained in 3–4 months.
Since gene insertion is random, it is essential to produce a large number of independent transfor-
mants for transgene selection. Therefore, the efficiency of plant regeneration from a wide range of
genotypes should be improved. It is noteworthy that of 29 agronomically important transgenic
traits listed by Poulsen in 1996 (14) 19 were based on the B. napus cv. ‘Westar.’ This argues for a
broadening of the germplasm used for the generation of transgenics.
To be acceptable, transgenics must have no negative attributes and be the same as the non-
transgenic except for the engineered trait. There is evidence of changes in chemical composition
of plant tissues as a result of unrelated genetic manipulation (170).
The stability of gene expression in transgenics is a fundamental issue for commercial ac-
ceptance. Gene silencing and inactivation occur frequently in transgenics and in some instances
may not be evident for several generations (171). This phenomenon exists in transgenic oilseed
rape but not to the extent observed in other species. Nevertheless, efforts should be made to im-
prove transgene stability in oilseed brassicas to allow reliable and optimal gene expression. There
is now evidence that such gene silencing may be reduced by gene manipulation (172,173). The
wide adaptability of these oilseeds, coupled with efficient methods for gene transfer and plant re-
covery, make these species attractive for the production of both commercial and experimental
transgenics, and the potential exists to diversify the production of a wide range of novel com-
pounds such as industrially useful polymers by targeting transgenes to specific tissues and organs
of oilseed rape (174–176).
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52
Studies on Genetic Engineering of Rice
Honghong Zheng, Xiaotian Ming, Yi Li, Hongya Gu, and Zhangliang Chen
Peking University, Beijing, China
I. INTRODUCTION 793
II. RICE TRANSFORMATION BY MICROPROJECTILE BOMBARDMENT 794
B. Plasmids 795
III. TRANSFORMATION VIA PARTICLE BOMBARDMENT 795
A. Plant Regeneration 795
B. Molecular Analysis and Bioassay of Transgenic Rice Plants 795
IV. RICE TRANSFORMATION BY THE
AGROBACTERIUM SPECIES–MEDIATED APPROACH 795
B. Agrobacterium Species Strains 796
C. Transformation 796
D. Plant Culture Media 797
E. Explants for Particle Bombardment 797
F. Particle Bombardment 797
G. Selection and Regeneration 797
H. Polymerase Chain Reaction and Southern Blot Analysis Confirming the Integration
of the S8 Gene in the Rice Genome 798
I. Rice Dwarf Virus S8 Gene Expression Analysis 798
J. Inheritance of the Introduced Rice Dwarf Virus S8 Gene in the Progeny 798
K. Rice Dwarf Virus Resistance of Transgenic Rice Plants When Challenged 798
REFERENCES 798
I. INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryzea sativa L.) is one of the most important food resources for humankind, especially for
people in developing countries. The progress in plant genetic engineering provides promising po-
tential for the improvement of rice production and quality. Since the first transgenic rice was re-
ported (1,2), remarkable progress was made in this field during the ensuing decade. Many con-
tributions by various researchers have led to a routine transformation system (3) to obtain
transgenic rice plants in many laboratories. Especially in the recent 3–4 years, a number of agro-
nomically important genes have been introduced into rice and have proved to be effective. Engi-
793
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794 Zheng et al.
neered rice plants with modified Bacillus Thuringiensis (Bt) gene were obtained for insect resis-
tance (4–7), and Cheng and coworkers (7) reported that Agrobacterium species–transformed rice
plants expressing cryIA(b) and cryA(c) genes are highly toxic to striped stem borer and yellow
stem borer. In order to obtain transgenic rice with resistance to fungal and bacterial diseases,
chitinase gene ChiI 1 was transferred into rice protoplast, and the regenerated rice plants showed
resistance to sheath blight (8). Song and colleagues (9) cloned the rice blight resistance gene
Xa21, and the transgenic rice plants with Xa21 showed high levels of resistance against bacterial
blight disease. For virus resistance, transgenic plants were produced with viral coat protein gene
or part of another viral gene in order to add resistance against rice stripe virus (10), brome ma-
saic virus (11), rice tungro virus (12), and rice dwarf virus (13). For stress tolerance, Xu and col-
leagues (14) transferred late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) protein gene from barley, Hva 1,
into rice by particle bombardment; the transgenic rice plants obtained enhanced tolerance to
drought and salinity. In addition, there are studies on rice quality improvements via transgenic ap-
proaches (15,16)
In recent years, two significant accomplishments have been achieved in the genetic trans-
formation of cereal plants. First, biolistic technology (microprojectile bombardment) has been
successfully developed, allowing routine production of transgenic plants in major cereals includ-
ing rice. This system has solved many problems that exist in traditional methods of direct gene
transfer, such as polyethylene glycol– (PEG)-mediated and electroporation gene transfer into pro-
toplasts. Application of the direct transformation method to various cereal species was limited by
some problems, for instance, the somaclonal variation derived from the long period of tissue cul-
ture procedure for protoplasts, the need for good protoplast culture, and the regeneration system,
which is time-consuming, laborious, and highly genotype-dependent (17). One of the advantages
of the biolistic method is that transgenic plants can be obtained after bombardment of various ex-
plants only if they are regenerable. In addition, its short period of tissue culture minimize the pos-
sibility of somaclonal variation and thus improves the fertility of transgenic plants. More impor-
tantly, it is considered to be variety-independent: transgenic plants of both the Oryzea sativa
japonica and O. sativa indica rice varieties have been successfully obtained with relatively high
transformation frequency.
The second significant accomplishment is that application of the Agrobacterium species–
mediated method to rice transformation has become well established. The Agrobacterium species–
mediated approach has significant advantages over the naked deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) de-
livery methods, such as the introduction of fewer copies of genes into the plant genome, high
coexpression of introduced genes, transformation of relatively large segments of DNA, and high
fertility of transgenic plants (18,19). In the mid-1990s this method was successfully applied to
many monocot crops that had been considered to be recalcitrant to A. tumefaciens infection for a
long time. Transgenic rice, maize, and wheat plants mediated by A. tumefaciens were obtained sub-
sequently with convincing and unambiguous data on transgene expression, gene segregation in the
progeny, and DNA analysis (18–20). Agrobacterium species–mediated rice transformation has
now been successfully applied to many cultivars of rice, e.g., O. sativa japonica, indica, and ja-
vanica (19–23).
II. RICE TRANSFORMATION BY MICROPROJECTILE BOMBARDMENT
The microprojectile bombardment method is based on high-velocity bombardment of plant cells

with DNA-coated microprojectiles (tungsten or gold) that can be accelerated by gunpowder ex-
plosion, pressurized helium, or electric discharge. Christou and coworkers (24) first reported the
recovery of transgenic rice plants by a biolistic method in several commercially important O.
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Genetic Engineering on Rice 795
sativa indica and japonica cultivars. In the past few years, this bombardment-based methodology
was further improved (25,26) and has been widely used in the production of transgenic rice
plants. It seems to be the most versatile and successful approach (17).
There are many factors found to influence the successful transformation of rice by the bi-
olistic method, including the choice of regenerable explants, the appropriate depth of penetration
of particles, and the optimized selection and regeneration system. The following is a basic proto-
col for producing transgenic rice plants by particle bombardment under standard laboratory con-
ditions.
A. Plant Material
The explants used for bombardment can usually be rice immature embryos (12 days old) (24),
embryogenic callus (26), or suspension cell aggregates induced from sterilized immature/mature
embryos on Muroshige and Skoog (MS) (27) or N6 (28) medium supplemented with 2 mg/l 2,4-
D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid).
B. Plasmids
The construct should contain the gene of interest and the selectable marker gene. For rice, hpt en-
coding for hygromycin resistance and bar encoding for herbicide resistance are often used.
III. TRANSFORMATION VIA PARTICLE BOMBARDMENT
The explants were placed on the center of a 9-cm petri dish containing MS or N6 medium sup-
plemented with 2 mg/l 2,4-D. Plasmid DNA was coated on microjectiles (tungsten or gold) ac-
cording to the protocol provided by the manufacturer of the particle acceleration device. After
bombardment, the explants were transferred to MS or N6 basal medium containing 2 mg/l 2,4-D
for 2–7 days then transferred to the same medium with the selective agent, such as 30–50 mg/l
hygromycin B (Sigma) or 3–8 mg/l bialaphos. To enhance the transformation efficiency the ex-
plants were cultured on osmotic treatment medium, as suggested by Vain and associates (29), for
4 hours before bombardment and for 16 hours after bombardment.
A. Plant Regeneration
After 6–8 weeks of selection, the resistant calli were transferred onto regeneration medium [MS
or N6 basal medium supplemented with 2–3 mg/l kinetin or 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and
0.5–1 mg/l naphthalene acetic acid (NAA)] to regenerate into plants. When the regenerated
plantlets reached about 10 cm in height, they were transplanted into pots.
B. Molecular Analysis and Bioassay of Transgenic Rice Plants

Putative transgenic rice plants were subjected to Southern blot analysis to confirm the presence
and integration of the exogenous gene in the rice genome, Northern blot analysis for the trans-
gene expression at ribonucleic acid (RNA) level, and Western blot analysis for protein expression.
IV. RICE TRANSFORMATION BY THE AGROBACTERIUM

SPECIES–MEDIATED APPROACH
There are many factors involved in Agrobacterium sp.–mediated gene transfer into rice. Geno-
type of plants, types and ages of tissues inoculated, kind of vectors, strains of Agrobacterium sp.,
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796 Zheng et al.
selection marker genes and selective agents, and various conditions of tissue culture are of criti-
cal importance (30). During cocultivation, the addition of acetosyringone medium, a potent in-
ducer of virulence genes, 2,4-D, acidic pH, and osmotic treatment has been reported to be im-
portant for the induction of Ti plasmid vir gene expression (31–33). Most reports have
recommended the use of actively dividing, embryonic calli derived from rice mature seeds or im-
mature embryos as competent cells for A. tumefaciens infection (34). The combination of vectors
and A. tumefaciens strain is another important factor affecting the gene transfer: so-called ordi-
nary strain (LBA4404) and superbinary vector (pTOK 233) combinations have been recom-
mended by several scientists (19,21).
The following is a modified protocol for Agrobacterium sp.–mediated rice transformation
according to the procedure provided by the Center for the Application of Molecular Biology to
International Agriculture (CAMBIA) and Hiei and associates (19).
A. Plant Material
Embryogenic calli derived from the scutellum of mature embryos were considered to be excel-
lent material for rice transformation by Agrobacterium sp. (19), they can be obtained as described
in the protocol for particle bombardment.
B. Agrobacterium Species Strains

Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains LBA4404, EHA105, and AGL-1 were used. Plasmids were
introduced into these strains by electroporation or triparental mating. Agrobacterium tumefaciens
was grown on AB medium (35).
C. Transformation
The embryogenic calli (actively growing, 1–2 mm in diameter) used for transformation were sub-
cultured on 2N6 medium (19) at 26°C for 4 days. Agrobacterium tumefaciens was grown on AB
medium with appropriate antibiotics and incubated at 28°C for 2 days. The bacterial cells were
collected and resuspended in AAM medium (19) containing 100 µM acetosyringone (approxi-
mately 2.0 OD at 600 nm). The 4 day-incubated calli were immersed in the bacterial suspension
for 30 minutes, then transferred to 2N6AS medium (19) and cocultivated in darkness for 3 days.
Then the calli were rinsed thoroughly with water containing 0.25 g/l cefotaxime to remove the
bacterial cells. The calli were blotted dry and cultured on 2N6 medium containing cefotaxime and
selective agent.
The selection of transgenic callus and regeneration of transgenic plantlets were conducted
as described in the protocol for particle bombardment.
In our lab, the National Laboratory of Protein Engineering and Plant Genetic Engineering
(PRC), the biolistic method is frequently used for rice genetic transformation. The following is a
detailed description of recovery of engineered rice plants expressing the rice dwarf virus (RDV)
gene by the biolistic method.
Rice dwarf virus is the pathogen that causes rice dwarf disease, which causes great loss of
rice productivity in Southeast Asia. However, conventional means of RDV control cannot solve
the problem effectively. Transgenic virus resistance is an attractive alternate strategy.
Protection from viral infection can be gained by introduction of viral sequences into the
genome of host plants. This pathogen-derived resistance (PDR) mediated by coat protein (CP),
replicase, or parts of the viral genome in transgenic plants has been demonstrated for a number
of viruses (36,37). We have developed or are developing a range of virus-resistance transgenes
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for RDV. In our lab, we have obtained all 12 segments (S1–S12) of the RDV genome (38). Some
of the segments, such as S1, S2, S3, S6, S7, and S8, which encode replicase, coat proteins, core
proteins, or nonstructural proteins, have been transferred into rice plants via particle bombard-
ment. We hope that engineered rice plants with the RDV gene will provide an effective method
for RDV resistance. At the same time, the expression of viral genes in vivo through transforma-
tion will be a good system for studying the functions of viral genes since this kind of double
strand RNA virus cannot be transmitted mechanically.
In this experiment, outer coat protein gene (S8) of rice dwarf virus (RDV) was chosen as
the target gene. We cloned S8 into plasmid vector for plant transformation. Using callus derived
from mature rice embryos as the target tissue, we regenerated rice plants after particle bombard-
ment with the plasmid containing the RDV S8 gene and a selection marker gene—neomycin
phosphotransferase (NPTII). After integration, expression as well as stable inheritance of the S8
gene were confirmed by molecular analysis.
D. Plant Culture Media

Modified N6 medium (28) was used for rice tissue culture with additional proline (500 mg/l) and
enzymatic casein hydrolysate (300 mg/l). The pH was adjusted to 5.8 before autoclaving. The cal-
lus induction and maintenance medium contained 2 mg/l 2,4-D, and the regeneration medium
contained 3 mg/l 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 0.5 mg/l NAA in modified N6 medium. Mod-
ified N6 medium without hormone was used for plantlet growth. For osmotic treatment, sorbitol
(0.4 M) was added 4 hours before and 12 to 16 hours after bombardment.
E. Explants for Particle Bombardment

Cultivar ‘Zhonghua 8’ is one of the commercially important O. sativa japonica rice cultivars in
China. Calli derived from mature rice embryos of this cultivar were used as the explants for par-
ticle bombardment. Mature rice seeds were dehusked and surface sterilized with 20% NaOCl for
20 minutes, followed by three to five washes with sterile water. The seeds were than placed on
callus induction medium. The induced primary calli or short-term subcultured calli were used as
target tissue for bombardment.
F. Particle Bombardment
Bombardments were performed with a PDS 1000/He Biolistic Device (BioRad). Forty to sixty
pieces of calli were placed in the center (2–3 cm in diameter) of each petri plate containing the
osmotic treatment medium. The plasmid DNA was coated onto gold particles with an average
size of 1.0 µm, following the procedures described in the device instructions. Bombardment pa-
rameters we used were the following: helium pressure, 1100 psi; gap distance, 1 cm; fly distance,
6 mm; target distance, 6 cm. The calli were transferred to callus maintenance medium after bom-
bardment.
G. Selection and Regeneration

After culture for 1 week on callus maintenance medium, the calli were transferred onto the same
medium containing 50 mg/l G418 (Sigma). After 4 weeks, visible fresh G418-resistant calli ap-
peared and were moved to fresh selection medium with 100 mg/l G418. After approximately an-
other 3–4 weeks of selection with 100 mg/l G418, the proliferated calli were transferred onto the
regeneration medium. Regeneration was performed under fluorescent illumination with a 16-hour
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798 Zheng et al.
photoperiod. Two weeks later, somatic embryos appeared; then shoots and roots developed. As
soon as the shoots were 6–10 cm long, they were transplanted into soil in the greenhouse and
grown to maturity. G418 was also added to the regeneration and plantlet growth medium at a con-
centration of 100 mg/l.
In our experiment, from a total of 110 G418-resistant cell clusters, 22 plant lines with
G418-resistance were regenerated, and subsequent polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and South-
ern analysis have confirmed that 19 have RDV S8 gene present.
H. Polymerase Chain Reaction and Southern Blot Analysis Confirming

the Integration of the S8 Gene in the Rice Genome
Total DNA from the putatively transformed plants were screened by PCR using primers specific
to the coding region of the RDV S8 gene to detect presence of S8. Further Southern analysis was
carried out to confirm the presence and integration of the RDV S8 gene in the genome of trans-
genic rice plants.
I. Rice Dwarf Virus S8 Gene Expression Analysis

Total protein were extracted from the transgenic plants and subjected to Western blotting using
RDV antiserum. The S8 encoded protein was detected in transgenic rice plants.
Standard protocols for PCR and Southern and Western blotting we used have been de-
scribed in our previous report (13).
J. Inheritance of the Introduced Rice Dwarf Virus S8 Gene in the Progeny

Segregation of S8 gene in the progeny was analyzed. The results indicated that S8 has been sta-
bly transmitted into progeny. Some transgenic lines gave a good agreement with segregation ra-
tios of 3:1, consistent with mendelian inheritance of a single dominant locus. But one transgenic
line fit a 1:1 model, possibly as a result of lack of either male or female transmission. This phe-
nomenon has also been mentioned in manipulations of other transgenic plants (39).
K. Rice Dwarf Virus Resistance of Transgenic Rice Plants

When Challenged
The progenies of the transgenic rice plants harboring the S8 gene, together with the transgenic
rice plants harboring other gene segments of RDV (S7, S6), obtained by the same approach, were
screened and selected. Experiments testing their resistance against RDV infection are ongoing
now.
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53
Transgenic Sorghum with Improved
Nutritional Quality
Yohannes Tadesse and Michel Jacobs

Free University of Brussels, Sint-Genesius-Rode, Belgium
I. INTRODUCTION 801
A. Crop Distribution and Adaptation 801
B. Basic Uses of Sorghum 802
C. Nutritional Value of the Crop 802
D. Insect Pest Resistance 802
II. IMPROVEMENT OF SORGHUM 803
III. GENETIC MANIPULATION APPROACHES 803
IV. TRANSFORMATION METHODS AND SORGHUM MANIPULATION 804
V. ENGINEERING THE ASPARTATE METABOLIC PATHWAY 806
VI. MANIPULATION OF LYSINE CONTENT IN SORGHUM 807
VII. CONCLUSIONS 809
REFERENCES 809
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Crop Distribution and Adaptation
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is an important staple food for about 500 million people
in arid and semiarid regions of the world. It is the fifth important cereal crop in world production,
following wheat, rice, maize, and barley. Sorghum bicolor, which belongs to the Gramineae fam-
ily, originated in Africa and spread to the continents of Australia, America, and Asia. According to
Doggett (1), this cultivated crop was domesticated in Africa, and the greatest variability of wild
species occurred in the Ethiopia-Sudan region of East Africa.
Although when and how sorghum spread out from Africa are still matters of discussion,
it has been shown to extend along the Nile to the Near East, and across India to Thailand and
China. This crop was relatively recently introduced to the Americas, around 1850 in the United
States; its cultivation in Central and South America occurred only in the 1950s (1). The genus
Sorghum, as classified by Harlan and de Wet (2), includes three species: S. bicolor, an annual
species, which includes all the cultivated sorghums, and two perennial species, S. halepense and
S. propinquum. On the basis of morphological studies by Harlan and de Wet (2), the cultivated
801
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802 Tadesse and Jacobs
sorghum was divided into five races, bicolor, kafir, caudatum, durra, and guinea, on the basis of
inflorescence types.
Sorghum adapts to wider environmental conditions but is primarily well suited to hot and
dry conditions. In arid regions it performs better than maize, since it has an extensive and deeply
penetrating root system. Because of its excellent drought resistance compared to that of most
other crops, sorghum thus plays an essential role in regions where production systems of other
crops cannot be maintained as a result of heat, drought, or poor soil condition (3). Sorghum can
also stand a wide range of pH and soil textures and is relatively tolerant to salinity (4).
B. Basic Uses of Sorghum

The basic importance of sorghum resides in its consumption as food by humans and as feed by
animals, but the plant is also used as fuel and building material. Sorghum is consumed in a vari-
ety of ways, but the most important and widespread form of consumption is the flour form. Por-
ridge (dough) is prepared under different names (genfo, guma, mafo, nsima, sadza, tô, tuwo, and
ugali) and consumed in many sorghum producing countries (1). Fermented breads (kisra and in-
jera) are consumed in parts of Africa, unfermented breads (such as chapati, roti, and tortilla) are
consumed in various places of Asia and Central America. Couscous is another important sorghum
food in the Sahel region of West Africa, where it is eaten in a mixture with baobab leaves and
peanut butter. Furthermore, in many parts of Africa, malted sorghum is used for making tradi-
tional beers. In South Africa, the largest part of the total sorghum consumption is in the produc-
tion of beer, most of which is home-brewed (5). Sorghum grains are also used for direct con-
sumption as immature seeds and/or as boiled, roasted, or popped grains. Moreover, vegetative
parts of the plant are fed to animals, the stem and foliage are used for green chop, hay, silage, and
pasture.
C. Nutritional Value of the Crop

Sorghum is the major food grain and an important protein source in the semiarid tropics. This
crop, despite its wide adaptation and utilization, is known to have somewhat lower nutritional
value than other cereal grains as a result of its characteristic low content of one of the essential
amino acids, lysine. This low amount of lysine is due to the high content of lysine-poor prolamin
proteins. Moreover, sorghum digestibility is low for livestock and also for humans (6). The fact
that essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by humans and monogastric animals necessitates
the consumption of a diet enriched with amino acids. In this respect sorghum amino acid com-
position limits its use as a sole food source. When sorghum protein is used as a livestock feed, it
needs to be supplemented by a protein-rich feed containing a high level of lysine (1). Altogether
the lysine content in cereals in general and sorghum in particular (ranging between 1% and 4%)
fails to meet the level recommended (5.5%) by the World Health Organization (WHO) (7). This
indicates the need for substantially elevating lysine content in sorghum by conventional as well
biotechnological methods.
D. Insect Pest Resistance

