Sub-Theme I

Ecosystem and Ecosystem Services

 Ecosystem and Ecosystem Services

1.1. Background
An Ecosystem is a community of plants and animals interacting with each other in a given
area, and also with their abiotic (non-living) environments. The abiotic environments include
weather, climate, sun light, soil and water. The ecosystem relates to the way that all these
different organisms live and interact in close proximity to each other. Usually ecosystem
components are divided into Abiotic and Biotic; basically it is functional relationship within
and between these components which ultimately helps the organisms to survive.

Ecological services are the benefits arising out of from the ecological functions of the
ecosystems. Such services benefit all living organisms in the niche, including animals, plants,
and human beings. Millions of organisms on the Earth gain energy to support their metabolism
either directly from the sun in the case of plants, or in the case of animals and microbes
from other organisms through feeding on plants, predation, parasitism, or decomposition.
In the pursuit of life and through their capacity to reproduce, organisms use energy; plants
obtain most of their nutrients from soil or water, while animals tend to derive their nutrients
from other organisms. Microorganisms are highly versatile obtaining nutrients from soil,
water, food, or other organisms.

The concept of ecosystem services was given increased public recognition through the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)1 launched in 2001 by the UN Secretary General
and completed in 2005. A conceptual framework was developed to highlight the real impacts
of the ecosystem services on human health, security, social relations and physical wellbeing
to explain the integrated aspects organized into four categories (Fig. – 1.1).

Provisioning Services Regulating Services Socio - Cultural Services

Products obtained from Benefits obtained from Nonmaterial benefits
ecosystems regulation of ecosystem obtained from ecosystems
• Food processes • Recreational
• Fresh Water • Climate Regulation • Aesthetic
• Fuel wood • Water Regulation • Educational
• Fiber • Disease Regulation • Heritage
• Biochemicals • Pollination • Spiritual & Religious
• Genetic Resources • Water Purification • Inspirational

Supporting Services
Services necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services
- Soil Formation - Nutrient Cycling - Primary Production

Fig.-1.1: Classification of ecosystem services developed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.

Source: MEA (2005)

9
In a sense, the entire biosphere of Earth is an ecosystem since every element interacts with
each other. But considering the spatial delimitation of an ecosystem based on several factors
like distribution of organisms, the biophysical environment and spatial interactions, broadly
10 categories of eco-systems have been identified by the international community

Box -1.1.

Globally recognized broader natural systems -

1. Marine 2. Coastal
3. Inland Water 4. Forest
5. Dryland 6. Island
7. Mountain 8. Polar
9. Cultivated 10. Urban

1.2. Indian Scenario

India has distinct physiographical zones, viz. northern mountain, southern plateau, Indo-
Gangetic plain, Desert and Coastal area; along with broad tropical, temperate, humid
subtropical, desert and mountain regions, besides 15 different agro-climatic zones which
are linked to 10 different bio-geographical regions. These geo-ecological backdrops have

10
given rise to different ecological zones, where ecosystem status and functions vary with
variation of flora and fauna and associated key stone or flagship species.

Ecological Zones in India

India is one of the mega-diversity countries in the world by virtue of its diverse ecosystems
and bio-geographical features. Scientists have recognized the following geographical features
namely the Himalayan mountains, northern plateau, peninsular plateau, deserts, coastal
plains, islands, tropical wet evergreen forests, deciduous forests, scrub jungles, montane
forests, alpine forests and meadows, wetlands and back waters. Based on the biogeographic
characteristics, the following zones have been recognized. However, the Indian sub-continent
has been divided into 15 Agro-ecological Zones, shown through the figure- 1.2.

Agro-Climatic Zone
1. Western Himalayan
2. Eastern Himalayan
3. Lower Gangetic Plains
4. Middle Gangetic Plains
5. Upper Gangetic Plains
6. Trans Gangetic Plains
7. Eastern Plateau & Hills
8. Central Plateau & Hills
9. Western Plateau & Hills
10. Southern Plateau & Hills
11. East Coast Plains & Hills
12. West Coast Plains & Hills
13. Gujarat Plains & Hills
14. Western Dry Region
Fig.- 1.2.: Map showing Agro-ecological Zones of India 15. Islands

Each of these zones has its own characteristics. The Trans Himalayan zone situated
immediately north to the Himalayan range is with sparse vegetation but the prime habitat to
many endangered mountain ungulates of the world. The Himalayan region is known for its
steep gradient and rich temperate flora. Semiarid zones adjoining neighbourhood of the
northern deserts is characterized by discontinuous vegetation cover with open areas of
bare soil having soil-water deficit throughout the year. The Western Ghats are very significant
Biodiversity Hotspots in the world. The varied climate and diverse topography in different
altitudinal zones and aspects create a wide array of habitats that support unique sets of

11
plant and animal species. The Western Ghats are well known for many endemic fishes,
amphibians, and mammals; many of which are listed in the Red List by International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The Lion Tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Tahr and birds like
Nilgiri blue robin and Nilgiri laughing thrush are few such examples. The climate of North
West is characterized by very hot and dry summer and cold winter where rainfall is less than
70 cm. So, the plants are mostly xerophytes. Deccan Plateau is the largest unit of the
Peninsular Plateau of India, lying south of the Satpura range. Major rivers like Godavari and
Krishna traverse the plateau. The highlands and valleys of the plateau are covered with
different types of forests, which provide a large variety of forest products supporting livelihood
of the people in the region. The Gangetic plain in the north extends up to the Himalayan
foothills which covers about 72.4 million hectares area with rich alluvial sediments. The
North East zone is one of the richest flora- fauna regions with many birds, butterflies,
amphibians, bamboos, ferns and other plants. It belongs to Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity
Hotspot .The islands in the Arabian sea (Lakshadeep) and in the Bay of Bengal (Andaman
Nicobar Islands) due to its physio-geography, tectonics and has different characteristics of
flora and fauna . The islands in the Lakshadeep are among the best coral areas in the
nation and in Andaman Islands we have the best preserved lowland evergreen forests.
India has a coastline of 7516.6 touching 13 States and Union Territories. The east coast it is
lined by the Bay of Bengal. These coastal areas are also rich repository of biodiversity.

In all these ecological zones some unique ecosystems are present with specific composition
of abiotic and biotic components. Such ecosystems through their functional interaction
produce different ecological services having different linkages to environmental security
and human well-being (Fig.-1.2).

