Thermoregulation

The maintenance of a particular temperature in a living

body
Learning Objectives
 Normal Body Temperature
 Ways of measuring Body Temp
 List the mechanisms of heat production & heat
loss
 Regulation of Body Temp.
Overview of Thermoregulation
 Core and Shell body temp.
 Heat Balance
 Factors promoting –
a) Heat gain
b) Heat loss
 Temp. regulatory mechanisms
 Mechanisms of Thermoregulation
 Exercise in Heat Stress
 Heat Illness
 Exercise in Cold Stress Body
Thermal Balance Temperature Regulation
 Core temperature (TCO) is in dynamic  The temperature within the deep tissues of the
equilibrium as a result of balance between heat body (core temperature) is normally maintained
gain and heat loss. within a range of 36.0°C to 37.5°C.
 Mean body temperature (Tbody) represents an  Within this range, there are individual
average of skin and internal temperatures. differences and diurnal variations:
Body Temperature o Internal core temperatures reach their
Normal Body Temperature (NBT) 98.60F(370C) highest point in late afternoon and evening
and their lowest point in the early morning
Range of NBT (970F to 990F)
hours.
Rectal Temp (0.50F to 10F)  Body temperature reflects the difference
above the Oral between heat production and heat loss.
 Rectal Temp reflects the internal body Temp o Body heat is generated in the tissues of
(Core Body Temp) the body, transferred to the skin
 Core Body Temp remain almost constant surface by the blood, and then released
 Skin Temp (Shell Temp)-----Variable into the environment surrounding the
Thermoregulation body.
Homeotherms use the: Temperature Homeostasis
 Environment  Keep the body temp within a very narrow range
 Vascular and metabolic adaptations  Range of NBT-360C-370C (970F to 990F)
 Shivering and sweating  Temperatures above this: denature enzymes
Cold-blooded animals thermoregulate by changing and block metabolic pathways
environmental exposure.  Temperatures below this: slow down
metabolism and affect the brain.
Body Temperature Regulation
 The thermoregulatory center is in the
hypothalamus and functions to modify heat
production and heat losses as a means of
regulating body temperature.
o The thermoregulatory center in the
Temperature Regulation
hypothalamus regulates the core body
In humans it is the core body temperature which is
temperature, not the surface temperature.
maintained by homeostasis.
  This center integrates input from cold and Body Temperature Regulation – Heat Loss
warm thermal receptors located throughout  Mechanism involved in regulation:
the body and generates output responses that o Dilatation of the superficial blood vessels -
conserve body heat or increase its dissipation = delivers blood containing core heat to the
thermostatic set point. periphery where it is dissipated through
o When body temperature begins to rise radiation, conduction, and convection;
above the normal range, heat-dissipating  There are numerous arteriovenous (AV)
behaviors are initiated; shunts under the skin surface that allow
o When the temperature falls below the blood to move directly from the arterial
normal range, heat production is increased; to the venous system.
 A core temperature greater than 41°C or less  When the shunts are open, body heat is
than 34°C usually indicates that the body’s freely dissipated to the skin and
ability to thermoregulate is impaired. surrounding environment;
Heat Balance  When the shunts are closed, heat is
 Heat balance maintains the body temp retained in the body.
 Balance between heat production & heat loss  The blood flow in the AV shunts is
(Heat Balance) controlled almost exclusively by the
 Heat Balance sympathetic nervous system in
o Heat production= Heat loss response to changes in core
 Heat production is called thermogenesis temperature and environmental
 Heat loss is called as thermolysis temperature environment.
Body Temperature Regulation - Heat Gain o Sweating - increases heat loss through
 Mechanism involved in regulation: evaporation.
o Vasoconstriction of the superficial blood Vasoconstriction and Vasodilatation
vessels - confines blood flow to the inner
core of the body;
o Contraction of the pilomotor muscles that
surround the hairs on the skin - reduces the
heat loss surface of the skin;
o Assumption of the huddle position with the
extremities held close to the body - reduces
the area for heat loss;
o Shivering - increases heat production by the
muscles. It is initiated by impulses from the
hypothalamus;
o Increased production of epinephrine -
increases the heat production associated Thermoregulation
with metabolism;  Temperature is regulated by nervous feedback
o Increased production of thyroid hormone - mechanisms
is a long-term mechanism that increases  Thermoregulatory center located in the
metabolism and heat production. Hypothalamus
 Thermoregulatory regulatory responses include:
o Autonomic
o Somatic
o Endocrine
o Behavioral changes
Feedback system
1) Receptor
 Sensor that responds to changes (stimuli)
2) Control Center
 Sets range of values
 Evaluates input and
Heat Exchange in the Skin  Sends output
3) Effector- Hypothalamus Regulation of Temperature
 Receives output from control center  Mechanisms are activated in two ways:
 Produces a response o Thermal receptors in skin provide input to
Body Temperature Control System central command
 Hypothalamus o Direct stimulation of hypothalamus through
o Acts as a thermostat changes in blood temperature perfusing
o Receives nerve impulses from area
cutaneous thermoreceptors
o Thermoreceptors: Cold &Heat
 Hypothalamus- also has thermoreceptors called
central thermoreceptors
 These detect changes in blood temperature

