International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 2, No.

5, October 2011

Distribution and Abundance of the Invasive Plant Species

Chromolaena odorata L. in the Zamboanga Peninsula,
Philippines
Lina T. Codilla and Ephrime B. Metillo

from 20°C-37°C [8].

Abstract— The ecology of the highly invasive plant species C. According to Awanyo [9], C. odorata is viewed as a major
odorata is poorly studied in the Philippines in spite of the fact agricultural sustainability problem in many tropical countries.
that it is hard to eradicate, a nuisance in plantations, and known It was recognized as the most problematic weed in coconut
to harm farm animals and decimate forage and native plant
species. In order to determine the abundance and distribution
plantations in Sri Lanka as early as 1944, and became a
of the species and its possible relationship with local ecological problem in rubber, palm oil, tea, coffee, cashew, teak and
factors, we estimated in 75 transect lines the percentage cover of other plantation crops in Asia since then [10]. It is
C. odorata and other plant species growing around it, and unpalatable and may cause death if ingested by domesticated
concurrently determined soil parameters (soil type, pH, total animals [11]. Having displaced forage plant species, C.
nitrogen, total phosphorus, total potassium, and % organic odorata threatens subsistence cattle farming in West Timor
matter) in three Provinces of the Zamboanga Peninsula,
Southern Philippines. Multivariate Canonical Correspondence
[12]. Through shading and allelopathy, C. odorata reduces
Analysis (CCA) revealed no significant relationship between vegetation heterogeneity in grasslands and forests [13]. The
soil parameters and the abundance of C. odorata suggesting plant’s ability to thrive in a wide variety of soils in the tropics,
eurytopy to edaphic conditions. Peak abundance of C. odorata and its short juvenile stage, flowering in dry season, prolific
was associated with coconut, banana, mango, gemelina and seed production, and strong ability to resprout after burning
mahogany plantation environments, and reduced abundance of during land preparation all contribute to its invasiveness [14],
native plant species. This study shows that C. odorata is highly
adaptive and a potential threat to native plant biodiversity and
[15], [16].
agro-ecosystem sustainability, and that its distribution seems to Despite these background information, its distribution,
be supported by plant monoculture system. abundance and impacts are least studied in the Philippines.
Without a clear intervention program from the national
Index Terms— Chromolaena odorata L., invasive plants, government, local farmers are left to address a least
biodiversity, multivariate analysis, community ecology. understood weed infestation problem while trying to mitigate
the adverse impact of chromolaena invasion on their
livelihood. Hence, this study has two aims: the first is to
I. INTRODUCTION determine the distribution and estimate the abundance of the
Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson 1987, a species in the Zamboanga Peninsula of Mindanao, Southern
species of Asteraceae Family and known in English as Siam Philippines, in order to come up with a baseline information
weed, is a perennial shrub, native to Central and South about its level of invasion in the area; and the second is to
America [1]. Reported as one of the world’s most invasive, it utilize multivariate techniques to determine the possible
is considered to be a serious weed in central and western relationship between selected soil parameters and other plant
Africa, India, Australia, Pacific Islands, and Southeast Asia species with the abundance of C. odorata.
[2]. It is one of the most important invader species in the
savanna biome in South Africa [3]. This species has a wide II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
tolerance to various climates, having already invaded five
continents including Asia, North and South America as well A. Plant Collection and Identification, and Abundance
as North and South Africa [4]. It can quickly establish and Estimation
expands rapidly at the onset of the rainy season [5] and This study was conducted on July-December 2010 (rainy
smother plant crops, forestry and native vegetation [6], [7]. season) at three Provinces of Zamboanga Peninsula, namely,
The geographical distribution of C. odorata is known to be Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte and Zamboanga
limited to regions within 30° N and 30° S latitudes in areas Sibugay (Fig. 1). Eight to ten Municipalities per Province
with a rainfall of >200cm and where air temperature ranges were randomly assigned as sampling sites. Three 10-m
transect lines per site were laid parallel to the right side of
main thoroughfares. A total of 75 transect lines were sampled
Manuscript received September 9, 2011. in the three Provinces. Fresh samples and photographs of
L. T. Codilla is a PhD (Biology) candidate at the Mindanao State
University-Iligan Institute of Technology, and an Instructor at the JH Cerilles each plant species were taken for identification purposes.
State College, Mati, San Miguel, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines 9200 Taxonomic identification of plants followed the publications
(e-mail: ltcodilla@ yahoo.com). by Francis [17] and Madulid [18]. Percentage abundance of
E. B. Metillo is a Professor at the Department of Biological Sciences,
Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City, all plant species, including C. odorata, was computed as the
Philippines 9200 (e-mail: ephrime.metillo@g.msuiit.edu.ph). length intercepted by each species within the 10-m transect