In addition to its low nutritional quality, sorghum is infested by a large number of insect species,
of which aphids, head bugs, stem borers, and shoot fly are the most important pests, causing
seedling death, stem destruction, falling of leaves, and grain shriveling. In 1992, the damage by
these pests in Asia and Africa alone was estimated at a loss of about 9 million tons of grain (8).
Although integrated pest management approaches had been attempted, problems related to so-
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Transgenic Sorghum 803
cioeconomic conditions have become obstacles to the practical application of the concepts (9).
On the other hand, screening of sorghum germplasm collections for resistance, though seemingly
promising (10), has not yet yielded efficient resistance against the respective pests. As summa-
rized by Nwanze and associates (9), genetic transformation could revolutionize the development
of insect resistance in sorghum, assuming that feasible and reproducible gene delivery methods
for this crop are developed and made routinely available.
II. IMPROVEMENT OF SORGHUM
Up to the present time the multidisciplinary efforts to improve this crop have been focused on con-
ventional breeding, involving such methods as germplasm screening, pedigree selection, back-
crossing, hybridization, and mutation breeding. That approach has been successful in improving
characteristics such as productivity, yield, stability, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.
Through germplasm enhancement, progress in developing resistance against Striga, a parasitic
weed known for greatly affecting sorghum production in most parts of the sub-Saharan region, has
been reported (11). Regarding nutritional properties, the discovery of high-lysine opaque2 maize
mutants (12) opened the way for similar attempts in other cereals. In 1970, a barley mutant with
30–40% more lysine than the wild type was identified. Similarly, Singh and Axtell (13) screened
the world sorghum collection and came out with a high-lysine naturally occurring sorghum mu-
tant containing a reduced level of prolamins. But these mutants suffered from some drawbacks
such as dented endosperm, which was due to fewer and smaller protein bodies as a result of the de-
crease in prolamins, and a slow rate of dry matter accumulation during grain development, which
resulted in reduced grain yield (14–17). Other high-lysine sorghum mutants with a 60% increase
in total lysine were also induced by chemical mutagenesis (14,15). In further screening, sorghum
lines with higher protein digestibility were found in populations that were developed from the lat-
ter type of mutants (18).
Thus, concerted efforts in classical breeding led to significant achievements in pest man-
agement, weed control, production, yield stability, and grain quality. The high-yielding varieties
developed and released by conventional breeders have contributed a great deal to providing an ad-
equate food supply for the ever-growing world population. But these traditional approaches can-
not be efficient enough to meet the increasing demand for more food as a result of the highly ex-
panding population size, especially in developing countries, where people have a more precarious
food supply. Evidently sorghum is a crop of significance in these regions, which are dominated
by subsistence agriculture. Therefore, if we have to overcome the challenges of malnutrition and
famine and if we have to limit the destruction of natural habitats for agricultural land expansion,
genetic engineering of crop plants has to be considered together with traditional approaches for
crop improvement.
III. GENETIC MANIPULATION APPROACHES
Plant genetic engineering has the potential to introduce totally novel traits into any crop species.
Genetic modification of plants using in vitro culture and transformation techniques has opened
the way to introducing foreign deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of agronomic interest into the plant
genome. In a period of about 5 years from the first demonstration of successful production of
transgenic plants (19), foreign gene transfer into a wide variety of plant species (from easy ex-
perimental model plants to difficult recalcitrant ones) were documented (for a review see Ref. 20).
The development of techniques for stable integration of foreign genes into plants has led to new
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approaches to addressing agronomic problems. Manipulation of metabolic pathways (21); intro-

duction of agronomically important genes such as insect, virus, and herbicide resistance (22,23);
and hybrid seed production by engineering male sterile plants (24) are some of the achievements
that witness the potential plant transformation technology holds for crop improvement. Although
several transformation techniques have been developed, their application to cereals has encoun-
tered limitations as a result of host range specificity for natural vectors such as Agrobacterium
and/or lack of efficient tissue culture systems.
IV. TRANSFORMATION METHODS AND SORGHUM MANIPULATION
Progress in the development of gene transfer systems has conferred the ability to introduce for-
eign genes into plant cells and tissues and to regenerate fertile plants, providing the opportunity
to modify and improve crop plants. Since the first transgenic plants were reported (19,25), derived
vectors of the plant pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens have proved to be efficient and highly
versatile vehicles for the introduction of genes into plant tissues and cells. Alternatively, direct
DNA transfer systems based on the polyethylene glycol–(PEG)-mediated method (26), the high-
voltage electrical impulse (electroporation) method (27), and techniques of microinjection (28)
have been developed. Despite several advantages of Agrobacterium–mediated transformation, the
problem of limited host range of this vector remains a problem, DNA transfer methods require
the use of protoplasts, and unfortunately most cereals cannot be regenerated from single cells.
Previously, monocotyledonous plants were known to be out of the natural host range of Agrobac-
terium (29). However, in the last few years genetic transformation mediated by A. tumefaciens in-
fection of the major cereals has been attempted by some laboratories. As a result of these at-
tempts, wheat tissues have been transformed by Agrobacterium (30), and transgenic barley plants
have been obtained through Agrobacterium–mediated transformation (31). Transgenic rice plants
have been produced by A. tumefaciens inoculation of immature embryos (32) and use of calli as
starting explants (33). Maize and sugarcane, close relatives of sorghum, have also become
amenable to this natural vector-mediated transformation. In addition to some reports giving evi-
dence of A. tumefaciens infection of maize (34–36), an efficient method for producing transgenic
maize plants from immature embryos cocultivated with A. tumefaciens has been reported (37). In
1998 an efficient protocol for A. tumefaciens–mediated sugarcane transformation was established
(38). Compared to direct DNA transfer methods, Agrobacterium–mediated transformation offers
some advantages, such as transfer of relatively large segments of DNA with little rearrangement,
integration of low copy numbers of genes into the plant genome, and an economical and efficient
procedure. However, in contrast to these benefits, no reports of the successful use of this method
in sorghum have been published. Nevertheless, recent progress in the use of Agrobacterium for
cereal transformation suggests that it is likely that sorghum may be within the natural host range.
Zhao and coworkers recently reported the first successful use of Agrobacterium for production of
stably transformed sorghum plants (71). As a whole, much attention has still to be focused on
those cereals that are somewhat neglected, such as sorghum. They need continuous investigation
and better understanding for the successful application of this transformation tool.
The first transgenic cereal plants were obtained by using direct DNA transfer into protoplasts
(39,40). This method requires the establishment of homogeneous cell suspension cultures that can
be used as a source of competent cells. But this process is time-consuming, difficult, and generally
genotype-specific (20), though plant regeneration from protoplasts of sorghum has been described
(41). The first stable sorghum transformants were obtained by bombardment of cell suspensions
(42) and electroporation of protoplast cultures (43). However, plants were not regenerated from
these transformed cells. Similarly our observation on sorghum in vitro culture is that although it is
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possible to initiate suspension cultures from embryogenic calli, the establishment of homogeneous
cell suspension, the time required to do so, and the possibility of regenerating plants are highly in-
fluenced by genotype. Fortunately, these shortcomings are circumvented by the use of explants
such as meristematic tissues that allow regeneration of plants through somatic embryogenesis.
In this regard, techniques based on particle bombardment have assumed an increasingly im-
portant role in extending recombinant DNA methodology to the genetic manipulation of recalci-
trant species. Herbicide-resistant transgenic sorghum plants have been produced by this method
(44–46). Additional efforts are required to further sorghum transformation technology utilizing
traits of agricultural importance with the goal of generating nutritional improvement. At present,
particle bombardment appears to be a method of choice for sorghum manipulation until alterna-
tive method (Agrobacterium–mediated) is developed.
The biolistic process known also as microprojectile bombardment or particle acceleration
employs high-velocity metal particles to deliver biologically active DNA into plant cells or intact
tissues (47). The acceleration impact is sufficient to penetrate plant cells, which can be regener-
ated into whole plants. The process is predominantly genotype-independent and imposes no bio-
logical limitations on DNA delivery. However, the settings for bombardment conditions are
species- and tissue-specific and therefore require optimization in relation to the particular appli-
cation (48,49). With this in mind, we first assessed the efficiency of different types of sorghum
explants in combination with various physical parameters used in the biolistic treatment (Tadesse
et al., submitted). Immature embryos, mature embryos, shoot tips, primary callus tissues and em-
bryogenic calli were bombarded with vectors, including the reporter gene uidA, under the control
of strong promoters. Transient GUS activity was observed 48 hours later. In general, immature
embryos and shoot tips were superior to other tissues. In addition to the factors directly involved
in the bombardment process, we have investigated different gene promoters by comparing their
strength via transient expression of uidA gene in sorghum immature embryo and shoot tip tissues.
We used different constructs: p35S-hpt, pBARGUS (50), pDB1 (51), and pAHC25 (52), each har-
boring the uidA gene, under the control of CaMV35S, maize Adh1, maize Ubi1, or rice Act1 pro-
moter, respectively. Histochemical staining tests at 24, 48, and 72 hours after bombardment and
fluorometric assays showed that the highest activity was achieved when ubiquitin promoter was
used, followed by the actin promoter; Adh1 promoter was found to be about 1.5 and 3 times less
active than the Act1 and Ubi1 promoters, respectively. The activity of the CaMV35S promoter
was relatively weak, about 1.5 times lower than that of the Adh1 promoter. Similar promoter com-
parisons in rice (53) and in Liliaceae species (54) showed that the relative strength of promoters
is a property of the promoters themselves but also varies significantly with the species in which
they drive the introduced genes. Identification and use of strong promoters would facilitate high-
level constitutive or specific expression of foreign genes in sorghum cells, and subsequently allow
better growth of transformed cells on the respective selective medium. In genetic transformation
of crop plants, the choice of selectable markers in monocots is narrower than that in dicots be-
cause of naturally existing endogenous resistance to some selective agents (55). Similarly, in our
previous experiments on sorghum cell and tissue cultures, we observed the same trend of insen-
sitivity to kanamycin selection. In this respect, we found geneticin (G-418) efficient in inhibiting
tissue growth and induction of callus in sorghum immature embryos and shoot tips. When using
geneticin as selective agent with nptII gene as selectable marker in sorghum transformation, the
selection procedure has to be optimized to prevent potential protection of wild-type cells by trans-
formants or unnecessary side effects resulting from stringency of selection. As part of establish-
ing transformation conditions, the nptII gene under the control of the rice actin promoter was in-
troduced into sorghum tissues by particle bombardment (56). Fertile transgenic sorghum plants
resistant to geneticin were obtained and grown to maturity, giving seeds. The presence, stable in-
tegration, and inheritance of the foreign gene were analyzed at the molecular and the genetic
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level, using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Southern, and segregation analyses. T1 and T2
progeny plants have also been obtained.
V. ENGINEERING THE ASPARTATE METABOLIC PATHWAY
As do many bacterial species, higher plants synthesize the essential amino acid lysine from as-
partate by a specific branch of the aspartate family pathway (57). In plants, this pathway is regu-
lated by several end product feedback inhibition loops (see Fig. 1). Biochemical studies have
shown that lysine feedback inhibits the activities of the two key enzymes of the pathway, aspar-
tate kinase (AK) and dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS) (57). Analyses of mutant and trans-
genic plants containing enzymes with reduced sensitivity to feedback inhibition showed that ly-
sine synthesis is regulated primarily by DHDPS (58–60), as this enzyme is highly sensitive to
lysine. Earlier observation in microorganisms suggested that S-(2-aminoethyl)-l-cysteine (AEC),
an analogue of lysine, appeared efficient in selecting mutants that overproduced lysine (61). By
using Nicotiana sylvestris haploid protoplasts, AEC-resistant lysine overproducing mutant lines
were obtained by Negrutiu and coworkers (62). Genetic analysis of the mutants showed that the
resistance trait is due to a single dominant gene. There was a marked increase of free lysine in
leaves and calli of such mutants. The identified mutation concerns the dihydrodipicolinate syn-
thase gene (dhdps), which encodes the first regulatory enzyme of the lysine pathway (Fig. 1). The
dhdps-r1 mutation causes insensitivity of DHDPS enzyme to the feedback inhibition normally
exerted by lysine and was identified as a substitution of two nucleotides, changing asparagine into
isoleucine in a conserved region of the enzyme (63). Thus, the expression of a feedback-insensi-
tive enzyme is associated with an increased production of free lysine. The expression of a feed-
back-insensitive DHDPS in plants, particularly in cereals such as sorghum, is of special interest
from the nutritional point of view. The expression of this mutated gene together with the use of
Figure 1 The aspartate family biosynthetic pathway. Feedback inhibition by end-product amino acids is
represented by curved arrows that have minus signs. AK, aspartate kinase; DHDPS, dihydrodipicolinate syn-
thase; HSD, homoserine dehydrogenase; TDH, threonine dehydrogenase.
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Figure 2 Growth inhibition in shoot tips and immature embryos by S-(2-aminoethyl)-l-cysteine (AEC).
AEC as selective agent favors the growth of transformed cells and suppress the further develop-
ment of the nontransformed cells. The use of AEC in selecting sorghum lines with increased ly-
sine in the seeds was established by Vernaillen and coworkers (64) in our laboratory. The pres-
ence of 100 µM AEC in the germination medium was sufficient to inhibit elongation of roots after
seed germination. On this basis, we determined the inhibiting concentration of AEC for callus in-
duction in sorghum immature embryo and shoot tips (Fig. 2). We found that 300 µM of AEC in-
hibited callus formation in both types of tissues. In further transformation experiments this con-
centration was used in the first selection step of transformed cells and tissues.
VI. MANIPULATION OF LYSINE CONTENT IN SORGHUM
Our goal was to express in sorghum the mutated form of the dhdps gene to evaluate a possible
overproduction of lysine. Therefore, chimeric constructs harboring the dhdps-r1 mutated allele
under the control of constitutive or seed-specific promoters were developed. By setting up trans-
formation experiments, the dhdps-r1 allele under the control of the constitutive CaMV35S pro-
moter was transferred through particle bombardment to immature embryos and shoot tips, which
were then selected on progressively increasing concentrations of AEC. The expression of this mu-
tated gene led to the synthesis of a feedback-insensitive DHDPS enzyme, which allowed growth
and division of cell sectors on bombarded tissues under AEC selection. Total inhibition of callus
initiation on nontransformed control tissues was indicative of the selection pressure exerted by
the respective AEC concentration.
Stepwise selection of bombarded tissues has allowed the recovery of AEC-resistant em-
bryogenic calli, which later gave rise to transgenic sorghum plants expressing the mutated dhdps-
r1 gene. Biochemical analyses of leaf extracts showed up to 5.5 times more DHDPS activity in
transformants than in wild-type controls, although differences in the level of enzyme activity be-
tween different transformant lines were observed (Table 1). The differences in DHDPS activity
level among individual lines could be due to differences in transgene copy number. Inhibition of
DHDPS enzyme activity in the presence of increasing lysine concentrations was also tested
(Table 2). Although the enzyme from the transgene did not show any significant inhibition, a clear
drop in activity in the wild type was observed. The relatively higher specific activity of DHDPS
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Table 1 DHDPS Specific Activity in Leaf Extracts of Wild Type and Eight Transformed
Sorghum Plants
Samples WT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
DHDPS activity (unit/mg 505.2 096.8 2123.2 969.8 794.7 455.7 664.5 989.5 422.7
protein/min)
Source: Refs. 1–8. Enzyme assay was done according to Ghislain and coworkers (63). A unit of enzyme activity is defined
as the amount of enzyme that causes an absorbance increase of 0.001/min at 550 nm. Data presented are means of three
measurements.
Table 2 Inhibition of DHDPS Activity by Lysine in Wild Type and Transformed Sorghum Plants
WT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Lysine concentration Enzyme activity (unit/mg protein/min)
0 µM 497 2165 2201 1908 3211 1532 2550 2089 1410

25 µM 260 1923 2045 1806 2807 1415 2343 1979 1360
50 µM 147 1812 1921 1713 2981 1387 2121 1785 1324
75 µM 130 1798 1818 1695 3056 1334 2113 1692 1298
100 µM 111 1801 1796 1690 2666 1295 1943 1702 1267
Source: Refs 1–8. Enzyme assay was done according to Ghislain and coworkers (63). A unit of enzyme activity
is defined as the amount of enzyme that causes an absorbance increase of 0.001/min at 550 nm. Data presented
are means of three measurements.
and its insensitivity to lysine inhibition confirmed the expression of the mutated plant dhdps-r1
gene under the control of the 35S promoter in transgenic sorghum plants. Previously the feed-
back-insensitive bacterial DHDPS enzyme coded by the Escherichia coli dapA gene was found
to be about 20-fold less sensitive to lysine inhibition in transgenic tobacco plants than the wild
type (65). The expression of the bacterial gene was accompanied by a substantial increase of free
lysine in leaves. In sorghum, amino acid analysis results showed up to 3.5 times more free lysine
in the leaves of transformed plants when compared to that in the wild-type line. Although consti-
tutive in its expression, the CaMV35S promoter is known to be less strong in its expression in
monocots than in dicots. In that context the use of dhdps-rl under another strong monocot pro-
moter, such as maize ubiquitin, could allow better expression of the gene, resulting in much
higher specific activity and leading to more lysine accumulation in transformed plants.
More interestingly, the expression of the Corynebacterium dapA gene alone or with a mu-
tant E. coli lysC gene under seed-specific promoters has resulted in 100-fold or several hun-
dred–fold increase in free lysine of canola and soybean seeds, respectively (66). This strategy is
also being developed in sorghum transformation. The use of a mutated dhdps-rl gene under the
transcriptional control of an endosperm-specific monocot promoter is under way. As the expres-
sion of this gene is expected to be limited at the seed level, another monocot promoter, such as
rice actin, controlling the expression of the selectable marker npt II will be used together to allow
the selection of transformants. On the other hand, a lysine breakdown as a result of lysine-ketog-
lutarate reductase (LKR) activity is known to prevent the accumulation of excess free lysine in
tobacco seeds (67). To prevent this lysine catabolism, efforts have to be coordinated to altering
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the activity of the enzyme LKR via an antisense type of strategy. This could enable us to reach a
rate of lysine synthesis that exceeds the rate of catabolism.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
Despite the socioeconomic importance of sorghum, improving its characteristics has received rel-
atively little attention, most of it in the form of classical breeding strategies. The fact that con-
ventional approaches alone cannot satisfy the demand for adequate quantity and better quality of
food for the ever increasing population of developing countries magnifies the need for new ap-
proaches based on plant biotechnology. As described by Bennetzen (68,69), the application of
molecular techniques in DNA marker-assisted breeding and genetic engineering could be di-
rected to the identification and use of agronomically important traits in sorghum. With this pur-
pose we have obtained sorghum plants that express a mutated dhdps gene that codes for a lysine
feedback-insensitive DHDPS enzyme. The expression of this gene under a strong seed-specific
promoter, coupled with reduced catabolic activity of LKR, can bring about a significant increase
of lysine in sorghum seed proteins. On the other hand, the elevation of lysine level in the whole
plant is also advantageous where vegetative parts are used as feed for animals. Moreover, as
sorghum is known to have wild and weedy relatives with which it can cross-pollinate (70), the in-
troduction of dhdps-rs is not likely to have any negative effect if it escapes from transgenic plants.
Furthermore, these achievements strengthen our expectation of the potential of biotechnology to
produce transgenic sorghums that combine improved important traits.
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54
Sunflower Seed
Günther Hahne
CNRS and Louis Pasteur University, Strasbourg, France
I. INTRODUCTION 813
A. The Plant 814
B. History of Sunflower Biotechnology Applicable to Genetic Engineering 815
II. CULTURE AND REGENERATION SYSTEMS 816
A. Regeneration from Cultured Tissues 816
B. Regeneration from Isolated Protoplasts 818
C. Properties of Regenerated Plants 819
D. Problems and Solutions 819
III. TRANSFORMATION AND TRANSGENIC PLANTS 820
A. Direct Gene Transfer 821
B. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Gene Transfer 822
C. Characterization of Transformants 823
D. Introduced Characters 824
E. Problems and Solutions 827
IV. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES 828
REFERENCES 828
I. INTRODUCTION
Most of the sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) plants cultivated worldwide are grown for their
seeds, which are rich in oil and protein. Although a small proportion of the production is directly
consumed in the form of grains, e.g., as a snack or birdfeed, the largest part is processed to yield
a highly appreciated oil with a balanced composition of fatty acids and good nutritious value. In
several countries, sunflower oil is the exclusive source of vegetable oil; on a worldwide scale, it
is among the four most important species cultivated as oil crops. This leading position has been
made possible by a very successful application of conventional breeding. The introduction of
high-performing F1 hybrids, based on the cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) system developed in
1969 by Leclercq (1), has promoted very fast development of this crop. The economic importance
of sunflower has stimulated interest in the development of biotechnological approaches, which
are hoped to extend the possibilities for further improvement of this crop. Simple conventional in
vitro techniques are already applied with good results; the acceleration of the growth cycle by em-
bryo culture, which allows the production of up to five generations per year, is a good example.
813
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814 Hahne
However, the potential impact of genetic engineering is estimated to exceed greatly that of con-
ventional techniques. The transfer of isolated and well-characterized genes is expected to confer
novel traits that would otherwise remain inaccessible on this important crop.
In vitro culture and transformation of sunflower have met with unexpected difficulties. Re-
liable and efficient protocols have been slow to be developed. To date, only a few publications re-
late information concerning the production and properties of transgenic sunflower plants. The
purposes of the present review are to give an overview of the existing literature on this subject and
to present some of the tissue culture systems that have been developed. The points that are most
likely to be responsible for the difficulties encountered in the establishment of transformation sys-
tems are highlighted.
Any approach to transformation must take into account the specific biological properties of
the plant studied. A brief description of some of the biological characteristics of sunflower will
therefore facilitate the understanding of the choices made and difficulties encountered while de-
veloping transformation protocols for this recalcitrant species. Some background information on
agronomy and breeding practices will be helpful for the identification of traits and characters to
be introduced into sunflower by genetic engineering.
A. The Plant
1. Biological Characteristics
The genus Helianthus (Asteraceae) comprises 67 species (2,3) which are either annual or peren-
nial species. Some of these species, originating from arid to more temperate climates (4), are nox-
ious weeds in their region of origin; others are appreciated for their ornamental value. Only H.
annuus (the cultivated sunflower) and H. tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke) are cultured on a large
scale.
Sunflower seeds are large (6–10 mm) achenes that contain not only the embryo but also an
air cavity, which often harbors fungal spores. Seedlings feature a long, sturdy hypocotyl and two
large and fleshy cotyledons. Adult plants are tall (most commonly 1.5 to 3 m) and carry large
leaves with an initially alternate, later spiral arrangement. Most commercial varieties and their fe-
male parents are characterized by a single stem bearing a single inflorescence, whereas orna-
mental varieties and male parent lines (pollinators) are most often branched for reasons of pro-
longed flowering time and thus more complete pollination. Floral induction, i.e., the transition
from the vegetative to the reproductive state of the apical meristem, appears to be relatively in-
dependent of environmental stimuli, responding to developmental clues (5). Floral induction oc-
curs early in sunflower development, approximately 20 days after germination. Anthesis occurs
8–12 weeks after germination, depending on genetic and environmental factors. As sunflower be-
longs to the tubuliflorae of the Asteraceae family, the inflorescence is radially symmetrical and
composed of two types of flower. The outside rows are formed by sterile ray flowers, the fused
petals of which are responsible for the attractive yellow ring. The incomplete disk flowers are fer-
tile and responsible for the production of seeds. The opening of these flowers is asynchronous and
proceeds in a centripetal fashion, as one to several rows of florets open per day. This process may
occupy 5–10 days, depending on the size of the inflorescence and climatic conditions. The em-
bryos develop quickly and may have reached their final size, but not their final volume and
weight, by 12–15 days after pollination. The time to full maturity, however, is in the range of 2–3
months. For experimental purposes, immature embryos can be extracted as early as a few days
after pollination. When germinated in vitro, they develop into normal plants that can be trans-
ferred to the greenhouse or field without difficulty. For more detailed information on sunflower
anatomical and developmental characteristics the reader may refer to the authoritative publication
edited by Carter (6).
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Sunflower Seed 815
2. Agronomy and Breeding

As is that of most Helianthus species, the natural habitat of sunflower is a warm and rather dry
climate. In kernels of modern sunflower varieties, 50–60% or more of the dry weight is con-
tributed by triglycerides (80% of the embryo). On average, sunflower oil is rich in unsaturated
fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid (65%) and oleic acid (around 20%) (7). The composition of
the oil is variable and depends on the genetic constitution but is also under environmental influ-
ence. The most important of the latter factors is the temperature. Whereas oil from plants grown
in a temperate climate may contain 60–70% linoleic acid, this value may drop to 30% for plants
grown in a Mediterranean or subtropical climate (7). Oil yield and oil composition remain the
most important breeding goals. The production of specialty oils with reproducible composition is
becoming increasingly desirable. Further applications of sunflower of more limited importance
include its use as a fodder plant (either green or after silage), production of large grains with loose
shells for human consumption, and cultivation for horticultural purposes, for which the most im-
portant traits are flower color and long flowering period (highly branched phenotypes).
Viral and bacterial diseases are of no particular concern, but a number of fungal pathogens
are the cause of major yield losses. The most widespread fungal pathogens affecting sunflower
include white rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), gray mold (Botrytis cinerea), downy mildew (Plas-
mopara halstedii), stem canker (Phomopsis helianthi, formerly Diaporthe), Alternaria helianthi,
phoma black stem (Phoma oleracea var. helianthi-tuberosi), as well as sunflower rust (Puccinia
helianthi) (8). Genes conferring resistance to some of these diseases have been introgressed into
cultivated sunflower from compatible Helianthus species by means of wide crosses, but other dis-
eases still require heavy chemical treatments or are, to date, without effective remedy (S. sclero-
tiorum). Fungal pathogens continue to figure among the most important concerns of plant breed-
ers. Broomrape (Orobanche cumana Wallr.) is a plant parasite that causes great crop losses in the
region of the former USSR and areas bordering the Mediterranean Sea.
Of the hundreds of insect species that use sunflower for food or shelter, the small percent-
age of them that are the cause of serious yield losses still represent a large number (9). They may
cause problems during seed storage, on the preestablishment level (planting through seedling), or
on the postestablishment level (young plant through maturity). Insect pests are less perceived as
a problem in Southern and Western Europe than in other areas where sunflower is grown as a field
crop. Traditional pest management mainly relies on the use of chemical insecticides, although al-
ternative strategies such as rotating crops, altering planting dates, and using pest-resistant culti-
vars may contribute to more profitable sunflower production.
Virtually all sunflower varieties grown today for oil production are F1 hybrids based on the
CMS system introduced by Leclercq in 1969 (1), and the breeding scheme is correspondingly
complex. The selection and production of hybrid lines require the creation and maintenance of
corresponding maintainer and restorer lines (7,8). This intricate system is likely to have conse-
quences on the strategies to be chosen for the introduction of a foreign gene into a high-yielding
commercial sunflower variety.
B. History of Sunflower Biotechnology Applicable to Genetic Engineering

The use of sunflower for human consumption dates back to very ancient times, when it was used
by, e.g., the American Indians. Sunflower became an important source of edible oil in the Rus-
sian empire at the beginning of the 20th century but gained its worldwide importance only in the
1980s (7). Consequently, the interest in biotechnological improvement of sunflower is also quite
recent.
Modern researchers have little historical base to start from. Early literature on plant tissue
culture does mention reports of in vitro culture of Helianthus spp., but they are sparse (e.g.,
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816 Hahne
10–13). The adaptation to sunflower of protocols that are successful for plant regeneration and
transformation in other species has proved difficult. Long-term callus cultures have shown a
strong tendency to lose their regeneration potential. Most reported of regeneration of plants from
callus made use of immature embryos as donor material, and plant regeneration followed callus
induction relatively fast (14–17). Induction of callus from other tissues or organs as well as long-
term callus culture followed by plant regeneration have also been described (18–20). However,
none of the callus-based regeneration protocols has given rise to a published reproducible trans-
formation protocol, most probably because of the low efficiency of plant regeneration in all these
protocols. Direct regeneration systems, i.e., systems in which shoots or somatic embryos are in-
duced from cells originally contained in the explant and regenerated plants are formed without an
intervening callus phase, have been established for several tissues. Immature embryos have been
shown to be capable of direct induction of somatic embryos (21–23) or shoots (23). Large num-
bers of shoots can be induced on cotyledons of seedlings or mature seeds (24–29), or even on the
primary leaves of such seedlings (19,30). Such epiphyllous shoot formation is, however, limited
to rather particular conditions of in vitro culture. It cannot be induced on older leaves or leaves
obtained from older donor plants.
The potential to transfer foreign genes to sunflower tissue by using Agrobacterium tumefa-
ciens was recognized quite early. Crown gall tumors of sunflower have been the object of nu-
merous studies (10,31–33), yet the combination of such infection with conventional regeneration
protocols has been crowned with little success. The production of transgenic callus and subse-
quent plant regeneration was successful for H. annuus in a single instance (34) but suffered from
low efficiency and poor reproducibility. A similar approach using the interspecific hybrid H. an-
nuus × H. tuberosus yielded a transgenic plant that proved to be sterile (35). With these two no-
table exceptions, all reports on transgenic sunflowers published to date are based on Agrobac-
terium species–mediated gene transfer to embryonic axes of mature embryos with subsequent
plant regeneration from the meristematic region (36–41).
II. CULTURE AND REGENERATION SYSTEMS

