CHAPTER -2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Studies to be reviewed have documented that cooperative conflict management

can have important short-term and long-term consequences that protagonists are likely
to experience as beneficial. Experiments have shown that cooperative conflict can be
constructive in the short-term as measured by understanding issues, making quality
solutions, and strengthening relationships. Field studies provide evidence that these
effects generalize to various organizational settings and persist over time. A recent
study provides evidence of the value of being predisposed to manage conflict
cooperatively for long-term psychological development and health (Tjosvold, Huang,
Johnson, & Johnson, 2006).

Developing constructive and positive conflict resolution strategies at various

organizational levels is the emerging thought

Dispute resolution constitutes an important managerial responsibility and

activity, and has a crucial impact on the well being of the organization. Managers often
serve as third parties to a conflict resolution process. Organizations develop many
constructive conflict resolution strategies at various levels of the organization. Many
researchers have documented that protagonists who emphasize their cooperative,
positively related goals where they believe that as one moves toward goal attainment
the others do too are prepared to engage in open-minded discussions; they express their
various views directly, try to understand each other, and combine their ideas to solve
the underlying problem for mutual benefit. In contrast to this theory on the approach
that is likely to result in positive outcomes, the definition of constructive conflict is not
so clearly operationalized. Deutsch (1973) argued that conflicts are constructive to the
extent that participants consider that overall they have gained more benefits than costs.
Assessing these benefits and comparing them with the costs though involve a complex
calculus. Conflicts can have wide-ranging effects and it seems likely that actors
typically experience different effects and that consequences valuable in the short-term
are not necessarily valuable in the long-term.

1
 According to a study conducted by Etty Liberman, Yael Foux Levy and Pertz
Segal (2009), it has been accepted that there is a notion that an internal Conflict
Management System for workplace disputes must be designed to promote a positive
work environment. This article discusses the design and implementation of Conflict
Management System for an Israeli municipality. It assesses how effective the Conflict
Management System has been from the perspective of users on improving interpersonal
relationships and creating a positive workplace atmosphere.

Linda L. Putnam (2007), discussed on organizational conflict management

systems - the early dispute models such as Adjudication and Arbitration which are
replaced by the Non-union environments characterized by team-based work systems,
co-operative partnerships and joint ventures, participatory and collaborative
management systems.

In a study made by Steve Alper, dean Tjosvold, Kenneth S.Law, (2000), it was
discussed that co-operative approach to conflict leads to conflict efficacy that in turn
results in effective performance as measured by managers.

Michael.R (1989) quotes in a study on Conflict management and organizational

development, that personal relations in an organization depends on four general forms
such as, i) Power and dependency ii) Negotiating iii) Instrumental, and iv) Socio-
emotional aspects.

Dean Tjosvold (2007) states that co-operative relationships exist in an

organization when skills to discuss diverse and conflicting views open-mindedly,
combine energy, ideas and knowledge of diverse people in an highly constructive
manner takes place.

In various studies conducted by Carten K.W.De Dreu (2007) and many

researchers, it is discussed that workplace conflict is quite desirable, should be
welcomed and, where possible, stimulated Pondy (1992). In fact, this is exactly what
Van de Vliert and De Dreu (1994) suggested some time ago: ‗In overly harmonious or
protest-repressive situations, therefore, encouragement and intensification rather than
prevention and mitigation of conflict may often be recommended.
 George and Jones (2005) note in a book the view on conflict, although
unavoidable, it can often increase organizational performance, if it is carefully managed
and negotiated.

The major finding of the study by Jose M.Guerra, Ines Martinez, Lourdes
Munduate and Francisco J. Medina (2005) is that the role of organizational culture is
more in influencing the nature of conflicts that occur in the workplace. It is found that
Task conflicts take place in private organizations with a high goal oriented culture
compared to public organizations with a low goal oriented culture.

Angela I. Greenwald (2007), the major findings were quite attention drawing.
The study is to investigate the degree to which the Six Sigma leadership training
program prepares leaders to resolve organization conflict, a major source of stress-
related illness. A qualitative case study approach was utilized. Twenty-three Black Belt
leaders in three Six Sigma roles of one Fortune 100 company were interviewed from
five strategic business units to determine if improvements may be made to reduce
unresolved conflict and enhance leader effectiveness. Leaders reported to be ill
equipped to manage conflict, negatively impacting productivity, rendering them less
effective and unable to meet personal and organizational goals. The results confirmed
that no training in the area of conflict resolution was included in the curriculum. To
compensate, the leaders sought training outside of the curriculum, ignored conflicts, or
worked alone. Adequate recognition, a supportive leader and peer network, judicious
project selection and a conflict-receptive culture were positive influences.
Recommendations for promoting positive social change by reduction of harmful
workplace conflict include conflict resolution training, the initiation of a peer network,
clearer role definition, and more thorough project selection.

According to Ruth Sirman (2008), Collaborative Leadership is a sound solution

to complex problems at workplace. The study explains the Management style that was
ripe for conflict. Collaborative leadership changes the dynamics and re-establishing a
functional workplace, assessing the damage, soliciting inputs from employees, having a
collaborative plan and moving beyond the politics of work.

Patrick Lencoini (2008) stated five critical success factors to build trust among
the team members at workplace. By building trust conflicts can be managed in a
constructive and productive manner.
 According to a survey conducted by George Kohlrieser (2007), there are six
essential skills for managing conflict. The researcher enumerated the benefits of
conflicts to a company and how to manage conflict for high performance.

According to Janice L Dreachslin, Dane Kiddy (2006), there are six main causes
of conflict. Viz., unclear expectations, Ineffective or poor communication, lack of clear
jurisdiction, interpersonal styles or attitudes, conflicts of interests, and organizational
change. She also stated the resolving styles of conflicts such as collaborating,
competing, compromising, accommodating, and avoiding. The researcher suggested the
best technique to manage conflict by developing emotional intelligence among the
members of the team or group at workplace.

A study is conducted by Debra Lynn Ravanheimo Casey (2007), on managing

conflicts through organizational ombudsmen programs. This study found that for that
period of study, these programs exist as informal conflict management mechanisms
with different types and conflict management contexts. This study focused on
ombudsmen at the level of the programs and organization that use them in dealing with
the world of workplace conflicts.

Kelly Blayne Warren (2004), according to this study, the dominating style of
conflict management is a style that forces behavior to win one‘s position at any cost.
Recall Rahim‘s (1992) statement, ―Dominating may mean standing up for one‘s rights
and / or defending a position that the party believes to be correct‖. Analysis from this
data produced a positive correlation between the dominating conflict style and the
spiritual gift of ruler. The leader with the gift of rulership looks ahead to possibilities
and future goals, offers guidance to reach those goals, and communicates those goals in
such a way that others will listen and work to achieve them. Thus, when conflict
occurs, the ruler will stand up for his or her position because it is believed to be
essential to goal achievement. Dominating may win in the short term, but Rahim et al.
(1999) contended that the style is short-sided and short-lived. Therefore, the ruler who
uses the dominating style of managing conflict too often may win the battle but lose the
war.

Constance Barrow – Green (2004) in his study focused on the relationship

between the styles of conflict management and the quality of the dyadic relationship
between leader and follower. The study states that effective leadership is critical to
organizational success which influences the styles of leadership and the relationships
exchanged by a leader and a member.

Jennnifer L Clarke (2003), the study explains the experiential learning as an

enabler to improve conflict management in a work team. The experiential learning
program affects the ability of a work team to effectively manage conflict.

Linda Berens(2010), discusses the essential characteristics of the interaction

styles from the view point of positives, dialogue, differences discussions, decisions,
dexterity, unfinished business discussions. All these characteristics are important for
constructive conflict management at work environment.

According to a study conducted by Frank Harrison (1986), there is a necessity

for synergy in professional organizations. Managerial and Professional orientations are
opportunities for organizational conflicts. Several other studies have concurrent with
Kornhauser's findings regarding a potential divergence between the value and goal
orientations of professional and managers in complex organizations. One study in
particular made at the Industrial Relations Center at the University of Chicago,
comprising separate surveys of 587 professional employees in 19 separate work groups,
cited differences in managerial and professional orientations toward goals and
objectives as a primary source of potential conflict.