Hypothalamus Regulation of Temperature

 Hypothalamus acts as “thermostat” that makes
thermoregulatory adjustments of deviation Thermoregulation in Cold
from the normal temperature in the brain  Vascular adjustments: constrict peripheral
(37oC±1oC or 98.6oF±1.8oF) blood vessels.
 Muscular activity: exercise energy metabolism
and shivering.
 Hormonal output: epinephrine and
norepinephrine increase basal heat production;
prolonged cold – thyroxin.
Thermoregulation in Heat  Result: Vasoconstriction and increased
metabolic activity.

Heat Production (Thermogenesis)

 BMR
 Specific Dynamic Action of food
 Activity of skeletal muscle:
o Shivering
o Exercise
 Chemical Thermogenesis:
o Epinephrine &Norepinephrine
o Thyroxine
 Brown Fat-
o Source of considerable heat production
o Abundant in infants Non-shivering Thermogenesis
Involuntary Response to Cold Stress  Vasoconstriction also occurs in infants but the
 Shivering in adults primary response is increasing heat production
 Nonshivering thermogenesis in infants until 3-6 from brown fat metabolism.
months of age

 NE stimulates receptors on brown fat cells;

activates lipase which releases intracellular
fatty acids.
 Conversion of T4 to T3 inside brown fat cells.
T3↑cellular metabolic rate

Thermoregulatory regulatory responses

 Activated by Exposure to Cold
1. Shivering
2. Increase voluntary activity
3. Increase TSH secretion
4. Increase Catecholamines
5. Vasoconstriction
6. Horripilation
7. Curling up
Non-shivering Thermogenesis
 Temperature sensors are in the skin (in Uncoupling protein uncouples mitochondrial
newborns particularly the face), the spinal cord oxidative phosphorylation.
and the hypothalamus. H+ gradient→ heat rather than ATP
 Temperature information is processed in the Result: Large increase in heat production and O2
hypothalamus. Norepinephrine (NE) is released consumption.
in response to cold stress. In case of hypoxia, temperature↓because of↑O2
 Thermoregulation in Heat
 Heat Loss by Radiation (~ 10%)
o Objects emit electromagnetic heat waves
without molecular contact with warmer
objects.
o When temperature of things in
environment exceeds the skin temperature,
radiant heat energy is absorbed from the
surroundings.
Thermoregulation

Thermoregulatory regulatory responses

 Activated by Exposure to Heat
1. Vasodilatation
2. Sweating
3. Increase in Respiration
4. Anorexia
5. Apathy
6. Decrease TSH secretion
Thermoregulatory regulatory responses
Maintenance of Body Temperature

Heat loss (thermal conductivity) (surface area)

(temperature gradient) or H = kA dt/dx
 Body surface (A)  Infants have:
o Adult is 1.73 M2 or 0.01 M2 per pound.
o Preterm baby is 0.1 M2 or 0.05 M2 per
pound.
 Thermal conductivity
o Copper cup vs. coffee cup
 Dt/dx
o 986 vs. -20 / insulation thickness
Thermoregulation Therefore, cannot tolerate a heat gradient (dt/dx).
 To maintain body temperature during a minor
cold stress:
o Infant must produce 5x heat per kilo as an
adult faced with the same stress
Thermo-neutral zone: temperature range of minimal
metabolic rate. (Normal body temperature: 37oC)
Lower limit is 26oC for adults, 32oC for full-term infants,
and 35oC for preterm infants. Thermoregulation in Heat
Preterm infant temperatures drops to temperatures  Heat Loss by Conduction
less than thermo-neutral, despite 2-3x↑Oxygen o Direct transfer of heat through a liquid,
consumption
solid, or gas from one molecule to another.
o A small amount of body heat moves by
conduction directly through deep tissues to
cooler surface. Heat loss involves the
warming of air molecules and cooler
surfaces in contact with the skin.
o The rate of conductive heat loss depends on
thermal gradient.
Thermoregulation in Heat
 Heat Loss by Convection (+ conduction 35%)
o Effectiveness depends on how rapidly the
air (or water) adjacent to the body is
exchanged.
o Air currents at 4 mph are about twice as
effective for cooling air currents at 1 mph.
Heat Loss (Thermolysis)
 Radiation
 Conduction
 Convection
 Evaporation
 Perspiration
 Respiration
 Loss through urine & feces
Radiation
 Radiation involves the transfer of heat through
the air or a vacuum.
 Heat from the sun is carried by radiation. The
human body radiates heat in all directions.
 The ability to dissipate body heat by radiation
depends on the temperature of the Thermoregulation in Heat
environment. Environmental temperature must  Heat Loss by Evaporation (~ 55%)
be less than that of the body for heat loss to o Heat transferred as water is vaporized from
occur. respiratory passages and skin surfaces.
o For each liter of water vaporized, 580 kcal
transferred to the environment.
 o When sweat comes in contact with the skin,  Hormonal adjustments. Certain hormonal
a cooling effect occurs as sweat evaporates. adjustments are initiated in heat stress as body
o The cooled skin serves to cool the blood. attempts to conserve fluids and sodium.