A. Regeneration from Cultured Tissues
In the following, we examine the regeneration systems that have been described in relation to
transformation of sunflower and highlight their respective merits and shortcomings. Most known
approaches to plant regeneration have been applied to sunflower and, in general, have given rise
to regenerated plants in at least one instance. However, only a few approaches could be developed
into efficient, reliable protocols that work in several laboratories, robust enough to be combined
with gene transfer procedures. It is useful to distinguish indirect regeneration systems from direct
ones that involve an undifferentiated callus phase.
An efficient system for the regeneration of true-to-type, fertile plants is the indispensable
prerequisite for any transformation protocol. Any such transformation system must satisfy a num-
ber of conditions, including (a) gene transfer to a sufficient number of cells in the explant that will
be or become involved in the morphogenic events leading to the regenerated plant; (b) an efficient
selection agent capable of enriching the population of regenerating cells with those expressing the
foreign genetic construct; and (c) the potential to maintain and multiply the obtained transfor-
mants in vitro or ex vitro, by vegetative multiplication or seed production.
1. Somatic Embryogenesis
Vigorously growing callus cultures are easily obtained from most sunflower tissues. Such cultures
can be maintained for prolonged periods and are convenient material for the induction of sus-
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Sunflower Seed 817
pension cultures. However, sources of embryogenic callus are more limited. Embryogenic callus
has been obtained from hypocotyl segments (19,42) and immature embryos (14). The regenera-
tion potential of such cultures appears to be limited to a few selected genotypes, which are not
freely available to the public. The feasibility of induction of somatic embryos in suspension cul-
tures has been described (43). The more general experience with callus or suspension cultures of
whatever origin is that they lose their regeneration potential very rapidly, often during the first
subculture. It is not unusual to see somatic embryos develop on callus emerging from the explant.
This observation is true for a wide range of media (unpublished). However, we have never been
able to maintain this capacity for somatic embryo production once the callus was detached from
the original explant, and we are not aware of any callus or suspension culture of H. annuus that
has been maintained for a prolonged period and still has reasonably high embryogenic activity.
Essentially two types of explants have been used with success in the direct induction of so-
matic embryos in H. annuus, i.e., immature embryos (21–23,43) and epidermal thin layers from
hypocotyl (44). Plants have also been regenerated via somatic embryogenesis from cotyledons in
at least one instance (45). Direct embryogenesis in sunflower is distinguished by its rapidity. Em-
bryonic features such as the presence of storage proteins may become detectable in developing
somatic embryos as early as a few days after the explant is put in culture (46). Plantlets developed
from such somatic embryos, separated from their explant 2 weeks after induction, may be trans-
ferred to the greenhouse 4–5 weeks after the beginning of the experiment.
The origin of somatic embryos has been the object of detailed study in only a few regener-
ation systems. Somatic embryos that develop directly on immature zygotic embryos have been
shown to have a multicellular origin (47). Under the studied culture conditions, their induction is
restricted to a particular region of the explant, i.e., the zone that will later become the crown. It
appears that this particular location is not due to the presence of a predetermined cell type but
rather to clues perceived in the functioning of the culture conditions (48,49). It is not known
whether somatic embryos of unicellular origin occur in other culture systems of H. annuus. How-
ever, unicellular origin of both directly and indirectly forming somatic embryos has been demon-
strated in callus cultures of the wild relative, H. smithii (50).
The induction of somatic embryos from cultured sunflower tissues is in general rather lo-
calized; thus, few cells are involved in the formation of a novel structure. Therefore, the proba-
bility is low that a foreign genetic construct, transferred by whatever method, will touch a cell that
later will become incorporated in a somatic embryo. Since direct regeneration events are ex-
tremely fast [the induction phase may be in the order of only hours (48)], and since callus cultures
lose their regeneration potential very rapidly, enrichment of transgenic cells by selection on a se-
lective agent such as kanamycin is not practical. It is thus not surprising that no system for the
transformation of sunflower based on either direct or indirect somatic embryogenesis of whatever
origin has been proposed.
2. Caulogenesis
Depending on the exact combination of explant type and cultural conditions, normal, fertile sun-
flower plants can also be regenerated via adventitious shoot development. Shoots have been re-
generated from callus in several instances (15,16,18,20). Such calli were induced on the same
type of tissues as the embryogenic calli described. Furthermore, one report describes the regen-
eration of shoots from callus induced on cultured anthers (51). However, the limitations that re-
strict the use of calli for plant regeneration via somatic embryogenesis are also valid in the case
of adventitious shoot induction: the morphogenic potential is extremely volatile, in addition to
being highly genotype-specific (15). The reproducibility and efficiency of the pathway of indirect
caulogenesis appear too limited to be applied to transgenic plant production.
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818 Hahne
The situation is different for direct caulogenesis. Several culture systems in which shoot in-
duction and plant regeneration proceed rapidly and with high efficiency have been described. The
explants that have been studied in most detail are cotyledons of mature seedlings (24–29,52–54)
and immature embryos (14,17,46–49,55). In both cases, the morphogenic reaction may occur in
a wide range of genotypes. The genotypic influence affects the efficiency of the system. The vari-
ation introduced by the genotype can be eliminated to a certain extent by the culture conditions
of cotyledon explants (54). In this particular case, ethylene concentration was one of the key fac-
tors that determined the regeneration efficiency.
As is true of somatic embryogenesis, direct induction of adventitious shoots on explants of
sunflower is extremely rapid (a few hours), and the time from the onset of the in vitro experiment
to the harvest of seeds may be as short as 4 months. The induction time has been precisely stud-
ied in the case of immature embryos (48). The first characteristic metaphase plates can be ob-
served as soon as 12 hours, and the morphogenic response is irreversibly determined approxi-
mately 24 hours after the explants are put in contact with the culture medium. Such a rapid
response may be convenient for reasons of experimental design, but it leaves little possibility for
selection of transformed cells. Furthermore, the conditions for optimal regeneration response and
those for optimal gene transfer, respectively, can be quite different (40). In such a situation, the
time window is too short for any experimental adjustment of the conditions between the two key
steps, i.e., gene transfer and induction of the regeneration event.
B. Regeneration from Isolated Protoplasts

Protoplasts can be obtained easily and in large number from diverse sunflower tissues including
hypocotyl, cotyledons, and leaves [(56–59); for review see Ref. 60]. It is not difficult to obtain
callus formation at high frequency from those protoplasts. However, the regeneration of plants
from such calli is more delicate and proceeds at a rather low frequency: in the percentage range
under the best conditions, and often several orders of magnitude below this value (61–66). For
this reason, culture conditions for sunflower protoplasts and their effect on the regeneration ca-
pacity have been the subjects of numerous studies (67–72). These studies have demonstrated a
peculiar type of behavior of sunflower protoplasts. They either form loose or compact calluslike
colonies, as would be expected from experience with protoplast culture experiments in most other
species, or they may develop into highly compact structures that, as a result of their suggestive
appearance, have been termed proembryoids (59,67,69) although they were never shown to de-
velop beyond an early stage. Their embryonic nature has been contested on grounds of histolog-
ical appearance (73). Their occurrence is strictly linked to embedding in media solidified with
agarose. This phenomenon of cytodifferentiation as a function of environmental conditions has
triggered several detailed studies (74–76) which, however, had no immediate relevance to regen-
eration efficiency. Stimulated by the persistently low regeneration rate from sunflower, attempts
have been made to increase this rate by electrostimulation (72) or to identify and select for pro-
toplast subfamilies with increased regeneration potential (68,76–78). Although these studies have
increased our understanding of the cellular responses that occur in the early phases of culture of
sunflower protoplasts, regeneration frequencies are to date still too low to be exploited for direct
gene transfer with subsequent plant regeneration. The production of transformed callus presents
no major problem (79); however, the regeneration of plants from such callus has yet to be de-
scribed.
From an analysis of the published results it becomes evident that the regeneration potential
of sunflower protoplasts is extremely genotype-dependent. Frequencies of plant regeneration
from sunflower protoplast cultures remain low in spite of rather intense efforts to improve culture
conditions. Further work on media and culture conditions therefore appears not to be very prom-
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Sunflower Seed 819
ising unless novel fundamental approaches are found. However, no fundamental obstacle that
would limit the use of protoplasts for sunflower transformation, other than the overall efficiency
of this approach, has become evident.
C. Properties of Regenerated Plants

Genotype, explant choice, and culture protocol have a decisive influence on the quality of the re-
generating structures obtained. Both somatic embryos and adventitious shoots may be very vig-
orous and present no difficulty for root formation and subsequent transfer to the greenhouse (22,
23,26,27,45,63). These cases are most often encountered with direct regeneration systems. In
those instances in which regeneration occurs from callus or cultured protoplasts, the regenerated
shoots or embryos tend to be weak and generating root induction and development is difficult.
One possibility for increasing the success rate of transfer to the greenhouse and the vigor of the
plants obtained is to use the regenerated shoots or plantlets with defective root systems as scions
and graft them onto sunflower rootstocks. The grafting can be performed in vitro, using in vitro
grown sunflower seedlings, or performed directly in the greenhouse, using young sunflower
plantlets (61).
Grafted or on their own roots, regenerated sunflower plants themselves (R0) generally pre-
sent a peculiar phenotype. They are stunted, often not taller than 20–50 cm, although individual
grafted specimens may almost reach the size of normal sunflowers. Even in genotypes character-
ized by a single head, multiple branching and production of several inflorescences are common
phenomena. We have seen the size of the individual inflorescences vary between a few ray flow-
ers surrounding a small number of disk flowers up to sunflower heads of respectable size with
more than 200 seeds. However, the reasons for this altered phenotype appear to be a consequence
of the in vitro culture on the physiological rather than the genetic level. In general, seed set pre-
sents no problems, even in the smallest inflorescences, and the subsequent generations consist of
perfectly normal sunflower plants. Little published information is available concerning the ge-
netic stability of regenerated sunflower plants. The most often used culture systems do not seem
to cause a high rate of somaclonal variation or other (epi)genetic alterations. In various instances,
no significant deviation from the parental phenotype has been detected over several generations
(22,23). Karyotypic variations have not been detected in plants three generations after plant re-
generation from immature embryos (23,80). Plants regenerated from protoplasts as well as their
offspring have been followed over several generations with microsatellite markers. No sign of so-
maclomal variation could be detected by this technique, irrespective of the donor tissue used for
protoplast isolation (hypocotyl, cotyledon: F. Charrière and G. Hahne, unpublished). However,
plants with altered coumarin content were obtained after mercuric chloride treatment of imma-
ture embryo-derived callus (81), and Witrzens and coworkers (17) mention the possible occur-
rence of samaclonal variants among plants regenerated from a similar source. However, this phe-
nomenon has not been studied in detail. From a practical point of view, lack of genetic stability
is not perceived as a major obstacle to the application of biotechnology to H. annuus.
D. Problems and Solutions

Most of the classic approaches to plant regeneration from in vitro cultured cells and tissues have
been shown to be possible also with H. annuus. We can therefore conclude that no fundamental
obstacle exists to applying such culture systems to the elaboration of transformation protocols.
With this background, what are the reasons that few laboratories master the transfer of foreign
genes into this species? Why is it that many researchers in this field still speak of a recalcitrant
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820 Hahne
species? One possible answer that probably comes close to the truth is that the problem is not that
there is a well-defined deficiency in one or several reactions but that the researcher is confronted
with an accumulation of independent individual difficulties. The recurring problems are (a) low
efficiency, (b) low reliability, and (c) low universality. Indirect culture systems, which could eas-
ily be adapted to gene transfer and selection of transformed cells, have regeneration efficiencies
that are difficult to combine with the inherently low efficiency of gene transfer into a transforma-
tion system with acceptable overall output. Direct systems do not suffer the problem of low reli-
ability and low efficiency to the same degree but are often too rapid to be submitted to a practi-
cally useful selection scheme. Selection therefore has to occur on the much more difficult shoot
stage. Even more importantly, gene transfer does not necessarily target the few cells within the
tissue that are competent for regeneration under the experimental conditions. Therefore, even if
gene transfer and plant regeneration were each efficient processes, the combination of both would
still be inefficient in many instances. Finally, there is a very pronounced genotype dependence in
most sunflower in vitro culture systems. Although this is true for many species, this condition is
aggravated by the difficulty of vegetatively propagating a sunflower clone with superior regener-
ation capacities. Multiplication by shoot cuttings can be successfully obtained, but because floral
induction is rapid and more or less independent of environmental clues, such shoots invariably
transit to the floral stage. This precocious flowering is a terminal stage that ends vegetative de-
velopment, be it in planta or in vitro [e.g., Refs. (82–84)]. The consequence is that genotypes with
superior regeneration capacity can only be maintained by genetic means. Breeding sunflower for
this character has been shown to be feasible (19,34,52,85), but this approach is inconceivable for
most focusing on basic research laboratories. Unfortunately, none of the tested public lines has
proved extremely responsive for regeneration responses.
In view of the accumulation of difficulties that impede the simple adaptation of protocols
proven in other species, it is not surprising that transgenic sunflower plants have been slow to
come into existence. With one exception, all of the few publications describing transgenic sun-
flower plants are based on yet another culture system, i.e., regeneration from a tissue containing
existing meristems. The most convenient tissue for this approach are the embryonic axes, which
can be infected, under certain well-chosen conditions, by Agrobacterium tumefaciens; plants that
bear transgenic seeds can be regenerated by this approach (39–41,86,87).
III. TRANSFORMATION AND TRANSGENIC PLANTS
The capacity of A. tumefaciens to transform sunflower tissues was recognized quite early, and
crown gall tumors obtained from sunflower plants have been the subject of numerous studies
(e.g., Refs. 10,31–33). However, this transformation procedure has only more recently been
adapted to nontumorous callus tissue, employing disarmed Agrobacterium sp. strains (34,88–91).
Attempts to regenerate transgenic plants from such callus were unsuccessful because of the lack
of regeneration systems from such material, with one exception (34), which involved a specially
bred proprietary genotype. Confirmed transgenic plants were obtained in spite of the drastic loss
of regenerative capacity of the callus under selective conditions. However, this initial report re-
mained isolated, and a short note by Hartmann (92) indicates that difficulties with the regenera-
tion and selection system made production of further transgenic plants by this system impracti-
cal. The leaf disk approach (93) that has become the standard transformation technique for many
species is inapplicable to sunflower because of the lack of an appropriate regeneration system. It
is not surprising, therefore, that a wide range of combinations of culture techniques and gene
transfer methods had to be evaluated before transgenic sunflower plants could be generated in a
reproducible albeit labor-intensive and comparatively inefficient manner.
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Sunflower Seed 821
A. Direct Gene Transfer

Direct gene transfer, i.e., the introduction of foreign genetic material by physical methods and
without the help of a biological vector, is based on three principal techniques: direct gene trans-
fer to isolated protoplasts, microinjection, and bombardment with microparticles. Whereas the
former technique requires an efficient regeneration system from isolated protoplasts, the latter
two are theoretically applicable to intact plant organs such as meristems and embryos.
1. Protoplasts
Direct gene transfer to isolated protoplasts can be accomplished by either treatment with poly-
ethylene glycol (PEG) or a short exposure to a strong electric field (electroporation) (94,95). Both
approaches have yielded transgenic plants in an impressive number of species for review, see Ref.
96. Introduction of the foreign deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is followed by a short period (sev-
eral hours) of expression that later decreases. Because of the high copy number that is generally
introduced by these techniques this transient expression is usually quite strong compared to the
expression of the stably integrated genetic material, which becomes apparent only later. Although
transient expression may affect the majority of the protoplasts that survive the transformation pro-
cedure, stable integration of the introduced genetic construct is a rare event and can be detected
in only a small fraction of the treated protoplast population.
Both PEG-mediated gene transfer and electroporation have been shown to be applicable to
sunflower protoplasts for transient expression studies. The conditions for optimal gene transfer
are comparable to those that have been found to be useful in other species (97). Callus resistant
to selection on kanamycin-containing medium was obtained after PEG-mediated DNA uptake by
sunflower protoplasts (79). The frequency of occurrence of stably transformed colonies was low
in this study (4 × 10–6). No transgenic plants could be obtained since no regeneration protocol was
available for the genotype used.
These two studies (79,97) have not been followed by other publications reporting on the use
of sunflower protoplasts for direct gene transfer. It is clear from this work that no specific prop-
erties exist in sunflower protoplasts that would make them unsuitable to gene transfer experi-
ments. The frequency of occurrence of stable transformants is low but not unusual for this type
of experiment. However, the limitations for plant regeneration from sunflower protoplasts de-
scribed, in particular the low efficiency of shoot induction and the rapid loss of the morphogenic
potential, are the principal reasons why this approach to the production of transgenic sunflower
plants was rapidly considered impractical.
2. Microinjection
Microinjection is a preferred technique for the transformation of animal cells, but the presence of
a rigid cell wall complicates the application of this technique to plant cells. The production of
transgenic rapeseed plants by this technique has been shown to be feasible by microinjection into
microspore-derived embryoids (98). A subsequent step of secondary embryogenesis allowed non-
chimeric transformants to be obtained. Although this result has been reported only once, it dem-
onstrates that microinjection may be a valid alternative for the transformation of species when
other approaches have failed. However, it requires the availability of an efficient regeneration sys-
tem from a tissue or organ that is suitable for microinjection.
The sunflower ovule satisfies this criterion since it is possible to regenerate plants from
young embryos, as has been demonstrated in an interspecific hybrid (99). Microinjection of such
young embryos in ovulo was reported in one conference abstract (100). Technical details and a
characterization of the plants obtained are not available since this initial report was not followed
by further publications, but the approach has given rise to a patent application (Table 1). It is
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822 Hahne
Table 1 Patent Applications with relevance Specific to sunflower transformation
Registration
Title Owner number
Plant transformation method using microprojectile bom- Pioneer Hi-Bred Intern. 92-09802
bardment and Agrobacterium sp.
Plant transformation using Agrobacterium sp. and micro- Pioneer Hi-Bred Intern. 92-09803
projectile bombardment
Plant transformation by direct microinjection of exoge- South Dakota State University 94-03332
nous DNA into fertilized ovule
Production of entirely transformed transgenic plants Biocem, France 95-05874
Recovery of transformed plants without selectable mark- Pioneer Hi-Bred Intern. 98-51806
ers by nodal culture and enrichment of transgenic sec-
tors
Source: Derwent Biotechnology Abstracts (http://www.derwent.com/).
likely that the cumbersome and time-consuming isolation procedure of the starting material in
combination with the inherent complexity of the microinjection technique are major obstacles to
the development of a routine transformation system based on this approach.
3. Particle Gun
The bombardment of plant cells with microparticles that have been coated with DNA allows the
introduction of this DNA into plant cells without prior removal of the cell wall. The transforma-
tion of species for which a transformation protocol had not been available has thus become pos-
sible (e.g., Ref. 101). The same technique also allows transient expression studies without the
need to isolate protoplasts, thus maintaining a more natural cellular environment (e.g., Refs. 102,
103). However, prudence requires cautious interpretation of the results because transient expres-
sion often concerns dying cells (104).
The capacity bombarding intact tissues with inherent regeneration potential such as meris-
tems (101,105) would make this approach to gene transfer appear ideal for species for which
other efficient regeneration systems could not be established, such as sunflower. Yet the literature
on this subject is very limited, although this method has been the subject of patent applications
related to sunflower transformation (Table 1). Immature embryos have been bombarded success-
fully for transient expression, but no transgenic plants could be obtained (106). Bombardment of
other sunflower tissues was inconclusive in this study. The only published account, of the use of
the particle gun resulted in transgenic sunflower plants via an unusual modification of the tech-
nique. Naked particles (i.e., those having no foreign DNA) were used to introduce multiple
wound sites and thus to increase the efficiency of infection with Agrobacterium sp. (37).
B. Agrobacterium Species–Mediated Gene Transfer