Increasing globalization and advances in communication technology have

fuelled the emergence of global virtual teams (GVT). There is much potential for
conflict in GVT as members work across cultural, geographical, and time boundaries.
This study examines the antecedents of GVT conflict and the circumstances under
which conflict affects team performance. An in-depth study of GVT conflict episodes
was carried out using interviews, observations, communication logs, and documents.
Based on findings from the teams under study interpreted in the light of prior literature,
propositions are developed about the antecedents and impacts of GVT conflict as
stated. GVT cultural diversity is likely to contribute to both task and relationship
conflict, while functional diversity may result in task conflict. Large volume of
electronic communication and lack of immediacy of feedback in asynchronous media
can contribute to task conflict. Additionally, the relationship between task conflict and
team performance is likely to be contingent upon task complexity and conflict
resolution approach. The influence of relationship conflict on performance may depend
on task interdependence and conflict resolution approach. The conflict resolution
approach may in turn be determined by the nature of conflict attribution. These
propositions have been synthesized into a model to guide future empirical research and
GVT practice.

 Research shows that 60-80% of all difficulties in organizations stem from strained
relationships between employees, not from deficits in individual employee‘s skill or
motivation. Daniel Dana, Managing Differences

 The typical manager spends 25-40% of his or her time dealing with workplace
conflicts. That‘s one to two days of every work week.

 Ernst & Young reports that the cost of losing and replacing an employee may be as
high as 150% of the departing employee‘s annual salary.

 In a 1990 survey, 78% of respondents indicated that they believe some, most or all
employers engage in discrimination in hiring or promotion, and 51% stated that all
or most employers engage in discriminatory practices.

 90% of harassment is never officially reported.

 More than 50% of employers report having been sued by an employee. Society for
Human Resource Management survey, cited in USA Today.

 Between 1970 and 1989, the general federal civil caseload increased by 125%. In
contrast, employment discrimination cases increased 2,166%.

 The national average compensatory award in employment practice liability cases

rose from $133,691 in 1997 to $250,000 in 2003.

 Fortune 500 Senior Executives spend 20% of their time in litigation activities.

 Organizations adopting conflict resolution processes, like mediation and arbitration,

report 50-80% reductions in litigation costs.

Workplace Conflict Statistics

When cooperation and collaboration are low, effects are seen in productivity,
customer service, organizational and individual stress, unscheduled absences, sick leave
use, medical claims, retention, and recruitment ability. Here are some statistics that
reflect the cost of conflict in organizations:

 30-42% of managers' time is spent reaching agreement with others when conflicts
occur.

 It is estimated that more than 65% of performance problems result from strained
relationships between employees -- not from deficits in individual employees'
skill or motivation.

 It costs 1.5 times the position salary to replace the employee in it.

 It is estimated that sexual harassment claims alone are costing each Fortune 500
company $6.7 million per year, with costs for smaller companies being
proportionately burdensome.

 Recent studies find that more than two-thirds of managers spend more than 10%
of their time handling workplace conflict and 44% of managers spend more than
20% of their time in conflict-related issues.

 A number of surveys indicate that people in all occupations report the most
uncomfortable, stress-producing parts of their jobs are the interpersonal conflicts
that they experience on a daily basis between themselves and co-workers or
supervisors.

 From 1990 to 1995, the number of charges with the EEOC alleging illegal
discrimination in employment increased 46.75%.

Below are some Workplace statistics that show you the cost of turnover, loss of
productivity and absenteeism.

 The cost of turnover in the workplace is extraordinary. Ernst & Young reports that
the cost of losing and replacing an employee may be as high as 150% of the
departing employee‘s annual salary. The cost of turnover also includes the
manager‘s time training new employees.

 Productivity losses related to personal and family health problems cost U.S.
employers $1,685 per employee per year, or $225.8 billion annually.

 $700,000 is the average jury award in wrongful termination lawsuits.

 The typical manager spends 25-40% of his or her time dealing with workplace
conflicts. That‘s one to two days of every work week.

Workplace Stress & Mental Health

 Two-thirds of both men and women say work has a significant impact on their
stress level, and one in four has called in sick or taken a ―mental health day‖ as
a result of work stress.

 One-fourth of employees view their jobs as the number one stressor in their lives.

 Workplace stress causes approximately one million U.S. employees to miss work
each day.

 Problems at work are more strongly associated with health complaints than are any
other life stressor.

 Workers who must take time off work because of stress, anxiety, or a work conflict
will be off the job for about 21 days.

 American employees used about 8.8 million sick days in 2001 due to untreated or
mistreated depression.

 Indirect costs of untreated mental health disorders results in a $79 billion annual
loss to businesses due to loss of productivity and absenteeism.

The cost of turnover, loss of productivity and absenteeism in organizations due

to conflict is huge.

When organizations make it a priority to train employees on communication /

1listening skills, building trust, teambuilding, and conflict resolution skills, less
unresolved conflicts will occur. When employees feel their concerns are heard by
management, job satisfaction and productivity increases which goes right to an
organization‘s bottom line.

Conflicts in manufacturing and service sectors

C.C.Cheung and K.B.Chuah, 1999 carried out a study on Conflict Management

Styles in Hong Kong industries. This paper examines the use of different conflict
resolutions in 63 actual case studies from Hong Kong industries. Contrary to common
perception and previous findings, `confrontation', as a mode of conflict resolution is
found to be more commonly used in handling conflict. And significantly, almost all of
the case incidents which used the `confrontation' approach were said to have achieved
positive consequences. The authors argue that this change of resolution strategy in the
past decade could be due to the increasing number of Hong Kong companies adopting
the matrix structure explicitly or implicitly in carrying their projects. It appears that in
Hong Kong industries, the influence of the Chinese culture and traditional values in
attitude, behaviour and professional practices of both engineers as well as managers, is
diminishing. Although the `withdrawal' and `forcing' approaches were also being used
for certain types of conflict, as revealed by some of the case studies, the consequences
are often recognized to be dysfunctional to team work.

A survey is conducted by Ike C. Ehie, (2010) on the manufacturing managers in

the USA and analyzed 392 valid responses. The results indicate that when conflict
arises in a manufacturing decision, cognitive conflict would lead to a higher level of
company performance particularly when the decision scenario is based on market
responsive situation (innovative products). Consistent with previous studies, affective
conflict tends to have adverse effects on performance regardless of the decision
scenario. This study contributes to our understanding of situations in which conflict can
facilitate or hamper company performance in an operational decision making setting.

The study on promising research opportunities in emotions and coping with

conflict by Ronald H. Humphrey, 2006 discuss the core concepts such as the empathy,
the ability to recognize emotions in others, and the ability to express one's own
emotions. These 3 variables are related to moods and job performance, leadership,
emotional labour, trust, work family conflict and stress, promising research areas,
suggesting practical ways to help employees and organizations cope with conflict in the
workplace.

The study by Olufemi Adejare Adewole and Olukemi Grace Adebola, 2010 on
Collective bargaining as a strategy for industrial conflict management in Nigeria
investigated the strength of collective bargaining as a strategy for Industrial conflict
management and Industrial harmony among 5 manufacturing Industries randomly
sampled in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. With the use of a questionnaire administered to
100 respondents, an empirical study of a descriptive type was carried out on the
selected manufacturing industries to determine the role played by collective bargaining
in the resolution of industrial conflicts and promotion of industrial harmony at the
workplace. Techniques of data analysis were mainly by the use of non-parametric
statistics which included simple frequency distributions and percentage values from
opinion information derived on the Likert 5- point scale. The major finding of the study
revealed that the frequent eruption of industrial conflicts between employers and
employees in Nigeria generally, can be effectively managed through collective
negotiation and consultation with the workers‘ representatives. The paper therefore
recommends that both public and private organizations and all stakeholders in
Industrial relations should encourage regular review of labour agreement and effective
employer-employee consultation and negotiation so as to reduce conflicts at the
workplace and thereby promote industrial harmony and enhance productivity.

Kim Lian Lee, 2008 made a study that examined the relationships between
conflict handling styles and subordinates‘ satisfaction with supervision. Data from 139
respondents from major industries in Malaysia including service, manufacturing,
mining and construction demonstrated that subordinates were more satisfied with their
superiors‘ supervision through their exercise of integrating, compromising, and
obliging styles. On the other hand, subordinates who perceived their superiors as
primarily utilizing dominating and avoiding style viewed them as incompetent in
supervision and thus lowering their level of job satisfaction.

From the survey conducted by Steve Alper, Dean Tjosvold and kenneth S. Law,
2000 it is reveals that the structural equation analysis supports the model that a co-
operative instead of competitive approach to conflict leads to conflict efficacy that in
turn results in effective performance as measured by managers. Findings suggest how
organizational teams can be prepared to make use of their autonomy to deal with
problems and conflicts so that they are productive.