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line. Mean biomass (kg dry weight) per m-2 of C. odorata was statistically significant environmental variables [19].
also estimated for each site by multiplying the average dry Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test was
biomass per m2 of the species in five randomly selected sites used to compare means between soil parameters.
with the average area occupied by C. odorata at each site.
Plant dry biomass was determined by oven-drying all III. RESULTS
uprooted C. odorata at the five selected sites. The location of Chromolaena odorata was found in open well-drained
each site was determined using a Garmin Nuvi 200 Global ground like dry and exposed slopes, roadway gullies, and in
Positioning System. abandoned fields and pastures throughout the Zamboanga
Peninsula. Essentially all sites have already been invaded
with C. odorata, and the area occupied by the species at these
sites ranged from 680 to 9325 m2. The average density we
recorded was 10-15 mature shrubs m-2. Our mean dry weight
biomass estimate ranged from 175.44 - 2405.85 kg · m-2 with
largest colonies found in Southern sites (Fig. 1). Thirty six
plant species were recorded as associates of C. odorata
(Table 1). Except for very tall species like coconuts and
plantation trees, other plant species associates had very low
percentage abundance (e.g., shrubs had percentage cover of <
122o 46’’ E
3%).
8o 24’’ N
Soil characteristics varied between sampling areas (Table
2). Loam soil type was common in all sites. Mean soil pH in
the sampling sites was acidic which ranged from 5.41 - 6.30.
Mean organic matter was fairly low (0.9 - 1.62%). Total
nitrogen was within the range of 0.05 - 0.80 ppm. Total
phosphorus was lowest in Zamboanga Sibugay and total
potassium was lowest in Zamboanga del Norte.
8o 06’’ N
3

17

Aau
Hca

18

Jcu Sof
21
Fig. 1. Distribution and mean abundance (black dots in kg dry weight· m )
-2
14
of C. odorota in the Zamboanga Peninsula. Inset is the map of the Philippines Sha
pH
with the Peninsula enclosed in a rectangle. Sampling sites (numbered circles)
3
1-9, 10-17, 17-24, are parts of Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga Sibugay, and OM Wtr
Zamboanga del Norte Provinces, respectively. Asp
Dcil
19 SmlCes 15
2
Aes Cnu Nit 20 Cpa
Bsp Nco Mol
Mpa
B. Soil Parameters Pgu
Loam Pco Cov Hag Aac SCLoam
From a sampling site, 100g of soil sample was collected, 11
Sma Min
air-dried and stored in clean plastics bags. All samples were Sloam Icy
Itr
immediately brought to the soil laboratory of the Department 5
Mpu
Gar 12
Mes
of Agriculture, Regional Office, Zamboanga City for the 9
Ein
Ama Fbe
analysis of pH; organic matter content; total N, P, and K; and Gse Pho 7
Cma
8
soil type.
4Lle
10
6 Sja
16
C. Multivariate Analysis Amu
1
Cca
The gradient length of the species-abundance data was 13
derived using Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA), Pot
and if a longer gradient length (>4) was obtained, the
-2