Agrobacterium tumefaciens appears to be the most suitable vector for the transformation of sun-
flower: all transgenic sunflower plants for which details on the transformation protocol have been
made available were obtained by using this agent. The difficulties that must be surmounted in
adapting commonly used protocols for the infection of sunflower tissue to a suitable regeneration
system reside essentially in the targeting of the infection to cells that retain their regeneration po-
tential after treatment. A variety of regeneration systems have been tested for their compatibility
with the Agrobacterium sp. transformation approach, including hypocotyl explants (34,90),
seedling cotyledons, and immature embryos (40,107), and embryonic axes (36–39,86,108). How-
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Sunflower Seed 823
ever, all studies in which transgenic sunflower plants were obtained in a reproducible and rea-
sonably efficient manner had made use of embryonic axes as the initial explant.
This technique was originally proposed by Schrammeijer and coworkers (36), who treated
longitudinally cut apical parts of embryonic axis with an Agrobacterium sp. suspension. Shoots
were regenerated from the persisting meristematic tissue. In some cases agrobacteria had been able
to penetrate this tissue, and plants could be obtained with chimeric expression of the introduced
marker gene (GUS). Although the efficiency was very low in this experiment (2 chimeric shoots
were obtained from 1500 treated meristems) and the regenerated plants turned out to be sterile, this
report demonstrated the compatibility of Agrobacterium species–mediated gene transfer with the
regeneration from preexisting meristems. Subsequent work elaborated on this system. The intro-
duction of multiple microwounds allowed Bidney and associates to increase the efficiency of the
transformation system (37,109). Similar results were obtained by Knittel and colleagues (39), who
also showed that in spite of the use of preexisting meristems, the overall efficiency remains a func-
tion of the genotype utilized. In fact, not all regenerated shoots originate in preexisting meristem-
atic tissue, and one of the factors that determine the efficiency of regeneration and the proportion
of transgenic shoots is the capacity for adventitious shoot induction in the vicinity of the original
meristematic tissue (41). Transformation of the remaining meristematic tissue by the agrobacteria
is possible but mainly leads to the development of chimeric shoots. Adventitious shoots tend to be
more uniformly transformed (41). Other means of introducing wounds have since been devised,
including vigorous shaking with glass beads (38) and partial digestion with pectolytic enzymes
(108). The putatively transformed regenerated shoots tend to be weak, and their transfer to the
greenhouse is a major difficulty in the process of producing transgenic offspring. Precocious in-
duction of flowering and resulting poor root formation and vegetative growth are among the pri-
mary causes of this problem. Grafting the weak shoots at an early stage of their development may
significantly increase the yield of transgenic offspring (M. Burrus, G. Hahne, C. Himber, J. Molin-
ier, P. Rousselin, unpublished observation; for details, see http://ibmp.u-strasbg.fr).
It is difficult to compare the efficiencies obtained in these experiments because the basis of
calculation is not standardized. However, it is fair to state that sunflower cannot yet be listed
among the species for which transformation is efficient and problem-free. Although the produc-
tion of regenerated shoots that express a visible marker gene such as uidA (GUS) at some point
is usually in the range of 50–100%, the proportion of shoots that stably express the foreign con-
struct in a tissue likely to give rise to transgenic offspring is much lower (< 10%). The overall ef-
ficiency from the explant (embryonic axis) to the confirmed transgenic seed-bearing plant is in
the percentage range (fertile plants/explants). Although the transformation of embryonic axes by
A. tumefaciens is conceptually simple, an easily applicable universal protocol is not yet available.
Depending on the genotype, dissection technique, bacterial strain, selectable marker, in vitro cul-
ture, and greenhouse conditions, considerable fine-tuning is necessary before the technique is per-
fectly mastered by a laboratory.
As a result of the difficulties encountered by most laboratories in developing a practically
useful transformation system for sunflower, many ingenious approaches have been explored.
Some were novel developments that led to patents protecting the process. Some patent applica-
tions with relevance to sunflower transformation are listed in Table 1.
C. Characterization of Transformants
Published information characterizing transgenic sunflower plants in detail is not available. Pri-
mary transformants that have integrated a genetic construct whose expression has no influence on
plant development and morphological features are visually indistinguishable from untransformed
regenerants. They tend to be small and weak plantlets, often highly branched and bearing small
multiple inflorescences. Grafting on strong rootstocks often results in much more vigorous plants
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824 Hahne
with significantly increased seed production. Depending on the origin of the regenerating shoots
(preexisting meristematic tissue or adventitious buds), primary regenerants are more or less
chimeric for the presence of the transgene. This is not a serious problem since vegetative multi-
plication is not feasible for sunflower, and passage to the following generation is an obligatory
step for the maintenance of the transgenic state. The F1 generation is of course heterogeneous but
free of chimeras. The number of transgenic seeds obtained from a primary regenerant is highly
variable and depends on many factors, including plant size, number and size of inflorescences,
and degree of the chimeric state. As in untransformed regenerants, seed yield may vary from sev-
eral to several hundred (G. Hahne, C. Himber, J. Molinier, unpublished observation).
Although numerous field trials with transgenic sunflowers have been conducted (Table 2),
molecular and genetic data on the structure and inheritance of the transgenes have not been pub-
lished.
D. Introduced Characters
1. Genetic Markers
As in most transformation systems with low efficiency, the protocols used for sunflower trans-
formation critically depend on an efficient selection scheme. The nptII gene, which codes for the
enzyme neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII), is among the oldest and most widely used se-
lection markers in plant transformation. This enzyme inactivates not only the frequently used
kanamycin but also other compounds of the class of aminoglycoside antibiotics, such as gen-
tamycin and paromomycin. Many of these compounds have been evaluated for their efficiency in
selection for transgenic sunflower tissues. Depending on the tissue type and the origin of the re-
generated shoots, different results have been obtained. In some cases, sunflower tissues, trans-
genic or not, were found to be highly resistant to aminoglycoside antibiotics, although differences
were observed between individual compounds (90). In other instances, prolonged exposure of
morphogenic callus to kanamycin resulted in a severe loss of its regeneration potential (34). In
combination with the embryonic axis–based transformation system, selection on kanamycin
seems to be the best compromise, although its use is treacherous. Because of the rapidity of the
direct regeneration system, selection must be performed on the shoot level. At low and interme-
diate concentrations, this approach is much more prone to escapes than selection on the callus
level. However, as a result of the chimeric nature of most primary transformants, selection pres-
sure must remain on a nonlethal level because untransformed tissue at the base of the regenerants
must survive in order to nourish the upper parts that potentially contain transformed portions. The
selective agent, usually kanamycin, is therefore best employed in a concentration range in which
untransformed, but not transformed, tissue is bleached. For the same reason, selective markers
that invariably kill susceptible cells cannot be employed. Examples of such compounds are phos-
phinothricin (PPT) (Basta) and hygromycin. The ideal solution would consist of a nontoxic se-
lection marker that allows visual identification of the transformants. Although the histological
GUS assay yields visual information, it is unsuitable, for it requires fixation of the examined tis-
sue. Two viable visual markers are available: The first, Luciferase, is an enzyme that produces
chemiluminescence, which allows detection of transgenic plant material (110). This marker is
highly specific and its detection relatively free of artefacts, but the level of the light emitted is very
low. Consequently, the identification of transgenic plant material depends on the availability of
sophisticated and costly equipment. The other marker is green fluorescent protein (GFP), which
causes fluorescence characteristic of the transgenic plants and may be a useful selection tool
(111). Its presence can be easily detected with a conventional fluorescence microscope equipped
with a suitable filter set; however, a dissecting microscope with epifluorescence equipment may
be required for the identification of individuals too large to fit under a microscope. The usefulness
of GFP is limited by endogenous fluorescence of the plant tissue under study. This limitation is
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Table 2 Applications for Field Trials with Transgenic Sunflowers
Date of Reference
Sunflower Seed
Character Declared main trait Company Country application number
Seed quality Altered seed storage protein Pioneer United States 1991 91-067-01R
Altered seed storage protein Pioneer United States 1992 92-042-02R
Altered seed storage protein Pioneer United States 1993 93-033-02R
Altered seed storage protein Van der Have United States 1995 95-033-01R
Albumin synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Asparagine synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Threonine synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Alteration of oil composition Rustica Prograin Génétique F 1997 B/FR/97/11/29
(high stearate content)
Fungal disease resistance Sclerotinia sp. resistance Van der Have United States 1995 95-033-01R
Chalcone synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Chitinase synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Fungal resistance Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Glucanase synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Oxalate synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Oxalate oxidase synthesis SES France Van der Have F 1996 B/FR/96/02/12
France
Oxalate oxidase synthesis Pioneer Génétique France F 1997 B/FR/97/05/29
Oxalate oxidase synthesis Semillas Pioneer E 1998 B/ES/98/14
Sclerotinia sp. resistance Pioneer United States 1998 98-044-11N
Viral disease resistance Virus resistance Pioneer United States 1997 97-029-03R
(continues)
825
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826
Table 2 (Continued)
Date of Reference
Character Declared main trait Company Country application number
Insect resistance Bt-derived insect resistance Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
(cowpea trypsin inhibitor syn-
thesis)
Insect resistance Van der Have United States 1996 96-071-02R
Insect resistance Pioneer United States 1999 99-070-05N
Herbicide resistance Glufosinate tolerance Van der Have NL 1994 B/NL/94/18
Chlorsulfuron tolerance Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Glufosinate tolerance Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Marker genes Marker Limagrain Genetics F 1994 B/FR/94/02/13
Marker Van der Have F 1994 B/FR/94/02/19
France
Visual marker (GUS) Pioneer United States 1995 95-031-02R
Visual marker (GUS) Van der Have United States 1997 97-126-01R
Other traits Drought tolerance Van der Have E 1994 B/ES/94/10
Levan sucrase synthesis Cubian
Confidential business informa- Van der Have United States 1994 94-025-01R
tion
Fructosyltransferase synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Levan sucrase synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Male sterility/fertility restoration Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Nitrate reductase synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Nitrite reductase synthesis Van der Have NL 1995 B/NL/95/16
Confidential business informa- Van der Have United States 1996 96-071-04R
tion
Broomrape control Semillas Pioneer E 1998 B/ES/98/13
Sources: Robert-Koch-Institut (RKI) (http://www.rki.de/GENTEC/GENTEC.HTM), European Commission Joint Research Centre (jrc)
(http://biotech.jrc.it/gmo.htm), USDA APHIS (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotech/), OECD (http://www.olis.oecd.org/biotrack.nsf).
NL = The Netherlands; F = France; E = Spain
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Sunflower Seed 827
highly variable between species and tissues. The diverse sunflower tissues we have studied were
characterized by high endogenous background fluorescence (G. Hahne, J. Molinier, unpublished
observations).
2. Genes of Interest
Although transformation of sunflower is still in its infancy, several laboratories have begun to
transfer genes coding for characters of agronomic interest to this important oil crop. As can be ex-
pected of an important crop plant, most of the information relating to this subject is not in the pub-
lic domain. However, the difficulties and constraints encountered during large-scale cultivation of
sunflower as well as specific product-oriented requirements are reflected in the novel major traits
of transgenic sunflower plants that have been submitted to field trials (Table 2). In addition to field
evaluation of stability of expression and inheritance of the transgene, and general performance of
the transgenic plants, evaluated with the help of marker genes, the target traits encountered in
these field trials concern (a) characters related to plant cultivation, such as resistance to fungal and
viral diseases, herbicides, insects, and adverse environmental conditions (drought), and (b) char-
acters related to seed quality such as modified storage protein or fatty acid composition. To date
and to the best of my knowledge, no application for the market introduction of a genetically mod-
ified sunflower has been made.
E. Problems and Solutions

For the sunflower tissues studied so far, gene transfer does not appear to be subject to particular
limitations or problems, whatever the technique used. Low efficiency of stable integration is not
a characteristic peculiar to sunflower, it rather is the norm for most gene transfer systems. Why is
it, then, that sunflower still figures on the list of the species most unamenable to genetic engi-
neering? A major reason resides in the lack of a suitable in vitro culture system for efficient re-
generation of the cells that have received and integrated the foreign DNA in their genome. In view
of the low efficiency of gene transfer, the ideal culture system would allow efficient selection for
and enrichment of the rare event before initiation of the morphogenic program. Such a culture
system does not exist for sunflower. Furthermore, gene uptake cannot be efficiently directed to a
particular cell population such as those cells that become involved in adventitious bud or somatic
embryo formation. Conversely, no experimental means is available to direct the induction of the
morphogenic program to those cells that are most likely to become involved in the uptake of the
foreign DNA. In consequence, although DNA uptake and plant regeneration may each be within
acceptable orders of magnitude for several culture/transformation systems, their combination
causes overall efficiency to drop far below a practically useful level.
The challenge therefore consists of finding (a) a reasonably efficient culture system in
which the regenerating cells are identical to those that receive the foreign DNA (b) which allows
for a selection system with an acceptable level of enrichment of the transgenic shoots. The sys-
tem that satisfies these requirements to an acceptable degree is Agrobacterium species–mediated
gene transfer into the apical region of embryonic axes. It is obvious that many of the parameters
that are decisive for the efficiency and localization of gene transfer, shoot development from pre-
existing meristematic tissue, and adventitious bud induction are highly sensitive to environmen-
tal and physiological clues. The practical result of this dependence is that all steps and parame-
ters must be fine-tuned with high precision. Consequently, the time needed for the adaptation of
the protocol to a new laboratory may be longer than is usually necessary for another species.
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828 Hahne
IV. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
Genetic engineering of sunflower has recently become a reality. Although sunflower transforma-
tion remains cumbersome, labor-intensive, and subject to unexpected difficulties, the technology
is now available to a number of private and public laboratories, as shown by the fact that field tri-
als have been conducted in several countries. However, substantial further efforts in fundamental
research are needed to clarify the mechanisms regulating in vitro development of sunflower be-
fore further improvement of the transformation system can be envisaged on a rational basis. As
in many other species with high economic impact, the flow of information between the laborato-
ries involved in research and development of genetic engineering techniques (and the resulting
intellectual cross-fertilization) is not stimulated by the inevitable considerations of intellectual
property right protection.
The genes introduced vary according to the respective commercial or research interests but
are not fundamentally different from the genes introduced to other species that respond to simi-
lar demands. Although simple, monogenic traits prevail at the moment, the engineering of more
complicated biochemical pathways will become commonplace in the near future.
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55
Transformation of Wheat
Mark C. Jordan
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Fredy Altpeter
Institut für Pflanzengenetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung Gatersleben, Gatersleben, Germany
Javed A. Qureshi
Novartis Agribusiness Biotechnology Research, Inc., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
I. INTRODUCTION 835
II. WHEAT TISSUE CULTURE 836
III. TRANSFORMATION OF WHEAT 837
IV. SELECTABLE MARKERS IN WHEAT TRANSFORMATION 838
A. Herbicide Resistance 838
B. Antibiotic Resistance 839
C. Carbohydrate-Based Selection 840
V. MOLECULAR IMPROVEMENT OF WHEAT 841
A. Wheat Quality 841
B. Crop Resistance Against Fungal Diseases and Insect Pests 841
C. Male Sterility System 842
VI. INHERITANCE AND EXPRESSION OF TRANSGENES IN WHEAT 843
VII. FUTURE CHALLENGES 844
REFERENCES 844
I. INTRODUCTION
Wheat is second to rice in world importance. It provides protein, minerals, and vitamins as well
as complex carbohydrates. It is the main food staple of 35% of the world’s population and pro-
vides almost 20% of their total food calories. Global demand for wheat will grow faster than that
for any other major crop and is forecasted to reach 1.1 billion tons in the year 2020 (1), creating
a challenge for molecular and conventional breeding. Wheat or its ancestral progenitor species
was grown as a food crop as early as 8000 b.c. (2). During its early domestication important traits
such as free threshing, nonshattering, and a move toward a more determinate growth habit were
incorporated, and wheats changed from the emmer types to the common and durum wheats of
today. In recent years different types of wheat have been bred for particular end uses: hard red for
835
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836 Jordan et al.
bread, durum for pasta, soft wheat for cakes and pastries, and white wheat (hard or soft) for noo-
dles, bread, or pastries. A great deal of effort in wheat breeding has centered on improvement of
quality characteristics for particular end uses. This, coupled with breeding for agronomic char-
acteristics such as yield, resistance to lodging, pest resistance, and earliness, were the major focus
of the world’s wheat breeding programs in the 20th century. The introduction of semidwarf vari-
eties that could provide high yields under optimal moisture and fertilizer regimens was the basis
of the Green Revolution.
Harlan (3) proposed three categories of gene pools for cultivated plants: primary gene pool
(GP-1), secondary gene pool (GP-2), and tertiary gene pool (GP-3). The GP-1 pool is the tradi-
tional biological species concept and for bread wheat corresponds to genotypes of Triticum aes-
tivum. This forms the variation most commonly exploited in breeding programs. The secondary
gene pool includes all biological species that will cross with the crop. Hybrids tend to be sterile,
chromosomes pair poorly, but the gene pool can be utilized with effort. The tertiary gene pool is
all species in which crosses can be made, but the hybrids are lethal and completely sterile and
gene transfer either is not possible or requires such interventions as embryo culture, tissue cul-
ture, doubling of chromosome number, or use of bridging species. This pool represents genetic
material that could be available for incorporation into a crop species if technological advances are
capable of overcoming barriers.
With advances in plant transformation the addition of genetic material from GP-2 and GP-
3 pools becomes much simpler. In fact, it is just as easy to transfer material from beyond the GP-
3 pool as it is to transfer material from within GP-2, with the important distinction that the exact
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence desired must be known and the trait can only be condi-
tioned by one or a very few genes at present.
Traditionally, the GP-2 and GP-3 pools have been used in wheat primarily to introduce dis-
ease resistance genes. As disease resistance genes are always in danger of becoming defeated by
the pathogen, discovering new sources of resistance is an ongoing activity. Ultimately, the sources
of resistance in the accessible gene pools will become fewer and novel resistance genes will be-
come essential, especially with a demand for decreasing the amount of chemical pesticides used
on food crops. Novel resistance strategies can also be used to augment traditional resistance
breeding and could help to increase the durability of existing resistance genes.
II. WHEAT TISSUE CULTURE
A prerequisite for gene transfer by the commonly used techniques of Agrobacterium species–me-
diated transformation or biolistics is a highly efficient method of producing undifferentiated cal-
lus tissue from a tissue explant and afterward triggering the regeneration of whole fertile plants.
Wheat and monocots in general had been considered recalcitrant to such manipulations when
compared to easily cultured species such as Nicotiana tabacum or Daucus carota. It was not until
the 1980s that regeneration from callus culture could be routinely achieved. In wheat the explants
that have been used to produce callus are those that are actively dividing or have only recently
stopped dividing, which include nodes, leaf base, immature inflorescences, root tips, and scutel-
lum (4). Regeneration from callus proceeds via either organogenesis or embryogenesis. Elucida-
tion of factors that control the embryogenic pathway has resulted in efficient somatic embryoge-
nesis from wheat explants, particularly scutellum and immature inflorescences. For scutellum
regeneration both mature and immature embryos can be used, however, immature embryos have
to date provided more efficient regeneration over a wider range of genotypes. For scutellum cal-
lus from immature embryos the important factors are stage of embryo development, composition
of the nutrient medium, and phytohormones (5), genotype (6), and growth conditions of the donor
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Transformation of Wheat 837
plants (7,8). The effect of genotype is quite pronounced, and wheat genotypes vary considerably
in the efficiency of embryogenic callus formation and shoot regeneration (9–16)
Similar parameters have been found to be important in embryogenesis from immature in-
florescence explants. A low frequency of regeneration from such explants was reported in early
studies (7,17,18). Sharma and coworkers (19) demonstrated that by choosing a suitable genotype
and stage of development of the inflorescence a high degree of regeneration can be achieved.
Although the choice of genotype can be important, a genotype that has been considered
poor can be improved by manipulating the other important factors. There are complex and sig-
nificant interactions among stage of development, donor plant growth conditions, and media (20).
Therefore, there is no reason why any wheat genotype would not be suitable for efficient regen-
eration and transformation provided the appropriate conditions are identified. It is a trade-off
whether the advantages of the use of elite material justify optimizing donor plant growth condi-
tions and tissue culture conditions for many genotypes. At the present time it seems that opti-
mization of a single genotype that represents an elite adapted line for the target area is the best
approach. This way a minimum of optimization has to be done while limiting the amount of link-
age drag that could occur upon backcrossing from unadapted material.
III. TRANSFORMATION OF WHEAT
Crop transformation has been accomplished by use of either Agrobacterium tumefaciens as a vec-
tor or direct DNA uptake. As a result of the perceived recalcitrance of monocot plants to Agrobac-
terium species, initial transformation studies focused on direct DNA uptake by protoplasts after
treatment with polyethylene glycol (PEG) or electroporation. The isolation of regenerable proto-
plasts (21) from embryogenic cell suspensions (22) requires a long tissue culture period, reduc-
ing the chance of regenerating normal and fertile transgenic wheat (23). Alternative gene transfer
systems, such as electroporation into intact cells (24), treatment of wheat cells with silicon car-
bide fibers (25), and biolistics (26) eliminated the need for protoplast isolation. It is the latter tech-
nique, that has provided the most success to date. Transient expression analysis with reporter
genes (27) and stable expression in wheat callus (28) after biolistic gene transfer had to be com-
bined with an efficient selection and regeneration system to produce the world’s first transgenic
wheat plants (29). This landmark is molecular wheat improvement motivated further refinements.
In order to increase reproducibility and reduce the risk of somaclonal variation, instead of spe-
cific long-term callus (29), explants were used directly for biolistic gene transfer or after a short
preculture period followed by a callus selection during several subcultures (30–33). These new
protocols were a great improvement over the previous method and resulted in transgenic plants
ready for transfer to soil 3–5 months after culture initiation compared to 12–15 months. All
groups reported the production of 7 to 14 independent fully fertile transgenic wheat plants on the
basis of marker gene activity assay. Further refinements were reported by Altpeter and coworkers
(34). By optimizing the biolistic gene transfer parameters, reducing the period for callus initia-
tion after bombardment to 2 weeks, and imposing selection during the regeneration period, trans-
formed plants could be transferred to soil in as little as 2 months after culture initiation. The re-
ported number of 80 independent transgenic wheat plants and the fact that this method could be
successfully established in several labs (35,36) imply the high reproducibility of this procedure.
Immature inflorescences have been reported as an alternative target for biolistic wheat
transformation (37,38). Although somewhat tedious and time-consuming in excision compared
to immature embryos, donor plants can be harvested approximately 1 month earlier for immature
inflorescences, reducing the risk of donor plant quality–associated problems and providing the
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838 Jordan et al.
possibility of extending efficient transformation to those genotypes that are still somewhat recal-
citrant to plant regeneration from immature embryo-derived callus.
The first report of Agrobacterium species–mediated wheat transformation was published by
Cheng and coworkers (35). As in the earlier reports of Agrobacterium sp.–mediated transforma-
tion of rice, maize, and barley (39–42) a key factor was the use of hypervirulent Agrobacterium
sp. strains. Agrobacterium sp. methods may allow for less variation in copy number among trans-
formed plants and make available to wheat Agrobacterium sp.–based technologies such as dual
binary systems for the production of marker-free plants (43).
IV. SELECTABLE MARKERS IN WHEAT TRANSFORMATION
Success in transformation experiments depends on effective selection of the few transformed

cells from a mass of nontransformed tissue. Selection makes the experiments manageable and
cuts down on labor, an important consideration for commercial exploitation of this technology.
An optimal selection strategy should allow the recovery of normal and fertile transgenic plants at
a high frequency, while reducing the workload associated with the handling of a large number of
subcultures or nontransgenic plants that escaped the selection. However, reduction of the escape
frequency in transformation experiments may be at the expense of transformation efficiency.
Stringent selection throughout the selection cycle, including the regeneration step, would poten-
tially eliminate the recovery of low-expressing phenotypes, leaving only high-expressing events.
The expression levels of marker and useful genes do not necessarily correspond. Losing a popu-
lation of weak-expressing transgenics through stringent selection might also be a disadvantage in
answering basic questions about gene function, insertion, positional implications of insertion, and
stability. Therefore, the application of fast screening methods to eliminate escaped plants rapidly
seems more practical than aiming for an escape-free selection system. The selection of trans-
formed cells in vitro is dependent upon many factors, including spatial and temporal expression
of the introduced gene, level of expression, promoter elements used to drive the gene(s), chemi-
cal characteristics of the selection agent, composition of the medium containing the selective
agent, and developmental stage of the tissue under selection.
A. Herbicide Resistance
For wheat transformation, the most frequently used selectable marker is bar, which confers resis-
tance to phosphinothricin (PPT), the active ingredient of both glufosinate (Sigma Chemical Com-
pany St. Louis, MO) and bialaphos (Meiji Seika Kasha Tokyo, Japan), commercially available as
Basta and Herbiace, respectively. Glufosinate is the ammonium salt of PPT, whereas bialaphos is
the tripeptide l-phosphinothricyl-l- alanine. Selection of transformed wheat tissue using Basta,
PPT, or bialaphos (29,31–34,44) has been successful, but in general, this selection allows a con-
siderable number of escapes. In plant cells, PPT targets glutamine synthatase (GS), slowing or
blocking ammonia assimilation (45); thus nontransformed cells are adversely affected by ammo-
nia accumulation and glutamine deprivation (46,47). Because of this mode of action of PPT the
vigor and physiological state of the tissue under selection play an important role in the effective-
ness of this selection agent. Some medium components, such as proline (47) and glutamine (48),
also interfere with PPT action, reducing the efficiency of selection. Use of bialaphos instead of
PPT, however, provides a higher level of toxicity for slowing the growth of nontransformed tis-
sue during selection. Dennehey and colleagues (47) propose that “perhaps bialaphos, with its two
alanine residues, is more readily transported to the plant cell than PPT.” From a tissue culture
standpoint, PPT or bialaphos selection can be made more effective by eliminating proline and
glutamine from the selection medium if possible, by using very small tissue pieces for selection
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and by subculture of tissue under selection after a short interval, generally up to 2 weeks. Care
must also be taken at the subculture to divide the selected tissue into very small segments. Larger
tissue pieces allow cross-protection of nontransformed cells, hence more escapes.
Glyphosate (the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup, Monsanto Company St. Louis,
MO) resistance can be conferred upon plant cells by transforming them with either CP4 or GOX
genes, and better yet with both. The CP4 gene was isolated from a glyphosate-tolerant strain
(CP4) of Agrobacterium sp. (49,50), coding for a glyphosate-tolerant enolpyrovylshikimate-5-
phosphate synthase (EPSPS). The GOX gene coding for a glyphosate oxidoreductase was cloned
from Achromobacter sp. (49), which detoxifies glyphosate by converting it to aminomethyl phos-
phonic acid, which is nontoxic to plant cells. Glyphosate has emerged as a very potent selective
agent for wheat transformation (51–53). In a wheat suspension culture–based study (52),
glyphosate-resistant colonies were obtained from bombarded suspension culture cells in less than
3 weeks. Colonies were rapidly obtained from all the gene expression vectors used when the tar-
get genes were driven by 35S promoter, maize ubiquitin promoter, and rice actin promoter; how-
ever, more lines with higher tolerance to glyphosate were recovered from bombardments with
genes driven by the rice actin promoter. In this study, irrespective of the promoter used, 21 of the
24 bombardments in four independent experiments yielded multiple independently transformed
colonies, reflecting the effectiveness of glyphosate as a selection agent.
Escape-free multiple transformed wheat plants have also been obtained by using gly-
phosate as the selectable marker with a transformation frequency of 0.1–6% (51,53). The effec-
tiveness of glyphosate as a selective agent can be attributed to its translocation and accumulation
in fast-growing meristem tissues (51), properties that work against cross-protection of cells from
glyphosate toxicity and, when applied during regeneration, kill all nontransformed meristems,
which may otherwise be producing escape plants.
B. Antibiotic Resistance
When aminoglycoside antibiotics such as geneticin and paromomycin were employed for selec-
tion, fewer escapes were reported, when compared to those noted with the use of bialaphos as a
selection agent for wheat transformation. Witrzens and coworkers (44) reported an escape rate of
over 90% in their experiments using bialaphos, compared to a 50% escape rate rate with ge-
neticin. However, in this study (44) the use of different promoters to drive the individual select-
able marker genes complicates the interpretation of the data. They further reported that the se-
lection was even tighter when geneticin was replaced with paromomycin.
The effective use of aminoglycoside antibiotic geneticin for wheat transformation is very
much dependent upon the developmental stage and size of the explants used for selection. Rela-
tively older immature embryos (from longer preculture) and germinated somatic embryos are
very tolerant to this antibiotic. The ability of 10- to 12-day postanthesis wheat embryos with 2–3
days of preculture to produce embryogenic callus is severely affected by geneticin even at a lower
concentration (30 mg/l), meaning that effective selection can be done with this material, but if em-
bryos of the same age are kept in culture for more than 6 days before exposing them to geneticin
up to a concentration of 90 mg/l, the embryos show very little growth inhibition (48).
Hygromycin resistance conferred by the hpt gene is another selection marker successfully
used in wheat transformation (54). In this study wheat embryogenic calli were selected with hy-
gromycin after bombardment. Although escape frequency in these experiments remained high
(over 60%), transformation frequency of up to 6% was achieved, whereas most other reports
showed 0.1–1.5% when Basta, PPT, or bialaphos was the selective agent. It should be noted, how-
ever, that a direct comparison of transformation frequency of other reports employing immature
embryos or isolated scutella and this report may not be valid since Ortiz and associates (54) bom-
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840 Jordan et al.
barded immature embryo–derived calli. The high escape frequency might be due to the fact that
the selective agent was not added to the regeneration medium. When hygromycin selection was
applied during callus production and regeneration in barley (55), no escapes were found.
C. Carbohydrate-Based Selection
Public acceptance of antibiotic- or herbicide-resistance-based selectable markers is low. An alter-
native is the use of enzymes that interfere with carbohydrate metabolism. Mannose-6-phosphate
isomerase (MPI) encoded by the manA gene is an Escherichia coli glycolytic pathway enzyme that
catalyzes the interconversion of mannose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate (56). MPI in
plant cells makes mannose-6-phosphate available as a carbon source by converting it to fructose-
6-phosphate. This ability of MPI has recently been exploited in plant transformation by using man-
nose as a selective marker. Unlike that employing antibiotics and herbicides, mannose-based se-
lection creates a positive environment for transformant growth. This selection strategy has been
shown to work for sugar beet transformation (57). Use of MPI for monocots like maize (58) and
wheat (59) has the potential to be a key component of future transformation strategies (Table 1).
Preliminary reports suggest that transformation frequencies up to 35% are possible (59).
Although the use of new selection strategies such as mannose bodes well for the future
wheat transformation in many laboratories still needs optimization to obtain higher transforma-
tion efficiencies and extend the number of transformable genotypes. It also is desirable to reduce
the effort required for donor plant production by using, for example, mature tissues or seed-de-
rived tissues as gene transfer targets or even developing tissue culture–independent systems such
as pollen transformation. Although wheat transformation has been established in a number of lab-
oratories worldwide (60), only a few have highly efficient systems available today. This is a re-
quirement for proceeding to the next phase—molecular wheat improvement by the introduction
of useful transgenes—since a large number of transgenic lines has to be produced and screened
to identify those that stably transmit the desired level of transgene expression over several gener-
ations along with the desired agronomic performance.
Table 1 Selectable Markers and Promoters Used for Wheat Transformation
Selectable marker Function Promoter Refs.
bar Basta resistance CaMV 35S 29

