Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

CHAPTER 8: CONVENTIONAL METAL FORMING PROCESSES

Sheet metal forming
Sheet metal forming is a grouping of many complementary processes that are used to form sheet
metal parts. One or more of these processes is used to take a flat sheet of ductile metal, and
mechanically apply deformation forces that alter the shape of the material. The surface area-to-
volume ratio of the starting metal is relatively high. Tools include punch, die that are used to
deform the sheets. This involves plastic deformation of sheets like deep drawing, cutting, bending,
hemming, flanging, curling, stretch forming/stretching, stamping etc. Sheet metal forming
involves predominantly tensile forces, compared to bulk forming, which involve compressive
forces. Due to tensile stress, sheets may undergo localized deformation followed by cracking.
Sheets are rolled products, which have thickness less than 6mm. Sheet metal operations involve
work pieces with large surface area to thickness ratio. Blanks are cut from sheets. These blanks
are subsequently subjected to one or more sheet forming operations in order to get the finished
component. Sheet metal forming is widely used for producing wide range of products starting from
household vessels to aerospace parts, to automobile or aircraft bodies. Final shape is obtained by
applying tensile, shear or combination of forces and stretching or shrinking the sheet metal blanks.

Sheet-metal characteristics and formability

The cut blank is formed into various shapes by different forming processes. There are some
important characteristics of sheet metals that have important effects on these forming operations.

 Elongation: Determines the capability of the sheet metal to stretch without necking and
failure; high strain-hardening exponent (n) and strain-rate sensitivity exponent (m) desirable.

 Yield-point elongation: Observed with mild-steel sheets; also called Lueder’s bands and
stretcher strains; causes flame like depressions on the sheet surfaces; can be eliminated by
temper rolling, but sheet must be formed within a certain time after rolling.

 Anisotropy (planar): Exhibits different behavior in different planar directions; present in

cold-rolled sheets because of preferred orientation or mechanical fibering, causes earing in
drawing; can be reduced or eliminated by annealing but at lowered strength.

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 Anisotropy (normal): Determines thinning behavior of sheet metals during stretching;

important in deep drawing operations.

 Grain size: Determines surface roughness on stretched sheet metal; the coarser the grain, the
rougher the appearance (orange peel); also affects material strength.

 Residual stresses: Caused by non-uniform deformation during forming; causes part distortion
when sectioned and can lead to stress-corrosion cracking; reduced or eliminated by stress
relieving.

 Spring back: Caused by elastic recovery of the plastically deformed sheet after unloading;
causes distortion of part and loss of dimensional accuracy; can be controlled by techniques
such as over bending and bottoming of the punch.

 Wrinkling: Caused by compressive stresses in the plane of the sheet; can be objectionable or
can be useful in imparting stiffness to parts; can be controlled by proper tool and die design.

 Quality of sheared edges: Depends on process used; edges can be rough, not square, and
contain cracks, residual stresses, and a work-hardened layer, which are all detrimental to the
formability of the sheet; quality can be improved by control of clearance, tool and die design,
fine blanking, shaving, and lubrication.

 Surface condition of sheet: Depends on rolling practice; important in sheet forming as it can
cause tearing and poor surface quality.

Formability tests for sheet metals

Sheet-metal formability is of great technological and economic interest, and it generally is defined
as the ability of the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change without failure, such as by
necking, cracking, or tearing. In general sheet metals may undergo two basic modes of
deformation: (1) stretching and (2) drawing. There are important distinctions between these two
modes, and different parameters are involved in determining formability under these different
conditions. This section describes the methods that generally are used to predict formability.

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Tension test
The uniaxial tension test is the most basic test used to evaluate formability. This tests determines
important properties of the material such as total elongation at fracture, strain hardening exponent,
planar and normal anisotropy.

Cupping tests
The earliest tests developed to predict sheet-metal formability are the cupping tests (Figure 1). In
the Erichsen test, the sheet specimen is clamped between two circular flat dies and a steel ball or
round punch is forced into the sheet until a crack begins to appear on the stretched specimen. The
punch depth, d, at which failure occurs is a measure of the formability of the sheet. Greater the
value of d, greater is the formability of the of the sheet. Although this and similar tests are easy to
perform, they do not simulate the exact conditions of actual forming operations and hence are not
particularly reliable, especially for complex parts.