Fig.-1.2. Functional interaction of different ecological services

Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being
CONSTITUENT OF WELL-BEING
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Security
Provisioning n
PERSONAL SAFETY
n
FOOD n
SECURE RESOURCE ACCESS
n
FRESH WATER n
SECURITY FROM DISASTERS
n
WOOD & FIBRE
n
FUEL
n
... Basic material for good life
n
ADEQUATE LIVELIHOODS
n
SUFFICIENT NUTRITIOUS FOOD Freedom of choice
Supporting n
Regulating SHELTER and action
n
n
CLIMATE REGULATION ACCESS TO GOODS
n
NUTRIENT CYCLING
n
n
FOOD REGULATION OPPORTUNITY TO
SOIL FORMATION n BE ABLE TO
n DISEASE REGULATION
PRIMARY PRODUCTION n ACHIEVE WHAT AN
n WATER REGULATION Health
... n INDIVIDUAL VALUES
... n
STRENGTH
n DOING AND BEING
FEELING WELL
n
ACCESS TO CLEAN AIR AND
Provisioning WATER
n
AESTHETIC
n
SPIRITUAL
n
EDUCATIONAL Good Social Relations
n
n
RECREATIONAL SOCIAL COHESION
n
n
... MUTUAL RESPECT
n
ABILITY TO HELP OTHERS

ARROWS COLOUR ARROWS WIDTH

Potencial for mediation by Intensity of linkages between ecosystem
socioeconomic factor services and human well-being
Low Weak
Medium Medium
High Strong

12
Quantification of value of such services reveals some surprising facts which cannot be visualized
through observation only. In 2015 Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) with National
Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) carried out a study to estimate the value of ecological
services of Tiger Project Area of India. Some example are in the table-1.1 given below.

Table-1.1 Ecological services of Tiger Project Area of India

Value of different services Corbett Tiger Kanha Tiger Kaziranga Tiger
Reserve (In INR) Reserve (In INR) Reserve (In INR)
Flow benefits / hectares 1.14 lakhs 0.80 lakhs 0.95 lakhs
Gene pool protection/ year 10.65 billion 12.41 billion 3.49 billion
Provisioning of water to 1.61 million 558 million NA
downstream area / year
Employment to local 82 million NA NA
communities / year
Recreation value / year 384 million 21 million
Sequestration of carbon/year 214 million 219 million 17 million
Source: IIFM, NTCA “Economic Valuation of Tiger Reserves in India : a value + approach” 2015, page-11

However, over the period of time, different issues emerged which challenge these ecosystems
and their ecological services.

1.3. Challenges
Challenges to ecosystem and ecological services can be categorized as Natural and
Anthropogenic challenges. Natural challenges are climate-induced viz. impact of weather
and climatic anomalies, natural calamities and disasters, etc. Anthropogenic challenges
emerged with growth of human population, in the form of agricultural, mining, industrial
activities and expansion of human settlement including urbanization.

1.4. Impacts of Ecosystem Degradation

All living organisms in a habitat interact with each other and also with the non-living
environment like weather, soil, water, atmosphere etc. In other words, an ecosystem is a
dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities as well as nonliving
environment interacting among each other resulting a functional unit. The entire earth system
is an expression of the various ecosystems in totality. Humans are completely dependent
on healthy environments for their health and well-being. The integrity of peoples' food systems,
culture and survival is intimately connected to the overall health of the environment. Recent
declines of environmental quality, loss of biodiversity and environmental contamination
combined with social, economic, political and cultural factors threatening health and well-
being of people.

The current knowledge on ecosystem services (the benefits arising from the functions of
the ecosystems; such benefits accrue to all living organisms including humans.) enabled us

13
to understand and predict the impacts of the degradation happening in various ecosystems.
The ecosystem services are derived from natural and managed ecosystems upon which
welfare of human society depends, and include everything from clean air, water, food and
fuel. Purification of air and water, maintenance of biodiversity, food and fodder availability,
decomposition of waste, soil formation, nutrition cycling (or biogeochemical cycle), ground
water recharge through wetlands and forests, seed dispersal, greenhouse gas mitigation,
aesthetics, regulation of climate, control of natural disasters etc. all are the ecosystem
services.

1.4.1. Anthropogenic Activities

Humans were living in tune with the rhythms of nature till the beginning of settled agriculture.
They started selective breeding of crops, animal husbandry, taming the rivers and water
bodies and started irrigation in the agriculture in the settled areas. Other activities that
developed afterwards were expansion of settlements coupled with guarding territories,
urbanization, technological
advancements etc. that led to
various short and long term
impacts on ecosystems.

The modification of the

ecosystems impacts ecosystem
services which are being
manifested in various ways.
Nonetheless, following Industrial
Revolution, development of
transport systems, urbanization

14
and exploitation of fossil fuel increased greenhouse gases leading to global warming, climate
change and it’s subsequent consequences. Rate of deforestation that also added to the
devastation affects to the wellbeing of human societies, is alarming. It is estimated that
during 2000 and 2012, 2.30 million sq.km forests around the world were cut down.
Deforestation causes biodiversity loss and extinction, changes in climate, soil erosion,
desertification and displacement migration of indigenous communities. The hydrological
cycle also gets affected by deforestation, reducing percolation of rainwater in to the soil
leading to surface runoff, erosion of soil quality and reduce ground water recharge.

Global warming and changing rainfall patterns resulted in shifts and extinctions in species’
range in every terrain, region and ecosystem not only in India but also across the globe. If it
is indicative of a wider unfolding process related to climate change, a staggering number of
species in India would move home range adversely affecting human habitat. It, therefore,
makes explicit that conservation is not a question of people vs. nature, but rather involves
trade-offs between different groups of people and/or their basic needs.

1.4.2. Land-use Changes

In the current scenario of rampant
urbanization and other developmental
activities, the land use planners are faced with
decisions regarding whether and how land is
to be developed, allotted, used, and many
more. For most part, such land use decision
making occurs without taking into account
impacts to biological resources as a whole.
Implementing biologically sensitive spatial
planning early in the development process
will help preserve our natural heritage for the
future, since the most crucial time for planning
is when first 10 to 40 percent of the natural
vegetation is altered or removed from the
landscape (Forman and Collinge, 1997).
However, these professionals often lack the
necessary information to incorporate
ecological principles into their decision
making and to transform their traditional
planning approaches into progressive,
ecologically-based conservation tools. To
encourage and facilitate better integration of
ecological knowledge into land use and land
management decision making, the ecological
information in terms of baseline and trends
are essential.

15
1.4.3. Fragmentation of Natural Habitats
Land-use practices influence the geographical extent of habitats whereby contiguous natural
areas are reduced in size and separated into discrete parcels. Fragmentation results from a
reduction in the area of the original habitat due to land conversion for other uses such as
residential and commercial development. Further when habitat is divided by roads, railroads,
drainage ditches, dams, power lines, fences or other barriers prohibit the free movement
and migration of plant and animal species to the considerable extent. When habitat is
destroyed, a patchwork of habitat fragments is left behind, often resulting in patches that
are isolated from one another in a modified and inhospitable landscape.
Such changes in the landscape have varying impacts on species’ persistence and
ecosystem’s sustainability. Survival of plant and animal species in the natural systems is
most essential to provide services in relation to recycling of nutrients, flood and pest control,
and maintenance of clean air, water, and soil, that depends upon where and how land is
used, converted, and managed.