33
32
Ubil 31
34
44
Act. l 48
nptII Geneticin resistance Actl 33
Ubil 44
CP4 Glyphosate resistance Actl 52
53
GOX Glyphosate resistance CaMV 35S 51
Act1 52
53
hpt Hygromycin resistance CaMV 35S 55
pmi Mannose as a carbon Ubi 60
source
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V. MOLECULAR IMPROVEMENT OF WHEAT
The importance of wheat is based on diverse uses, productivity, and genetic flexibility that allows
adaptation to biotic and abiotic stresses in different climates. Molecular improvement of wheat is
developing into an important tool to complement conventional plant breeding activities in main-
taining and extending the value of this crop.
A. Wheat Quality
Wheat gluten is unique among the cereals. The content and type of gluten proteins, especially the
subunit composition and molecular mass of high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMW-
GSs), determine to a considerable extent the elasticity and extensibility of wheat dough through
the formation of high-molecular-weight polymers stabilized by interchain disulfide bonds
(61–63). Doughs that have high elasticity and reasonable extensibility are ideal for making bread,
doughs that are highly extensible are good for cookies, and doughs with intermediate properties
are used for making the flat breads of the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent and noodles in
the Far East. The characteristic that the HMW-GSs determine wheat end use properties and yet
represent a small percentage of the total seed protein made them a suitable target for genetic en-
gineering (64). The introduction of additional HMW-GSs genes by conventional breeding is com-
plicated by close linkage of these genes. Altpeter and coworkers (65) focused on the integration
and expression of the natural HMW-GSs 1Ax1, known to be associated with good bread-making
quality (62) in the cultivar ‘Bobwhite,’ which lacks this subunit in the wild type. Blechl and An-
derson (66) introduced a hybrid Dy10:Dx5 HMW-GS gene. Both teams reported expression lev-
els similar to or above those of native HMW-GSs. In contrast to the natural HMW-GSs, which as-
semble into extremely large elastic polymers, linked by noncovalent and intermolecular disulfide
bonds, the hybrid Dy10:Dx5 HMW GSs showed a significant amount of monomeric protein. As
a result of an unusual intramolecular disulfide bond, the ability to assemble into polymers was
impeded in the hybrid Dy10:Dx5 HMW GSs (67). The expression level of transgenic HMW-GSs
was consistent over several generations in controlled environmental conditions (64,66). For the
value of this trait, reproducible processing characteristics in the flour need to be guaranteed under
different environmental growth conditions. Therefore, quality tests of field-grown seeds express-
ing transgenic 1Ax1 HMW-GSs (64) are currently in progress (I. Vasil, personal communication).
Meanwhile, data on significant improvement of dough strength in a small-scale mixograph analy-
sis of greenhouse-grown T2 seeds of transgenic wheat lines expressing one or two additional nat-
ural HMW-GSs (1Ax1, Dx5) (68) provide a very optimistic perspective for the functional in-
tegrity of this trait.
B. Crop Resistance Against Fungal Disease and Insect Pests

Fungal pathogens and insects cause substantial yield losses in wheat production around the world.
The infection of the wheat spikes with certain fungal pathogens, e.g., fusarium, can also result in
accumulation of mycotoxins, which even persist during food processing and therefore represent
a serious risk for human and animal health. The use of agrochemicals to control fungal pathogens
and pests is not always effective and economical and can be detrimental to the environment. Con-
ventional plant breeding has produced fungus- and insect-resistant cultivars but can hardly keep
pace with the rapid evolution of pathogenic microorganisms and insects. It would be desirable to
pyramid several resistance genes to reduce genetic vulnerability. By overcoming crossing barri-
ers, genetic engineering can use alternative sources of resistance genes to contribute to durable
crop protection.
www.taq.ir
842 Jordan et al.
Disease resistance mechanisms include: the formation of physical barriers such as lignin,
the production of pathogenesis-related proteins such as the hydrolytic enzymes chitinases and β-
1,3-glucanases, plasma membrane–permeabilizing thaumatinlike proteins, ribosomal inhibitor
proteins, and the induction of antimicrobial compounds called phytoalexins (for a review see Ref.
69). To date only a few attempts to tackle the problem of fungal pathogen attack in wheat through
the introduction of transgenes have been reported (70–72).
Chitin is a major component of fungal cell walls and is predominant in hyphal tips. The in-
troduction of a chitinase gene from rice under control of the constitutive 35S promoter resulted
in instability of chitinase expression in the sexual progeny, and consequently plants were not chal-
lenged with the pathogen (70). Leckband and Lörz (71), reported the expression of the stilbene
synthase gene from grape and the subsequent production of the phytoalexin resveratrol in wheat.
The precursor of the phytoalexin stilbene exists in crop plants; therefore, the synthesis of stilbene
requires only the expression of a stilbene synthase transgene. Data regarding the resistance of
resveratrol-expressing wheat plants against major wheat pathogens have not been presented yet.
Chen and colleagues (72) observed a significant delay in symptoms of wheat scab caused by
Fusarium graminearum Schw. after constitutive expression of a thaumatinlike protein from rice
in transgenic wheat.
Entomopathogenic proteins have been inserted into a variety of transgenic plants to create
insect resistance. The major approach being followed is the expression of delta endotoxin from
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt endotoxin). With the wide application of this strategy
(73) the risk of the development of a Bt endotoxin–resistant insect population is increasing (74).
An alternative or complement to the Bt endotoxin in the defense against lepidopteran pests might
be plant-derived or engineered enzyme inhibitors. These inhibitors interfere with the digestive
process in insects. The success of this strategy (73) depends to a great extent on the affinity of the
introduced enzyme inhibitor to the target insect proteases (75). Altpeter and coworkers (76) in-
troduced the trypsin inhibitor CMe from barley into wheat. This inhibitor was chosen because its
activity against lepidopteran proteases could be demonstrated in vitro; however, this trypsin in-
hibitor is sensitive to proteolytic inactivation by pepsin and has a very low affinity to human or
porcine trypsin. Functional integrity of the transgenic inhibitor on ribonucleic acid (RNA), pro-
tein, and enzyme activity level could be demonstrated from extracts of transgenic wheat plants
and their sexual progeny. A significant reduction in the survival rate of the Angoumois grain moth
(Sitotroga cerealella), an important storage pest in many developing countries, was reported after
rearing of neonate larvae on transgenic wheat seeds that expressed trypsin inhibitor CMe (76).
Aphids, which belong to the order Homoptera, are major wheat insect pests in Europe and
North America. The content of proteases in the gut of sap-sucking insects such as aphids is, in
contrast to that of lepidopteran pests, very low and therefore rules out a protease inhibitor strat-
egy for their control. There is no report that Bt endotoxin affects insects of the order Homoptera.
However, expression of snowdrop lectin in transgenic potato inhibited the development and fe-
cundity of aphids (77). The mechanism of lectin toxicity in insects is not clear, and its safe to use
by human and animal consumers is currently under debate. Stoger and coworkers (78) reported
the stable expression of the snowdrop lectin gene in transgenic wheat plants and their sexual prog-
eny under a constitutive and phloem-specific promoter. Expression of snowdrop lectin in trans-
genic wheat at levels above 0.04% of the total extracted protein significantly decreased the fe-
cundity, but not the survival of grain aphids (Sitobion avenae F.) (78).
C. Male Sterility System

A wheat hybridization system combines the advantage of a trait protection system with hybrid
vigor. In the past different cytoplasmic male sterile and nuclear male sterile systems were devel-
oped. However, a problem associated with these systems is creating a high degree of male steril-
www.taq.ir
ity in all parts of the female parent under different environmental conditions (79). De Block and
coworkers (80) reported the development of a nuclear male sterility system in wheat, which was
due to the tapetum-specific expression of a barnase gene, which prevented normal pollen devel-
opment. No self-fertilization occured under greenhouse conditions in otherwise normal plant
phenotypes. Field evaluation is in progress (80).
VI. INHERITANCE AND EXPRESSION OF TRANSGENES IN WHEAT
Once transgenic plants can be routinely produced, it is essential that the transgenes are expressed
at the desired level, transmitted to the progeny, and stably expressed over many generations. As
in other species transgene expression varies widely among individual transformed plants as a re-
sult of position effects. If a large number of individual plants can be routinely produced, then
plants expressing the gene at the desired level can be identified. In wheat it is still difficult to pro-
duce large numbers of plants in many laboratories, where labor and funds are limited. Technolo-
gies that allow position effects to be reduced would be extremely valuable in decreasing the ef-
fort and cost involved in producing plants with adequate expression levels. The utilization of
matrix attachment regions has been found to be useful in increasing transgene expression and/or
reducing position effects in other species (81,82) and may be of value in wheat. As wheat matrix
attachment regions were isolated in 1998 (83,84), they would be the ideal candidates for testing
of their effect on transgene expression and stability.
Other problems with transgene stability could arise as a consequence of the use of direct
gene transfer transformation schemes. Plants produced by using microprojectile bombardment
have been shown to vary dramatically in copy number, stability, and heritability (85). Studies on
transgene expression, stability, and heritability in wheat have been conducted in several labora-
tories. Srivastava and coworkers (86) examined six independent wheat lines over successive gen-
erations and found that five of the lines were stably transformed and exhibited mendelian segre-
gation. The other line was unstable and first lost expression, then eliminated the transgenes in R3
plants. Even in the stable lines a decrease in GUS expression was observed: GUS expression was
lost in R2 plants of all but one line. Rearrangements, amplifications, and methylation of the trans-
genes were also observed. Cannell and coworkers (87) observed six lines up to the R3 generation
and found that five of the lines exhibited mendelian inheritance. Cannell and colleagues also ob-
served loss of expression of the GUS gene over successive generations, which represents a form
of progressive gene silencing. Loss of expression of GUS may be due to the prokaryotic origin of
the gene; altering the codon usage and structure of such genes (for example, by the insertion of
introns) to make them more plantlike may help to prevent induced silencing.
The studies described involved only a very few transgenic wheat lines. A 1998 study (36)
investigated 70 independently derived transgenic wheat lines. Although chimerism and transgene
elimination did occur, they were rare events. In addition, they compared transgene expression of
the transgenic wheat with that of a similar population of transgenic rice. In contrast to the rice, in
which there was no relationship between transgenic copy number and transgene expression or sta-
bility, in wheat multiple copy number lines tended toward higher levels of expression.
Although from these early results it appears that problems with stability may be isolated,
further studies are necessary to investigate whether certain types of transgenes or insertion sites
are more prone to elimination or silencing. All studies to date have focused on stability after self-
ing; however, it is possible that a greater degree of silencing can occur after crossing to non-
transgenic plants, a condition that would have tremendous implications for a plant breeding pro-
gram. Environmental effects on transgene expression and stability are also unknown. As wheat
transformation moves from technology development into routine practice in cultivar development
programs more information on the degree and importance of instability will become available.
www.taq.ir
844 Jordan et al.
VII. FUTURE CHALLENGES
Now that wheat transformation has been firmly established in many laboratories it is clear that
transgenic wheat will be in commercial production before 2005. Emphasis within many programs
will shift from technology development to the introduction and evaluation of genes of potential
economic importance. However, the transformation process itself must be improved before wheat
will be amenable to many of the techniques available to less recalcitrant species. Generating the
numbers required for transposon tagging populations, large studies on transgene stability and ex-
pression, or screening in a breeding program is time-consuming and labor-intensive. The number
of cloned genes available for introduction into wheat is also increasing rapidly, and it is likely that
extremely large numbers of genes will be cloned in the near future as a result of genomics pro-
grams. In addition to insertion of characterized genes into wheat for evaluation and commercial
product development, there will be a requirement to insert unknown DNA sequences such as com-
plementary DNA (cDNA) clones or Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs), that have been identified as
putatively associated with a certain trait through high-throughput analysis techniques such as mi-
croarrays. The demand for transgenic wheat lines will likely far exceed the capacity to produce
them at the current rate of production unless large, well-funded laboratories dedicated solely to
transformation are set up. The cost per transgenic line will be high as a result of the high cost of
labor and the need for large numbers of embryo-donor plants to be grown under controlled envi-
ronmental conditions year round.
In addition to optimizing the present methods to allow for more efficient production of
transformed lines, research into strategies to reduce the numbers of independent transformed
lines needed will also help to alleviate the problem. The use of explant material derived from ma-
ture seed would reduce the requirement for large amounts of growth space and reduce the cost as
well as time involved. Increasing transgene stability and the ability to control expression levels
will help to reduce the numbers required. The control of expression levels and stability could be
accomplished by techniques for site-directed DNA insertion. These technologies are being de-
veloped and applied in model species now (88,89), and one can envision that they will be applied
to wheat within 10 years.
Consumer acceptance of transgenic wheat will be a major issue in the near future. It is be-
coming apparent that the use of selectable markers such as antibiotic resistance or herbicide re-
sistance will be unacceptable in several countries. The use of nonplant genes such as green fluo-
rescent protein from jellyfish may also be less acceptable to many people than use of genes from
plant sources. The development of non–tissue-culture-based transformation systems or new sys-
tems using plant genes will help to alleviate these concerns.
Although wheat transformation has come a long way since the first report of transgenic
wheat in 1992 there is clearly much work to be done in the area, and with the number of labora-
tories conducting such research increasing, the next decade promises to be an exciting time.
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showing a high degree of marker gene stability and heritability. Theor Appl Genet 99:772–784, 1999.
88. SA Kempin, SJ Liljegren, LM Block, SD Rounsley, MF Yanofsky. Targeted disruption in Arabidopsis.
Nature 389:802–803, 1997.
89. AC Vergunst, LET Jansen, PJJ Hooykaas. Site-specific integration of Agrobacterium T-DNA in Ara-
biopsis thaliana mediated by Cre recombinase. Nucleic Acids Res 26:2729–2734, 1998.
www.taq.ir
Index
Abiotic stresses, 743 African cassava mosaic disease (ACMD), 532,

ACC oxidase gene, 418, 425, 426, 738, 739, 534, 535
741 African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV), 531
Acetolactate synthase (ALS), 487, 757 Agamous gene, 189
Acetone cyanohydrin, 537 Agriculture
Acetosyringone effect, 489, 565, 581, 703 and food crops 1–24,
ACI gene, 533, 622 and food, politics of, 319
ACMD-causing geminivirus, 533 and food, regulation of, 320
ACMV AC1 (Rep) gene, 532 innovations, 5
resistance, 540 low input sustainable, (LISA), 11
ACO gene, 375, 377 prehistoric, 3
act 1D gene, 362 technological changes, 5
ACT1 gene, 62, 630 Agrobacterium rhizogenes, 156, 350, 401, 451,
promoter, 630 487, 504, 529, 580, 619, 621, 623–631,
Actinidia sp., 407–420 700–709, 619, 740, 750, 754, 775, 780
arguata, 408–418 Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 74, 156, 198, 329,
chinensis, 407–418 352, 362, 364, 376, 388–393, 400–402,
deliciosa, 407–418 431, 451, 470, 480, 485, 489–490, 505,
eriantha, 408–418 511, 552, 555, 564, 580–583, 589–590,
polygama, 408–418 604, 608, 618–623, 630, 631, 647–648,
Acyl coenzyme A, 426 652, 661, 700, 703, 740, 748, 750, 754,
Acynaogenic cassava, 537 767, 775, 796, 804, 816, 820, 822, 823,
ADP glucose pyrophosphorylase 481, 674 837
ADPase genes, 536 mediated delivery of DNA, 661
Adventious organogenesis, 156 oncogenic strains (A47, A281, A722 and C58),
Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and 480
Processes (ACNFP), 632 mediated transformation, 662, 480, 477, 563–
ae gene, 172 565, 577, 580, 604–605, 607–610
AEC (see S-(2-aminoethyl)-L-cysteine) Agrobacterium sp., 56, 71, 79, 385, 409, 451,
Aequorea victoria, 400 508, 509, 517, 535, 605, 620, 623–626,
849
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850 Index
[Agrobacterium sp.] [Allium]

629, 722–724, 726, 728, 739, 740, 749– cepa, 652
752, 754, 755, 776, 777, 804, 820, 822, porrum, 655
823, 837–839 sativum, 209, 655, 664
mediated gene delivery, 619–624 solani, 677
mediated transformation, 477–478, 489, 542, stripitatum, 657
631, 739, 750, 767, 775, 804, 805, 816, schoenoporasum, 655
822, 823, 827, 836, 838 spp. 50
Agropyron, 719 Allotetraploid, 738
2S-albumin 480 α-amylase, 718, 726
gene, 479 α-tubulin gene, 114
protein gene, 779 ALS (see Acetolactate synthase)
Aleurotachelus socialis, 535 Alternaria
Allergen, in Brazil nut, 480 alternata, 348, 424, 432, 677
Allicin, 209 brassicola, 55
alliinase, 659, 661 dauci, 517
genes, 659 helianthi, 815
oxidase, 538 radicini, 515, 517
polygama, 408 Alternaria rot, 424
synthase gene, 739, 741 Alternate oxidase, 426, 431
Allium, 655–664 AMA1 gene, 675
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, 664 Amaranthus hypochondriacus, 675
annual production, 655 American
attributes, 661 Type Culture Collection (ATCC), 283
breeding attributes, 660 Dietetic Association (ADA), 298
carbohydrates, 659 Medical Association (AMA), 298
clonal propagation, 661 1-amino cyclopropane-1-carboxylate, 335, 336,
clonal seed production, 660 349, 375, 425, 427
cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS), 660 oxidase, 375, 377, 412, 417, 418, 426, 431,
disease resistance, 657 439
fungal pathogens, 658 synthase, 417, 418, 426, 431, 439, 738
fungal resistance, 657 Aminoglycoside
genetics, 661 3-adenyltransferase, 776
insect resistance, 658 antibiotics, 751, 776, 824, 839
interspecific hybridization, 661 AMP (see Antimicrobial peptides)
lachrymatory compounds, 659 Amphipyra pyramidoies, 331
male sterility, 660, 661 Amphorophorn agathonica, 449
nematode, 659 idaci, 449
resistance, 659 Amplified fragment length polymorphorism
nutritional value, 659 (AFLP), 238, 241, 618
pests, 658 Amylase inhibitors, 256–257, 549
production limitations, 655 Amylopectin, 170–177, 481, 641–642, 712,
pungency, 659 724–728
quality traits, 659 modification, 173–175
root alliinase, 657 Amylose, 170–177, 480, 642, 712, 724, 727, 728
sulfur metabolism, 659 extender mutants, 172
suspension cultures Ancymidol, 469
transformation research, 656, 660, 662 Androgenesis, 43–50, 113, 590
vegetables, 655 culture conditions, 449
viral resistance, 658 donor plant, 45
viruses of, 658 influencing factors, 45
Allium media constituents, 47–49
carla, 658 pollen grain development, 45–46
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Index 851
Androgenic culture, 721, 722 Apomixis, 118–120, 191, 527, 539, 660
Angiosperm, 110, 112, 120 epigenetic engineering, 124–126
Angoumois grain moth, 842 and genomic imprinting, 118
Animal feed-grain, 637 and seed quality, 120
supplementation, 644 pseudogamous, 118–120
Anther culture, 469, 590, 721, 724, 749, 817 Apoplasm, 495, 497
Anthocyanin, 71, 403 Apples, 327–344
Anthracnose, 424, 428, 432, 438, 769 carbohydrate metabolism, 332–334
Antibiosis, 251–258 disease resistance, 332
amylase inhibitors, 256 engineering features, 336
Bacillus thuringiensis toxins, 253–255 ethylene biosynthesis, 334–326
chitinase, 257 history, 328
lectins, 257 and insecticidal proteins, 329–331
lipid disrupting proteins, 255 mealiness, 336
and microbial proteins, 253 other quality traits, 326–327
Photorhabdus luminescence toxin, 255 and resistance strategies, 331–332
plant proteins, 256 texture, 336
protease inhibitors, 256 transformations, 328–329
vegetative insecticidal protein, (VIP), 255 varieties, 328–329
Antibiotic resistance, 743, 776, 839, 840, 1a-protein-encoding gene promoter, 620
844 Aprotinin, 649
Antiexinosis, 250, 258 Apterix spp. 408
Antifungal proteins, 428, 515 Arabidopsis thaliana, 30, 32, 100, 110, 431, 621–
Antifungal resistance genes, 657, 764 622, 630
Antigen, 675 Arabidopsis, 37, 79, 186–188, 190, 192, 438,
Antimicrobial 458, 657, 743, 757, 784
gene, 766, 658 Arabinoxylan, 726
peptides, 763, 764, 768, 769 Arabis mosaic virus, 455
proteins 365, 438, 764, 765, 769 Arachidonic acid, 210
Antioxidants, 208, 645 Arachis argyrosphila, 331
Antiplatelet activity, 659 cardenasii, 241
Antirrhinum majus, 259, 596 hypogaea, 77, 241
Antisense genes, 426, 432, 456, 536 Arepas, 639
sequence, 469 argE gene, 103, 104
starch gene, 530 Arggyrotaenia citrona, 331
technology, 657 arguta, 408
Antixenosis, 250, 258–265 Argostis stollenefera, 140
crossover strategies, 263–265 Ascochyta rabiei, 604
and insect biochemistry, 261 Asparagus, 465–471
and multitrophic considerations, 262 agronomic genes, 469
and pest management, 262–263 anther culture system, 466
phytochemical profiles, 259 biology, 465
resistance, 258 breeding goal, 466
secondary metabolites, 260–261 breeding, 466
surface characteristics, 259 decline and replant syndrome, 466
tolerance, 262 densiflorus, 466
trichomes, 258–259 direct gene transformation, 480
wounding and oxidative stresses, 260 fruit, 465
Apetala (AP) gene, 186–189 genetic transformation, 469, 480
Aphid, 360, 449, 458, 616, 676 haploid embryos anther culture, 469
Apical meristem, 476 homozygous mm female plant, 466
Apices, 490 Mm male plant, 466
Apium graveolens, 49 officinalis genome, 480
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852 Index
[Asparagus] β-galactosidase, 426, 488

officinalis, 145, 149, 465, 466, 470, 480 β-1, 3-endoglucanase, 103, 676
origin, 465 β-gluconidase, 514, 620, 649
plumosus, 466 β-glucuronidase, 740, 752, 754, 755, 776, 805,
production environment, 465 823, 824, 843
productivity, 466 β-carotene, 208, 503, 504, 647
protoplast, 470 β-1,3-glucanase, 538
sexual modes, 466 β-1,3-glucanase gene, 621
somatic embryogenesis, 466, 470 Bacillus spp., 726
supermale MM plant, 466 amyloliquefaciens, 102, 497, 779
world production, 465 cereus, 255
Aspartate kinase gene, 726, 779, 806 coding, 330, 331, 392, 450, 454, 534
Aspartate pathway, 806 subtilis, 497
Aspergillus genes, 659
ochraceus, 742 thuringienesis, 243, 252, 253, 315, 392, 450,
flavus, 742 454, 535, 534, 548, 590, 591, 649, 659,
oryzae, 779 676, 712, 738, 740, 742, 756, 779, 842
spp., 493 var. tenebrionsis, 454, 712
Asteraceae family, 613–617 Backcross, 440, 442, 445
Asteraceae, 492 Bacterial artificial chromosomes (BAC), 728
Asteromeria spp., 115 library, 32, 241, 524, 530, 534, 540, 728
Atole, 639 Bacterial blight resistance, 533
Atropa spp., 46 Bacterial resistance gene Xa21, 533
Avena sativa, 49, 116 Bacterial resistance, 677
Avena sativa, sterilis, 49 Bacterial rot, 619
Average severity (AS), 575, 576 Bacteriophage
Avidin, 649 P1, 648
Avocado, 345–357 T3, 427
chinensis, 408–418 Bactrocera dorsalis, 438
crop history, 346–347 cucurbitae, 438
delician, 407 Ballistic delivery of DNA into embryogenic cells,
embryogenic cultures, 351–352 647
erinatha, 408 Banana, 364–365
genetic breeding, 347 pharmaceuticals, 366
genetic manipulation, 351–353 bracht virus, 362
genetic manipulations, 351 bunchy top virus (BBTV), 360
genetic transformation, 352–353 constraints of production, 360–361
genetics, 347 embryogenic cell cultures, 362–363
history, 345 fruit quality control, 366
Phytophthora root rot resistance, 350 genetic transformation, 361–365
ripening control, 348–349 in vitro culture, 361
root stock cultivars, 350–351 microparticle bombardment, 362–363
salt tolerance, 351 Moko disease, 361
scion cultivars, 348 production and significance, 359–369
somatic cell, 351–352 resistance to pathogens, 365–366
somatic embyrogenesis, 351 Sigatoka leaf disease, 360
sun blotch disease, 349–350 streak badnavirus (BBSV), 360
taxonomy, 345–346 world production, 360
world production, 345–347 bar gene encoding, 390, 403, 605, 615, 623, 629,
Axillary meristem, 476 648, 656, 724, 776–779, 805, 838
5-azacytidine, 631 Barley, 170, 717–735, 801, 803, 804, 838, 840,
842
β-amylase, 726 Heine’s Haisa cultivar, 719
β-amylase inhibitor, 373 history, 717
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Index 853
[Barley] Bialaphos, 391, 423, 487, 490, 494, 623, 776,