Figure 1 A cupping test (Erichsen test) to determine the formability of sheet metals

Forming-limit diagrams
An important advance in testing the formability of sheet metals is the development of forming-
limit diagrams. Forming limit diagram is extensively used in the analysis of sheet metal forming
to define the limit of deformation of materials without necking or fracture. A forming-limit
diagram (FLD) for a particular metal is constructed by first marking the flat sheet with a grid
pattern of circles using chemical or photo printing techniques. The blank then is stretched over a
punch (similar to Figure 1), and the deformation of the circles is observed and measured in regions
where failure (necking and tearing) has occurred. Although the circles typically are 2.5 to 5 mm
in diameter, for improved accuracy of measurement, they should be made as small as is practical.

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Figure 2 (a) Strains in deformed circular grid pattern

Lubrication may be used if needed. Major and minor strains on the circles are found from the
deformed circle (Figure 2(a)). Circles get deformed into ellipse. If we take a wide rubber plate,
draw a circle at the center and stretch the rubber along longitudinal direction. We can see that the
circle now gets stretched to an ellipse. On the other hand, if a circle is drawn on the surface of a
spherical balloon and the balloon expanded, the circle becomes a larger circle. This means that
both minor and major axes have undergone equal strain.

Length of major axis of the stretched circle minus diameter of original circle divided by original
diameter of circle gives the major strain (engineering strain). Similarly engineering minor strain
can be found out. If the minor axis stretches out it represents positive strain. If it shrinks, it is
negative strain. By comparing the deformed circles, with original circled we can also predict if the
sheet has undergone thinning or not. A larger ellipse is an indication of thinning. After a number
of such tests, the forming limit diagram is drawn, between major strain and minor strain. The
boundary between safe and failed regions are represented in the forming limit diagram. Any strain
represented on the diagram by a point lying above the curve indicates failure. The region below
the FLC corresponds to safe strain states whereas that above the FLC represents failure strain
states. (Figure 2(b)). The strain path can be varied by varying the width of the sheet. Different
materials have different forming limit diagrams. The higher the position of the curve greater is the
formability.

A typical formability limit diagram is known as Keeler-Goodwin diagram. The curves shift upward
if the sheet thickness is increased, indicating increase in forming limit. In this diagram, a few
straight lines indicating the strain paths are also shown. The vertical line at the center (zero minor
strain) represents plane strain. In biaxial strain, both strains are equal. This is represented by the
inclined line on right side of the diagram. Simple uniaxial tension is represented on the left side

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by a line with slope 2:1. This is due to the fact that Poisson’s ratio for plastic deformation is ½.
Negative minor strain means there is shrinkage. It is better to have negative minor strain because,
the major strain for failure will be higher with negative minor strain. Some of the factors which
affect the forming limit of a material are: strain rate sensitivity, anisotropy, thickness of the sheet,
strain hardening etc.

Figure 2 (b) Schematic diagram of forming limit diagram (FLD)indicating nature of deformation

Presses for sheet metal working

A press used for sheet metalworking is a machine tool with a stationary bed and a powered ram
(or slide) that can be driven toward and away from the bed to perform various cutting and forming
operations. A typical press, with principal components labeled, is diagrammed in figure 3. The
relative positions of the bed and ram are established by the frame, and the ram is driven by
mechanical or hydraulic power. When a die is mounted in the press, the punch holder is attached
to the ram, and the die holder is attached to a bolster plate of the press bed. Presses are available
in a variety of capacities, power systems, and frame types. The capacity of a press is its ability to
deliver the required force and energy to accomplish the stamping operation. This is determined by
the physical size of the press and by its power system. The power system refers to whether
mechanical or hydraulic power is used and the type of drive used to transmit the power to the ram.

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Production rate is another important aspect of capacity. Type of frame refers to the physical
construction of the press. There are two frame types in common use: gap frame and straight-sided
frame.

Figure 3 Components of a typical (mechanical drive) stamping press

Gap frame presses

The gap frame has the general configuration of the letter C and is often referred to as a C-frame.
Gap frame presses provide good access to the die, and they are usually open in the back to permit
convenient ejection of stampings or scrap. The principal types of gap frame press are (a) solid gap
frame (C frame), (b) adjustable bed, (c) open back inclinable, (d) press brake, and (e) turret press.

Figure 4 Schematic illustration of types of gap press frames for sheet metal forming operations

The solid gap frame (sometimes called simply a gap press) has one-piece construction, as shown
in figure 4(a). Presses with this frame are rigid, yet the C-shape allows convenient access from the

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sides for feeding strip or coil stock. They are available in a range of sizes, with capacities up to
around 9000 kN (1000 tons).