The study by Karen A. Jehn, (1994) "Enhancing Effectiveness: An investigation

of advantages and disadvantages of value-based intragroup conflict ―investigates
the benefits and detriments of emotional and task-related conflict in work groups.
Group value consensus (GVC), or the extent to which group members share values, and
group value fit (GVF), or the degree to which the culture of the group matches the ideal
culture envisioned by external parties with control over the group, are hypothesized to
decrease conflict. In examining 88 workgroups performing comparable organizational
tasks, it was found that groups with low levels of value similarity among members and
between the group and governing superiors had higher levels of conflict than groups
with high levels of value similarity. As hypothesized, emotional conflict was negatively
associated with group performance and satisfaction, while task conflict was positively
associated with group performance. The implications of these results for conflict
management and group effectiveness are discussed.

Stella Ting-Toomey, Ge Gao, Paula Trubisky, Zhizhong Yang, Hak Soo Kim,
Sung-Ling Lin, Tsukasa Nishida, (1991) "Culture, face maintenance, and styles of
handling interpersonal conflict: a study in five cultures". The objective of this study
was to test Ting-Toomey's (1988a) theory on conflict face-negotiation. More
specifically, the study examined the relationship between face maintenance dimensions
and conflict styles in Japan, China, South Korea, Taiwan, and the United States. The
results were summarized as follows: (1) Cultural variability of individualism-
collectivism influences two face maintenance dimensions—self-face concern and other-
face concern; (2) Cultural variability influences conflict styles, with U.S. members
using a higher degree of dominating conflict style than their Japanese and Korean
cohorts, and the Chinese and Taiwanese members using a higher degree of obliging and
avoiding conflict management styles than their U.S. counterparts; (3) Overall, face
maintenance dimensions served as better predictors to conflict styles rather than
conflict styles to face dimensions; (4) Self-face maintenance was associated strongly
with dominating conflict style, and other-face maintenance was associated strongly
with avoiding, integrating, and compromising styles of conflict management.

Likert, Rensis; Likert, Jane G. (1976), describes principles and procedures that
increase the probability of finding a solution to a conflict that is acceptable to all
parties. These principles and procedures are derived from a management system with
better resources for managing conflict than other systems. Emphasis is placed on a
generally neglected step in problem solving that helps keep conflict from intruding into
the problem-solving process.

Palo Alto,Dunnette, Marvin D. Hough, Leaetta M. (1992) developed an

integrated overview of the complex fabric of variables involved in conflict and
negotiation / the major parts of this fabric include (a) the sequence of events in the
conflict/negotiation process, (b) structural variables which shape that process, (c)
outcomes of the process, and (d) third-party interventions to manage conflict
/negotiation / separate models are developed an integrated overview of the complex
fabric of variables involved in conflict and negotiation / the major parts of this fabric
include (a) the sequence of events in the conflict/negotiation process, (b) structural
variables which shape that process, (c) outcomes of the process, and (d) third-party
interventions to manage conflict/negotiation / separate models are developed for each
of these parts, along with a more general model or paradigm that shows the
interrelationships between them special attention has been given to topics that are
central to conflict and its management but which have not received sufficient analysis /
one involves the prevailing motivational/behavioral assumptions used to explain or
predict conflict/negotiation behavior / the deficiencies of prevailing rational-economic
assumptions are noted, and a more complex model of motivation is introduced that
incorporates emotions and normative reasoning as well as rational-economic reasoning
/ a second topic involves the goals of conflict management / it is argued that much of
the divergence in conflict management prescriptions within the literature is based on
confusion among quite different goals / a framework is developed to categorize these
goals, based on one's choice of beneficiary and time frame.

Leslie A. De Church, Michelle A. Marks, (2001) work on "Maximizing the

Benefits of Task Conflict: The Role of Conflict Management" focuses on Intragroup
conflict research has shown that task conflict can improve group outcomes, but it has
not addressed how groups ensure that the positive aspects of task conflict are realized.
This study examines the influence of group conflict management on group
effectiveness, as well as the moderating role of group conflict management on task
conflict—group outcome relationships. Results of a field survey of 96 business school
project groups indicated that the use of agreeable conflict management in response to
task conflict was associated with greater group satisfaction. Results examining group
conflict management as a moderator showed that the relationship between task conflict
and group performance was positive when conflict was actively managed and negative
when it was passively managed. Similarly, task conflict improved group satisfaction
when managed with agreeable behavior, and harmed satisfaction when neutral or
disagreeable behaviors were used. Results from this work provide an important first
look at how group conflict management behaviors directly impact group outcomes and
affect task conflict—group outcome relationships.

Although organisations often implement team-based structures to improve

performance, such restructuring does not automatically ameliorate poor performance.
The study in this article explores the relationship between team members' negative
mood and team processes (social cohesion, workload sharing, and team conflict) to
determine if negative mood has a detrimental effect on team performance via team
processes. Two hundred and forty one participants completed surveys and were
involved in an independently rated performance task that was completed over eight
weeks. Negative mood was found to influence team processes and as a consequence,
team performance. The results, however, were not uniformly negative. Implications for
theory and practice are discussed by Peter J. Jordan, Sandra A. Lawrence, Ashlea C.
Troth (2006) in a study on ―The impact of negative mood on team performance‖.

Ronald H. Humphrey (2006) presented a study- Promising research

opportunities in emotions and coping with conflict -This study reviews the highlights of
the five articles in this special issue on emotions and coping with conflict. It develops
12 research areas that offer potential for future research breakthroughs. These areas link
the five articles to core concepts in emotional intelligence/competencies and Affective
Events Theory. Particular attention is given to empathy, the ability to recognize
emotions in others, and the ability to express one's own emotions. These three variables
are related to moods and job performance, leadership, emotional labour, trust, work-
family conflict, and stress. These five articles, together with the 12 promising research
areas, suggest practical ways to help employees and organizations cope with conflict in
the workplace.
 There are over 40,000 multinational corporations currently operating in the global
economy, in addition to approximately 250,000 overseas affiliates running cross-
continental businesses. In 1995, the top 200 multinational corporations had combined
sales of $7.1 trillion, which is equivalent to 28.3 percent of the world's gross domestic
product. The top multinational corporations are headquartered in the United States,
Western Europe, and Japan; they have the capacity to shape global trade, production,
and financial transactions. Multinational corporations are viewed by many as favoring
their home operations when making difficult economic decisions, but this tendency is
declining as companies are forced to respond to increasing global competition.

M.Kamil Kazan paper proposes a broad perspective for studying the influence
of culture on the process of conflict management. Three models of conflict
management are described, based on the culture framework of Glen (1981). In the
confrontational model, conflicts are conceptualized as consisting of sub issues, and a
sense of reasonable compromise aids resolution despite a confrontational style. In the
harmony model, conflict management starts with the minimization of conflict in
organizations through norms stressing observance of mutual obligations and status
orderings. Conflicts are defined in their totality, and resolution is aided by avoidance
and an accommodative style. Less emphasis is placed on procedural justice, as on
maintenance of face of self and others. Third parties are used extensively, and their role
is more intrusive. In the regulative model, bureaucratic means are used extensively to
minimize conflicts or to aid avoidance. Conflicts get defined in terms of general
principles, and third party roles are formalized. The implications of the differences
among the three models for conflict resolution across cultures and for future research
are discussed.

Van Dijk, Pieter A.; Brown, Andrea Kirk (2006) focused on conflicting
empirical findings in studies assessing the relationship between emotional labour and
negative job outcomes are partly due to the lack of clarity regarding the
conceptualisation and measurement of emotional dissonance. Emotional dissonance has
been variously described and measured as an antecedent or as a consequence of the
performance of emotional labour, as well as an inherent component of emotional
labour. Recent conceptualisations of dissonance have proposed a mediator role for
emotional dissonance between emotional labour and the outcome of emotional
exhaustion. Concepts from cognitive dissonance theory support this conceptualisation
and were used to empirically test this proposed relationship with a sample of 181 staff
from two tourism based organisations providing a range of visitor/customer services.
The results demonstrated a significant partial mediation role for emotional dissonance
in the relationship between emotional labour and emotional exhaustion, supporting the
use of a more theoretically and methodologically consistent measure of emotional
dissonance.