malting, 725–726 838, 839
mutational breeding, 718 BIBAC (see Binary bacterial artificial chromo-
novel uses, 727 somes)
ribosome inactivating protein gene, 725 Binary
shx mutants, 176 bacterial artificial chromosomes (BIBAC) 728
somaclonal variation, 720 plasmid, 488, 580
traditional breeding, 710 Biodiversity of species, 13
world production, 717 Biolistic, 71, 387, 755, 794, 836, 837 (see also
yellow dwarf virus, 724 Particle bombardment)
yellow mosaic bymovirus, 724 Biological control, 487, 657
barnase barstar genes, 102, 191, 244, 660 Biomass, 713
Barnase gene, 102, 366, 843 Bioplastic polymers, 537
Basta, 202, 284, 364, 365, 399, 403, 535, 536, Biotechnology, 22,
662, 657, 724, 824, 839 and consumer concerns, 324
Bean, 475–482 and crop improvement, 384
Agrobacterium mediated, 477–478 awareness and knowledge, 296–303
carbohydrate content, 480 complexity of issues, 323–324
direct DNA transfer, 478 precautionary principle, 303
gene transfer improvements, 479–482 protocol, 322
improved nutritional quality, 479–481 Bioreactors, 784
manipulation of, 470 Biosafety, 489, 365
organogenesis, 476 Blackberry, 449
particle bombardment, 478–479 Black headed fireworm, 393
tissue culture, 476–477 Black vine weevil, 453
transformation, 469, 477–482 Blackleg, 778, 779
Beet, 485–502 Bolting, 488
as a plant factory, 491 Bombardment (see Particle bombardment), 138
biosafety, 489 Borlug, Norman, 7, 10,
crop, 485 Botrytis spp., 456, 457, 589
engineered traits, 486 allii, 657
fructans oligofructans, 492–498 cineria, 417, 418 456, 457, 517, 657, 677,
guard cell protoplasts, 490 725
hexose content improvement, 488 Bovine somatotropin, 295
history, 485 Branching enzyme, 536
mannose, 490 Brassica, 37, 48, 49, 115, 116, 209, 756, 773–
methods for engineering, 489 792
necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV), 225, antimicrobial protein, 767, 768
487, 489 campestris, spp. pekinensis, 77
particle bombardment, 490 carinata, 30, 773, 774, 778
world production, 486 glucosinolates, 209
Bemisia tabaci, 532, 658 juncea, 30, 209, 773, 774
Benefin, 617 napus, 30, 34, 37, 55, 56, 67 101, 104, 186, 261,
Bensulfide, 617 767, 774, 776, 778, 779, 780, 783, 784
Bertholettia excelsa, 479, 779 nigra, 30, 773, 774, 778
Beta, 50, 51 oleracea, 30, 34, 101, 259
patellaris, 238, 242 rapa, 773, 774, 778
procumbens, 236, 488 spp. 30, 53, 356, 756, 773
vulgaris, 50, 51, 236, 485–489 oils storage bodies, 210
vulgaris spp. maritima, 485, 489 oilseed improvements, 773–784
vulgaris spp. vulgaris, 485 oilseed modification, 781
webbiana, 238, 242, 488 oleosin, 210
Betaine, 488 other transgenic oilseeds, 781
dehydrogenase, 488 production of trangenics oilseeds, 774, 775
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854 Index
[Brassica] Capsicum annuum, 45, 564, 577

plant regenerate, 775 Carbenicillin, 555
pathogen and insect tolerance, 778–779 Carbohydrate partitioning, 674
pollination control, 779 Carbohydrate, 470
protein modification, 779 Carica spp., 437–447
transgenic stability, 781–783 cauliflora, 438
Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), 469, 479, 480, papaya, 437
779 pubescens, 438
Bremia lactucae, 616, 621 quercifolia, 438
Britain’s Advisory Committee on Novel Foods stipulata, 438
and Processes, 632 Carlavirus, 658
Bromoxynil, 657 Carotenoids, 211
Broomrape, 815 Carotae, 517
Bt (see Bacillus thuringiensis) Carpel, 99
Bt gene(s), 392, 535, 590, 738, 740 Carrots, 503–521
CryI gene, 590–594 disease tolerance, 504, 517
cry I B, 740 explant sources, 504
Cry IA(b-c) gene, 243, 331, 535, 593, 610, genetic engineering, 504–517
740, 794 genetic improvements
Cry IIIA gene, 590, 592, 676, 712 history, 503–504
Cry IIIB gene, 591, 592 molecular confirmation of transformants,
toxin, 243, 252, 258, 262, 263, 330–332, 393, 506–507
454, 534, 548, 558, 590, 649 tissue culture, 504, 507
vip proteins, 255 tolerance to fungi, 515–517
Bu gene, 456, 459 transformation parameters, 506
Bud, 567, 568 Agrobacterium strain, 504, 509, 511–515
Bulbosum technique, 721, 722 carrot cultivation, 508
Bulking agent, 493 co-cultivation period, 508
bxn gene, 657 confirmation of, 506, 510–511
explant age, 508
Cabbage looper resistance, 615 regeneration, 510
Caffeine, 738, 739, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745 transformation procedures, 506
Calcium spermidine, 488 Cassava, 523–546
Callaosobruchius Beetle, 257 African mosaic virus, 225, 531, 532
CaMV agronomic cultivars, 536
35S gus-intron reporter gene, 18, 621, 631 agronomic characteristics, 524
bar gene, 629 bacterial blight (CBB), 533
gus-gene, 631 Biotechnology Network (CBN), 541–542
promoter, 539, 619, 631, 662, 580, 582 biotechnology, 526, 534, 539–541
Camellia japonica, 49 common mosaic virus (CsCMV), 531
Canarhabdis elegans, 111, 124, 243 cooking quality, 540
Canola, 766–769, 773–792 cultivars, 537
and antimicrobial proteins, 767 cyanogenic compounds, 526
apterous trait, 190 flour, 539
high erucic acid rape, 774 gene, 541
oilseed improvements, 773–784 green mite (Mononychellus tanajoa), 534
oilseed modification, 781 herbicide resistance, 535
other transgenic oilseeds, 781 history, 523, 525
pathogen and insect tolerance, 778–779 postharvest deterioration, 526, 537, 538
plant regenerate, 775 preharvest losses, 526
pollination control, 779 processing, 537
production of trangenics oilseeds, 774, 775 production, 523, 525
protein modification, 779 seed propagation system, 539
transgenic stability, 781–783 socioeconomic roles, 524
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Index 855
[Cassava] Chickpea, 608–610

spp., 525–536 Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, 608,
starch products, 536 610
transgenic technologies, 527, 539 embryo co-cultivation, 608
vein mosaic virus (CsVMV), 533, 539 production statistics, 604
world production, 523–526 selectable/screenable markers, 608, 610
Catharantus roseus, 74, 658 susceptability to Agrobacterium strains, 608
Cauliflower, 547–559 transformation by direct gene transfer, 610
35S promotor, 479 world production, 603–604
CAT, 583 Chicory, 49, 493
C-cp, 583 Chicoracearum spp., 619
coat protein gene, 562–566, 568–570, 576, Chili pepper, 563–577
577 and binary vectors, 564
coat protein, 564, 566, 568, 569–572, 576– and molecular characterization, 567–572
577 CMV resistance, 566, 572
mosaic virus (CMV), 220, 562–577, 579 gene integration and expression, 567–571
O-cp, 561–568, 583 quality analysis of transgenic dry fruit, 577
regeneration, 554, 555 regeneration, 564–567
resistance, 563–564, 567–568, 572–574, 577, T2, T3, and T4 progeny, 575–577
579, 583 transformation, 564
transformation 553 transgenic plants, 565, 567–577
Y, 583 virus infection protection, 572–573
Y-cp, 580 ChiI 1 gene, 794
Coat Protein (CP) gene, 677, 711 Chilomina clarkei, 534
gene sequences, 658 Chimera, 753, 754, 755, 824
mediated protection, 564, 574 Chimeric, 362, 363, 364, 398, 399, 416, 440,
mediated resistance, 621, 725 452, 744, 753, 755, 807, 821, 823, 824,
Caulogenesis, 530, 817, 818 843
CBB resistance, 533–534 Chitinase, 257, 350, 384, 402, 428, 438, 440,
cbg3 promoter, 540 441, 457, 764, 778, 794, 842
CDC Triffid lax, 758 gene, 725
Cdc 2ZM gene, 79 Chive, 655
cDNA-AFLP differential display, 538 Chlamydomonas, 171, 177
Cecropin, 765 sta mutants, 177
Cell culture, 151–167 Chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT), 490
Cell suspension, 490, 804, 805 gene, 619
Cellulose binding protein, 236, 636 Chloroplast, 490
Centro Internacional de Agricultural Tropical Chlorosulfuron, 490, 720, 740
(CIAT), 16, 527, 529, 534, 536, 539, 541 Chlorpropham, 615
cer gene, 259 Cholera toxin B, 676
Ceratitis capitata, 438 Cholesterol oxidase, 255, 779
Cercospora nicotianae, 768 Choline monoxygenase, 488
Cereal(s) Chroistoneura
albinism, 52 rosaceana, 331
development, 120 rosaceus, 331
grain cooking quality, 120 Chromosome
grains, 169 doubling, 52
CGIAR centers, 23, 527, 541 rearrangements, 34
Chalcone synthease, 102 CIAT CBB gene-tagging project, 540
Chapati, 802 Cicer
Chemiluminescence, 824 arietinum, 77, 603
Chenopodiaceae, 485, 489 echinospermum, 115
Chenopodium quinoa, 572 Cichorium ubtybus, 49
Chicha morada (South America), 640 CIRAD, 740
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856 Index
Citrus Coumarin, 819

spp., 116 Couscus (West Africa and Brazil), 639
grandis, 75 Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), 604–607
Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. Michiganensis, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, 604,
725 605
Clavicepes chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV), 225, 686
africana, 17 cotyledon co-cultivation, 605
purpurea, 17 direct gene transfer, 605–606
Climacteric, 335, 348, 349, 366, 424, 426, 452 embryo co-cultivation, 605
Clonal selection, 397 production statistics, 604
CMS (see Cytoplasmic male sterility) selectable/screenable markers, 604, 606
Co-cultivation, 565, 794 world production, 603–604
Co-culture, 581, 752, 753 cp gene, 580, 648
Codex Alimentarius Commision (CODEX), 321 CP4 gene, 839
Codling moth, 329, 330, 332 Cranberry, 383–396
Codon usage, 330 blackheaded fireworms, 393
Coffea explant age effects, 386
arabica, 737–741, 743, 744 explant orientation, 385–387
canephora, 737, 738, 740, 741, 743, 744 growth regulators effects, 386
dewevrei, 737 history, 383
liberica, 737 in vitro cultures, 384–386
racemosa, 737 regeneration, 384, 385
Coffee 737–746 screening systems, 391
berry borer, 739, 742, 745 selection, 390
berry disease, 743 transformants screening, 390–391
biotechnology, 738, 739, 743, transformation, 387–389
coffee content, 741 transgenics, 391–394
history, 738–743 world production, 384
leaf miner, 739, 740, 744, 745 cre gene, 241, 648
ripening, 741 Crop improvements, 35
tissue culture, 739 Crop protection, 547
world production, 737–738 seed market, 109
Cold/freeze tolerance, 738, 743, 744 CsCMV coat protein (CP) gene, 531
Coleoptera spp., 534, 535 CsCMV resistant strain, 532
Colletotrichum Csr-1-1 gene, 740
gloeosporioides 348, 424, 428, 430, 438, 457 CTAB method, 565
kahawae, 743, 769 Cucumber, 579–584
Colorado potato beetle, 256, 261, 591–596, 676 Agrobacterium, 580–581
Commercial products, 675 and protocol for transformation, 580–581
Concanavalin A, 469 CMV resistance, 583–584
CONSTANS (CO) gene, 185–187, 428 inoculation and co-cultivation, 581
Consumers attitude, 18, 302 mosaic virus (CMV), 373, 564, 566, 577, 579,
Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), 11 583
Corn, 727 (see also Maize) plants, 580
belt region, 640 role of acetosyringone, 581
bread, 639 safety of transformed plants, 584
chips, 639 selection and plant regeneration, 581
Corynebacterium spp., 808 transformation history of, 579–580
Cosmopolites sordidus, 361 Cucumis
Cosuppression, 432, 648, 741, 744, 783 cantalupensis, 371
Cotransformation 363 conmon, 371
Cotyledon, 489, 564 culture conditions, 161
co-cultivation, 605 dudaim, 371
node, 476 flexuosus, 371
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Index 857
[Cucumis] DHDPS (see Dihydrodipicolinate synthase)

indorus, 371 Dihydrodipicolinate synthase, 726, 779, 806,
melo, 371 807, 808, 809
momordica, 371 Diamond back moth larvae, 256, 779
negative-positive selection, 161, 162 Dianthus caryophyllus, 533
sativus, 159 Diaeretiella rapae, 263
var. indoros, 375 Dicamba, 700
Cultivation costs, Dichloromethane, 741
Culture Diclofop-methyl, 617
conditions, 161 Dihaploid plants, 724
negative selection, 161 Dihydroflavonid reductase, 403
positive selection, 161 Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate:AMP dimethylal-
Curly leaf gene, 122, 123, 192 lyltransferase, 621
cut 1 gene, 259 Diosiorea spp., 525
cvi gene, 113 Direct
Cyanide, 537 embryogenesis, 398, 399
Cyanogenesis, 537 DNA delivery/uptake, 137–141, 619
Cyanogenic glycosides, 537 gene transfer, 488, 605, 706, 739, 821
Cyclodextrins, 638 Disease, 590
Cydia pomonella, 329 incidence (DI), 574–576
Cylas formicarius sp., 261, 712 resistance, 504, 35/15, 719, 738, 739, 742–745,
Cynara scolymus, 495, 497 755, 756, 768, 769, 774, 783, 836, 842
Cyperaceae, 492 Diuron, 615, 617
Cyastatins, 242 DNA
Cytogenetics, 30 amplification fingerprinting, 88
Cytokinins, 49, 76, 77, 375, amplified fragment length polymorphs
Cytoplasm, 495, 497 (AFLP), 89, 90
Cytoplasmic male sterility, 486, 504, 779, 813, and embryogenic cells, 140
815, 842 and microparticle bombardment, 138–139
Cytotoxic RNase, 191 delivery, 137–144, 145–149, 723
electroporation, 139
δ-15 desaturase, 756 empirical evidence147–148
2,4-D induction, 497 expressed sequence tags (EST), 91, 286, 844
D+ l -phosphothricin, 776 marker system, 86
Daidzein, 211 microsattelite loci, 89, 819
DapA gene, 808 simple sequence repeats (SSR), 88
DAS-ELISA, 566, 591 Southern hybridization, 619–620
Datura spp. 46 sequence characterization amplification sites
noxia, 44 (SCARS), 88, 241
Daucus carota subsp. sativa, 146, 159, 503, 836 simple sequence length polymorphism (SSLP),
disease resistance, 503, 504, 517 89
fungal pathogens, 515 theoretical background, 146
genetic engineering, 504 tissue culture targets, 140
somatic embryogenesis, 504 whiskers, 139–140
tissue culture, 504 Domestication of plants, 2, 109
ddm gene, 125, 126 Dominant resistance (Dm) genes, 616, 622
Def H9 gene, 595 Double haploid production, 720, 721, 722, 767,
Def H9 iaam, 596–597 774
Def H9 promoter, 596 Downy mildew, 615, 815
Defensin, 251, 428, 764, 765 resistance, 616, 621, 622
dek mutation, 111 Drosophila spp., 111–112, 122–124
Delayed senescence, 621 Drought resistance, 738
Deoxyribonucleic acid methylation, 631 tolerance, 720, 744, 827
Dextrinase, 726 Dwarfness, 710
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858 Index
dul 1 mutants, [Embryogenesis]

dzr –1 locus, 114 and double haploid plants, 52
and gene transfer, 55–56
East African mosaic virus (EACMV), 532 and haploid plant production, 52–54
EC countries, 12 and mutational breeding, 55
ech gene, 609 application of, 54–56
Ecological risk, 459 chromosome doubling, 52
Economics and indirect, 398, 399
transgenic plants, 311–325 plant regeneration, 52
innovation, 313, 314 varietal development, 54–55
scale and scope of, 314, 315 Embryogenic
agri-food industrial structures, 316–17 callus, 702
trade and regional growth, 316 cell suspension, 361, 362, 365
winners and losers, 316–317 cocultures, 352, 353
Edible oil, 815 culture maintenance, 351
EF1σ-A1 promoter, 740 embryonic
Eggplant, 587–601 axis, 476
and parthenocarpy, 593–598 callus, 258, 721, 817
biotechnological approaches, 589 Emu promoter, 362
breeding approaches, 589 Endo-1,4-β-xylanase, 726
chimeric gene induced parthenocarpy, 594–597 Endochitinase, 332, 402, 677
doubled haploid breeding, 589 Endosperm, 110–126
field performance of transgenic lines, 591 shrunken, 112
genetic engineering, 590–593 size, 125
growth, 594 Endotoxin, 676
greenhouse evaluation of parthenocarpic hy- Engineered viral protein genes, 658
brids, 797–598 Enhancer of zeste (Ez)-gene, 122
history, 588 Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase
insect resistance, 590 (ESPS) (AroA), 487, 648, 657, 778, 839
Cry 1 transgenic lines Enterotoxin, 675
Cry 3 transgenc plants Environmental stress, 334
Colorado potato beetle resistance, 590–591 Enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA),
molecular markers, 589–590 628, 644
nutritional value, 600 Epidermal stripping, 751
open field production, 593 Epigenetic, 111, 120, 124, 125, 819
primary transformed plants, 896 engineering, 125
quality, 590, 594 Epimutations, 111
shoot and fruit borer resistance, 593 Epistasis, 120
somatic hybridization, 589 Eriodaphna spp., 345, 350
world production, 588 ER-resident chaperonin (BiP), 644
EHA 101, 580, 703 Erucic acid, 773–775, 781
Electroporation, 470, 478, 480, 485, 488, 490, Erwinia
648, 722, 723, 744, 804, 821, 837 amylovora, 332, 497
Electrostimulation, 818 carotovora, 361, 677
Elongation factor, 644 Erinnyis ello, 534
Elongation, 565 ery gene, 534
Elymus, 719 Erysiphe cichoracearum, 438, 619, 719
canadiensis, 720 graminis f. sp. Hordei, 719
Embryo co-cultivation, 605, 608–610, heraclei, 517
Embryo, 110, 440, 719–723, 749, 775, 804, 807, Escherichia coli, 103, 198, 210, 383, 441, 505,
814–822, 836–844 550, 590, 591, 675, 726, 744, 768, 776,
Embryogenesis, 43–56, 70, 157, 361, 398, 399, 808, 840
720, 749, 775, 816, 836 RecA protein, 744
and biochemical pathway, 56 enterotoxin, 675
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Index 859
Ethical issues, 119–121 Floral homeotic (AGAMOUS) gene, 122

Ethics, 20 Flowering, 183–196
Ethrel, 741 and biotechnology, 187–188
Ethylactate, 741 and floral meristem identity, 186–187
Ethylene, 250, 334–336, 348, 349, 366, 375, 377, and time, 185–187
412–418, 425–427, 431, 439, 457, 555, genes controlling, 184–185
738, 741, 818 manipulation, 183, 660
Eucalyptus globulus, 74, 156, 187 prevention, 187–188
Euchlaena mexicana, 638 redesign of, 188–189
Euphorbia pulcherrima, 158 Flowers, 189–192
European corn borer, 332, 742 and hybrid seed production, 191
European Community-Union (ECEU), 12 emasculation, 596
Exochitinase, 332 new arrangements organs, 189–190
Explants, 160 on demand, 185–188
Expressed sequence tags (EST), 91, 286, 844 organ identity genes, 189
Expression, 564, 567–572, 577 without petals, 190
Fluorometric assay, 628
Factor IX gene, 744 Food
Factors related to maize kernel hardness, 641 and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 6,
FAO, 6, and Drug Administration (FDA), 21, 298, 303,
Farming 459
molecular, 713 crops and agriculture, 1–28
traditional, 23 grain, 638
Fatty acid ingredients, 17
acid elongase (FaLs), 37 marketing Institute, 295
composition, 774, 783, 827 Quality Protection Act (USA), 450
desaturase, 210 security, 11, 22, 524, 537
elongase, FALS, 37 type maize hybrids, 640
ω-3-fatty acid desaturase gene, 711 Fragaria x ananassa, 449
fertilization independent endosperm ( fie) gene, Frankineliella occidentalis, 589
112, 123, 192 Freesia refracta, 159
profile, 756 (see also Oil profile) Friable embryogenic callus (FEC), 528, 530
Fermented breads, 802 embryogenic callus, 497
Ferridazon, 102 Fructan, 485, 491–498, 654
Fertile crescent, 2, 717 containing beets, 660
Fertilization independent seeds ( fis), 112 fructan fructosyltransferse (1–FFT), 492, 494,
Festuca spp., 116 498, 660
arundinacea, 140 products, 660
1-fft gene, 498 Fructans, 659
fie gene, 112, 123, 192 Fructose, 333, 377
FIL gene, 123 Fruitfly, 438
fis gene, 123, 192 Fungal pathogens, 497
Field test, 564, 567, 574–576, 577 resistance, 676, 742, 743, 827, 841
Field trial, 443, 445, 574–576, 590, 592 Fungicides, 657
Fire blight 332 Fusarium
Flavor, 427, 458 oxysporum, 360, 365, 373, 466, 589, 604, 657
FlavrSavr tomato, 307, 312, 450 graminearum, 842
Flax, 747–761 moniliforme, 466
CDC Triffid, 758 resistance, 466
L6 gene, 755 solani, 17, 373
regulatory issues, 757–758 spp., 17, 457, 589, 743, 841
value added traits, 756 Fusarium
weed control, 757 tolerance, 466
Floral organ identity (FOI) gene, 189–192 basal rot, 657
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860 Index
[Fusarium] Genetic
recessive gene, 616 cosuppression, 432
engineering for phytonutrients, 207–216, 591
g recessive gene, 616 in valuable agronomic genes, 469
G418, see Geneticin map, 590
Galanthus nivalis, 243, 257, 454 marker based map, 86
pallida, 243 tagging, 90, 91
Gametes, 99 transformation, 590
Gametocides, 100 Genetically Modified organisms (GMO),
Gametocytes, 100 305–308, 312, 320, 323, 324
Gametophyte indeterminate, 118 Foods, 321
Garlic, 209, 655 Geneticin (G418), 490, 648, 751, 839, 652
and shallot virus X, 658 Genome(s), 29–41
latent virus, 658 chromosomal rearrangement, 34
microprojectile bombardment, 661, 665 comparative mapping, 35–36
transformation protocol, 661 crop improvement gene analysis, 37
Geminivirus, 373 dosage ratio in endosperm, 115–117
Gene(s) dynamics, 35
AFLP markers, 89–90 gene transfer, 37
amplification based markers, 87 genomic evolution, 33–35
amplification fingerprints, 88 instability, 116
analysis, 37 mapping, 31–32
and cytology, 30–31 of plants, 29–38, 458
chips, 16, 159 plasticity, 20
code, 621 polyploidy, 34
complex traits, 90 sequencing, 32–33
DNA, 86 structure, 33
Dose ratio (GDR), 116 transposable elements, 35
hybridization based Genomic(s), 14–15
inactivation, 783 and human health factors, 212
integration, 776 and integrated genetic transformation, 540
marker genes, 85–98, 777, 823, 827, 837 and inter-ploidy crosses, 117
molecular marker systems, 85–90 comparative, 91
promoters, 629 functional, 15
pyramiding, 263 imprinting, 113–114, 118, 122–124
quantitative trait loci mapping, 91–92 use in potatoes and maize, 117–118
RAPD DNA, 87–88 Genotype dependency, 176
RFLP analysis, 86–87 Gentamycin, 824
sequences, 658 Gerbera spp. 50
silencing, 376, 400, 631, 648, 727, 728, 784, Germplasms, 13–14
843 Elite, 115
simple sequence repeats, 88–89 GFP (see Green fluorescent protein)
simple traits, 90 Gfp expression, 652
single nucleotide polymorphism, 87 Gfp reporter gene, 658
single primer amplification reactions Ginko biloba, 49, 50
tagging, 90–91 gl-1 gene, 59
transfer, 20, 37, 748, 754, 769, 775, 804, 816, glgA gene, 675
818, 820–822, 827, 837, 840 Globdera spp., 233
Gene control pallida, 233
in flowering time, 185 rostochiensis, 233, 236, 238, 241
for meristem identity, 186 Glucan, 764
General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT), Glucanase, 725, 726, 764, 842
12–13, 280, 284 Glucose oxidase, 676
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Index 861
Glucosinolates, 209, 211, 773, 774, 780 [GUS]