The press brake is a gap frame press with a very wide bed (figure 4(b)). This allows a number of
separate dies (simple V-bending dies are typical) to be set up in the bed, so that small quantities of
stampings can be made economically. These low quantities of parts, sometimes requiring multiple
bends at different angles, necessitate a manual operation. For a part requiring a series of bends, the
operator moves the starting piece of sheet metal through the desired sequence of bending dies,
actuating the press at each die, to complete the work needed.

The adjustable bed frame press (figure 4(c)) is a variation of the gap frame, in which an adjustable
bed is added to accommodate various die sizes. The adjustment feature results in some sacrifice of
tonnage capacity.

The open-back inclinable press (figure 4(d)) has a C-frame assembled to a base in such a way that
the frame can be tilted back to various angles so that the stampings fall through the rear opening
by gravity. Capacities of open-back inclinable presses range between 1 ton and around 250 tons.
They can be operated at high speeds, up to around 1000 strokes per minute.

Turret presses are suited to situations in which a sequence of punching, notching, and related
cutting operations must be accomplished on sheet-metal parts. Turret presses have a C-frame. The
conventional ram and punch is replaced by a turret containing many punches of different sizes and
shapes. The turret works by indexing (rotating) to the position holding the punch to perform the
required operation. Beneath the punch turret is a corresponding die turret that positions the die
opening for each punch. Between the punch and die is the sheet metal blank, held by a positioning
system that operates by computer numerical control. The blank is moved to the required coordinate
position for each cutting operation.

Straight sided frame presses

For jobs requiring high tonnage, press frames with greater structural rigidity are needed. Straight-
sided presses have full sides, giving it a box-like appearance are used. This construction increases
the strength and stiffness of the frame. As a result, capacities up to 4000 tons are available in

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straight-sided presses for sheet metalwork. Large presses of this frame type are used for forging
process as well.

Figure 5 Schematic illustration of types of straight sided press frames for sheet metal forming
operations

In all of these presses, the size is closely correlated to tonnage capacity. Larger presses are built to
withstand higher forces in press working. Press size is also related to the speed at which it can
operate. Smaller presses are generally capable of higher production rates than larger presses.

Press selection for sheet metal forming operations depends on several factors:
 Type of forming operation, and dies and tooling required
 Size and shape of work pieces
 Length of stroke of the slide, stroke per minute, speed and shut height (distance from the top
of the bed to the bottom of the slide, with the stroke down)
 Number of slides (single action, double action and triple action)
 Maximum force required (press capacity, tonnage rating)
 Type of controls
 Die changing features
 Safety features

Power and drive systems

Power systems on presses are either hydraulic or mechanical. Hydraulic presses use a large piston
and cylinder to drive the ram. This power system typically provides longer ram strokes than
mechanical drives and can develop the full tonnage force throughout the entire stroke. However,
it is slower. Its application for sheet metal is normally limited to deep drawing and other forming
operations where these load-stroke characteristics are advantageous. These presses are available

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with one or more independently operated slides, called single action (single slide), double action
(two slides), and so on. Double-action presses are useful in deep drawing operations where it is
required to separately control the punch force and the blank holder force.
There are several types of drive mechanisms used on mechanical presses. These include eccentric,
crankshaft, and knuckle joint, illustrated in figure 6. They convert the rotational motion of a drive
motor into the linear motion of the ram. A flywheel is used to store the energy of the drive motor
for use in the stamping operation. Mechanical presses using these drives achieve very high forces
at the bottom of their strokes, and are therefore quite suited to blanking and punching operations.
The knuckle joint delivers very high force when it bottoms, and is therefore often used in coining
operations.

Figure 6 Types of drives for sheet-metal presses: (a) Eccentric, (b) Crankshaft, (c) Knuckle joint

Deep drawing
Drawing is a sheet-metal-forming operation used to make cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other
complex-curved and concave parts. Common parts made by drawing include beverage cans,
ammunition shells, sinks, cooking pots, and automobile body panels. It is performed by placing a
piece of sheet metal over a die cavity and then pushing the metal into the opening with a punch
with a downward holding force Fh as shown in figure 7. A round sheet-metal blank is placed over
a circular die opening and is held in place with a blank holder, or bold-down ring. The punch
applies a downward force F to accomplish the deformation of the metal. As the punch proceeds
downward toward its final bottom position, the work experiences a complex sequence of stresses
and strains as it is gradually formed into the shape defined by the punch and die cavity. The stages
in the deformation process are illustrated in figure 7. As the punch first begins to push into the
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work, the metal is subjected to a bending operation. The sheet is simply bent over the corner of the
punch and the corner of the die, as in figure 7(b). As the punch moves further down, a straightening
action occurs in the metal that was previously bent over the die radius, as in figure 7(c).