Heat Loss in High Humidity

 Total sweat vaporized from skin depends on:
o Surface area exposed to environment
o Temperature and humidity of ambient air
o Convective air currents about the body
 Most important factor is relative humidity.
 When relative humidity is high, the ambient
water vapor pressure approaches that of the
moist skin and evaporation is impeded.
Integration of Heat-Dissipating Mechanisms
 Circulation. Superficial venous and arterial Hormones in Heat Stress
blood vessels dilate to divert warm blood to the  Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released to
body shell. increase water re-absorption from kidneys.
 Aldosterone is released to increase the re-
absorption of sodium.
Effects of Clothing

Exercise in Heat Stress

 Circulatory Adjustments.
Integration of Heat-Dissipating Mechanisms o Cardiovascular drift – fluid loss reduces
 Evaporation. Sweating begins within 1.5 s after plasma volume (about 10% of fluid lost
start of vigorous exercise. comes from plasma. About 50% comes from
intracellular water).
 o Visceral vascular constriction and skin & Thermoregulatory regulatory responses:
muscle vascular dilation.  Vasodilatation
o Maintaining blood pressure. Circulatory  Sweating
regulation and maintenance of muscle  Increase in Respiration
blood flow take precedence over  Anorexia
temperature regulation often at the  Apathy
expense of spiraling core temperature  Decrease TSH secretion
during exercise in heat. Other effects of acute heat exposure on:
Exercise in Heat Stress  Cellular metabolism
 Core temperature  Rate of respiration
o More than likely a modest increase in core  Work of breathing
temperature reflects favorable internal  Pulse rate
adjustments.
 Dehydration
 Urinary volume
Acclimatization to Heat
Acclimatization refers to physiological changes that
improve heat tolerance.
2 – 4 hours daily heat exposure produce complete
acclimatization 5-10 days.