Glucuronidase, 780 activity, 631
Glufosinate, 390, 392, 487, 624, 756, 757, 777, expression, 480, 540
838 gene, 592, 630
ammonium, 623 reporter gene, 362, 399, 652, 662
Gluten, 841 Gynogenesis, 43, 50, 113
Glutenin subunits, 841 and developmental stage, 51
Glycine max, 49, 77, 146, 605 culture conditions, 52
Glycogen synthase, 675 donor plant, 50
Glyphosate (Roundup), 487, 504, 535, 657, 720, influencing factors, 50–52
756, 757, 778, 839 media constituents, 51
oxidase reductase (GOX), 487
resistance, 648 H1 locus, 241
Golden mosaic gemini virus (GMGV), 469 Ha1 and Ha2 locus, 241
GNA gene, 257–265 Hairy root, 709
GOX gene, 839 HAL-1 gene, 377
Gpa 2 locus, 241, 242 Haploid, 590
Graminan, 492 breeding, 721
Granule-bound glucose synthetase (GBSS), 536, initiator gene, (Hap) 721
712 plant, 51, 749
Grape, 842 Heat shock proteins (HSPs), 17, 53, 54, 68, 70
Agrobacterium, 400–401 Heliothis virescens, 258
Arabis mosaic virus (GAMV), 402 Helianthus
Cabernet sauvingnon, 398 annuus L., 78, 813–819
Chardonnay, 398 smithii, 817
co-cultivation, 401–402 spp., 51, 815
Fanleaf virus (GFLV), 402 tuberosus, 78, 492, 497–498, 814, 816
gene delivery systems, 400–402 Helicotylenchus multicictus, 36
mold resistance, 402 Helicoverpa zia, 260, 261
Nepovirus, 402 Helium shock wave, 488
particle bombardment, 400 Helminthosporium sativum, 720
proembryonal complexes, 398 Hemileia vastatrix, 743
regeneration systems, 398–399 Hemizygous seed progeny, 621
seedless varieties, 402 Hepatitis B antigen, 366
selectable markers, 399–400 Herbicide, 487
selection of transformed cultures, 401 resistance, 365, 390, 391, 403, 459, 535, 536,
tissue culture, 401 615, 617, 621–623, 649, 656, 661, 724,738,
transgenic clones, 402–403 740, 744, 745, 748, 751, 755, 757, 776,
vines, 397–405 777, 783, 804, 805, 827, 838, 840, 844
viruses A and B, 402 resistant biotype, 617
Gray mold, 456, 815 resistant radicchio lettuce, 631
Green fluorescent protein (GFP), 55, 74, 163, 391, resistant transgenics, 535
365, 400, 452, 624, 648, 662, 824, 844 tolerant, 486, 487
reporter gene (gfp), 365, 658–662 Hero gene, 238
GreenPeace, 300, 303 Heterodera
Green revolution, 7, 10, 22 aveanae, 241
GroL locus, 241 glycins, 233, 241
Grocery Manufacturers of America, 295 schachtii, 233, 236, 238, 487
Guard cell protoplast, 490, 493–494, 498 spp. 233
Guma, 802 Heterosis, 99, 120–122
GUS (see β-Glucuronidase), 74, 362, 376, 391, additive effects, 121
399, 415, 431, 452, 470, 477, 478, 580–582, dominance effects, 121
590, 605–608, 610, 631, 703–708, 750, 754 overdominance, 121
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862 Index
Hirudin, 780 In vitro

Hmg2 gene, 244 mutation, 430
Hominy, 639 selection, 430
Homozygosity, 721 inbred line, 445
Homozygotes, 566, 567, 569–577 Indirect DAS ELISA, 566, 575
Homozygous Indole
line, 442 acetic acid (IAA), 565, 596
progenies, 621 acetamide, 596
Homoptera, 842 glucosinolates, 780
Hop plants, 210 Inflorescences, 720
Hordeum Injera, 640
bulbosum, 719, 721 Innovation, 311
jubatum, 720 economics of, 313
spontaneum, 717–721 chain link model, 314
vulgare, 116, 497, 717–720, 778 first generation, 315
Hordothionins, 725 Insect(s)
Hornworm, 534 bioassay, 556, 591
Hph marker gene, 529, 580 peritrophic matrix, 252, 257
Hpt (Hygromycin phosphotransferase) gene, 362, pest management, 262–265
452, 605, 648, 839 pests resistance, 534
Hs1 resistant genes, 480 plant interaction, 249–263
Hs1pro-1, 236, 237, 242, 488 protected crops acceptance, 300
Hs1web-1, 488 resistance, 249–263, 547, 548, 558, 591, 649,
Hs1web-7, 488 676, 738–742, 783, 802, 804, 827, 841,
Human health, 207–216, 437 842
and immunity, 366 Insecticidal
and insulin, 676 (Bt) toxin, 534
and micronutrients, 210 crystal protein 330, 331, 332
and mining of plant genomes, 212 Insulin, 676
and nutrition, 208–209 int gene, 250
and phytonutrients, 207–208, 337, 402 Integrated pest management (IPM) programs,
and plant micronutrients, 210 263–265, 657
Humulus lupulus, 210 Intellectual property, 754, 757, 828
Hybrid sterility, 719 freedom to operate (FTO), 319
vigour, 120 Paris Convention, 280
Hydroxynitrile lyase (HNL), 537 principles, 280, 286
Hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein, 538 politics of, 317
Hygromycin, 580, 582, 605, 648, 703, 768, 776, protection, 263–265
824, 839, 840 rights, 13, 18, 263–265, 657
resistant calli, 581 Trade related aspects (TRA), 318
phosphotransferase, 776, 805 International
Hymenoptera spp., 534 Cassava Biotechnology Research Unit
Hyperhydric, 352, 415, 430 (ICBRU), 540
Hypocotyl, 489, 554, 564, 565, 567, 577 Food Information Council, 295–296
Hypothenemus hampei, 739, 742 Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 16,
527, 532, 541, 604
IaaM gene, 596 International Laboratory for Tropical Agricul-
IBA, 565 tural Biotechnology (ILTAB), 529, 530,
Imperata cylindrica, 535 533, 534, 536, 539
Inbreeding depression, 122 ICARDA, 604
In planta ICRISAT, 604
electroporation, 139, 605, 606 Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), 12, 321
transformation, 722 Office of Epizootics (IOE), 321
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Index 863
Interploidy crosses [Lactuca]

Arabidopsis, 117 sativa, 613–619
poato, 117 serriola, 613, 615–617, 619
maize, 118 tartarica, 619
Inulin, 492–9 virosa, 614, 615–616, 619, 623
Inventions, 260–262 Lachrymatory compounds, 659
Invertase, 458, 488, 674 Lactuca species, 614–616, 618
inhibitor, 675 Late embryogenesis abundant proteins, 743
2ip, 581 Laurate, 781
Ipomoea batatas, 699 LBA 4404-GUS report gene, 477
Ipt code, 621 LC gene, 259
Ipt gene, 622 Leaf aphid, 617, 619
Isoflavones, 211 resistance, 615
Isozyme analysis, 618 Leaf disk, 489
Isozymes, 85, 590 LEAFY (LFY) gene, 186, 428
Leafy cotyledon 1 gene (lec1), 192
Jasmonic acid, 250 Lectin, 243, 257, 454, 842
Jerusalem artichoke, 492–11, 498 genes, 659
Jumping genes, 35 toxcity, 842
Kalanchoe spp. 78 Leek, 655
Kanamycin, 390, 399, 415, 443, 478, 490, Leek yellow strip virus (LYSV), 658
511–515, 555, 566–567, 569, 577, 580, Legumes, 197–204, 475–482, 603–610
581, 604, 609, 620, 625, 751, 752, 776, Legume seed, 475
777, 805, 821, 824 Lemmi9 gene, 244
resistance, 470, 566–569, 572, 577, 591, 629, Lens culinaris, 603, 607
648 Lentil, 603–607
resistant calli, 581 Agrobacterium–mediated transformation,
resistant plants, 619, 621, 628 607
resistant shots, 621 production statistics, 604
sulfate, 623–628 screenable marker, 607
1-kestose, 492, 496 susceptability to A. tumefaciens, 607
Kinetin, 49, 476, 504 transformation, 607
Kisra, 802 world production, 603–604
Kiwi fruit, 407–420 Lepidopterae, 740
Agrobacterium mediated transformation, Lepidoptera, 253–256, 756, 842
409–415 Lepitotera spp., 534, 535
direct DNA transfer Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 589–593
DNA transfer protocols, 409–415 Leptosphaeria maculans, 766, 768, 778
genetic improvement, 417–418 Ler gene, 113
genetic transformation of, 409–418 Less Developing Countries (LDCs), 524, 526,
history, 408 530, 536, 538–542
progeny stability, 417 Lettuce, 613–632
regeneration systems, 408 agronomically useful genes, 621
transgenic interaction, 417 biotechnology, 618
Knotted gene (KN1), 79 breeding objectives, 615
Kokei 14, 702 classification, 623
conventional breeding, 614–615
Lacanobia oleracea, 257 cultivation, 614
Lactuca disease resistance, 616
perennis, 619 downy mildew resistance, 616
deblis, 619 extended postharvest shelf life, 615
indica, 619 genome, 631
saligna, 615–617, 619 herbicide resistance, 617
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864 Index
[Lettuce] LysC gene, 808

history of, 614 Lysine, 726, 802, 803, 806–809
inactivation of transgene expression, 629 Lysin-ketoglutarate reductase (LKR), 808,
improved quality, 615 809
increased postharvest shelf life, 618 Lytic peptides, 332
infectious yellow virus (LIYV), 629
LIYV resistance, 629 Mac promoter, 629
insect resistant varieties, 615 Macadamia nuts, 763–771
leaf aphid, 617 antimicrobial peptide 1 (MiAMP1), 765–
male sterility, 615 769
morphological types, 614 husk spot, 769
mosaic virus (LMV), 615, 621, 629 nuts, 763
(LMV-CP) gene, 629 Macadamia integrifolia, 765
coat protein, 621 Mahewu, 639
strain O (LMV-O), 621 MADS-box gene, 596
resistance, 615–616, 629 mae, mag genes, 241
nutritional content, 614 Mafo, 802
origin, 613–614 Maize, 495, 637–638, 647, 742, 764, 779, 801,
product quality, 617 802, 804, 808, 838–840
size and yield uniformity, 618 Ac transposase, 621
transformation, 624 alkaline cooking processes, 641
world production, 614 biochemical components, 641
Leucinodes orbonalis, 589–591 dent maize, 640
Leucoantheocynidine deoxygenase, 403 double mutants, 643
Levan, 498 dry milling, 639
sucrase, 495 fractions, 639
Liliaceae family, 465 milling industry, 640–641
Liliaceae, 492, 805 dry processing, 638
Linamarase cDNA clone, 540 products, 638
Linamerin, 537 endosperm protein, 644
Linola, 756 extruded corn snacks, 639
Linoleic acid, 748, 756, 815 fatty acid profiles, 646
Linseed, 747–761 flint maize, 640
Linum food uses, 639, 640
marginale, 749 genetic engineering, 638, 647
spp., 756 germ, 646
suffruticosum, 749 gluten feed/meal, 640
usitatissimum, 747 grain processing, 640
Lipid transfer proteins, 764 grain types, 640
Liquidambar styraciflua, 260 herbicide-tolerant hybrids, 647
Lolium spp, 116, 140 high amylose (ae) mutant, 642
multiflorum, 140 history, 638
perenne, 140 improved lipid composition, 646
Lotaustralin, 537 insect resistant hybrids, 647
Low-calorie sweetener, 493 kernel
Lox gene, 648 hardness, 641
Lsc, 497 minerals, 646
luc marker gene, 104, 529 size, 118
Luciferase, 488, 824 lipids, 645–646
Lycopersicon esculentum, 45, 236 methionine-containing zeins, 645
peruvianum, 236 milling properties, 647
pimpinellifolium, 116 modified traits, 649
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Index 865
[Maize] Manduca sexta, 257, 258, 262, 676

mutants, 643 Mangifera indica, 421–436
ae (amylose extender), 172, 643 Mango, 421–436
bt (brittle starch), 643 breeding, 424–429
double, 643 crop history, 421–423
du (dull starch), 172–178643 disease resistance, 428
fl (floury starch), 643 flavor, 427
floury2, 644 flowering, 428
high amylose (ae), 642 genetic manipulations, in vitro, 430–431
modified opaque2, 644 genetic transformation, 423–432
Opaque2, 641, 644 genetics and breeding, 423–427
sh (shrunken starch), 643 pigments, 427
su (sugary starch), 172, 178, 643 plant architecture, 428
triple, 643 ripening, 424–425
wx (waxy starch), 172, 642–643 root stock cultivars, 428
nixtamol, 638 scion cultivars, 424–428
non-traditional products, 638 selections, in vitro, 431
nutritional quality and value, 646, 647 somatic cell,
oil, 638, 640 embryogenesis, 429–430
oil genotype, 645 genetic manipulations, 429–430
phytate, 464 taxonomy, 422–423
product development, 647 world production, 421–422
products, 638 Manihot esculenta cultivars, 530, 532
protein, 641, 644 flabelifolia, 524
protein bodies, 644 glaziovii, 532
quality protein (QPM), 641, 644 Manioc, 524
starch, 640, 641 Mannitol, 48
alterations, 645 Mannose-6-phosphate isomerase, 840
derived products, 640 Marker assisted gene cloning, 236
modifications, 642 Masa, 638
processors, 642 Matrix attachment regions (MARs), 728
transformation, 647 McClintok, Barbara, 14, 35
tripsicum hybrids, 119 mea gene, 122, 123–124
use, 638 mea locus, 114, 122–124
vitamins, 646 medea-112
wet gene, 122, 192
milling industry, 640 Mediterranean fruit fly, 438
processing by-products, 638 Melon fly, 438
processing, 638 Mealybug, 534
world production, 637 resistance, 540
Male sterile plants, 621, 804 Melampsora lini, 756
gene, 45 Meloidogyne spp., 233, 235, 236, 238, 243, 361,
restoration, 103 589, 739
Malnourished, 10, 212, 524 arenaria, 238, 241
Malthus Robert, 3, 10 incognita, 233, 236, 238, 243, 244
Malting, 720, 724–728 javanica, 238
Malus foribunda, 332 Melon, 371–381
Malus x domestica, 328, 332 altered ripening, 377
Mamestra configurata, 261 cantaloupe, 371
ManA gene, 840 casanba, 371
Mendel, Gregory, 14 explant factors, 375
Mandioca, 524 fly, 438
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866 Index
[Melon] myb gene, 259

fungal diseases of, 372–373 Mycopathogens, 16
growth media components, 375 Mycorrhizal, 489
honeydew, 371 Mycosphaerella
improvements, 372 fijiensis, 360, 365
introduced traits, 377 musicola, 360
muskmelon, 371 Mycotoxicosis, 16
regeneration, 373–374 Mycotoxins, 12
risk assessment of transgenic, 377–378 Myzus persicae, 261, 263
somaclonal variation, 376
source of explant, 373 nap, 101
transformation, 376 Nasonovia ribis nigri, 617, 619
wintermelon, 371 Natural starch, 644
Meristematic ring, 476 Neck rot, 657
Methionine, 470, 779 Nematodes, 233–248, 255, 361, 365, 453, 487,
Methionine-rich, 469 488
Methylisoborneol (MIB), 743 cyst nematodes, 233–234
Metopolophium dirhodum, 261 disrupter of feeding cells, 244
mi gene, 236, 238, 242 economic loss due to, 233
Micena, 743 life cycle and infection, 234–236
Microparticle bombardment, 128, 362 marker assisted selection, 236–238
tungsten, 138 root knot nematodes, 235–236
Micropropogation, 70, 156, 443 Nematodes resistance,
Microsiphium euporbiae, 238, 676 artificial, 242–244
Microinjection, 722, 775, 804, 821 crops, 241
Micronutrients, 208–212 effector genes, 236, 242
engineering in plants, 211–212 genes, 236–242
and metabolites, 209 in potato, 239–241
Microprojectile DNA delivery system, 723, 724 in sugar beet, 238
Microsatellite markers, 819 in tomato, 238–239
Microspore, 47, 720, 723, 775, 776, 821 natural, 236
culture, 721, 724, 749, 774, 775 neo gene, 362, 605, 609
Mingau, 639 Neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII), 530,
mixta gene, 259 648, 722, 750, 751, 776, 805, 808, 824
Mo recessive gene, 616 nptII gene, 353, 376, 390, 399, 416, 440, 452,
Modification of physiological characteristics, 505, 506, 552, 580, 590, 591, 610,
621 619–620, 623, 629, 665, 722, 750, 751,
Moko disease 361 776, 805, 808, 824
Molecular markers, 85–90, 239, 590, 600 marker gene, 353, 529
Monelllin, 427 protein content, 623
Mononychellus tanajoa, 534 Nehpotettix cincitepes, 260
ms 1053 gene, 45 Nicotiana
MS medium, 564, 565, 567, 569 benthamiana, 221, 225, 455, 456, 531, 532,
Multiple insertion loci, 753 684
Multitrophism, 262 bigelorii, 225
Munuca (Brazil), 639 clevlandii, 455
Musa spp. 76, 421 plumbaginifolia, 628
Mutagenesis, 774 sylvestris, 806
Mutagenic treatments, 721 tabacum, 44, 146, 159, 219, 221, 455, 456,
Mutant 677, 836
AHAS gene, 657 Nilaparvata lugens, 260
CsrL-L genes, 657 Nitrosamine, 618
Mutation breeding, 55, 718, 756, 803 Nixtamal, 638
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Index 867
Nonstructural virus genes, 680 Orobanche cumana, 815

Nopline, 470 Orthosia hibisi, 331
Nopline synthesis, 480 Oryza sativa, 45, 50, 793–795
North American Free Trade Agreement Oryzacystatin 1 gene, 242
(NAFTA), 280, 284 Osmotin gene, 764
Northern blot analysis, 592, 629 Ostrinia nubilalis, 331
NOS, 580 Otioryhnchus sulcatus, 453
gene, 629 Over-expression, 644
promoter, 620 Oxalate oxidase, 778
Nos.nptII.nos Oxycoccus spp., 384
gene, 511, 512, 630–631
terminator, 620 P450 cytochrome, 537
Npo virus, 455 pABD1, 619
NPT II (see Neomycin phosphotransferase II) pAHC25, 805
Nsima, 802 PAL-2 promoter, 540
Nucellus, 351, 429 Palm, 773
Nucleocapsid (N) protein gene, 621 Palmitic acid, 756
Nutraceutical, 727, 784 Panama disease, 360
Nutrition Pandemis prysuana, 331
and crops, 10–14, 207–213 Panicium spp., 119
quality improvement, 479 virgatum, 119
value, 645, 675 Pantalonia nigronervosa, 360
Papain, 437
Oat, 49 Papaya, 437–447
Ochractoxin A, 742 acreage in Hawaii, 438
Oenethera spp., 116 aluminium tolerance, 440
hooker, 116 annual production, 438
Ogi, 639 Colombian, 438
Ogu, 101 culture initiation, 440
Oidium caricae, 438 delayed ripening, 439
Oil profile, 756 (see also Fatty acids profile) desirable virus resistance, 439
Oleic acid, 756, 815 DNA extraction, 441
Oleosin, 210, 779 extended shelf life, 442
Oligofructan, 485, 493, 495 field evaluation of transgenic, 442–445
Onion, 655–671 fungal diseases, 438
Agrobacterium–mediated transformation, genetic engineering of, 438–445
661 herbicide resistance, 440
bacterial diseases, 658 hermaphrodite plants, 443
cytoplasmic genome, 661 particle gun usage, 441
leaf blight (Xathomonas spp.), 658 plasmids, 440
microprojectile transformation protocol, 661 ringspot virus (PRSV), 223, 373, 438, 440,
nuclear genome, 661 441, 446,
soft rot (Erwinia spp.), 658 transformation, 439
sour/slippery skin (Pseudomonas spp.), 658 methods, 439
transformation protocol, 661 virus resistance, 439
white rot control, 657 world production, 438
yellow dwarf virus (OYDV), 658 Paramutation, 121
Organ specific expression, 4/10 Parent of origin effect, 109–135
Organization for Economic Cooperation and De- and plant breeding, 114–115
velopment (OECD), 320 effects at gene level, 111–113
Organogenesis, 70, 72, 156–160, 376, 476, 530 Paromomycin, 529, 824, 839
Organosulfur compounds, 659 resistant callus lines, 532
Oriental fruitfly, 438 Parthenocarpy, 594
www.taq.ir
868 Index
Particle bombardment, 400, 440, 478, 479, 488, Peroxidase, 779, 781
485, 490, 528, 532, 723, 727, 728, 739, Persea
754, 755, 776, 804, 805, 807, 821, 822, americana, 345
839 borboria, 350
based transformation, 535 cinerascens, 350
Paspalum notatum, 119 pachypoda, 350
PAT (see Phosphothricin acetyltransferase) schieneana, 347, 350
Patents, 279–291, 757 Pest, 590
Biotechnology Directive, 280, 284, 285 management, 262–265
Budapest Treaty, 283 resistance, 724, 745, 815
Canadian, tissue electroporation, 139 pet E gene, 629, 630
claims define invention, 281 PetE promoter, 630–631
Cooperation Treaty, 280 Petiole, 489
deposit of organisms, 283 Petunia, 494, 631
disclosure, 283 Petunia hybrida, 621
European Convention (EPC), 280, 285 Pharmaceutical, 727, 779, 784
general principles, 280–281 Phaseolin, 480
infringement, 284, 285–286 Phaseolus vulgaris, 257, 475, 482
interference, 284 Phenacoccus manihoti, 534
international framework, 280 Phenolics, 337, 393, 394
inventorship, 284–285 Phenotype
microparticle bombardment, 138 hidden, 115
novelty, 281–282 Phenylalanine ammonium lyase (PAL) gene, 538
obviousness/inventive step, 282 Ph 1 gene, 37
plants in U.S., 283, 286–287 Phlein, 492
Plant Variety Protection Act, 283 Phloem-specific promoters, 659
U.S. vs E. U., 283–290, 318 Phoma spp., 438
utility/industrial applicability, 282 Phomopsis helianthi, 815
whiskers, 139 Phomopsis oleracea var. helianthi-tuberosi, 815
Pathogen derived resistance (PDR), 218 Phomopsis sp., 438
resistance genes (R-genes), 244 Phosphate-6–mannose isomerase gene, 743
Pathogen related (PR) genes, 428, 620 Phosphinothricin (PPT), 487, 490, 648, 623, 751,
Pathogenesis-related proteins, 350, 428, 430, 438, 783, 824, 838, 839
515, 764 acetyl transferase (PAT), 487, 490, 494, 751,
PBI121, 580 777
pCAMV CAT, 619 gene, 104, 390, 485, 776, 494
PCR, 565, 566, 568–572, 577 resistance, 661
Pea, 197–205, Phosphomannose isomerase, 776
enation mosaic virus (PEMV), 222 Photosynthetic rate, 540
improved agronomy, 202 Photorhabdus luminescense, 255
quality traits, 203 Phyllomorycter spp. 331
regeneration, 201 Phyllotreta spp., 779
rug 5 mutants, 176 Phytase gene, 780
seed borne mosaic virus, 222 Phytate, 646
transformation methods, 195–202 Phytoalexin, 725, 764, 842
Pearl millet/Pennisetum hybrids, 119 Phytochrome, 428
Pectate lyase, 400 Phytonutrients, 207–213
Pectolytic enzymes, 823 chemicals, 259
Pennisetum spp. 119 and health, 207–216
Penax genseng, 75 Phytophthora
Pentalonia nigronervosa, 360 cinnamomi, 350, 769
Perileucoptera coffeella, 739, 740 fragariae, 449, 458
Perisperm, 110 infestens, 676
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Index 869
[Phytophthora] [Plant regeneration]