Ike C. Ehie (2010) discuss in a study although the organization psychology

literature is replete with an ongoing debate on the impact of conflict on organizational
performance, the operations management literature has provided few empirical studies
to examine this issue. This study adapts the Amason and Schwieger (1994) framework
to investigate the impact of conflict on operational decisions and company
performance. A survey of manufacturing managers in the USA and analysis of 392
valid responses using partial least square regression, the results indicate that when
conflict arises in a manufacturing decision, cognitive conflict would lead to a higher
level of company performance particularly when the decision scenario is based on a
market responsive situation (innovative products). Consistent with previous studies,
affective conflict tends to have adverse effects on performance regardless of the
decision scenario. This study contributes to the understanding of situations in which
conflict can facilitate or hamper company performance in an operational decision-
making setting.

De Dreu, Carsten K. W.; Weingart, Laurie R. (2003) in a study provides a meta-

analysis of research on the associations between relationship conflict, task conflict,
team performance, and team member satisfaction. Consistent with past theorizing,
results revealed strong and negative correlations between relationship conflict, team
performance, and team member satisfaction. In contrast to what has been suggested in
both academic research and introductory textbooks, however, results also revealed
strong and negative (instead of the predicted positive) correlations between task
conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction. As predicted, conflict had
stronger negative relations with team performance in highly complex (decision making,
project, mixed) than in less complex (production) tasks. Finally, task conflict was less
negatively related to team performance when task conflict and relationship conflict
were weakly, rather than strongly, correlated.
 The study conducted by C.C Cheung, K.B Chuah (1999) examines the use of
different conflict resolutions in 63 actual case studies from Hong Kong industries.
Contrary to common perception and previous findings, `confrontation', as a mode of
conflict resolution, is found to be more commonly used in handling conflict. And
significantly, almost all of the case incidents which used the `confrontation' approach
were said to have achieved positive consequences. The authors argue that this change
of resolution strategy in the past decade could be due to the increasing number of Hong
Kong companies adopting the matrix structure explicitly or implicitly in carrying their
projects. It appears that in Hong Kong industries, the influence of the Chinese culture
and traditional values in attitude, behaviour and professional practices of both engineers
as well as managers, is diminishing. Although the `withdrawal' and `forcing'
approaches were also being used for certain types of conflict, as revealed by some of
the case studies, the consequences are often recognised to be dysfunctional to team
work.

The main thrust of this study taken up by Olufemi Adejare Adewole, Olukemi
Grace Adebola (2004) was to investigate the strength of collective bargaining as a
strategy for Industrial conflict management and Industrial harmony among 5
manufacturing Industries randomly sampled in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. With the use
of a questionnaire administered to 100 respondents, an empirical study of a descriptive
type was carried out on the selected manufacturing industries to determine the role
played by collective bargaining in the resolution of industrial conflicts and promotion
of industrial harmony at the workplace. Techniques of data analysis were mainly by the
use of non-parametric statistics which included simple frequency distributions and
percentage values from opinion information derived on the Likert 5- point scale. The
major finding of the study revealed that the frequent eruption of industrial conflicts
between employers and employees in Nigeria generally, can be effectively managed
through collective negotiation and consultation with the workers‘ representatives. The
paper therefore recommends that both public and private organizations and all
stakeholders in Industrial relations should encourage regular review of labour
agreement and effective employer-employee consultation and negotiation so as to
reduce conflicts at the workplace and thereby promote industrial harmony and enhance
productivity.

Coupland, Christine, (2009).The article focuses on a study which examined the

use of fairy-tale conflict resolution technique. The research included 40 senior
managers from a large manufacturing company in Great Britain. It found that symbolic
meaning from myth can be used to create issues that are usually subdued. Researchers
concluded that reframing events in a fairy-tale format reveals and resolves tensions.

The study by Kim Lian Lee (2008) examined the relationships between conflict
handling styles and subordinates‘ satisfaction with supervision. Data from 139
respondents from major industries in Malaysia including service, manufacturing,
mining and construction demonstrated that subordinates were more satisfied with their
superiors‘ supervision through their exercise of integrating, compromising, and
obliging styles. On the other hand, subordinates who perceived their superiors as
primarily utilizing dominating and avoiding style viewed them as incompetent in
supervision and thus lowering their level of job satisfaction.

Jacqueline Y Portello, Bonita C Long, (1994) in an analysis examined the

influences of socialization and structural variables on relations among gender role
orientations, interpersonal and ethical conflicts, and conflict handling styles. 134
female federal and provincial government supervisors and managers (26-65 yrs old)
completed a questionnaire that included the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and the Rahim
Organizational Conflict Inventory. Congruence was found between gender role
orientation and conflict handling styles. Ss with high-instrumental traits were more
likely to indicate that they would use a dominating conflict handling style, and
androgynous Ss (high-expressive and high-instrumental traits) were more likely to
indicate that they would use an integrating style. Ss did not report that they would use
different conflict handling styles for ethical and interpersonal conflicts. The nature of
the conflict did not moderate gender role orientation and conflict handling style
relationship.

A study of Psychological Reports (2002) was conducted on the Evaluation of

Rahim's Organizational Conflict Inventory-II as a measure of conflict-handling styles
in a sample of Indian salespersons.

A mail survey of 108 salespersons was conducted to examine their conflict-

handling styles with customers. The Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory-II was
used to measure the conflict-handling styles of respondents. An exploratory and a
confirmatory factor analysis were performed on the items. Analysis indicated this is a
reliable and valid measure of salespersons' conflict-handling styles. Thus, sales
researchers can use this measure to examine the conflict-handling styles of
salespersons.

Stephen M. Croucher, Kyle J. Holody, Manda V. Hicks, Deepa Oommen,

Alfred DeMaris, (2011) "An examination of conflict style preferences in India". This
study sets out to examine conflict style preferences in India and the predictive effects of
various demographic variables on conflict style preference. Data were gathered in India
(n=827) among Muslims and Hindus. Conflict was measured using Oetzel's Conflict
Style Measure. To answer the research questions, repeated measures ANOVA and
multiple regressions were conducted. The findings reveal that conflict style preference
among Hindus in India differs significantly and that Hindus prefer the integrating and
dominating styles, whilst showing the least inclination towards the avoiding and
obliging styles. Muslims prefer the integrating and compromising styles and least
prefer the dominating and avoiding styles. Analyses of the demographic variables'
predictive influence reveal that age and sex are significant predictors for all five
conflict styles for both Muslims and Hindus. Education has a mixed predictive
influence on conflict style among Hindus and Muslims.

Bokkasam Sasidhar, Jaba Mukherjee Gupta, Saad Alghanim and Rashid M. Al-
Hamali (2012) conducted an exploratory study of interpersonal conflicts in various
organizations in India and in Saudi Arabia. This paper explores possible relationships
between the country and causes of conflict, situation of conflicts, frequency of
conflicts, resolution and mode of resolution of conflicts, and communication as a means
of resolution of conflicts. The study shows that the country has significant impact on
"cause of conflict", "resolution of conflicts", and "the mode of resolution of conflicts"
at 5% level of significance. In Saudi Arabia, Communication gap is a significant cause
for conflict, which is more prevalent than in India. It is observed that most of the
conflicts are resolved in Saudi Arabia, whereas about 38% of the conflicts are not
resolved in India. This study also presents implications for future research in the area of
conflict management. This study sets out to examine conflict style preferences in India
and the predictive effects of various demographic variables on conflict style preference.
The findings reveal that conflict style preference among Hindus in India differs
significantly and that Hindus prefer the integrating and dominating styles, whilst
showing the least inclination towards the avoiding and obliging styles. Muslims prefer
the integrating and compromising styles and least prefer the dominating and avoiding
styles. Analyses of the demographic variables' predictive influence reveal that age and
sex are significant predictors for all five conflict styles for both Muslims and Hindus.
Education has a mixed predictive influence on conflict style among Hindus and
Muslims. The study calls for conflict mediators to consider the influence of group
membership and educational level on conflict management/resolution. The research
also discusses national/international conflict intervention.

Steve Alper, Dean Tjosvold, Kenneth S. Law (2006) in a study on Conflict

management, Efficacy, and performance in Organizational teams empirically links
conflict management literature with research on efficacy and organizational teams.
Sixty-one self-managing teams with 489 employees were recruited from the production
department of a leading electronic manufacturer. Structural equation analysis supports
the model that a cooperative instead of competitive approach to conflict leads to
conflict efficacy that in turn results in effective performance as measured by managers.
Findings suggest how organizational teams can be prepared to make use of their
autonomy to deal with problems and conflicts so that they are productive.