Factors that Improve Heat Tolerance: Acclimatization

Water Loss in the Heat

Factors that Improve Heat Tolerance

 Fitness Level
Effects of acute heat –
 Age
 Effects of acute exposure to heat are divided
o Aging delays the onset of sweating and
into-
blunts the magnitude of sweating response
a) Thermoregulatory responses
 Gender
b) Other effects
 Body fatness
Fever Mechanisms of fever
 Fever, or pyrexia, describes an elevation in  Exogenous pyrogens induce host cells, such as
body temperature that is caused by a cytokine- blood leukocytes and tissue macrophages, to
induced upward displacement of the set point produce fever-producing mediators called
of the hypothalamic thermoregulatory center. endogenous pyrogens (e.g., interleukin-1).
 Fevers that are regulated by the hypothalamus o The endogenous pyrogens mediate a
usually do not rise above 41°C - safety number of other responses. For example,
mechanism. interleukin-1 is an inflammatory mediator
 Fever can be caused by a number of that produces other signs of inflammation,
microorganisms and substances that are such as leukocytosis, anorexia, and malaise.
collectively called pyrogens (many proteins,  The phagocytosis of bacteria and breakdown
breakdown products of proteins, products of bacteria that are present in the
lipopolysaccharide toxins released from blood lead to the release of endogenous
bacterial cell membranes, etc.). pyrogens into the circulation.
o Some pyrogens can act directly and  The endogenous pyrogens are increase the set
immediately on the hypothalamic point of the hypothalamic thermoregulatory
thermoregulatory center to increase its set center through the action of prostaglandin E2.
point  In response to the sudden increase in set point,
Causes of fever the hypothalamus initiates heat production
 Central type fever= neurogenic fever behaviors (shivering and vasoconstriction) that
 Non – central type fever: increase the core body temperature to the new
o Infectious disorders set point, and fever is established.
o Noninfectious disorders: Mechanisms of fever
 Myocardial infarction
 Pulmonary emboli
 Neoplasms (e.g. malignant cells in
leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease produce
pyrogens)
 Trauma
 Surgery
Neurogenic fever
 It usually is caused by damage to the
hypothalamus caused by:
o central nervous system trauma;
o intracerebral bleeding;
o an increase in intracranial pressure
o drugs (e.g. anesthetics)
 Neurogenic fevers are characterized by a high
temperature that is resistant to antipyretic
therapy and is not associated with sweating. The effects of fever
Mechanisms of fever  It enhance immune function;
1. release of endogenous pyrogen from o Increases motility and activity of the white
inflammatory cells; blood cells;
2. resetting of hypothalamus thermostatic set o Stimulates the interferon production and
point to a higher level (prodrome); activation of T cells;
3. generation of hypothalamic mediated  Inhibits growth of some microbial agents:
responses that raise body temperature (chill); o Many of the microbial agents that cause
4. development of fever with elevation of body to infection grow best at normal body
new thermostatic set point; temperatures, and their growth is inhibited
5. production of temperature lowering responses by temperatures in the fever range (the
(flush and defervescence) and return of body rhinoviruses responsible for the common
temperature to a lower level. cold are cultured best at 33°C);
 Dehydration occurs because of sweating.
The effects of fever  skin is pale;
 Metabolic effects:  when the shivering has caused the body
o Increased need for oxygen; temperature to reach the new set point of the
 Increases the heart rate temperature control center, the shivering
 Increases the respiration rate ceases, and a sensation of warmth develops.
o Increased use of body proteins as an energy 3. Flush
source;  cutaneous vasodilation occurs and the skin
o During fever the body switches from using becomes warm and flushed;
glucose (an excellent medium for bacterial 4. Defervescence
growth) to metabolism based on protein  the initiation of sweating.
and fat breakdown; Evaluating Heat Stress
o With prolonged fever, there is increased  Prevention remains most effective way to
breakdown of endogenous fat stores; manage heat-stress injuries
o If fat breakdown is rapid, metabolic acidosis  Wet bulb-globe temperature relies on ambient
may result. temperature, relative humidity, and radiant
Types of fever heat.
 Intermittent  Heat stress index
o Temperature returns to normal at least
once every 24 hours;
o It is commonly associated with conditions
such as gram - negative / positive sepsis,
abscesses, and acute bacterial endocarditis;
 Remittent
o Temperature does not return to normal and
varies a few degrees in either direction;
o It is associated with viral upper respiratory
tract, legionella, and mycoplasma
infections;
 Sustained or continuous
o Temperature remains above normal with
minimal variations;
o It is seen in persons with drug fever;
 Relapsing
o There is one or more episodes of fever,
each as long as several days, with one or Heat Syndromes- adverse reaction to heat exposure
more days of normal temperature between a) Heat Cramps
episodes; b) Heat Exhaustion
o It may be caused by a variety of infectious c) Heat Stoke
diseases, including tuberculosis, fungal Heat Illness
infections, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Manifestations of fever
 There are 4 successive stages - not all persons
proceed through the four stages of fever
development:
1. Prodrome
 nonspecific complaints, such as mild headache
and fatigue, general malaise, and fleeting aches
and pains;
2. Temperature rises
 generalized shaking with chills and feeling of
being cold;
 vasoconstriction and piloerection usually
precede the onset of shivering;
Prevention of Heat Illness  Hydrate properly prior to exercise and replace
 Allow adequate time for acclimatization. fluid loss during and after exercise.
 Exercise during cooler parts of day.  Wear clothing that is light in color and loose
 Limit/defer exercise if heat stress index is in fitting
high risk zone.

Exercise in the Cold

 Cold strain
o Exposure to cold produces physiological & psychological challenges
o Body fat differences effect physiological function in cold
 Acclimatization to the Cold
 Humans adapt more successfully to chronic heat than cold exposure.
Exercise in the Cold
 Evaluating Environmental Cold Stress
o Wind chill index
 Respiratory tract in Cold
o Cold air does not damage respiratory passages.
o Air warms to between 80° F to 90° F as it reaches bronchi.
o Humidification of inspired cold air produces water & heat loss from respiratory tract.
Effect of long term cold exposure
 Metabolic Responses
 Insulative Responses
 Hypothermic Responses
 Hypothermia –Body temp below the normal lower limit (<970F)
 Thermoregulatory responses
o Greatly impaired at (<940F)
o Lost at body temp(<850F)
 Frostbite
o Occurs at very low temp
o Surface area freezes
o Ice crystals formed
 Common sites-
o Lobes of the ears
o Digits of hands
o Digits of feet
Cold induced vasodilatation-
Final protection against frostbite
Summary of Effector Mechanisms in Temperature Regulation