Figure 7 Stages in deformation of the work in deep drawing: (a) Punch makes initial contact with
work, (b) Bending, (c) Straightening, (d) Friction and compression, (e) Final cup shape showing
effects of thinning in the cup walls.
The metal at the bottom of the cup, as well as along the punch radius, moves downward with the
punch, but the metal that was bent over the die radius must now be straightened in order to be
pulled into the clearance to form the wall of the cylinder. At the same time, more metal must be
added to replace that being used in the cylinder wall. This new metal comes from the outside edge
of the blank. The metal in the outer portions of the blank is pulled or drawn toward the die opening
to resupply the previously bent and straightened metal now forming the cylinder wall. During this
stage of the process, friction and compression play important roles in the flange of the blank. The
friction between the sheet metal and the surfaces of the blank holder and the die must be overcome
in order to move the material towards the die opening. In addition to friction, compression is also
occurring in the outer edge of the blank. As the metal in this portion of the blank is drawn toward
the center, the outer perimeter becomes smaller. The friction and compression effects are

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illustrated in figure 7(d). Progressive downward motion of the punch results in a continuation of
the metal flow caused by drawing and compression. In addition, some thinning of the cylinder wall
occurs, as in figure 7(e).
The important variables in deep drawing are the properties of the sheet metal, the ratio of blank
diameter to the punch diameter, the clearance between punch and die, the punch radius, the die-
corner radius, the blank holder force and friction and lubrication between all contacting surfaces.

Defects in drawing process

Sheet-metal drawing is a more complex operation than cutting or bending, and more things can go
wrong. A number of defects can occur in a drawn product, some of which we have already alluded
to. Following is a list of common defects, with sketches in figure 8.
(a) Wrinkling in the flange: Wrinkling in a drawn part consists of a series of ridges that form
radially in the undrawn flange of the work part due to compressive buckling.
(b) Wrinkling in the wall: If and when the wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup, these ridges
appear in the vertical wall.
(c) Tearing: Tearing is an open crack in the vertical wall, usually near the base of the drawn cup,
due to high tensile stresses that cause thinning and failure of the metal at this location. This type
of failure can also occur as the metal is pulled over a sharp die corner.
(d) Earing: This is the formation of irregularities (called ears) in the upper edge of a deep drawn
cup, caused by anisotropy in the sheet metal. If the material is perfectly isotropic, ears do not form.
(e) Surface scratches: Surface scratches can occur on the drawn part if the punch and die are not
smooth or if lubrication is insufficient.

Figure 8 Common defects in drawn parts, (a) Wrinkling can occur either in the flange or (b) In
the wall, (c) Tearing, (d) Earing, (e) Surface scratches.

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Spinning
Spinning is a metal-forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually shaped over
a mandrel or form by means of a rounded tool or roller. The tool or roller applies a very localized
pressure (almost a point contact) to deform the work by axial and radial motions over the surface
of the part. Basic geometric shapes typically produced by spinning include cups, cones,
hemispheres, and tubes. There are three types of spinning operations: (1) conventional spinning,
(2) shear spinning, and (3) tube spinning.

Conventional spinning
Conventional spinning is the basic spinning operation. As illustrated in figure 9, a sheet-metal disk
is held against the end of a rotating mandrel of the desired inside shape of the final part, while the
tool or roller deforms the metal against the mandrel. In some cases, the starting work part is other
than a flat disk. The process requires a series of steps, as indicated in the figure, to complete the
shaping of the part. The tool position is controlled either by a human operator, using a fixed
fulcrum to achieve the required leverage, or by an automatic method such as numerical control.
Conventional spinning bends the metal around a moving circular axis to conform to the outside
surface of the axisymmetric mandrel. The thickness of the metal therefore remains unchanged
(more or less) relative to the starting disk thickness. The diameter of the disk must therefore be
somewhat larger than the diameter of the resulting part.