Karen A. Jehn, (1994) in a study investigates the benefits and detriments of

emotional and task-related conflict in work groups. Group value consensus (GVC), or
the extent to which group members share values, and group value fit (GVF), or the
degree to which the culture of the group matches the ideal culture envisioned by
external parties with control over the group, are hypothesized to decrease conflict. In
examining 88 workgroups performing comparable organizational tasks, it was found
that groups with low levels of value similarity among members and between the group
and governing superiors had higher levels of conflict than groups with high levels of
value similarity. As hypothesized, emotional conflict was negatively associated with
group performance and satisfaction, while task conflict was positively associated with
group performance. The implications of these results for conflict management and
group effectiveness are discussed.

Thomas, Kenneth W. (Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology,

Vol. 3, 2nd edition), develop an integrated overview of the complex fabric of variables
involved in conflict and negotiation / the major parts of this fabric include (a) the
sequence of events in the conflict/negotiation process, (b) structural variables which
shape that process, (c) outcomes of the process, and (d) third-party interventions to
manage conflict/negotiation / separate models are developed an integrated overview of
the complex fabric of variables involved in conflict and negotiation / the major parts of
this fabric include (a) the sequence of events in the conflict/negotiation process, (b)
structural variables which shape that process, (c) outcomes of the process, and (d) third-
party interventions to manage conflict/negotiation / separate models are developed for
each of these parts, along with a more general model or paradigm that shows the
interrelationships between them special attention has been given to topics that are
central to conflict and its management but which have not received sufficient analysis /
one involves the prevailing motivational/behavioral assumptions used to explain or
predict conflict/negotiation behavior / the deficiencies of prevailing rational-economic
assumptions are noted, and a more complex model of motivation is introduced that
incorporates emotions and normative reasoning as well as rational-economic reasoning
/ a second topic involves the goals of conflict management / it is argued that much of
the divergence in conflict management prescriptions within the literature is based on
confusion among quite different goals / a framework is developed to categorize these
goals, based on one's choice of beneficiary and time frame.

Leslie A. DeChurch, Michelle A. Marks, (2001) Intragroup conflict research has

shown that task conflict can improve group outcomes, but it has not addressed how
groups ensure that the positive aspects of task conflict are realized. This study examines
the influence of group conflict management on group effectiveness, as well as the
moderating role of group conflict management on task conflict—group outcome
relationships. Results of a field survey of 96 business school project groups indicated
that the use of agreeable conflict management in response to task conflict was
associated with greater group satisfaction. Results examining group conflict
management as a moderator showed that the relationship between task conflict and
group performance was positive when conflict was actively managed and negative
when it was passively managed. Similarly, task conflict improved group satisfaction
when managed with agreeable behavior, and harmed satisfaction when neutral or
disagreeable behaviors were used. Results from this work provide an important first
look at how group conflict management behaviors directly impact group outcomes and
affect task conflict—group outcome relationships.

Andrea M. Bodtker, Jessica Katz Jameson, (2001) states that a growing body of
research suggests that conflict can be beneficial for groups and organizations (e.g., De
Dren & Van De Vliert, 1997). This paper articulates the argument that to be in conflict
is to be emotionally activated (Jones, 2000) and utilizes Galtung's (1996) triadic theory
of conflict transformation to locate entry points for conflict generation. Application of
these ideas is presented through exemplars that demonstrate the utility of addressing
emotions directly in the management of organizational conflicts.

Michael A. Gross, Laura K. Guerrero, (2000) discuss the competence model of

conflict communication suggests that individuals who use various conflict styles will be
perceived differently in terms of appropriateness and effectiveness. A simulated
organizational decision-making task involving 100 randomly-paired dyads consisting of
business students suggested that an integrative conflict style is generally perceived as
the most appropriate (in terms of being both a polite, pro-social strategy and an
adaptive, situationally appropriate strategy) and most effective style. The dominating
style tended to be perceived as inappropriate when used by others, but some
participants judged themselves as more effective when they used dominating tactics
along with integrating tactics. The obliging style was generally perceived as neutral,
although some participants perceived themselves to be less effective and relationally
appropriate when they employed obliging tactics. The avoiding style was generally
perceived as ineffective and inappropriate. Finally, compromising was perceived as a
relatively neutral style, although some participants judged their partners to be more
effective and relationally appropriate if they compromised. Overall, these results and
others provide general support for the competence model's predictions, while also
suggesting some modifications and directions for future research.

Hyun O. Lee, Randall G. Rogan, (1991) in a study "A Cross-Cultural

Comparison of Organizational Conflict Management Behaviors, based on the
collectivism-individualism structure, the study compared organizational conflict
management behaviors between Korea (a collectivistic culture) and the U.S. (an
individualistic culture). Employing a three-way factorial design (Culture type x
Relational distance x Power relationship), the present study registered robust effects of
culture type in determining one's organizational conflict management behaviors.
Specifically, Koreans are found to be extensive users of solution-orientation strategies,
while Americans prefer to use either non-confrontation or control strategies in dealing
with organizational conflicts. Moreover, the data also indicated that Koreans are more
sensitive in exercising power when facing conflicts with subordinates in the
organization. On the other hand, the effect of relational distance (in group vs. out
group) in determining one's choice of organizational conflict management styles is
found to be minimal. Implications of present findings for future intercultural
communication research are also discussed.

The Relationship between Work/Non-work Role Conflict and Job-Related

Outcomes: Some Unanticipated Findings a study by Donna L. Wiley (1987)
investigated the relationship between multiple dimensions of work/non-work role
conflict and four personal and job-related outcomes. It was predicted that the work/non-
work role conflict variables would be negatively related to job and life satisfaction, job
involvement, and organizational commitment. Results indicated that various aspects of
role conflict are significantly related to work outcomes, but not always in the expected
fashion. Specifically, conflict between job and family roles was negatively associated
with satisfaction measures as predicted, but was positively related to job involvement
and organizational commitment. The findings suggest that certain job-related attitudes
may result in increased levels of inter role conflict. Implications for theory and practice
are discussed.

Robert A. Baron, Suzanne P. Fortin, Richard L. Frei, Laurie A. Hauver, Melisa

L. Shack, (1990) conducted to two studies to investigate the impact of socially-induced
positive effect on organizational conflict. In Study I, male and female subjects were
provoked or not provoked, and then exposed to one of several treatments designed to
induce positive affect among them. Results indicated that several of these procedures
(e.g., mild flattery, a small gift, self-deprecating remarks by an opponent) increased
subjects' preference for resolving conflict through collaboration, but reduced their
preference for resolving conflict through competition. In addition, self-deprecating
remarks by an opponent (actually an accomplice) increased subjects' willingness to
make concessions to this person during negotiations. In Study 2, male and female
subjects were exposed to two treatments designed to induce positive affect (humorous
remarks, mild flattery). These were presented before, during, or after negotiations with
another person (an accomplice). Both treatments reduced subjects' preferences for
resolving conflict through avoidance and increased their preferences for resolving
conflict through collaboration, but only when delivered during or immediately after
negotiations. Together, the results of both studies suggest that simple interventions
designed to induce positive affect among the parties to conflicts can yield several
beneficial effects.

Suzy Fox, Paul E. Spector, Don Miles (2002) surveyed the relations among job
stressors, perceived justice, negative emotional reactions to work, counterproductive
work behavior (CWB), autonomy, and affective traits were investigated. Participants
representing a wide variety of jobs across many organizations were surveyed both
inside and outside a university setting. Results were consistent with a theoretical job
stress framework in which organizational constraints, interpersonal conflict, and
perceived injustice are job stressors, CWB is a behavioral strain response, and negative
emotion mediates the stressor–strain relationship. Only very weak support was found
for the moderating role of affective disposition (trait anger and trait anxiety), and no
support was found for the expected moderating role of autonomy in the stressor–CWB
relationship.

Henri Barki, Jon Hartwick, (2004) "Conceptualizing the Construct of

Interpersonal Conflict", International Journal of Conflict Management. The lack of a
clear conceptualization and operationalization of the construct of interpersonal conflict
makes it difficult to compare the results of different studies and hinders the
accumulation of knowledge in the conflict domain. Defining interpersonal conflict as a
dynamic process that occurs between interdependent parties as they experience
negative emotional reactions to perceived disagreements and interference with the
attainment of their goals, the present paper presents a two-dimensional framework and
a typology of interpersonal conflict that incorporates previous conceptualizations of the
construct. The first dimension of the framework identifies three properties generally
associated with conflict situations: disagreement, negative emotion, and interference.
The framework's second dimension identifies two targets of interpersonal conflict
encountered in organizational settings: task and interpersonal relationship. Based on
this framework, the paper highlights several shortcomings of current conceptualizations
and operationalizations of interpersonal conflict in the organizational literature, and
provides suggestions for their remedy.