relationship between square root-transformed environmental 4

-2
and % species-abundance data was analyzed using the
Fig. 2. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) triplot showing the
constrained nonlinear ordination Canonical Correspondence
relationship between selected soil parameters (arrows) and % abundance of
Analysis (CCA) available in the software CANOCO version C. odorota (Hag) and associated plant species. Small triangles represent
4.5 [19]. Monte Carlo simulation was used to test for the sampling sites. Big triangles represent plant species (see Table 1 for species
statistical significance of the relationship, and stepwise codes). Soil parameters: pH, organic matter (OM), nitrogen (Nit),
phosphorus (Pho), potassium (Pot), soil types: loam (Loam), sandy-loam
multiple regression (Forward Selection) was used to identify (Sloam), sandy-clay-loam (SCLoam).

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TABLE I: MEAN PERCENT ABUNDANCE (±SD, N = 7) OF PLANT SPECIES THAT GROW WITH C. ODORATA AT DIFFERENT SAMPLING AREAS IN ZAMBOANGA
PENINSULA. CODES FOR EACH SPECIES ARE USED IN THE MULTIVARIATE CANONICAL CORRESPONDENCE ANALYSIS.
Species Common Name Code Zamboanga Sibugay Zamboanga del Sur Zamboanga del Norte
Acacia auriculaeformi L. acacia tree Aau 0.00 0.00 0.95 ± 2.52
Andropogon aciculatus Retz. love Grass/amorsiko Aac 0.00 0.71 ± 1.89 0.71 ± 1.31
Athyrium esculentum Retz. fern Aes 0.00 0.48 ± 1.26 0.72 ± 0.89
Alocasia macrorrhiza L. elephant ear/badiang Ama 0.00 0.48 ± 1.26 0.14 ± 0.38
Annona muricata L. guyabano Amu 0.48 ± 1.26 0.00 0.00
Amaranthus spinosus L. kulitis Asp 0.48 ± 1.26 0.00 0.00
Bambusa spinosa Roxb bamboo Bsp 0.00 1.90 ± 3.39 0.95 ± 2.52
Chrysophyllum caninito L. star apple Cca 0.00 0.95 ± 2.52 0.00
Colocasia esculenta L. gabi Ces 0.00 0.00 0.24 ± 0.63
Citrus maxima Merr. pomelo Cma 0.00 0.00 0.95 ± 2.52
Cocos nucifera L. coconut Cnu 9.90 ± 4.72 9.04 ± 9.51 9.29 ± 9.13
Carica papaya L. papaya Cpa 0.00 0.00 0.95 ± 2.52
Digitaria ciliaris Retz. crabgrass Dci 0.00 0.00 0.24 ± 0.63
Eleusine indica L. yardgrass/palagtiki Ein 0.00 1.19 ± 1.59 0.95 ± 1.89
Ficus benjamina L. balete Fbe 0.24 ± 0.63 0.00 0.95 ± 2.52
Gmelina arborea Roxb. gemilina tree Gar 10.39 ± 4.61 8.09 ± 4.23 2.95 ± 3.85
Gliricidia sepium Jacq. madre de cacao Gse 2.05 ± 2.13 3.10 ± 3.52 0.00
Hyptis capitata Jacq. knobweek/butones Hca 0.00 0.00 0.24 ± 0.63
Imperata cylindrica L. cogon grass Icy 1.91 ± 2.24 5.47 ± 4.68 3.09 ± 4.35
Ipomoea triloba L. kamu-kamote Itr 0.00 0.48 ± 1.26 0.00
Jatropha curcas L. tuba-tuba Jcu 0.00 0.00 0.14 ± 0.38
Leucaena leucocephala L. ipil-ipil Lle 1.67 ± 2.15 2.86 ± 1.58 0.00
Manihot esculenta Crantz cassava Mes 1.19 ± 2.49 0.00 0.48 ± 1.26
Mangifera indica L. mango tree Min 0.86 ± 1.86 2.86 ± 2.84 2.38 ± 3.83
Moringa oleifera malungay Mol 0.00 0.00 0.48 ± 1.26
Musa paradisiacal banana Mpa 3.57 ± 2.62 6.67 ± 3.47 7.63 ± 5.09
Mimosa pudica L. makahiya grass Mpu 0.24 ± 0.63 0.48 ± 1.26 0.00
Nephrolepis cordifolia L. sword fern Nco 0.00 0.48 ± 1.26 0.48 ± 1.26
Paspalum conjugatum carabao grass Pco 6.43 ± 5.04 3.57 ± 3.90 3.09 ± 3.25
Psidium guajava L. guava Pgu 0.62 ± 1.25 0.71 ± 1.31 0.48 ± 1.26
Sorghum halepense L. batad-batadan Sha 0.00 1.67 ± 4.42 4.29 ± 4.07
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis L. bastard vervain Sja 0.00 0.00 0.48 ± 1.26
Swietenia mahagoni L. mahogany tree Sma 4.05 ± 4.51 4.53 ± 3.15 5.24 ± 7.17
Syzygium malaccense L. tambis Sml 0.00 0.00 0.24 ± 0.63
Saccharum officinarum L. sugarcane Sof 0.00 0.00 0.14 ± 0.38
Wedelia trilobata L. yellow dots Wtr 0.00 1.67 ± 3.19 3.33 ± 8.81
Chromolaena odorata L. hagonoy Hag 54.29 ± 6.86 39.3 ± 11.02 46.60 ± 15.35