Figure 9 Conventional spinning, (a) setup at start of process, (b) during spinning, (c) completion
of process.

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Applications of conventional spinning include production of conical and curved shapes in low
quantities. Very large diameter parts, up to 5 m or more can be made by spinning. Alternative
sheet-metal processes would require excessively high die costs. The form mandrel in spinning can
be made of wood or other soft materials that are easy to shape. It is therefore a low-cost tool
compared to the punch and die required for deep drawing, which might be a substitute process for
some parts.

Shear spinning
In shear spinning, the part is formed over the mandrel by a shear deformation process in which
the outside diameter remains constant and the wall thickness is therefore reduced, as in figure 10.
This shear straining (and consequent thinning of the metal) distinguishes this process from the
bending action in conventional spinning. Several other names have been used for shear spinning,
including flow turning, shear forming, and spin forging. The process has been applied in the
aerospace industry to form large parts such as rocket nose cones. But there are limits to the amount
of thinning that the metal will endure in a spinning operation before fracture occurs.

Figure 10 Shear spinning, (a) Setup at start of process, (b) completion of process

Tube spinning
Tube spinning is used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the length of a tube by means of a
roller applied to the work over a cylindrical mandrel, as in figure 11. Tube spinning is similar to
shear spinning except that the starting workpiece is a tube rather than a flat disk. The operation
can be performed by applying the roller against the work externally (using a cylindrical mandrel
on the inside of the tube) or internally (using a die to surround the tube). It is also possible to form

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profiles in the walls of the cylinder, as in figure 11(c), by controlling the path of the roller as it
moves tangentially along the wall.

Figure 11 Tube spinning, (a) Extremal, (b) Internal, (c) Profiling

Stretch forming
Stretch forming is a sheet-metal deformation process in which the sheet metal is intentionally
stretched and simultaneously bent in order to achieve shape change. The process is illustrated in
figure 12 for a relatively simple and gradual bend. The work part is gripped by one or more jaws
on each end and then stretched and bent over a positive die containing the desired form. The metal
is stressed in tension to a level above its yield point. When the tension loading is released, the
metal has been plastically deformed. The combination of stretching and bending results in
relatively little spring back in the part. More complex contours than that shown in the figure are
possible by stretch forming, but there are limitations on how sharp the curves in the sheet can be.
Stretch forming is widely used in the aircraft and aerospace industries to economically produce
large sheet-metal parts in the low quantities characteristic of those industries.

Figure 12 (a) Start of stretch forming, (b) Form die is pressed to stretch and bend

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Bending operations
Bending in sheet-metalwork is defined as the straining of the metal around a straight axis, as in
figure 13. During the bending operation, the metal on the inside of the neutral plane is compressed,
while the metal on the outside of the neutral plane is stretched. These strain conditions can be seen
in figure 13(b). The metal is plastically deformed so that the bend takes a permanent set upon
removal of the stresses that caused it. Bending produces little or no change in the thickness of the
sheet metal.

Figure 13 (a) Bending of sheet metal, (b) both compression and tensile elongation of the metal
occur in bending

Bending operations are performed using punch and die tooling. The two common bending methods
and associated tooling are V-bending, performed with a V-die; and edge bending, performed with
a wiping die. These methods are illustrated in figure 14.

Figure 14 Two common bending methods, (a) V-bending and (b) Edge bending; (1) Before, (2)
After bending

V-bending
In V-bending, the sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die. Included angles ranging
from very obtuse to very acute can be made with V-dies (Figure 14(a)). V-bending is generally

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used for low-production operations. It is often performed on a press brake and the associated V-
dies are relatively simple and inexpensive.

Edge bending
Edge bending involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal. A pressure pad is used to apply a
force to hold the base of the part against the die, while the punch forces the part to yield and bend
over the edge of the die. In the setup shown in Figure 14(b), edge bending is limited to bends of
90°or less. More complicated wiping dies can be designed for bend angles greater than 90°.
Because of the pressure pad, wiping dies are more complicated and costly than V-dies and are
generally used for high-production work.

Spring back effect

When the bending pressure is removed at the end of the deformation operation, elastic energy
remains in the bent part, causing it to recover partially toward its original shape. This elastic
recovery is called spring back, defined as the increase in included angle of the bent part relative to
the included angle of the forming tool after the tool is removed.