1.4.4. Invasive Alien Species:

Land use change resulting from development and associated human activities (e.g., colonizing,
agriculture, grazing, deforestation, hunting, industrialization etc.) alter the abundances and
varieties of native species of many organisms, which are new and usually replaced by
detrimental non-native species to the area. This in turn affects composition and abundance of
native species. The long term persistence of the non-native species is called ‘Alien species’,
further degrades the biodiversity as well as integrity of the affected natural areas.

16
When alien species starts proliferating and spreading beyond its definite limits, it is said to
be invasive. The term ‘invasive’ is interpreted in different ways and sometimes used
interchangeably with other terms like, ‘pest’ or ‘weed’ that can apply to native as well as
alien species. The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) provides the following definition: Alien
invasive species: an alien species which threatens ecosystems, habitat or species.

Invasive species means an alien species which becomes established in natural or semi-
natural ecosystems or habitats, act as an agent of change, and threaten native biological
diversity (IUCN guidelines on biological invasion). As per the Global Invasive Species
Programme (GISP) of the IUCN, invasive alien species are defined as Invasive alien species
are non-native organisms that cause, or have the potential to cause, harm to the environment,
economies or human health.

1.5. Degradation of the Wetlands

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands defines wetlands as the areas of marsh, fen, peat
land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water either static
or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt. It also includes areas of marine water, the depth of which
at low tide does not exceed six metres (Article 1.1 of the Ramsar Convention, 1971).

Wetlands are link between land and water and belong to the most productive ecosystems in
the world. The ecosystem services by the wetlands are of extreme value. Wetlands provide
habitat for a wide variety of flora and fauna besides, collection, filtration, cleaning and storing
flood water act like kidneys for other ecosystems.

17
At the intersection of land and sea, mangrove forests support a wealth of life in their saline
woodland habitats where fine sediments, often with high organic content, collect in areas
protected from high-energy wave action. Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from
erosion, storm surge and tsunamis because of their massive root systems which are efficient
at dissipating both wave and wind energy. Hence, the assessment of mangrove areas at
country level is a prerequisite for its restoration, management and conservation. According
to the Government of India report on status of mangroves, India lost 40% of its mangrove
area during the last century. Of this, east coast has lost about 26%; west coast area about
44%; and Andaman and Nicobar Islands about 32%. Mangrove loss reduces biodiversity,
eliminate fish nursery habitat, adversely affects adjacent coastal habitats and eliminate a
major resource for human communities that traditionally rely on it for numerous products
and services. Effective governance, better planning for eco-restoration of degraded
mangroves and creation of awareness among local communities are the need of the hour to
conserve, protect and restore the valuable mangrove wetland ecosystems.

1.6. Community Conserved Areas

There are large numbers of areas rich in biodiversity which are outside the domain of protected
areas (sanctuaries and national parks etc.) and are protected and managed by the
communities. These are called Community Conserved Areas (CCAs). CCAs are natural or
modified ecosystems having immense biodiversity values and ecological services being
conserved and protected by people through customary laws and practices. The CCAs includes
sacred groves, panchayat and community forests, private interspersed forests in tea, coffee
and cardamom gardens and other production landscapes, like farm lands, wastelands,
wetlands, coastal habitats, heronries, wintering wetlands of birds, catchment forests, turtle
nesting sites, pastures, desert ecosystems, river systems etc.

18
In India, sacred groves are one of the prominent community conserved groves distributed in
almost all the states. Sacred groves are known by different names in different regions (Table-
1.2).
Table- 1.2. Sacred Groves as Known in different states of India
State Name of Sacred Groves
Assam Than or Madaico
Bihar Sarna
Chattisgarah Devgudi or Sarana
Himachal Pradesh Dev-Van
Jharkhand Jaherthan or Sarana
Karnataka Devarakaadu or Kans
Kerala Kavu
Maharashtra Devrai or Devgudi
Manipur Umang Lai
Meghalaya Law Kyntang or Law Niam
Orissa Jahera or Thakuramma
Rajasthan Orans
Tamil Nadu Kovilkaadu
Uttarakhand Bugyal or Dev Van
West Bengal Garamthan or Jahiristhan

Many valuable medicinal plants and wild relatives of cultivated species are present in the
sacred groves which have definite role to play. Presence of wild cultivars of crop plants
having better pest resistance quality and productivity are mostly observed in the sacred
groves. The role of sacred groves as resource forests offering both livelihood sustenance
and ecological security is also of considerable importance. Some of the major ecosystem
functions of sacred groves are as follows-
l Conservation of Biodiversity – The sacred groves are important repositories of floral and
faunal diversity that have been conserved by local communities in a sustainable manner.
They are often the last refuge of endemic species in the geographical region.
l Recharging of aquifers – The groves are often associated with ponds, streams or springs,
which help meet the water requirements of the local people. The vegetative cover also
helps in the recharging the aquifers.
l Soil conservation - The vegetation cover of the sacred groves improves the soil stability
of the area and also prevents soil erosion.

The threats to sacred groves vary from one region to the other and even from one grove to
the other. Common threats to sacred groves include pressure of increasing fodder and
wood collection, rapid urbanization and developmental interventions such as roads, railways
tracks, dams including commercial forestry. Encroachment has led to the shrinkage of some
of the largest groves in the country. Invasion by non-native weeds like Lantana camara and
Prosopis juliflora is a serious threat to some of the groves across the country.

19
Diminishing size and lack of proper recognition affect the ecosystem services from sacred
groves especially regulatory and supporting ones. A smaller grove can support local biota,
may provide goods like Non Timber Forest Product (NTFP), medicinal plants, fuel wood,
etc. but long lasting services e.g. ground water recharge, flood control, fire resistance require
larger level management efforts. There is hardly any study in this direction to assess the
potential of the sacred grove for ecosystem services and their importance in livelihood
maintenance. Moreover, their land category is not clearly defined in the revenue records,
therefore demarcation of sacred groves on the ground as well as separate land-use category
in the revenue records is also required.

The book ‘Silent Spring’ by Rachel Carson published in 1962 was a land mark in the
environmental awareness movement. The book documented the hazardous effects of pesticides
like DDT. She explained how the bird communities had vanished from the forest, plantations
and agriculture fields of America because of indiscriminate use of DDT.
Exactly after ten years another important event marked a turning point in the human attitude
towards the environment issues was the UN conference on Human environment, held in 1972
at Stockholm. This mandated a set of reports from the UN secretary-general suggesting that
the conference focus on “stimulating and providing guidelines for action by national governments
and international organizations” facing environmental issues. Environment protection initiatives
and the legislations followed to strengthen the legal frame work showed the commitment of the
nation to this end.

1.7. Objectives
l To improve the understanding on environmental components in a broader context, i.e.
Ecosystems and the ecological services provided by them.
l To develop sensitivity and ability to assess the status, quality and timeline changes in the
dynamics of ecosystems.
l To develop attitude of monitoring and analyzing the impacts of anthropogenic activities
on the natural systems and to question the undesired changes caused to surrounding
environmental components.
l S & T based innovative / practical interventions to address and mitigate the problems
l To promote community participation in management and governance of natural resources
for clean, green and healthy environment to avail better ecological services.