De Dreu and Bianca Beersma (2005) stated that Conflict theory and research
has traditionally focused on conflict management strategies, in relation to individual
and work-team effectiveness and productivity. Far less attention has been devoted to
―soft‖ outcomes including job satisfaction, organizational commitment,
turnover intentions, and individual health and well-being. This state of affairs is
unfortunate because it isolates conflict theory and research from broader issues in
organizational psychology and organizational behaviour research. It also impedes
applied work in that it remains uncertain how interventions influence not only conflict
and effectiveness, but also satisfaction and well-being. This introductory article deals
with these problems in detail. The articles in this Special Issue each in their own way
deal with one of these issues in more depth, shedding light on how conflict theory and
research can be connected to organizational psychology in general.

Carsten K.W. De Dreu, Annelies E.M. Van Vianen (2001), stated that past
research has revealed that team effectiveness and satisfaction suffer when teams
experience relationship conflict—conflict related to interpersonal issues, political
norms and values, and personal taste. This study examined how teams should respond
to these conflicts. Three types of conflict responses were studied: collaborating
responses, contending responses, and avoiding responses. A field study involving a
heterogeneous sample of teams performing complex, non-routine task showed that
collaborating and contending responses to relationship conflict negatively relate to team
functioning (i.e., voice, compliance, helping behavior) and overall team effectiveness,
while avoiding responses were associated with high team functioning and effectiveness.
It is suggested that collaborating and contending responses to relationship conflict
distract team members from their tasks, while avoiding responses appear more
functional in that they allow team members to pursue task performance.

Turk (2000) He done his study upon 1400 worker conducted at the University
of North Carolina measured the fallout of workplace conflict. 53 per cent of those
survey said "they lost time at work" 37 per cent said‖ there commitment to the
employer decrease due to conflict. 12 per cent said" conflict cause them to leave the
job"

Gatlin (2007) In his study he found that one in three worker were in workplace
conflict each week. This study also finds that this conflict is bad for their health.

David (2004) in his research at the university of Washington business school.

He found that one disagreeable worker can lead to decrease group perform.
 Catherine H. Tinsley, Jeanne M. Brett (2002), propose that managers have
norms (standards of appropriate behavior) for resolving conflict, that these norms are
culturally based, and that they explain cultural differences in conflict management
outcomes. It is confirm that the traditionally American norms of discussing parties'
interests and synthesizing multiple issues were exhibited more strongly by American
managers than by their Hong Kong Chinese counterparts. In addition, we confirm that
the traditionally Chinese norms of concern for collective interests and concern for
authority appeared more strongly among Hong Kong Chinese managers than among
their American counterparts. American managers were more likely than Hong Kong
Chinese managers, to resolve a greater number of issues and reach more integrative
outcomes, while Hong Kong Chinese managers were more likely to involve higher
management in conflict resolution. Culture had a significant effect on whether parties
selected an integrative outcome rather than an outcome that involved distribution,
compromise, higher management, or no resolution at all. Conflict norms explained the
cultural differences that existed between reaching an integrative outcome and reaching
an outcome involving distribution, compromise, or higher management; however,
conflict norms did not fully explain the cultural differences that existed between
reaching an integrative outcome and reaching no resolution.

Patricia A. Renwick (2004) study investigated interpersonal conflict that

occurred on the job. Members of 36 superior-subordinate dyads representing 10
organizational subunits completed the Employee Conflict Inventory (ECI). An
independent sample of employees (N = 169) from the same subunits completed the
Profile of Organizational Characteristics which was used to measure organizational
climate. Results from the ECI indicated that dyad members held similar perceptions
concerning the topics and sources of superior-subordinate conflict; technical and
administrative issues were the most frequent topics, and differences in perception and
knowledge were the primary reasons. Although perceptions of the other party's
management of conflict were similar to the respondent's description of self, they
differed significantly from the other's own self description. Conflict management was
related to status differences as well as to attitudes toward conflict and corresponded to
response styles predicted to emerge in consultative organizational climates.

M. Afzalur Rahim, David Antonioni, Clement Psenicka (2001) through a study

tested a structural equations model of the five French and Raven bases of supervisory
power (coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and referent), styles of handling conflict
with supervisor (problem solving and bargaining), and job performance. Employees (N
= 1,116) completed questionnaires on power and conflict styles, and their job
performance was evaluated by their respective supervisors (N = 398). The data were
aggregated for the subordinates associated with a given manager (N = 398) to make
sure that independent observation assumption is not violated. The LISREL 8 analysis of
data indicates that legitimate power influenced referent power positively and coercive
power negatively, and reward and legitimate powers positively influenced expert
power, which in turn, positively influenced referent power. Referent power, in turn,
positively influenced problem solving (i.e., using more integrating and less avoiding
styles) and negatively influenced bargaining (i.e., using more dominating and less
obliging styles) conflict-management styles, and finally, problem solving style, but not
bargaining style, positively influenced job performance.

Mayer, Claude (May 2008) examined conflict between south African manager
this study has been undertaken in the department of management at Rhodes university
in Grahamstawn. The study aimed at collection, analysis and interpretation of conflict
in the managerial context in automotives industry. In depth interview were undertaken
with 45 managers, the main finding of this study is the managers with diverse
background experience work related conflict, which are related to value and identity
concept in selected organization.

Sorenson (1999) This study was conducted at center for entrepreneurial and
family business at Texas, Tech University. This study indicate that collaboration,
accommodation, compromise strategies produce relatively better outcomes for
organization. High levels of collaboration contribute to positive outcome for
organization & High level of compromise & accommodation contribute to positive
inter-personal relationship.

Poitras and Tareau (2008) conducted their study related to dispute resolution
pattern and organizational dispute states. This study tell us that dispute resolution
pattern have a non-negligible on organizational conflict state. To increase Harmony
interest based dispute resolution pattern should be followed.

Avoko and Pekerti (2008) conducted their study on Relationship between

conflict type task, relationship, process, conflict features, and communication process.
This study find that conflict features intensity & duration, fully mediated the link
between conflict types and trust while communication openness moderated the
relationship b/w conflict features & trust.

John D. Aram, Paul.F.Salipante, Jr. (1981) discuss a need for organizational

procedures to resolve employee/employer conflict has been stimulated by expanding
definitions of employee rights, greater statutory protection of employees, and the
opportunity for corporate adaptation in areas of employee dissatisfaction. The utility of
internal organizational systems of conflict resolution, or "due process," rests on the
formulation of specific objectives and values, a high degree of decision-maker
independence, balanced formality of procedures, and matching types of conflict with
means of resolution.

Pekka Aula1 & Kalle Siira (2010) The purpose of the present article is to
examine the prevailing model of systematic organizational conflict management from
an organizational communicative perspective and to suggest directions for
improvement. Particularly the model of conflict management system (CMS) is
examined at the macro-level from the novel theoretical perspective of social complexity
augmented with an interpretive view of organizational communication. Specifically two
models – the dual function of communication and the arena model – are utilized to
illustrate weaknesses and points of development in traditional CMS thinking. CMS was
found to represent a rather limited vision of contemporary conflict management. It is
rooted in a mechanistic view of organizational communication, which, we assert, is
problematic from the organizational conflict management perspective, both
theoretically and practically. The differences between CMS and social complexity
approaches are identified, and a fresh framework for strategic conflict management is
introduced.

Zeynep Aycan, Rabindra N. Kanungo, Jai B. P. Sinha (1999) presented a Model

of Culture Fit postulates that the socio- cultural environment affects the internal work
culture, which in turn influences human resource management practices. This model
was tested by two independent cross-cultural studies comparing Indian and Canadian
managers and employees. In assessing socio-cultural environment and internal work
culture, the ―participant‖ technique was used in Study 1 (the respondents indicated their
own beliefs and assumptions), and the ―observant‖ technique was used in Study 2 (the
respondents indicated beliefs and assumptions of the majority of individuals in society).
In both studies, India scored higher than Canada on paternalism, power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, loyalty toward community, reactivity, and futuristic orientation.
Indian employees reported having less enriched jobs than did Canadian employees.
Mediated multiple regression analyses supported the Model of Culture Fit. Results
suggest that the paternalism, self-reliance, and employee participation constructs merit
further exploration, as does participant methodology.