Roll forming
Roll forming (also called contour roll forming) is a continuous bending process in which opposing
rolls are used to produce long sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock. Several pairs of
rolls are usually required to progressively accomplish the bending of the stock into the desired
shape. The process is illustrated in figure 15 for a U-shaped section. involves bending rather than
compressing the work.

Figure 15 Roll forming of a continuous channel section: (1) straight rolls, (2) partial form, and
(3) final form

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Products made by roll forming include channels, gutters, metal siding sections (for homes), pipes
and tubing with seams, and various structural sections. Although roll forming has the general
appearance of a rolling operation (and the tooling certainly looks similar), the difference is that
roll forming

Fine blanking
It is a shearing operation used to blank sheet-metal parts with close tolerances and smooth, straight
edges in one step, as illustrated in figure. At the start of the cycle, a pressure pad with a V-shaped
projection applies a holding force Fh against the work adjacent to the punch in order to compress
the metal and prevent distortion. The punch then descends with a slower-than-normal velocity and
smaller clearances to provide the desired dimensions and cut edges. The process is usually reserved
for relatively small stock thicknesses.

Figure 16 Fine blanking

Brake press forming

Press-brake Forming. Sheet metal or plate can be bent easily with simple fixtures using a press.
Sheets or narrow strips that are 7 m or even longer usually are bent in a press brake (Figure 17).
The machine utilizes long dies in a mechanical or hydraulic press and is particularly suitable for
small production runs. As can be seen in figure, the tooling is simple, their motions are only up
and down, and they easily are adaptable to a wide variety of shapes. Also, the process can be
automated

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easily for low-cost, high-production runs. Die materials for press brakes range from hardwood (for
low-strength materials and small-production runs) to carbides for strong and abrasive sheet
materials and also are chosen to improve die life. For most applications, however, carbon-steel or
gray-iron dies generally are used.

Figure 17 (a-e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations in a press brake, (f)
Schematic illustration of a press brake

Superplastic forming
The term superplasticity refers to the capability of some materials to undergo large uniform
elongation prior to necking and fracture in tension. The elongation ranges from a few hundred
percent to as much as 2000%. Common examples of such materials are zinc-aluminum and
titanium alloys, which have very fine grains-typically less than 10 to 15 /µm. Superplastic alloys,
particularly Zn-22Al and Ti-6Al-4\L also can be formed by bulk-deformation processes, including
closed-die forging, coining, hubbing, and extrusion. Commonly used die materials in superplastic
forming are low-alloy steels, cast tool steels, ceramics, graphite, and plaster of paris. Superplastic
forming is done in conjunction with diffusion bonding process as shown in figure 18.
The very high ductility and relatively low strength of superplastic alloys offer the following
advantages:

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 Complex shapes can be formed out of one piece, with fine detail, close tolerances, and
elimination of secondary operations.
 Weight and material savings can be realized because of the good formability of the materials.
 Little or no residual stresses develop in the formed parts.
 Because of the low strength of the material at forming temperatures, the tooling can be made
of materials that have lower strength than those in other metalworking processes; hence,
tooling costs are lower.

On the other hand, superplastic forming has the following limitations:

 The material must not be superplastic at service temperatures; otherwise the part will undergo
shape changes.
 Because of the high strain-rate sensitivity of the superplastic material, it must be formed at
sufficiently low strain rates, typically 10-4 to 10-2/s. Forming times range anywhere from a
few seconds to several hours; thus, cycle times are much longer than those of conventional
forming processes. Consequently, superplastic forming is a batch-forming process.

Figure 18 The sequence of operations in the fabrication of various structures by diffusion

bonding and then superplastic forming of (originally) flat sheets

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Review questions
1. How does sheet-metal forming differ from rolling, forging, and extrusion?
2. Describe the characteristics of sheet metals that are important in sheet-forming operations.
3. With a neat sketch explain the cupping test.
4. Explain drawing in the context of sheet metal working.
5. What is spring back in sheet-metal bending?
6. What are some of the possible defects in drawn sheet-metal parts?
7. Sketch and differentiate between conventional, shear and tube spinning processes.
8. Sketch and explain stretch forming process?
9. What are the two basic categories of structural frames used in stamping presses?
10. Write a short note on roll forming process.
11. How is roll forming fundamentally different from rolling?
12. Explain the advantages and limitations of superplastic forming.

References:
 M.P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 4(e), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
USA, 2010.
 S. Kalpakjian & S.R. Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, (3e), Addision
Wesley, New York, 1995.

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