TABLE II. MEAN SOIL PARAMETERS (± SD, N = 7) AND SOIL TYPE AT THREE SAMPLING SITES IN THE ZAMBOANGA PENINSULA. VALUES WITH THE SAME
SUPERSCRIPT LETTERS ARE NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT (TUKEY’S TEST, P > 0.05).
Soil Factors Zamboanga Sibugay Zamboanga del Sur Zamboanga del Norte
pH 5.41a ± 0.13 5.25a ± 0.19 6.30b ± 0.20
a b
organic matter (%) 1.62 ± 0.16 0.90 ± 0.06 1.50a ± 0.17
a b
total nitrogen (ppm) 0.08 ± 0.01 0.05 ± 0.01 0.08a ± 0.01
total phosphorus (ppm) trace 10.14 ± 0.43 0.23 ± 0.04
total potassium (ppm) 500a ± 29.30 425b ± 29.66 250c ± 29.33
soil type loam sandy-loam sandy-clay-loam

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 International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 2011

The gradient length output by DCA was 4.1, and this species. The invasiveness of C. odorata may be attributed to
prompted the use of the constrained CCA. No significant the production of large quantities of propagules and its
relationship between soil parameters and vegetation with capability to suppress the native vegetation. Apart from
both first (F = 1.46, p > 0.57) and all canonical axes (F = 1.08, incorporating weed management in farming systems, total
p > 0.25) were generated by CCA. These results suggest that harvesting and exploiting positive attributes (e.g. bioactive
C. odorata has no specific preference for soil parameters compounds [24], fallow plant for acidic soils [25]) of the
and types. The CCA triplot further shows that the species species may be best immediate management options.
tends to be of maximal abundance in the presence of
plantation species, including: Musa paradisiaca (banana),
Cocos nucifera (coconut), Swietenia mahagoni (mahogany
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
tree), Mangifera indica (mango), and Gmelina arborea
(gemilina) (Fig. 2). We deeply thank the Philippine Commission on Higher
Education for the scholarship grant to LT Codilla, and Engr.
JL Codilla for the help in field sampling. We are also grateful
IV. DISCUSSION to the copyediting assistance of Dr. MTRD Sanchez-Metillo.
The heavy infestation of C. odorata in various areas of
Zamboanga Peninsula seems to be favored by an acidic soil
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d’Ivoire,” Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 44, no. 3, Lina T. Codilla was born in Villacastor, Buug,
179–192, November 1996. Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines on January 24,
[15] E. T. F. Witkowski and M. Wilson, “Changes in density, biomass, seed 1973. She finished her Bachelor of Science in
production and soil seed banks of the nonnative invasive plant, zoology in Mindanao State University Marawi City,
Chromolaena odorata, along a 15 year chronosequence,” Plant Ecology, Philippines in 1994, and Master of Science
vol. 152, no. 1, pp. 13–27, January 2001. Education in Mindanao State University-Iligan
[16] A. de Rouw, “The invasion of Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Institute of Technology (MSUIIT), Iligan City,
Robinson (ex Eupatorium odoratum), and competition with the native Philipines in 2006. She is now a Ph.D. biology
flora, in a rain forest zone, south-west Cote d’Ivoire,” Journal of candidate at MSU-IIT.