An Empirical Investigation of Collaborative Conflict Management Style in

Group Support System-Based Global Virtual Teams by Souren Paul, Imad M. Samarah,
Priya Seetharaman, Peter P. Mykytyn Jr. (2004) Virtual teams cut across national,
organizational, and functional boundaries, often resulting in diversity in team
composition. This paper presents the results of a laboratory study involving groupware-
supported, culturally homogeneous, and heterogeneous virtual teams where
collaborative conflict management style, a team's cultural orientation as measured by
the degree of individualism-collectivism, and group diversity affect several group
performance variables. Collaborative conflict management style was positively related
to performance, group diversity was found to have a moderating influence between
collaborative style and group performance, and collaborative style was influenced by
the individualistic-collectivistic orientations. Consistent with prior research, we found
that collectivistic orientations help enhance the level of collaborative conflict
management style prevailing in teams. Our research also indicates that the process to
motivate team members may differ depending on their orientation.

Bryan S. Schaffer, Christine M. Riordan (2003) Cross-cultural studies that use

self-report instruments can present researchers with a variety of challenges. This article
reviews the organizational research literature between the years of 1995 and 2001 to
identify common practices prevalent in this type of research. Key methodological
issues are examined within the context of a three-stage framework: (a) the development
of the research question, (b) the alignment of the research contexts, and (c) the
validation of the research instruments. This examination serves as a basis for the
identification of best-practice recommendations for cross-cultural researchers.

Paul S. Hempel, Zhi-Xue Zhang, Dean Tjosvold (2009) Trusting relationships

are increasingly considered vital for making teams productive. We propose that
cooperative management of conflict can help team members to be convinced that their
teammates are trustworthy. Results from 102 organizations in China support the
theorizing that how teams to manage conflict with each other affects within-team
conflict management. Specifically, cooperative conflict between teams‘ helps teams to
manage their internal conflicts cooperatively that strengthens trust that in turn
facilitates team performance. Results provide support for managing conflict
cooperatively as a foundation for trusting, productive relationships in China as well as
in the West.

O M Hotepo, Asokere, Abdul-Azeez, Ajemunigbohun, 2010 in a study

investigated the effect of organizational conflict on organizational performance. This
was carried out by investigating the causes, types, reason and strategies for managing
conflicts in some selected service organizations in Nigeria, with a view of coming out
with ways of improving their performance and productivity. The study employs
descriptive research design and uses questionnaire to collect data from 96 managers in
some selected Airlines, Road Transport and Insurance companies in Lagos Metropolis.
The research revealed that limited resources is the major cause of conflict and that
conflicts have both negative and positive effects on organization, but when managed
properly, the positive effects can be used to encourage organizational innovativeness
and build cooperation among the employees. This research studied the effect of conflict
management on organizational performance by using managers of hotels, airlines, road
transport and insurance companies in Lagos. It investigates the personal characteristics
of the respondents, their views about conflict in the service industry, categories of staff
they have experienced conflicts with, types of conflicts experienced, reasons for
conflicts, sources of organizational conflicts, factors that have caused conflicts in
service industry, as well as strategies for managing organizational conflicts to improve
organizational performance and productivity. The significance of this study lies in the
fact that its finding will enable managers in service industry have in depth knowledge
of causes of conflict and how to manage conflict in service industry not only in Nigeria
but across the world. The study aims at generating data that will enhance the
understanding of conflict and how it is been managed in Nigerian service industry.
REFERENCES

1. Bokkasam Sasidhar, Jaba Mukherjee Gupta, Saad Alghanim and Rashid M. Al-
Hamali 2012 Organizational Conflicts in India and Saudi Arabia, International
Conference on Innovation and Information Management (ICIIM 2012) IPCSIT
vol. 36 (2012) © (2012) IACSIT Press, Singapore

2. Steve Alper, Dean Tjosvold, Kenneth S. Law,Conflict Management, Efficacy,

and Performance Organizational Teams, Article first published online: 7 DEC
2006.

3. Karen A. Jehn, (1994) "Enhancing Effectiveness: An Investigation of

Advantages and Disadvantages of Value-Based Intragroup Conflict",
International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 5 Iss: 3, pp.223 – 238.

4. James Mickel Williams, Principles of Social Psychology as Developed in a

Study of Economic and Social Conflict, Knopf. Place of Publication: New York.
Publication Year: 1922. Page Number: iii.

5. Stella Ting-Toomey, Ge Gao, Paula Trubisky, Zhizhong Yang, Hak Soo Kim,
Sung-Ling Lin, Tsukasa Nishida, (1991) "Culture, Face maintenance, and Styles
of Handling Interpersonal Conflict: A study in Five Cultures", International
Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 2 Iss: 4, pp.275 – 296.

6. De Dreu, Carsten K. W.;Weingart, Laurie R, Task versus relationship conflict,

team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol 88(4), Aug 2003, 741-749.

7. M. Kamil Kazan, (1997) "Culture and Conflict Management: A Theoretical

FrameWork", International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 8 Iss: 4,
pp.338 – 360

8. Andrea M. Bodtker, Jessica Katz Jameson, (2001) "Emotion in Conflict

Formation and its Transformation: Application to Organizational Conflict
Management", International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 12 Iss: 3,
pp.259 - 275
9. Michael A. Gross, Laura K. Guerrero, (2000) "Managing Conflict
Appropriately and Effectively: An Application of the Competence Model to
Rahim‘s Organizational Conflict Styles", International Journal of Conflict
Management, Vol. 11 Iss: 3, pp.200 – 226.

10. David C. Thomas, Kerr Inkson(2009)Task versus relationship conflict, team

performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis, Berrett-Koehler
Publishers, 23 pages. Publication date: Aug 01, 2009. Prod. #: BK0005-PDF-
ENG

11. Lauren Keller Johnson, 2008, Harvard Business Publishing Newsletters 2 pages.
Publication date: Aug 01, 2008. Prod. #: U0808B-PDF-ENG. inda L Putnam
(2007) ―Organizational Conflict Management: Revisiting the past and
charting the future‖. Dispute Resolution Journal, Vol. 60 (4), Sage Publications,
New Delhi, 2007.

12. Tjosvold, D., & Morishima, M. (1999). Grievance resolution: Perceived goal
interdependence and interaction patterns. Industrial Relations, 54, 529–550.

13. Tjosvold, D., & Su, F. S. (in press). Managing anger and annoyance in
organizations in China: The role of constructive controversy. Group &
Organization Management.

14. Tjosvold, D., & Sun, H. (2002). Understanding conflict avoidance:

Relationship, motivations, actions, and consequences. International Journal of
Conflict Management, 13, 142–164.

15. Tjosvold, D., & Sun, H. (2003). Openness among Chinese in conflict: Effects of
direct discussion and warmth on integrated decision making. Journal of Applied
Social Psychology, 33, 1878–1897.

16. Alper, S., Tjosvold, D., & Law, K. S. (2000). Conflict management, efficacy,
and performance in self-managing work teams. Personnel Psychology, 53, 625–
642.

17. Anderson, P. A. (1983). Decision making by objection and the Cuban Missile
Crisis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28, 201–222.
18. Chen, G., Liu, C. H., & Tjosvold, D. (2005). Conflict management for effective
top management teams and innovation in China. Journal of Management
Studies, 42, 277–300.

19. Chen, G., & Tjosvold, D. (2002). Conflict management and team effectiveness
in China: The mediating role of justice. Asia Pacific Journal of Management,
19, 557–572.

20. De Dreu, C. K. W., & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict,
team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 88, 741–749.

21. George, A. (1974). Adaptation to stress in political decision-making: The

individual, small group, and organizational contexts. In G. V. Coelho, D. A.
Hamburg, & J. E. Adams (Eds.), Coping and adaptation. New York: Basic
Books.

22. Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to

leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of
leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective.
Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219–247.

23. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and
interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

24. Conflict Types and Organizational Culture Amason, A.C. (1996).

Distinguishing the effect of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic
decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of
Management Journal, 39, 123 – 148.

25. Amason, A. C., & Schweiger, D. M. (1994). Resolving the paradox of conflict,
strategic decision making, and organizational performance. International
Journal of Conflict Management, 5,239 – 253.

26. Baron, R. (1991). Positive effects of conflict: A cognitive perspective.

Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 4(1), 25-36.
27. De Dreu, C. K. W., Harinck, S., & Van Vianen, A. E. M. (1999). Conflict and
performance in groups and organizations. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson
(Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology,
Vol.14, pp.376-405.