1.8. Scope of the sub-theme

The sub-theme will cover aspects related to the understanding of the ecology and ecological/
ecosystem services including ecological niche, their assessments as to current status vis-a-
vis the historical changes that occurred to the system, the reasons thereof causing the
current degradation, if any as well as of preserving and augmenting the existing systems. It
will also include solutions related to compensate the loss and restoration of original conditions,
piloting activities to test and validate the remedial measures and application of innovative
scientific and technological methods to preserve the integrity of natural cycles of the
ecosystems with community participation.

20
1.9. Logical Framework
Water, Air and Land (including Soil) are three major components of ecosystem.

Ecosystem & Ecological Services

Land/soil regulation Air & Water Socio-culture

Forest, Grassland,
Desert, Agriculture, Society Ocean, River,
Glacial Zones Inland Water Bodies,
and Living Eatuary/ Mangrove,
System Ground water

Anthropogenic Activities Trend Threat

STI Monitoring & Management

The Whole Ecosystem, Not Just Its Parts

In most of the countries separate agencies are in charge of different aspects of ecosystems,
viz. Agriculture, water, forests, fish, and wildlife etc. as well as different drivers of change viz.
energy, transportation development, and trade. A key challenge is to develop more holistic
strategies that incorporate all of these concerns including integrated watershed management,
integrated management of river basins, or national sustainable development strategies. The
ecosystem approach integrates management of land, air and water and living resources that
promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Thus the ecosystem approach
is directly linked with a clean, green and healthy condition conducive to sustainable development.
As organisms interact with each other and their physical environment, they produce, acquire,
or decompose biomass and the carbon-based or organic compounds associated with it. They
also move minerals from the water, sediment, and soil into and among organisms, and back
again into the physical environment. Terrestrial plants also transport water from the soil into the
atmosphere. In performing these functions, they provide materials to humans in the form of
food, fiber, and building materials and they contribute to the regulation of soil, air, and water
quality. These relationships sound simple in general outline, but they are, in fact, enormously
complex, since each species has unique requirements for life and each species interacts with
both the physical and the biological environment. To a large extent, anthropogenic activities
have added greater complexity by changing the nature of those environments.

21
1.10. Project Ideas

Project – 1:
Ecological Significance of the Local Wetland and Impacts of
Anthropogenic Activities on Its Ecosystem Services
Introduction
Wetlands are one of the most unique, productive ecosystems where terrestrial and aquatic
habitats meet. They are nurseries for freshwater and marine fish and other aquatic species.
Almost all of the world’s water birds use wetlands as feeding and breeding grounds. Migratory
water birds use wetlands throughout their range and their site fidelity for en route halt and
feeding is quite unique. With greater species diversity nutrient recycling and niche
specialization than most other ecosystems, wetlands are one of the most productive habitats
in the world.

22
Wetlands have high ecological, historical, scientific, recreational and cultural values. They
provide a wide range of ecosystem services. They regulate wa-ter availability through storage,
groundwater recharge and discharge. They play an important role in erosion control, retention
of sediments and nutrients. They also play a role in regulation of local climate and floods
and protection from storms.

Wetlands have been under constant threat of environmental degradation due to natural as
well as anthropogenic activities. Some of the major environmental threats to the wetlands
and their biodiversity are encroachment, pollution, siltation, weed infestation, commercial
fishery, earth mining, landscaping, commercial operations etc.

In most states, wetlands and inland

water bodies are not recognized as a
unique land use category and these are
often clubbed with ‘wastelands’ meant
to be used for alternate developmental
purposes. Management of wetland
ecosystems calls for continuous
research inputs to address the drivers
of change. However, much of the
research is focused on structural
elements (limnology, biodiversity) and
very limited emphasis is given on their
functional aspects such as ecosystem
services and community livelihoods.

Considering this there is imperative

need to identify and evaluate the
ecological services provided by the
wetlands and also examine the
anthropogenic factors impeding the
wetland services, so as to explore the
appropriate measures for the protection
and management of local wetlands.

Objectives
i. Understanding the significance of the local wetland in terms of the ecosystem services it
provides; the ecological aspects of the wetland and its utility to flora, fauna and human beings.
ii. Preparation of inventory on the state of the health of wetland including anthropogenic
activities and change in characteristics of the wetland (e.g. morphological characters /
physico-chemical parameters and their temporal and spatial changes)
iii. Piloting with protection and management measures through innovative approaches of
science and technology.

23
Hypothesis
The anthropogenic activities are the causes of adverse changes in the wetland ecosystem
and have impact on the quality of the ecological services it provides.

Material Needed
Field guides to identify plants and animal species (no need for sampling), water sampling bottles,
spade, ziplock polythene bags, binocular, camera, cadastral map and topographical sheet (if
easily available), GPS instrument (or simply mobile GPS function can be used), compass,
measuring tape, thin nylon rope, hand gloves, graph paper, designed data sheets etc.

Methodology
• First have a reconnaissance visit of the wetland and develop insight on why the prevailing
conditions need to be documented and analysed and what kind of interventions can be
made to prevent the adversities.
• Set the criteria to be examined and parameters to be analysed. Design the data collection
tools for sample coding, criteria-wise documentation of observations, data recording of
physico-chemical parameters, surveys etc.

* See sample data sheets 1, 2 and 3 for physico-chemical parameters, morphological