Biogeography, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 13-23, January 1991. She is presently an Assistant Professor in JH Cerilles State College, Mati,
[17] J. K. Francis, Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & H.E. Robins. U.S. San Miguel, Zamboanga del Sur.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of Ms. Codilla is a member of the Biology Teachers Association of the
Tropical Forestry, 2003. Philippines, Inc. and a member of the Philippines Society for the Study of
[18] D. Madulid, A Pictorial Encyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants. Nature, Inc..
Bookmark, 2000.
[19] C. J. F. ter Braak and P. Smilauer, CANOCO 4.5 reference manual and
CanoDraw for windows user guide. Microcomputer Power, 2002.
[20] S. R. Ambika, “Effect of light quality and intensity on emergence, Ephrime B. Metillo was born in the Municipality of
growth and reproduction in Chromolaena odorata,” in Proc. of the Matunggao, Province of Lanao del Norte in the island
Seventh International Workshop on Biological Control and of Mindanao, Republic of the Philippines on 20 April
Management of Chromolaena odorata and Mikania micrantha, Taiwan, 1968. He completed his Bachelor of Science
2006, pp. 14-17. (zoology), Magna Cum Laude, at the Mindanao State
[21] C. Joshi, et al., “Indirect remote sensing of a cryptic forest understorey University Marawi City in 1988. He was conferred
invasive species,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 225, no. 1-3, Graduate Diploma of Science in 1992 and Doctor of
pp. 245-256, April 2006. Philosophy (zoology) in 1995 at the University of
[22] L. Awanyo, E. M. Attuah, and M. McCarron, “Rehabilitation of Tasmania Hobart in Australia.
forest-savannas in Ghana: the impacts of land use, shade, and invasive He was an Associate Professor at the Department
species on tree recruitment,” Applied Geography, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. of Biological Sciences, MSU-IIT from 1995 to 1997, and became a Professor
181-190, January 2011. at the same institution from 1998 to the present.
[23] S. Mangla, Inderjit, and R. M. Callaway, “Exotic invasive plant Dr. Metillo was a recipient of the Australian government Equity and Merit
accumulates native soil pathogens which inhibit native soil pathogens Scholarship from 1990-1994, and an Outstanding Young Scientists of the
which inhibit native plants,” Journal of Ecology, vol. 96, no. 1, pp. Philippines awardee in 2007. He is a regular member of the Philippine
58-67, January 2008. Society for the Study of Nature, Inc., Philippine Biodiversity Network, and
[24] L. T. Codilla and E. B. Metillo 2011, “Potential herbicidal properties of National Research Council of the Philippines. He is a coastal resources
aqueous and alcohol crude extracts from leaves of Chromolaena management practitioner. He has co-authored a book chapter, and published
odorata L.,” in preparation. a monograph and 17 articles in ISI-indexed journals and proceedings on
[25] L. S. Koutika, and H. Rainey, “Chromolaena odorata in different subjects related with Dr. Metillo’s fields of interest including ecology,
ecosystems: weed or fallow plant?” Applied Ecology and aquatic biology, natural resources management and biodiversity.
Environmental Research, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 131-142, 2010.

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