28. De Dreu, C. K. W., & Van Vianen, A. E. M. (2001). Managing relationship

conflict and the effectiveness of organizational teams. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 22, 309 – 328.

29. Jehn, K. A. (1997). A qualitative analysis of conflict types and dimensions in

organizational groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 530 – 557.

30. Beauchamp, M.R. and Bray, S.R. (2001), ―Role ambiguity and role
conflict within interdependent teams‖, Small Group Research, Vol. 32
No. 2, pp. 133-57.

31. Floyd, S.W. and Lane, P.J. (2000), ―Strategizing throughout the
organization: managing role conflict in strategic renewal‖, Academy of
Management Review, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 154-77.

32. Garvin, D.A. (1983), ―Quality on the line‖, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 61,
pp. 65-75.

33. Gilboa, S., Shirom, A., Fried, Y. and Cooper, C. (2008), ―A meta-analysis
of work demand stressors and job performance: examining main and
moderating effects‖, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 61, pp. 227-71.

34. House, R.J. and Rizzo, J.R. (1972), ―Role conflict and ambiguity as
critical variables in a model of organizational behavior‖, Organizational
Behavior and Human Performance, Vol. 7, pp. 467-505.

35. Bendersky, C. (2003) ‗Organizational Dispute Resolution Systems :

A Complementaries Model‘, Academy of Management, Vol. 28 No. 4,
pp. 643-656.

36. Von Bertalanffy, L. (1951) ‗General System Theory: A New Approach to Unity
of Science‘, Human Biology, Vol. 23, pp. 303-361.
37. Fairhurst, G.T. (2001) ‗Dualism in Leadership Research‘, in Jablin, F.M., and
Putnam, L.L. (eds.) The New Handbook of Organizational Communication:
Advances in Theory, Research, and Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,
pp. 379-439.

38. Goldspink, C., and Kay, R. (2003) ‗Organizations as Self-organizing and

Sustaining Systems: A Complex and Autopoietic Systems Perspective‘,
International Journal of General Systems, Vol. 32 No. 5, pp. 459-474.

39. Guetzkow, H., and Gyr, J. (1954) ‗An Analysis of Conflict in Decision-making
Groups‘, Human Relations, Vol. 7, pp. 367-381.

40. Hawes, L.C., and Smith, D.H. (1973) ‗A Critique of Assumptions Underlying
the Study of Communication in Conflict‘, Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol. 59,
pp. 423-425.

41. Henri Barki, Jon Hartwick, (2004) "Conceptualizing the Construct of

Interpersonal Conflict", International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 15
Iss: 3, pp.216 – 244.

42. Hazy, J.K. (2007a). ―Computer models of leadership: Foundation for a

new discipline or meaningless diversion?‖ The Leadership Quarterly, ISSN
1048- 9843, 18:391-410.

43. Hazy, J.K., Goldstein, J.A., and Lichtenstein, B.B. (2007) ‗Complex Systems
Leadership Theory: An Introduction‘, in Hazy, J.K., Goldstein, J.A., and
Lichtenstein, B.B. (eds.) Complex Systems Leadership Theory. Boston, MA:
ISCE Publishing, pp. 1-13.

44. Hughes, S.H. (2004) ‗Understanding Conflict in a Postmodern World‘,

Marquette Law Review, Vol. 4, pp. 681-690.

45. Jehn, K.A. (1997) ‗A Qualitative Analysis of Conflict Types and Dimensions of
Organizational Groups‘, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 42, pp. 530-
557.

46. Jones, W. (2003) ‗Complex adaptive systems‘, in Burgess, G., and Burgess,
H. (eds.) Beyond Intractability. Conflict Research Consortium, University of
 Colorado, Boulder. Retrieved March 12, 2007,
http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/complex_adaptive_systems/.

47. Lewicki, R.J., Weiss, S.E., and Lewin, D. (1992) ‗Models of Conflict,
Negotiation and Third Party Intervention: A Review and Synthesis‘, Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 209-252

48. Robert A. Baron, Suzanne P. Fortin, Richard L. Frei, Laurie A. Hauver, Melisa
L. Shack, (1990) "Reducing Organizational conflict: The Role of Socially-
Induced Positive Affect", International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 1
Iss: 2, pp.133 – 152

49. Carsten De Dreu and Bianca Beersma, 2005, Conflict in Organizations: Beyond
Effectiveness and Performance, European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, Volume 14.

50. Deanna F. Womack, A Review of Conflict Instruments in Organizational

Settings, 1988,Management Communication Quarterly February 1988 vol. 1 no.
3 437-445 Northern Illinois University .

51. Carsten K.W. De Dreu, Annelies E.M. Van Vianen, 2001. Managing
relationship conflict and the effectiveness of organizational teams, Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Volume 22, Issue 3, pages 309–328.

52. Catherine Tinsley, J.M. Brett. "Managing work place conflict in the United
States and Hong Kong." Organization Behavior and Human Decision
Processes 85.2 (2001): 360-381.
53. M. Afzalur Rahim, David Antonioni, Clement Psenicka, 2001, A Structural
Equations Model of Leader Power, Subordinates‘ Styles of Handling Conflict
and Job Performance, The International Journal of Conflict Management 2001,
Vol.12, No.3, pp.191-211.

54. John D. Aram, Paul.F.Salipante, Jr. 1981,Organizational Culture and Human

Resource Management Practices, Academy of Management Review, vol.6 No.2,
197-204.

55. Zeynep Aycan, Rabindra N. Kanungo, Jai B. P. Sinha,1999,The Model of

Culture Fit ,Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology July vol. 30 no. 4 501-526.
56. Souren paul, Imad M. Samara, Priya seetharaman, Peter P. Mykytyn Jr.,Bryan
S. Schaffer, Christine M. Riordan, 2003,A Review of Cross-Cultural
Methodologies for Organizational Research: A Best- Practices Approach,
Organizational Research Methods April vol. 6 no. 2 169-215.

58. China Paul S. Hempel, Zhi-Xue Zhang, Dean Tjosvold, 2009, Conflict
management between and within teams for trusting relationships and
performance, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Volume 30, Issue 1, pages
41–65.

59. Souren Paul, Priya Seetharaman, Imad Samarah, Peter P. Mykyty (2003),
―Impact of heterogeneity and collaborative conflict management style on
the performance of synchronous global virtual teams, Department of
Management‖, Southern Illinois University, Mail code 4627, Carbondale, IL
62901, Available online 18 September 2003.

60. Pekka Aula1 & Kalle Siira, 2010. Organizational Communication and Conflict
Management Systems A Social Complexity Approach, Nordicom Review 31
(2010) 1, pp. 125-141.

61. M Hotepo, Asokere, Abdul-Azeez, Ajemunigbohun, 2010. Empirical Study of

the Effect of Conflict on Organizational Performance in Nigeria, Business and
Economics Journal, Volume 2010: BEJ-151.

62. Eirene Leela Rout, Nelson Omiko, (2007), ―Corporate Conflict

Management: Concepts and Skills‖, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, PP: 10-12.

63. Dana, Daniel (1999). Measuring the Financial Cost of Organizational Conflict . MTI
Publications and Slaikev, K. and Hasson, R. (1998). Controlling the Cost of
Conflict. Jossey-Bass.

64. Washington Business Journal, May 2005.

http://www.bizjournals.com/washington/news/

65. Workplace Conflict: Facts and Figures, Mediate.com.

http://mediate.com/articles/ford1.cfm
66. JuryVerdictResearch.com, LRP Publications (2004).
http://www.juryverdictresearch.com/

67. Thomas Stipanovvich, ADR and the ―Vanishing Trial‖: The Growth and Impact
of Alternative Dispute Resolution (2004).
http://docsfiles.com/pdf_adr_and_the_vanishing_trial_the_growth_and_impact_
of.html

68. Watson, C., and Hoffman, R. ―Managers as Negotiators.‖ Leadership Quarterly,

1996, 7(1), pp: 63–85.

69. Dr.Theresa A. Daniel and Dr. Gary S. Metcalf, 1995, Motivation in Today‘s
Workplace: The Link to performance, SHRM White Paper Research Quarterly,
pp: 6-8

70. Kreisman, Barbara J. ―Insights in to Employee Motivation, Commitment,

and Retention.‖PhD research/white paper for Insights Denver, February
2002, Downloadable at http://www.insightsna.com/retention/retention.htm>.