details of wetland and ecosystem services respectively.
• Set the time frame for collection of water and soil samples (take care that the site, depth
and distance from the shoreline, time of sampling remains same for all sampling
frequencies)
• Collect water samples for physico-chemical analysis of parameters at set intervals (follow
prescribed standard sampling methods for water and soil and do it under supervision of
your guide teacher).
(water parameters to be assessed - pH, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids, Dissolved
Oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Conductivity, Chlorides, Alkalinity,
Hardness, Phosphate, Sulphate, Nitrate etc.)
(Soil parameters to be assessed - Texture, pH, Conductivity, Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Potassium, Water Holding Capacity etc.)
• Collect data pertaining to various aspects, viz. (i) morphological characteristics of the
water body; (ii) ecosystem services - water availability, water use by local community for
domestic, agriculture, commercial purposes etc, old/large trees; bird breeding & nesting
sites; sites and distribution of other animals like certain insects, rodents, reptiles, birds
and mammals etc; aquatic plants, fishes, aquatic reptiles, molluscs, arthropods etc;
habitat for important plant and animal species (including migratory species); life-cycle
activities of ecotone species (e.g. amphibians); local food chain and food web; microclimate
regulation (temperature, humidity etc); cultural, recreational and aesthetic aspects etc.
• Record the anthropogenic factors causing adverse changes (use photographic / mapping
tools like cadastral map or a simple hand drawn map to mark the reference points (e.g.
points of human activities; disturbances; Record human activities affecting the habitats,
lifecycle and diurnal activities of animals & plants) in relation to time and space.
• How do specially-able people use the wetland for their purposes?
424
• Collect above information in separate data sheets at definite time intervals.
• With the help of GPS handheld instrument or the mobile GPS application, record the
landmark location of the wetland and also the limits of the extreme ends of the wetland in
east, west, north & south directions. Similarly record the geographical coordinates of
water and soil sampling sites, locations of important plant and animal sites, location of
human activity points (viz.
bathing & washing sites, earth
mining sites, wild animal visit
sites, bird nesting sites, resting
sites of important terrestrial and
aquatic animal species, fishing
sites, nearby open defecation
sites, nearby sewage channel or
sewage inlet sites, water body
overflow/outlet points etc and
depict them in one or
combination of cadastral map,
topographical map, hand-drawn
resource map.
The geographical coordinates
can also be uploaded on google
maps and snapshots can be
taken to obtain representative
location pictures of the recorded
aspects. Google earth files can
also be saved with the uploaded
geographical coordinates of
various factors that may help in
live presentation of the situation
in public and official meetings / awareness events etc.
• Consolidate the data and carryout analysis. Depict the data through graphs, figures and
maps; ascertain the numerical values like average, maximum, minimum, standard
deviation and correlation etc. Derive the qualitative and quantitative inferences based on
the data analysis and hypothesis.
• Plan Innovative approach to address the identified problem and carryout piloting activities
and collect the related resultant data in the same way like that of baseline/inventory as
reference for comparison.
• Compare the data obtained before and after the intervention using criteria and indicators.

Follow up
The document so prepared be discussed with experts and get the data validated by them.
The results would be utilized as baseline for the conservation plan of the wetland.

25
The study document to be shared with the village panchayat, state forest department, irrigation
department and local administrative bodies etc, so as to help them develop better conservation
plan for the wetland.

If the wetland is situated in the rural area then request the Panchayat to call Gram Sabha
and take proposals for works (that would help in restoration of the pristine conditions of the
wetland) under MGNREGA (see MGNREGA Operational Guidelines for details of work that
can be taken for wetland conservation and development). If the wetland is situated within
municipal limits of the urban area than approach the district administration with the validated
study record so that the report could be taken for reference by the administration for the
conservation planning of the wetland.

Work on one wetland can be replicated on other wetlands of the area with required
modification according to their local conditions.

Solution Approach
A holistic approach towards wetland ecosystem and its related aspects will develop, that will
help derive better analysis of the current status of the wetland and will also help addressing
the problems related to it through converged activities by various line departments.
Wetland uses by persons with disabilities can also be identified and feasible usage facilities
will be developed.

Expected Outcome
The study will help to develop an understanding about ‘wetland ecosystem’ as opposed to
just a ‘water body’ or water logged area. Traditional knowledge linked to the system could
be analysed, better perception will develop on wetland hydrology, physical, chemical,
biological health of the ecosystem, identification of sub-eco-systems (e.g. nesting, hibernating
sites etc), ecosystem services, adjacent ecosystems having energy flow with it, seasonality,
users/stakeholders relationship etc.

Anthropogenic impacts on the local water body will be identified and their scientific / logical
analysis will be done. Better solutions based on validated study data will be possible to
approach.

26
Sample data sheet-1:Table format for recording the obtained value of physico-chemical
parameters of water and soil samples

27
28
29
Project – 2:
Sacred Groves (Orans) as Ecologically Important, Community
Conserved Areas

Introduction
Sacred groves comprise of patches of forests or natural vegetation – from a few trees to
forests of several acres – that are usually dedicated to local folk deities or tree spirits and
are protected by local communities because of their religious beliefs and traditional rituals
that run through several generations. The degree of sanctity of the sacred forests varies
from one grove to another.

The ecological, biological, cultural and historical values of sacred groves are invaluable.
According to the National Environment Policy of India, ancient sacred groves should be
treated as possessing “Incomparable Values”. Orans serve as grazing grounds for livestock,
supporting biodiversity and having the capacity to reduce impacts of the climate change.
They help in protecting watersheds and water sources that harbour springs, aquifers and
ground water storage, watering and resting place for the livestock. They act as repositories
of rich genetic diversity while also conserving the endemic species, medicinal plants, wild
cultivars and other species of conservation importance including internationally conferred
threatened species. Orans show significant ethno-botanical, ethno-zoological and social
codes of relation and regulation vis-à-vis nature.

Despite being recognized by the traditional communities and cultures for their valuable
contribution to livelihood, groves are often subjected to negligence (especially the smaller
ones) in terms of ecosystem services which require urgent attention from conservationists
as well as decision makers. Changes in socio-economic scenario, increasing human
intervention, inflow of visitors, soil excavation works and other developmental pressures

30
have resulted in deterioration of many sacred groves in the recent past. Considerable changes
have taken place in the extent of the sacred groves, in their vegetation structure; invasion of
exotic weeds is also a major threat.

Therefore, a holistic understanding of the current status, structure and function of sacred
grove is essential for assessing their ecological role and formulating strategies for their
conservation. There is a lack of characterization of sacred groves at the patch level or
quantification of the rate of change in surrounding land-use/land-cover at the landscape
scale in respect to space and time, which are crucial indicators of the current status of
sacred forests, trends in the recent past and requirements for their future conservation.
Therefore present work aims to assess the ecosystem service potential of sacred groves
and their role in ecological characterization through application of geospatial tools and techniques.

Objectives
• Identification of Oran(s), mapping and preparation of baseline database
• Documentation of ecosystem services provided by the oran (including biodiversity, socio-
economic and institutional arrangements) and identification of factors responsible for the
changes within the landscape over the time and space.
• Preparation of baseline maps on separate as well as integrated aspects related to
demarcation, land-use changes, impacts and changes in the Oran; demarcation of Oran
as land-use category in the revenue cadastral map.
• Suggestive tools and techniques based on baseline and maps for effective conservation of Oran.

Hypothesis
Hypothesis-1: Identification and demarcation of Oran is an effective way for identifying its
ecosystem services and threats to it.
Hypothesis-2: Geospatial approach is an effective tool in identifying the conservation priorities
for the Oran.

Materials Needed
Cadastral map of the area, topographical sheet (at 1:50000 scale), GPS handheld instrument
or mobile phone having GPS application, compass, measuring tape, graph paper, designed
data sheets, field guides to identify plants and animal species, geographical and geological
features etc.
GIS software / or help from a GIS expert to generate integrated maps.

Methodology
A. Collection of secondary information
• Collect the existing information in the form of published and unpublished literature, reports
and other sources that is related to the selected sacred grove.
• Prepare the systematic record of the reported status of flora & fauna, geographical,
geological and past climatic events, historical cultural practices etc. This will form a base
to which further additions through fieldwork will be made.

