Electrostatic precipitators

MEKELLE UNIVERSITY

EIT-M

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

ENVIORNMENTAL ENGINEERING ASSIGNMENT III

SECTION 3

Prepared by: ID
 Monaliza birhane 95592/08
 Mekedes Berhanu 96147/08
 Shewit Mamo 97367/08
 Estifanos Likanos 96285/08
 Alem Berhane 96786/08
 Tsegazab W/Slasie 96587/08

SUBMITTED TO – Ins. Kide Tadesse

SUBMISSION DATE - 16/04/2018

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Acknowledgment

We are really grateful because we managed to complete our environmental engineering

assignment within the time given by our lecturer kide Tadesse. This assignment cannot be
completed without the effort and co-operation from our group members. We also sincerely thank
our department‘s lab for their guidance and encouragement in finishing this assignment. Last but
not least, we would like to express our gratitude to our friends for their unrelenting and
admirable support.

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Table of Contents
List of figures ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Introduction to ESPs ............................................................................................................................. 6
2. Types of ESPs ....................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1. Plate wire precipitators.................................................................................................................. 9
2.2. Flat Plate Precipitators ................................................................................................................ 12
2.3. Tubular Precipitators ................................................................................................................... 13
2.4. Wet Precipitators ......................................................................................................................... 13
2.5. Two-Stage Precipitators .............................................................................................................. 13
3. Construction and Working of Electrostatic Precipitators.................................................................... 15
3.1. Construction of ESPs .................................................................................................................. 15
3.2. Working of electrostatic precipitators ......................................................................................... 16
4. Advantages and Disadvantages of ESPs ............................................................................................. 26
5. ESP design .......................................................................................................................................... 27
5.1. Physical and chemical properties of the dust .............................................................................. 27
5.2. Resistivity ................................................................................................................................... 28
5.3. Gas flow rate and stream properties ............................................................................................ 28
5.4. Discharge electrode ..................................................................................................................... 28
5.5. Collection electrode .................................................................................................................... 29
5.6. Electrical sectionalization ........................................................................................................... 29
5.7. Specific collection area ............................................................................................................... 29
5.8. Aspect ratio ................................................................................................................................. 29
5.9. Distribution of gas flow .............................................................................................................. 30
5.10. Hopper and discharge device .................................................................................................. 30
Reference .................................................................................................................................................... 31

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List of figures
Figure 1: (a) and (b) basic precipitator arrangement ...................................................................... 8
Figure 2: Typical arrangement of a mains supply transformer rectifier set .................................... 9
Figure 3: Construction of Electrostatic Precipitator ..................................................................... 15
Figure 4: Typical dry ESP with thin wire as discharge electrode ................................................. 17
Figure 5: electric field of ESP ....................................................................................................... 18
Figure 6: Corona generation ......................................................................................................... 19
Figure 7: multiplication of gas molecules ..................................................................................... 20
Figure 8: Formation of negative gas ions in inter electrode region .............................................. 21
Figure 9: Particle charging ............................................................................................................ 22
Figure 10: Particle charging mechanism....................................................................................... 23

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Preface
Many industrial, power generation and chemical processes produce unwanted fine particulate
material as a consequence of their operation. Electrostatic precipitation (ESP) is a highly
efficient method of removing entrained particulate contaminants from exhaust gases and is
extensively used in these industries to limit particulate emissions. In view of this, information on
construction, working, design, operation, advantage and disadvantages of electrostatic
precipitators is given in this project.

The electrostatic precipitator, in spite of its large footprint, remains one of the most cost effective
means of controlling the particulate emission from large industrial process plant. International
Environmental Agencies are currently requiring emissions of <50 mg Nm−3 for general
applications and 10 mg Nm−3 where discharges are liable to prove injurious to health, e.g. heavy
metal and potential carcinogenic materials. The current major application is to minimize
atmospheric pollution and for some power generating plants, particulate removal efficiencies in
excess of 99.8 per cent are not uncommon in order to meet legislative emissions.

Although electrostatic precipitators have been used for almost a century, the most significant
changes, in terms of design and plant reliability, have been mainly concerned with the method of
energizing the electrode system.

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1. Introduction to ESPs
There has, in recent years, been an increasing awareness and world-wide recognition of the
problems associated with atmospheric pollution; consequently, most industrialized nations have
enacted legislation to limit uncontrolled emissions from all sources. This legislation is
continuously reviewed and is becoming more stringent, such that particulate emissions, in
particular, are presently controlled to a maximum of 50 mg Nm−3 for inert materials and 10 mg
Nm−3 for substances considered hazardous to health and it is suspected that within the next
decade these values will be further reduced.

One of the most suitable forms of arrestment device for meeting these levels of emission,
particularly for process plants producing large gas flow rates, is the electrostatic precipitator.
Following the installation of the first pulverized coal steam raising plant in the 1920s, where
some 90 per cent of the ash can be carried forward with the waste gases, the electrostatic
precipitator has been almost universally used to control particulate emissions in the power
generation industry. To meet current emission regulations, fly ash collection efficiencies in
excess of 99.8 per cent can be required when handling gas flows of up to 1000 am3 s−1.