megasperma, 350 species and cultivars, 159–160
palmivora, 438 Plant variety protection, 287–290
Phytophthora root rot, 350, 351, 438, 449, 457 distinctiveness, 288
Phytorimaea operculella, 676 novelty, 287–288
Picea sitchensis, 51 stability, 288
Picloram, 700 uniformity, 288
Pigments, 336, 337, 427 Plantynota sultana, 331
Pink root rot, 657 Plastocyanin promoter, 629
Pinus radiata, 187, 188 Plodia interpunctella, 256
Pistalata (Pi) gene, 190 Plum pox virus (PPV), 222
Pisum sativum, 197–198 Plutella xylostella, 253, 556, 779
P-Lec gene, 264 PluPoaceae, 492, 617
PL-mah locus, 121 Poa longifolia, 119
Plamopara halstedii, 815 pratensis, 119
Plant(s) Polenta, 639
biotechnology, 590 Political consequences and
breeder’s rights, 757 transgenic plants, 317–323
cell competence, 152 intellectual property rights, 317–319
chemical profiles, 259 agri-food policy, 319–320
codon usage, 594 regulation, 320–321
competence, 152 international problems, 321–323
defenses to insects, 249–278 framework for managing complex issues,
deployment, 593 17–23, 323–324
designer, 189 Pollen, 99–107, 489
disease, 16 biotechnology, 99–107
domestication of, 2, 109 chemical hybridizing agents, 102
growth regulators, 76 control of development, 100–104
micro- and macronutrients, 207–212 development, 45, 100
morphological characteristics, 258, 259, 621 genetic transformation of pollen, 104
number of species, 11 grain, 45
oxidative stress, 260 male sterile mutants, 101–102
secondary metabolites, 260, 261 manipulation, 100–104
systemic response, 250–252 transformation, 840
tolerance to insects, 250, 262 Polycomb (Pc-G) gene, 122–124, 192
totipotency, 152, 250, 528 Polyethylene glycol (PEG), 410, 415, 416, 478,
trichomes, 258, 657 723, 804, 821, 837
trichome development genes, 258 mediated DNA transfer, 490
Variety Protection Act (PVPA), 280–290, 318 mediated transformation, 723
virus resistance, 217–222 Polygalacturonase, 427, 457, 458
wax layers, 259 Polygalacturonase inhibiting protein, 457, 458
wounding, 260 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), 537
Plant regeneration, 151–167 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 86–90, 353,
and markers, 158–159 362–365, 376, 416, 441, 506, 510, 565,
and methods, 161–163 591, 620, 710
and selection agents, 161–162 Polymixae betae, 487
culture conditions, 161–163 Polymorphism at single nucleotide, 87
embryogenesis, 157 Polyphenol oxidase, 158, 261, 337, 391, 403,
explant, 160–161 548
factors in, 151–159 Polyploidy, 34, 376
organogenesis, 156–157 Popcorn, 640
ovary culture, 721 Populus tremula, 78
pathways, 155–157 Porrage, 802
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870 Index
Posttranscriptional gene silencing, 621 Protoplast, 490, 493, 494, 498, 721, 723, 739,
Potato, 239, 495, 497, 673, 727, 842 748, 775, 804, 806, 818, 819, 821, 822, 837
agronomic traits, 674 culture, 361, 618
antifreeze quality, 675 Prunus persica, 88
bruise resistance, 675 Pseudocercospora spp., 769
cholera toxin, 676 Pseudogamous apomixis, 109
consumption-North America, 673 Pseudomonas spp., 427
carlavirus (PCV), 679 cichorii, 619
heterologous gene, 684 solanacerum, 361
human insulin in, 676 syringae, 242, 260
insect resistance, 676 syringae pv. savastonoi, 596
leafroll virus (PLRV), 222, 679 syringae pv. tabaci, 764
Naturemark, 301 viridae flava, 417
potyvirus (PPV), 679 Pseudoplusia includens, 393
processing quality, 675 Pseudoperonospora cubensis, 373
spindle tuber viroids, 677 Public perception, 293–304, 459
transformation protocols, 712 and acceptance, 296
vaccine delivery, 675 awareness and knowledge, 296
virus genes, 677, 680 of technology, 294
2X, 221, 677 Puccina helianthi, 815
Y, 221, 564 Pulse crops, 603–666
world production, 673 Pullulanase, 726
Potyviruses, 373, 658, 679 Pungency, 661, 659
sequence-mediated protection, 621, 622 Pyrenopesisa brasicae, 778
Powdery mildew, 438, 619, 719 Pyrethroids, 658
Pozole, 639 Pyrinochaeta terrestris, 657
PPT (see Phosphinothricin)
Pratylenchus penetrans, 361, 453 Q-r locus, 113
Preculture, 752 Quantitative trait loci (QTL), 54, 55, 86, 90, 91,
prf gene, 242 112, 113, 186, 239, 241
PR-gus–transformed plants, 620
Primula spp., 116 r-locus, 113, 114
Proembryoid, 818 Radopholus similis, 361
Proembryonic Raffinose, 488, 495
masses, 157, 351, 352, 429–431, 504 Raisins, 403
complexes, 157, 398 Ralstonia solanacearum, 361, 589
Proembryos, 776 Randomly amplified polymorphic DNAs
Promoters, 362, 376, 391, 416, 418, 426, 440, (RAPDs), 15, 32, 87, 88, 238, 241, 431,
458, 805 458, 540, 589–591,
Pronamide, 617 Rape plant, 779
Propachlor, 617 Rapeseed, 773, 774, 779, 781, 821
Propham, 617 Raphanus, 37
Propyzamide, 617 Raspberry, 449–461
Protein red, 449–464
bodies, 644 black, 449–464
content elevation, 539 aphid, 449
improved, 645 bushy dwarf virus (RBDV), 456
marker system, 86 Reactive oxygen species, 337
Proteinase Recalcitrant monocotyledonous species, 137, 661
cysteine, 242 Reduced nitrate accumulation, 617
inhibitor II, 676 Regeneration, 564–565, 567, 570, 577, 580
inhibitors, 242, 256, 452–454, 549–551, 558, Regulatory issues, 757
659, 779 Regulatory sequence, 596
serine, 256 Resistance gene, 676
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Index 871
Resistance management, 331 [Risk]

Resistance to viruses, 217–231 perception, 294–303,
agricultural benefits, 223 scientific facts, 236
commercialization, 222–223 RNA
engineering of, 218 aberrant, 220
environmental risks, 223–226 turnover, 220
factors, 231 silencing 220
field evaluation, 222 duplex, 220,
mechanisms of, 219–221 satellite, 222
opposition to, 224 Rockefeller Foundation, 541–542
potential impact, 223–224 rol genes, 350, 412, 417, 710
risk assessment, 224–226 rolABC genes, 417, 621
Restriction fragment length polymorphism Root hypersensitive response, 236
(RFLP), 15, 24, 31, 86–90, 238, 347, 534, Root specific promoters, 538
540, 590, 618 Root, 565, 567–568
Retinol, 211 Roti, chapati, 639, 802
Retrotransposons, 35 R-r locus, 121
Reverse transcriptase PCR, 596 RT-PCR, 566, 570, 577
rhg-a gene, 241 Rubus spp. 449, 452
Rhizoctinia solani, 457, 515, 517, 677 strigosus, 459
Rhizomania, 486 Rust, 743, 755, 756, 815
Rhizopus spp., 438 RX gene, 241, 242
stolonifera, 438 Rye, 170, 720
Rhopobota naevana, 393
Ribonuclease, 677 S-(2-aminoethyl)-L-cysteine (AEC), 806, 807
gene, 677, 779 SacB, 497
inhibitor gene (Barstar), 779 S-adenosyl methione (SAM), 335, 349, 425,
Ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs), 350, 428, 427
457, 533, 764 decarboxylase, 336
Ribozyme, 677 hydroxylase, 377, 427, 457, 458
Rice, 727, 754, 793–800, 801, 804, 805, 808, Sadza, 802
835, 838, 839, 842, 843 Safety, 20–22, 489, 584
Agrobacterium mediated transformation, Safflower oil, 756
795 Safeners, 103
and culture media, 796 Salicylic acid, 250, 251
and regeneration, 797–798 S-alk(en)yl-cycteine sulfoxides (ACSOs), 659
explant, 797 S-allyl L-cysteine, 659
genetic engineering, 794–798 Salt tolerance, 756
historic yields, 4 Salvia sclarea, 51
intensification of production, 4 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS),
microprojectile bombardment, 795 12–13
plant regeneration, 795 Sap sucking onion thrips (Thrips tabacii), 658
su mutants, 177 Scab, 332
transformation, 794–797 Sciara spp., 113
tungro spherical virus (RTSV), 222 Scilla siberica, 158
Yellow mottle virus (RYMV), 222 Sclerotinia stem rot, 190
Rifamicin, 625, Sclerotinia
Ripening, 335, 348, 349, 424, 425, 426, 427, 432, sclerotiorum, 766, 767, 768, 778, 815
457 rolfsii, 515, 517
Risk cepivorum, 657
benefit-assessment, 18–21, 224, 377, 378 Screenable marker, 607, 622
environmental, 223 Secale, 719
gene flow, 224 cereale, 45
management, 294 Secondary metabolite production, 260, 623
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872 Index
Seed Sink strength, 488

albumin, 675 Site-specific gene insertions, 648
giant size, 125 Sitobion avenae, 842
hybrid production, 191, Sitotroga cerealella, 842
oil modification, 781 Snowdrop lectin gene, 842
quality traits, 120 Solanum
size manipulation, 125 acaule, 118
storage protein, 469 berthaultii, 258
without fertilization, 191 commersonii, 117
world market for, 109 gourlayi, 118
Seedless fruit, 594 melongena var. insanum, 589, 590
Selectable markers, 399, 620, 751, 776, 777, 824, melongena, 155, 163, 589
839, 840 transformation, 117, 655
Selectable/screenable markers, 604–606 tuberosum ssp. tuberosum, 117, 673
Selenium, 209 Social issues of transgenic plants, 18–20
Self pruning (SP) gene, 188 Somaclonal variation, 376, 619, 720, 721, 723,
Senescence-specific promoter, 621 724, 754, 774, 837
Sesamine, 210 Somatic
Sesmum indicum, 210 embryo production, 661, 723, 816, 817, 819,
Sesquiterpene lactones, 622–623 827, 839
6–sft, 497 embryo maturation, 352
Single primer amplification reaction (SPAR), 89 embryogenesis, 351, 376, 429, 431, 466, 477,
Shallot latent virus (SLV), 658 504, 527, 530, 739, 740, 775, 805, 816,
Shiva, 402 817, 836
Shoot regeneration, 69–80 hybridization, 590, 615, 617–618
abiotic factors, 76 Sonication, 485, 490
adventitious shoots, 71 Sorbitol 48, 332, 333, 334,
and carbon source, 77 Sorghum
and growth regulators, 76–77 bicolor, 261, 801
and transgene technology, 70–79 halepense, 801
auxillary shoot formation, 71 propinquum, 801
biotic factors, 75 Sorghum, 801–812
environmental factors, 77–78 and aspartate pathway, 806
explant, 75–78 and lysine content, 807–808
factors involved, 69–80 and nutritional value, 802
from callus, 74 improvements in, 803
genotype development, 76 insect resistance, 802, 807
role of culture media, 76 mosaic virus (SMV), 222
Shoot and fruit borer, 591 opaque mutant, 641, 645
resistance, 594 transformation methods, 804–806
Shoot, 565, 567–568 uses of, 802
elongation, 385, 386 South African mosaic virus (SACMV), 532
regeneration, 69, 385 Southern analysis, 480, 631, 652
formation, 70, 71 Southern blot analysis, 527, 592, 555, 565,
production, 74 569–570, 577, 628
Sigatoka disease, 360 Soybean, 754, 773, 808
Signaling molecules, 250 Soybean looper, 393
Silicon carbide whiskers, 139, 648 Sporamine, 550
Sinapis alba, 773, 774, 778 Sphaerotheca fuliginea, 373
Single Special Programme on Biotechnology and Devel-
chain antibody, 676 opment Cooperation (DGIS/ BIOTECH),
loci insertion, 753 541
gene-mediated, 783 Spectinomycin, 751, 776
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Index 873
Spodoptera Streptomycin, 776

exigua, 260, 261 Stress tolerance, 719
littoralis, 258 Striga, 803
litura, 552, 556 Stylosanthes humilis, 779
Spontaneous mutations, 754 su-2 gene, 172
Sporamine, 550, 551 Subtractive hybridization, 54
Squash leaf curl virus (SLCV), 373 Sucrose, 485, 486, 488–489, 491–493, 495–514
1-sst gene, 485, 492–498 sucrose fructosyltransferase (1-SST), 485–498,
Stab inoculation, 488 656–661
Starch, 169–182, 470, 641–644, 724, 700 Sugar beet, 236–238, 485–502, 840
accumulation, 536 agronomic traits, 486–487
amylopectin modification, 173–178, 742 and Agrobacterium, 489
binding protein, 675 and classical breeding, 486
biosynthesis, 170 and electroporation/sonication, 490
branching enzyme, 170, 481 and engineering methods, 489
composition, 675 biosafety issues, 489
debranching enzyme, 177, 481 fructan production, 491–493
gelatinization, 172 gene of Jerusalem artichoke, 494
granules modification, 170–173 genetic engineering, 485–502
granules, 170, 171, 728 guard cells protoplasts, 490
lipids, 646 herbicide tolerance/resistance, 487
market size, 643 industrial applications, fructans, 493
modified structures, 169, 177 nematode resistance, 487
retrogration, 172, 642 ogliofructans, 493–498
synthase, 176, 481, 675, 711 particle bombardment, 490
Stearic acid, 756 pest and disease resistance, 487
Stem borers, 534 quality improvement, 488
Stemnophyllum spp., 438 short fructan synthesis, 492
lycopersici, 438 transgenic superior beets, 495
Stilbene synthase gene, 725, 842 virus resistance, 487
Strawberries and raspberries, 449–464 Sugarcane, 804
and genetic engineering, 449–459 Sulfonylurea resistance, 617, 657
arable mosaic virus (ArMV), 455 Sulfonylurea, 487, 756, 757
extended shelf life, 457 Sulfur-rich protein, 479
Fragaria spp., 449–464 Sun blotch, 349
fruit quality, 457–458 Sunflower, 756, 813–833
fungal resistance, 456–457 biotechnology of, 815–816
gene discovery, 458 gene transfer and Agrobacterium, 822–823
gene flow, 459 introduced traits, 824–827
genomics of, 458–459 oil, 756, 813
history of breeding, 449–450 plant regeneration, 819
insect, nematode, mite resistance, 452–454 protoplasts, 818–819
latent ringspot virus (SLRV), 455 seeds, 813–828
mild yellow edge potex virus (SMYEV), 455 tissue culture, 816
promoters, 458 transformation methods, 820–821
regeneration methods, 450–451 Superoxide dismutase, 211, 337
Rubus spp., 449–464 Susceptibility to A. tumefaciens strains, 607,
transformation protocols, 451–452 608
virus resistance, 454–456 Suspension cultures, 817, 839
Streptomyces Sunflower, agronomy and breeding, 815
griseus, 257 somatic embryogenesis, 815
hygroscopicus, 198, 623, 777 gene markers, 824
viridochromogens, 777 Sweet corn, 640
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874 Index
Sweet potato, 699–716 Tmr code, 622

dwarfness, 710 To/tuwo/asido, 639, 802
embryogenic callus, 702 Tobacco, 495, 497, 754, 764, 768
feathery mottle virus (SPFMV-S), 700, 711 coat protein (cp) gene, 564–566, 568–571,
history, 700 574, 576, 577, 580
transformation efficacy, 702 coat protein, 454, 564, 566, 568–572, 577
weevil, 712 etch virus, 219
world production levels, 699 mosaic virus (TMV), 218, 454, 564, 573–
Swiss Institute of Technology (ETH), 529 577
Synechocystis, 212 TMV resistance, 564, 566–569, 572–574, 577
Systematic acquired resistance, 259 Tob RB-7 gene, 244
Systemin, 250 Rattle virus (TRV), 221
pathogenesis-related protein gene promoter
T4 lysozyme, 677 PR1a, 630
Tablotoxin, 764 spotted wilt virus (TSWV), 621
Tamales, 638, 639 Tocopherols, 645
Tapetum-specific promoter A9, 621, 630 Tomato 45, 238, 455
Tapioca, 524 aspermy virus (TAV), 221
tca-d genes, 255 black ringspot virus (TBRSV), 220
T-cyt gene, 621 bushy stunt virus (TBSV), 225
T-DNA border, 478 spotted wilt virus (TSWV), 226
T-DNA-mediated transformation, 648 wilt spot virus N (TWSVN), 564, 631
TDZ (see Thidiazuron) Tortillas, 637–639
Technology Tortillas chips, 639, 802
and society interface, 18 Towo, 802
transfer, 265, 541 Trade related aspects of IPR (TRIPS), 280
use agreements, 317 Trademark, 290
Teosinte, 638 Traditional breeding
Terminal flower (tfl ) mutants, 188 traits, 638
Tetranychus cinnabornius, 394, 589 procedure, 466
Tesguino, 640 Transferring transgenic technologies, 542
Tetranychus urticae, 453, 589 Transformant, 566, 577
Tetraploidy, 376 Transformation, 387, 563, 564, 566–568, 577
Thaumatin, 373, 427 by direct gene transfer, 605–608
Thaumatin-like proteins, 764 efficiency, 470
Thaumatococcus danielle, 764 of recalcitrant crops, 661
Thermoanaerobacterium thermosulfurogenes, selection mutants, 161–163
394 Transgene, 723, 742, 744, 753, 783, 784, 824,
Thidiazuron, 749, 754 827, 840, 842
Thiellaviopsos basicola, 515 copy number, 630
Thionin, 251, 764 expression, 598, 728, 822, 843
Thioredoxin, 726 gain of function, 184
Thiosulfinates, 659 inactivation, 629
Threonine, 726 methylation, 222
Thrips resistant, 658 silencing, 629, 631
Thrips tabacci, 658 stability, 728, 781, 784, 844
Ti plasmid Transgenic, 638, 647
vir gene, 621, 796 AC1 callus lines, 533
virB gene, 621 cucumber, 579
virC gene, 621 maize research, 638
Timenting, 162 maize, 647
Tissue culture, 504 paradigm of, 17
electroporation, 139 parthenocarpic hybrids, 597–599
www.taq.ir
Index 875
[Transgene] Union for the Protection of New Varieties of

plant lines, 536, 592 Plants Convention (UPOV), 13, 280,
plants-trade, 11 287–290, 318
resistance to ACMD, 533 USDA, 295, 303, 378, 385, 459
sweet potato, 673 USEPA, 331
virus, 631
Transgenic plants, 305–309 Vaccine, 366, 675
and agronomic benefits, 306 Vaccinium
and consumer attitude, 302 macrocarpon, 383
and food security, 11 oxycocus, 384
and genomics, 14, 15 Vacuole, 492, 495, 497
and marketplace, 307–308 Value-added traits, 756
and political consequence, 317–323 Venturia inaequalis, 332
and trade, 11–12 Vertical transmission of antibiotic resistance
consumer benefits, 306–307 genes, 648
economic impact of, 313–317 Vicia faba, 77
Transient expression, 490 Vicilin, 765
Transposon tagging, 622, 844 Vigna
Transposons, 35 rhomboide, 115
Trans-resveratrol, 725 unguiculata, 603
Trialeurodes vaporarium, 589 Vegetative insecticidal protein (VIP), 255
Triazine-resistant weeds, 617 Verticillium, 457, 589
Trichoderma harzanum, 609, 677 Vf gene, 332
Trichomes, 258, 657 Viral coat protein 377, 402, 442, 444, 450,
cotyledon trichome (COT1) gene, 258 454–456
developmental genes, 258 Viral resistance, 217–222, 440, 441, 563, 564,
globrous (gl) gene, 258 577, 579, 677, 739, 804, 827
transparent testa glabrous (ttg) gene, 258 Viroid resistance, 677
Triapsaccum spp., 119 Virus
Trithorax spp., 116 replicated sequences, 682
trx -G gene, 122–124 resistant plants, 218–227, 531, 563–564, 577,
Trierucin, 781 677, 739, 804, 827
Trifluralin, 617 heterologous encapsidaion, 223
Trimerotropis pallidipennis, 261 Vitamins,
Triploid, 486 Required Daily Allowance (RDA) 209,
Triticum aestivum, 35, 45, 50, 53, 836 211
Trypsin inhibitor, 550–556 A, 208, 437, 503, 647, 675
Cme gene, 725, 842 B, 208, 359, 503, 647
Tuber C, 208, 336, 359, 437, 503
number, 674 D, 208
size, 674 E, 337, 647
T-urf13 gene, 779 K, 208
Type II embryogenic callus, 647 Vitis
vinifera, 398–402
ubi-1 gene, 362 rupesteris, 398–402
Ugali, 639, 802 berlandieri, 402
Ugi, 639 spp., 397
uid gene, 416, 417, 540
UidA gene, 605–610, 750, 752, 753, 755, 776, Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV), 222, 373
805, 823 Waxy
uidA marker gene, 529 allele, 222
UNICEF, 212 layers, 259
Untranslatable virus sequences, 682 Weed beet, 489
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876 Index
Western blot, 479, 532, 555, 565–566, 572, 577, [World crop production]
591, 628 coffee, 737, 738
Wheat scab, 842 cowpea, 603, 604
Wheat, 725, 727, 754, 801, 804, 835–848 cranberry, 383
disease resistance, 842 eggplants, 588
food crops, 835 food crops (1975–2000), 6–9
gene pools, 836 kiwifruit, 407–408
grains supply, 7, 8 lentil, 603, 604
harvest innovations, 5 lettuce, 613–614
harvest, 5 maize, 637, 638
history, 836 mango, 421, 422
maize hybrids, 641 papaya, 437, 438
mosaic virus (WMV), 579 potato, 673
pest resistance, 841 pulses, 603–604
production, 6 sorghum, 801, 802
quality, 841 supply of grains, 7
tissue culture, 836 sweet potato, 699, 700
transgenes, 844 wheat, 835, 836
Whiskers, 139, 648 Wound-inducible promoters, 538
Win 6 promoter, 610 Wounding, 388, 389, 402
White rot, 657, 815
Whitefly, 532, 575, 616, 658 Xanthomonas spp., 658
Wildfire disease, 764 axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam), 533
Winter-hardiness, 720 oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), 533
World Xanthosine-N7-methyltransferase, 738, 742, 743
Bank, 10 Xiphinema diverrsicaudatum, 455
feeding, 7–9 X-GLUC, 751, 753
food demand, 1–2 Xylanase, 726, 727
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO),
280, 318 YACs, 32, 238
Health Organization (WHO), 10, 802 Yellow dwarf virus (YDV), 720
population, 523 Yellow maize hybrids, 641
supply of grains, 7, 8 Yuca, 524
Trade Organization (WTO), 12
World crop production, 6–9 Zea mays, 35, 49, 53, 54, 71, 75, 110, 495, 637,
alliums, 655, 656 638, 647, 742, 764, 779, 801–808,
apples, 328 838–849
asparagus, 465, 466 Zeamatin, 764
avocado, 345 Zeatin, 159, 409, 413, 415, 470, 471
banana, 359, 360 Zein, 641, 644
barley, 717 Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV), 222, 377,
carrot, 503 579, 686
cassava, 523–525 Zm gene, 104
chickpea, 603, 604 Zobroties subfasciatus, 257
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II. AGRICULTURE AND EMERGENCE OF FOOD CROPS

Table 1 Domestication of Food Crops

World region Location Date (b.c.)

Eurasia Fertile Crescent 8500

III. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN INTENSIFIED

Table 2 Intensiﬁcation of Production of Rice

Cultivation era Location Year (a.d.) Rice yield (MT/Ha)

Primitive farming NA 600–700 0.8

IV. THE ULTIMATE EQUATION: CROP PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

Table 3 Production of Food Crops with Over 10 mmt 1975a

Crop Product MMT Rank

A. World Supply of Grains

B. Complexities in Feeding the World

Table 4 Production of Food Crops with Over 1.2 mt in 2000a

Rank MT Crop product

Rank MT Crop product

V. IMPACT OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS ON FOOD

A. Crops and Nutrition

B. Crops and Food Security

VI. TRANSGENIC PLANTS AND TRADE

A. Transgenic Crops: New Trade Rules

B. Transgenic Crops: Biodiversity and Germplasms

VII. TRANSGENIC CROPS AND THEIR GENOMICS

Table 5 Advantages of the Developing Countries for Use of Transgenic Cropsa

Plant diversity Native plants IARC

VIII. TWO EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH IN TRANSGENIC CROPS

Table 6 History of Major Plant Diseases Since 1600 a.d.

Year(s) Location Food plant Disease Social impact

1840–1846 Ireland Potato Blight Famine

B. Ingredients for Food Production or Processing

IX. THE TRANSGENIC CROPS: A COMPLEX PARADIGM

A. Intellectual Property, Technology Transfer, and Consumers

B. The Interface Between Social and Technological Issues

recommendations pertaining to public information in Europe. It appears that consensus confer-

C. Issues of Ethics and Safety

Laws, Legal, and Regulatory Agencies

D. Transgenic Crops, Food Security, and Policy

51. AM Chaudhury, L Ming, C Miller, S Craig, ES Dennis. Fertilization-independent seed development in

Isobel A. Parkin and Derek J. Lydiate

I. WHAT IS THE GENOME? 29

I. WHAT IS THE GENOME?

II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

III. FACTORS DRIVING THE EVOLUTION OF GENOME STRUCTURE

Chromosome Nuclear DNA

Arabidopsis thaliana Cruciferae x=5 100,a 145,b 190c

IV. IMPACT OF GENOME DYNAMICS ON CROP IMPROVEMENT

Comparative mapping, which is identifying regions of collinearity between complex crop

B. Intergenomic Gene Transfer

C. Candidate Gene Analysis

tigs representing 17 Mb of chromosome 4 of Arabidopsis thaliana ecotype Columbia. Plant J 9:755–

A. Factors Influencing Androgenesis

2. Donor Plant Conditions

3. Developmental Stage of the Pollen Grain

Table 2 Donor Plant Conditions Inﬂuencing In Vitro Embryogenesis

Factor Factor Species Reference

Temperature 10°/5°C Brassica species 37,38,39

Developmental stage Technique Species Reference

Tetrad Anther culture Apium graveolens 7