31
B. Boundary Mapping (Perambulation)
Walk along the customary boundary of the oran and mark its extent and limits in the respective
cadastral map so as to demarcate a clear boundary of the identified Oran for further reference.
Identification of landmarks at the boundary limits and their marking in the map would help in
real demarcation of the area on the ground.

The same exercise may be done more precisely with the GPS handheld instrument. Keep
the track log of the GPS ‘ON’ while moving around the boundary limit till the complete circle
is done; the recorded track log will be later transferred to GPS software (e.g. MapSource)
for further digitization and overlaying on the cadastral or topographical maps.

Alternatively a local resource map showing the total area of the Oran, can be prepared in
consultation with the local people. This map should be then carefully and neatly redrawn for
including it in the document and depiction of other area aspects in it.

The boundary map further can be divided into grids (size of grid to be decided according to
the total size of the area). The grid map is useful for recording distribution of species or
various phenomenon or aspects that are likely to be plotted in the mapping of the location
information.

C. Field survey / primary information

• Record the existing ecosystem services from the sacred grove - Provisioning services
(e.g. Water availability and uses, drainage lines, soil types and fertility, medicinal plants,
non-timber forest products (NTFP), fruits, fodder and fuel wood etc) Regulating services
(e.g. Flood prevention, soil erosion control, runoff control, groundwater recharge, landslide
reduction, fire resistance etc) Cultural and amenity services (e.g. Religious and cultural
practices, research opportunities, educational activities, community governance and
management, aesthetics etc) Supporting services (e.g. Biological diversity i.e. flora and
fauna and microhabitats for characteristic plant and animal species, nutrient cycling,
pollination and seed dispersal,regeneration etc)
• Record the existing threats / factors identified for unnatural changes (e.g. Fragmentation
patches, invasive alien species, pollution, wood extraction, lopping, grazing, poaching,
mining, fire incidences, land-use changes, encroachment etc)
• Collect the information on above aspects of the ecosystem using data tools and standard
ecological sampling techniques like quadrate, plots, point count, area search, line, belt
and vehicle transect, random survey etc.
• Record the status of natural resources and other focused aspects using abundance
rating – qualitative assessment (e.g. low, moderate, high and very high).
* See Sample data sheet-4, 5 and 6 for collecting basic information, location details of
different ecosystem aspects and location details of threats and conservation priority
respectively. The details of ecosystem services can be documented in the similar format
given in sample data sheet-3 (modified according to the aspects to be documented).

32
D. Mapping
The mapping shall cover two broader aspects distinctly -
1. Spatial information (i.e. point location or area in terms of time and space) based on
secondary and primary information, viz. biodiversity, micro-habitats, landscape features,
drainage, etc.
2. Non-spatial information (viz. factors of undesirable changes, threats and suggestive
measures etc).

Application of GPS approach: For precise and accurate plotting of spatial information GPS
is an effective application technique. The spatial information can be recorded using the
GPS handheld instrument or through mobile GPS application in android or smart phones.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is used to mark point location, length of the line
followed in walking, estimate land areas as well as making border by walking along the
boundary of study areas. It is equally useful in collection of integrated location information in
the study areas and its depiction in the digital maps.

Application of GIS approach: Geographical Information System is a computer application

for designed to store and manipulate data, integrating and further analysis of other types of
information (for example ArcGIS 10.2 software or open source QGIS software). In the present
study GIS can be used as a complimentary technique to prepare thematic or integrated
maps based on collected primary and secondary information. All map digitization shall be
done based on GPS points recorded in the plots of the study areas, this will include
demarcation of the central location of the Oran and its boundaries, superimpose all prepared
data on toposheet or cadastral map and preparation of base maps.

All above information on ecosystem services, disturbances and threats and recommended
measures etc shall be mapped to finally deriving critical areas/aspects within the sacred
grove for conservation on priority.

Follow-up
The documented information and different maps of identified Oran can be used for identifying or
predicting temporal changes that may occur positive or negative way, based upon the intervention
done. The digital maps of can also be ported to Google Earth or any other satellite imagery to
visualize the three dimensional image of the pre and post intervention conditions.

The geospatial approach just like applied on individual oran can also be applied on larger
area having multiple Oran sites and their individual details can also be integrated to visualize
on larger scale like regional or district or state level maps.

Solution Approach
The database generated for the above work could be of immense help in conservation &
management of Oran with potential to derive the information on status of existing conditions,
measures undertaken and mapping of different aspects in thematic or integrated way for
better visualization.

33
Expected Outcome
Sacred groves are lifeline for the local community in many ways either resource supply,
socio-cultural or livelihood support. Although their biodiversity and ecological functions have
been documented largely but their linkages with ecosystem services and support to resources
and livelihood has been less focused. This study tried to assess the ecosystem service
potential of the groves with an aim to strengthen the ongoing conservation efforts taken by
government, NGOs and local communities. The assessment would be helpful for prioritizing
the aspects for conservation purpose based on their ecosystem services.

Sample data sheet-4: Format for recording the basic information of the sacred grove -

Note: For points 11 to 18, mention the information here in brief and give details
separately in appropriately designed data sheets.

34
Sample data sheet-5:Format for recording the location details of different ecosystem
aspects of the sacred grove -

Note: Use qualitative or quantitative scale to mention, Very Common / common / less
common/ rare or Frequent / Seasonal / round the year.

Sample data sheet-6:Format for recording the location of threats and/or proposed
intervention in the sacred grove (in one or separate sheets)

Note: Use numerical scale to show the priority level -

Project – 3:

Mangroves: Impacts due to Anthropogenic Effects, Biodiversity,

Social, Ecological and Economic Aspects

Introduction
The mangrove ecosystems are the breeding ground for a wide variety of organisms like barnacles,
oysters, crabs, shrimps and fishes which are pivotal in the food chains and food webs in the
oceanic ecosystems at large. More than 35% of the world’s mangroves are already gone.
Mangrove forests have often been seen as unproductive and smelly, and so cleared to make
room for agricultural land, human settlements and infrastructure (such as harbours), and industrial
areas. More recently, clearing for tourist developments, shrimp aquaculture etc.

Mangrove ecosystem is very sensitive to destructive intervention. Any serious disturbance in the
intertidal area affecting the mud banks and breathing roots may spell doom to the mangrove
forest. Children in the coastal areas may pay a few visits with the teacher guide and elders to

35
understand the ecology and ecosystem services of the
mangrove forests not far off from the school. During the
visit identify areas which are intact and in healthy
ecologic condition and areas with serious
disturbance like cutting of trees, dumping of
waste, reclaimed areas or destroyed for
making housing plots etc. A
comparative study can be done in the
plant /animal communities in the intact
areas and disturbed areas applying
appropriate methods.

Objectives
• To understand the ecology and
ecosystem services of the
mangrove forests
• To understand the impact of
anthropogenic activities to the
fragile mangrove ecosystem
and how the impacts impair the
ecosystem services provided
by this ecosystem
• Comparative account of the
healthy v/s disturbed/
degraded mangrove areas

Hypothesis
• Mangrove ecosystem is one of the most fragile ecosystems in the world which will respond
fast to disturbances leading to its degradation in quantity and quality.
• Conclusions can be drawn on the impacts of anthropogenic activities by quantifying the
community structure of the Mangrove ecosystem of a locality.

Material Needed
Cadastral map of the area, data sheet, sampling net, note book, nylon string, long nails,
wooden or metallic quadrate frame etc. are required.

Methodology
• Quadrat Method - Scientists usually calculate the plant population frequency using the
quadrat method. A quadrat is a sample plot of a specific size used for the study of population
or a community. Quadrats are used in many different scientific disciplines like vegetation
assessment, including plant density, plant frequency and plant biomass. Frequency is highly
influenced by the size and shape of the quadrats used. The area that is chosen for study

36
 must not be so big that it cannot be sampled adequately, or so small that the habitat is
difficult for sampling. For herbaceous vegetation a metre square quadrat is normally used.
• Frequency - Determining plant population frequency using quadrat method has become
popular primarily because it is relatively simple and objective. Children can easily handle
this method. Frequency indicates the number of times a plant species is present within a
given number of sample quadrats. It is measured by noting the presence of a species in
random sample areas which are distributed as widely as possible throughout the area of
study. Once analyzed, the sample data enables the child scientist to calculate population
frequency of the entire population by the following method:
% Frequency = (Number of sampling units in which the species occurs /
Total number of sampling units employed for the study) X 100
• For example suppose in the mangrove area studied, seven plots/quadrats are taken for
study, the Mangrove tree Rhizophora mucronata is present one each in five plots, hence
the percentage frequency of Rhizophora mucronata = (5/7) X 100 = 71.42%. Likewise
for other species can also be analysed. The organisms like crabs, prawns, oysters,
sponges, ishes, worms (not necessary to go to species level) etc. also can be studied by
using the same method.
• The size of the quadrat may vary according to the size of the plant/organisms subjected
to study. For the study of trees in a mangrove area, quadrat size of about 5m X 5m may
be suitable. The boundaries of the quadrat can be marked by using a rope. For shrubs
and seedlings quadrate size can be 1m x 1m which may be marked on two corners of the
tree quadrats already demarcated. For organisms like fishes, crabs, worms etc. quadrats
of 1m x 1m may be chosen. This can be in the same tree quadrat area, but readings
should be taken in the initial stage itself without much disturbance to the plot. For
organisms, wooden/metallic quadrat frames may be employed.
• The number of sample plots/quadrats is decided based on the total area available for
conducting the study.
• Economic, social and livelihood aspects are to be studied by conducting survey with
appropriate samples. Questionnaire is to be framed to elicit responses in tune with the
objectives of the study.

Follow-up
The result of the study may be presented before the students and the teachers of the school
and a collective effort may be made to make the administrators and public at large, aware of
the ecosystem services provided by the sensitive ecosystem and how the human activity
impacts affected the ecosystem and services provided by the mangroves. Further efforts
may be initiated to restore the lost/degraded mangrove areas with the participation of the
appropriate authorities and public.

Solution Approach
The comparative study may reveal the degree of disturbance and its impact on the community
structure and also on ecosystem services. The impact on livelihood of the local communities
and on society at large also can be shown in the result by analyzing the survey and plot
study data. Stopping further degradation and initiating eco-restoration process in the degraded

37
areas are the only ways to conserve the mangroves and make sure that the ecosystem
services provided by this fragile ecosystem are continued.

Expected Outcome
The child may be able to analyze which all species in the community are most sensitive to
anthropogenic activities. The data on seedlings may reveal the impact of disturbance on
the level of recruitment and the child may be capable of predicting the future of the
mangrove ecosystem if the disturbance be continued at the given rate.

1.11. Additional Project Ideas

• Allergic problems due to pollen dispersal
• Alternative uses of weeds (e.g. water hyacinth, lantana, Mesquite)
• Application of GPS tool in studying distribution of particular plant or animal or group of
species.
• Application of Geographical Information System - Remote Sensing (GIS-RS) techniques in
studying ecosystem or species.
• Assessment of living and non-living components of an intermediate zone (Ecotone) and its
associated conservation issues.
• Beach Erosion - causes, impacts and restoration
• Butterflies and host plants
• Carbon footprint studies
• Catchment treatment for water conservation
• Change in drainage pattern due to land use changes and impact on ecosystem
characteristics
• Comparison of soil biota in organic farms and other kind of farms
• Coral Reef diversity and ecosystem services (livelihood)
• Crop diversity in relation to varied topography and its linkage to soil quality
• Crows -response to changes, including nest building
• Distribution pattern of flora & fauna in different landscapes and their significance
• Diversity of aquatic plants in local water body / bodies and their role in aquatic ecology
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of developmental activities in the locality
• Grazing and spread of plant species through dung/excreta
• Heronries / rookeries in your village/town and their significance
• Impacts of anthropogenic activities on coral reef ecosystem productivity including coral
bleaching.
• Impact of invasive alien plants on ecosystem services of terrestrial native vegetation (groves
/ gardens / forest)
• Impact of sounds on animal behaviour (Zoo / domestic / stray animals)
• Indicator species and ecosystem health
• Inland wetlands and the Livelihood
• Insect-Pests and natural enemies - dynamics
• Invasive alien fishes and their impact on the aquatic ecosystem
• Invasive aquatic plants and their impacts
• Invasion of pine in non-glacial zones of the Himalayas
• Is house sparrow disappearing from our houses and markets? - a critical analysis.
• Mangroves and ecological services

38
• Monitoring Rare, Endangered & Threatened (RET) taxa and conservation measures
(prioritizing species)
• Nectar plants in the gardens and visitation by birds and butterflies
• Optimal water requirement for different plant species
• Plastics / garbage and impact on mangroves
• Pollination dynamics / pollinating agents like insects, bats and birds
• River bank / sand stabilization by appropriate plant species
• Road networks and comparative ambient air temperature (with and without avenue trees)
• Role of natural reed beds in controlling pollutants leading to water body
• Seed Poisoning and Bird Mortality
• Shrinking Wetlands and Its impacts
• Selective planting of trees and its impact on local ecosystem / biota
• Status of road side trees in city areas and their significance in regulation of urban climate
and ecology
• Status of water regime (i.e availability of water in different forms, viz. precipitation, surface and
ground water, snow, soil moisture, humidity etc and its cyclic process) in village / city environment
and ascertaining the anthropogenic and natural factors causing changes in it
• Study of biodiversity hotspots in urban environment
• Study on the natural seasonal changes in a garden or natural grove and impact of
anthropogenic activities on that
• Study on Road Kills of animals and its ecological consequences
• Study on the competitive ability of alien invasive species and native species (e.g.Anogeissus
pendula an excellent native competitor to invasive alien Prosopis juliflora;)
• Study on the invasive pathways of alien species in different landscapes
• Study on urban biodiversity
• Urban bird communities
• Vegetation as wind Breaks (comparative studies and applied aspects)

Literature Cited:
• Akwé: Kon Voluntary Guidelines for the conduct of cultural, environmental and social impact
assessment regarding developments proposed to take place on, or which are likely to impact on,
sacred sites and on lands and waters traditionally occupied or used by indigenous and local
communities (2004). CBD guideline Series, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Available at: https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/akwe-brochure-en.pdf
• Community Conserved Areas: Odisha and Madhya Pradesh- Directory. Report of United Nations
Development Program. Available at: http://www.in.undp.org/
• Conservation Fit (a new approach to monitor endangered species). www.conservationfit.org
• Conservation of ecological heritage and sacred sites of India. C.P.R. Environmental Education
Centre. www.ecoheritage.cpreec.org
• Environmental Impact Classification of Alien Taxa (EICAT - IUCN). https://www.iucn.org/theme/
species/our-work/invasive-species/eicat
• India State of Forest Report. Forest Survey of India. Available at http://fsi.nic.in/
details.php?pgID=sb_62
• IUCN guidelines for the prevention of biodiversity loss due to biological invasion (approved by the
IUCN council, February, 2000). IUCN – The World Conservation Union (2000). www.iucn.org
• IUCN guidelines for the prevention of biodiversity loss caused by alien invasive species. Available
at: http://intranet.iucn.org

39
• Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island
Press, Washington, DC. Available at: http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/
document.356.aspx.pdf
• National Environment Policy (2006). Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Govt.
of India. Available at: http://www.moef.gov.in/sites/default/files/introduction-nep2006e.pdf
• Sacred Groves - India Environment Portal. http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/category/2373/
thesaurus/sacred-groves/
• Significance of sacred groves in conservation of biodiversity. ENVIS Centre on Forestry.
www.frienvis.nic.in
• State of the World’s Forests. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
Available at: http://www.fao.org/publications/sofo/en/
• Wetlands and Ecosystem services. Convention on Biological Diversity. https://www.cbd.int/waters/
doc/wwd2015/wwd-2015-press-briefs-en.pdf
• Adve, N. (2014). Moving Home. Global warming and the shifts in species’ range in India. Economic
and Political Weekly, Vol. XLIX(39): 34-38.
• B. M. Kharkongor, B.M. and B. K. Tiwari. 2015. Sacred groves of Meghalaya: a review. Int. J.
Science and Research (IJSR), Volume 6 Issue 3, March 2017, 346-349. ISSN (Online): 2319-
7064. Available at: https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v6i3/ART20171342.pdf.
• Chandan, M.D.S., M. Gadgil and J.D. Hughes (1998). Sacred groves of the Western Ghats of
India. In: Conserving the sacred for biodiversity management (Eds.) P.S. Ramakrishnan, K.G.
Saxena and U.M. Chandrashekara. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp 211-
231. 13-34.
• Dubey, S. (2008). Invasive alien flora in Rajasthan. In: Conserving Biodiversity of Rajasthan (with
emphasis on wild fauna and flora) (Ed.) Ashok Verma. Pub. Himanshu Publications, Udaipur
(Raj.), pp. 455-465.
• Dubey, S. and B.L. Chaudhary (2011). Record of Alien Plant Species in Jaisamand Wildlife
Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India. J. Indian Bot. Soc. Vol. 90(3&4): 367-373.
• Fekete, B. M., D. Wisser, C. Kroeze, E. Mayorga, L. Bouwman, W. M. Wollheim, and C.
Vörösmarty (2010). Millennium Ecosystem Assessment scenario drivers (1970–2050): Climate
and hydrological alterations, Global Biogeochem. Cycles. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
doi/10.1029/2009GB003593/full
• Forman, R. and S. Collinge (1997). Nature conserved in changing landscapes with and without
spatial planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 37:129-135.
• Gokhale, Y. and N.A. Pala. (2011). Ecosystem services in sacred natural sites (SNSs) of
Uttarakhand: a preliminary survey. J. Biodiversity, 2(2):107-115.
• Hangarge L. M. , D. K. Kulkarni , V. B. Gaikwad , D. M. Mahajan and V. R. Gunale (2016). Plant
diversity of sacred groves and its comparative account with surrounding denuded hills from Bhor
region of Western Ghats. Bioscience Discovery, 7(2):121-127. Available at: http://
biosciencediscovery.com/Vol%207%20No%202/Hangarge121-127.pdf.
• Joshi, R., S. Kulkarni, S. Bhusare, N. Phansalkar, D. Nipunage, and D. Kulkarni, (2015). Ecosystem
services of sacred groves in western Maharashtra through multiple facets. Life sciences leaflets,
[S.l.], v. 60, jan. 2015. ISSN 0976-1098. Available at: <http://petsd.org/ojs/index.php/
lifesciencesleaflets/article/view/246>
• Khan, M.L., A.D. Khumbongmayum and R.S. Tripathi (2008). The Sacred Groves and Their
Significance in Conserving Biodiversity An Overview. Int. J. Ecology and Environmental Sciences,
34(3): 277-291. Available at: http://www.activeremedy.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/ml-khan-
et-al-2008-the-sacred-groves-and-their-significance-in-conserving-biodiversity.pdf.
• Mandal, R.N. and K.R. Naskar (2008): Diversity and classification of Indian mangroves - a review.
Tropical Ecology, 49(2): 131-146. Online Available at: http://www.tropecol.com/pdf/open/PDF_49_2/
05%20Mandal.pdf.
• Naskar, K.R. and R.N. Mandal (1999). Ecology and Biodiversity of Indian Mangroves. Daya
Publishing House, New Delhi, India.

40
• Ray, R., Chandran, M.D.S. & Ramachandra, T.V.(2010). Ecosystem services from sacred groves
of Uttar Kannada - a case study. Available at: http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/lake2010/
Theme%202/rajasri_ray.pdf
• Ray, R., Chandran, M.D.S. & Ramachandra, T.V. (2014). Biodiversity and ecological assessments
of Indian sacred groves. Vol. 25: 21-28. J. Forestry Research, doi:10.1007/s11676-014-0429-2
• T V R Murthy, J G Patel, S. Panigrahy and J S Parihar (Eds.). 2013. National Wetland Atlas:
Wetlands of International Importance under Ramsar Convention, SAC/EPSA/ABHG/NWIA/ATLAS/
38/2013, Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad, India, 230p. Available at: http://
www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/Atlas-Wetlands-International%20Importance-Ramsar-
Convention.pdf

Abbreviations used in this section

CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity

CCA - Community Conserved Areas
GIS - Geographical Information System
GISP - Global Invasive Species Program
GPS - Global Positioning System
IUCN - International union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
MEA - Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
MGNREGA - Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

41