The features of the electrostatic precipitation process, which produces an ideal vehicle for the
removal of particulates, are as follows.

1) Versatility – effective performance on a wide range of industrial processes. Can be

designed to meet any required efficiency and sized for any gas flow rate.
2) Designs can be produced to cover a temperature range from ambient up to 850 °C.
3) Can collect particles over the complete size range spectrum.
4) Dust is usually recovered in its original state. But plants can be designed to operate as a
wet phase device if required, particularly for gases close to, or at, dew point temperature.
5) Low pressure loss – typically less that 1 mbar.
6) Acceptable electrical power consumption for required efficiency level.
7) Robust and reliable construction – life expectancy >20 years.
8) Low maintenance requirements.

With the above benefits, electrostatic precipitators have been used industrially for almost a
century for the collection of particulate materials. The initial plants were installed to recover

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valuable material that would have been otherwise lost to the atmosphere, rather than preventing
pollution. These plants, mainly in the non-ferrous smelting industry, were designed to produce a
‗pay back‘ in the order of three to five years; consequently collection efficiencies were generally
in the order of 90–95 per cent.

For sulphuric acid plants and bullion smelters, because these materials had a higher economic
recovery value, even in the early days, design efficiencies of ∼99 per cent were typical.
Currently, with the tightening of pollution legislation, the primary concern of plant operators is
the control of total emission to meet statutory levels, rather than the economic recovery value of
the collected material. This is particularly true for the electricity generation industry, where the
fly ash has limited usage and, as a result of the large mass flow rates and hence expensive
particulate removal plant, the installation and operational costs to comply with legislation have a
negative impact on the balance sheet.

The fundamental principle of operation of an electrostatic precipitator is that the particulates are
passed through an electric field where they initially receive an electric charge and then, as a
charged particle, are deflected across the field to be collected on an earthed plate. Most industrial
precipitators are based on a single-stage approach where both charging and migration across the
field (precipitation) takes place within the same set of electrodes, as illustrated in Figure 1.a.
Another arrangement, particularly for air cleaning duties, is two-stage precipitation where there
is a separate charging field followed by a collection field, as illustrated in Figure 1.b.

Recent investigations using a hybrid arrangement, comprising a single-stage, then a two-stage

precipitator in series, followed by further single-stage fields within the same casing, have
indicated that the arrangement produces an increased performance. This improvement is a result
of the second pure precipitation field producing an enhanced collection of the agglomerates
formed by, and escaping from, the first field.

Until the recent development of high frequency direct current supplies (HFDC), which will be
detailed later, most currently installed industrial precipitators were electrically energized from
mains supply frequency rectified high voltage equipment. This basically comprises a suitably
designed and insulated step up transformer, the output from which can be controlled by adjusting
the incoming mains supply voltage level. The transformer output is then rectified to produce a

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high negative direct current (D.C.) voltage. The magnitude of the peak voltage can exceed −100
kV dependent on the precipitator design, collector spacing, etc. Figure 2 indicates the basic
circuitry of a mains supplied transformer rectifier (TR) set, employing silicon controlled
rectifiers (SCR/thyristors) to modulate the incoming supply voltage and silicon rectifiers to
produce the D.C. voltage and charging currents.

Figure 1: (a) and (b) basic precipitator arrangement

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For air cleaning duties, although energisation is normally derived from the mains supply, the
voltages are much lower, 6–12 kV, and typically positive, because of a lower ozone production
resulting from the reaction between the ions and the oxygen in the air.

Figure 2: Typical arrangement of a mains supply transformer rectifier set

2. Types of ESPs
ESPs are configured in several ways. Some of these configurations have been developed for
special control action, and others have evolved for economic reasons. The types that will be
described here are (1) the plate-wire precipitator, the most common variety; (2) the flat plate
precipitator, (3) the tubular precipitator; (4) the wet precipitator, which may have any of the
previous mechanical configurations; and (5) the two-stage precipitator.

2.1. Plate wire precipitators

Plate-wire ESPs are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, including coal-fired boilers,
cement kilns, solid waste incinerators, paper mill recovery boilers, petroleum refining catalytic

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cracking units, sinter plants, basic oxygen furnaces, open hearth furnaces, electric arc furnaces,
coke oven batteries, and glass furnaces.

In a plate-wire ESP, gas flows between parallel plates of sheet metal and high-voltage electrodes.
These electrodes are long wires weighted and hanging between the plates or are supported there
by mast-like structures (rigid frames). Within each flow path, gas flow must pass each wire in
sequence as flows through the unit.

The plate-wire ESP allows many flow lanes to operate in parallel, and each lane can be quite tall.
As a result, this type of precipitator is well suited for handling large volumes of gas. The need for
rapping the plates to dislodge the collected material has caused the plat to be divided into
sections, often three or four in series with one another, which can be rapped independent.

The power supplies are often sectionalized in the same way to obtain higher operating voltages,
and further electrical sectionalization may be used for increased reliability. Dust also deposits on
the discharge electrode wires and must be periodically removed similarly to the collector plate.

The power supplies for the ESP convert the industrial ac voltage (220 to 480 V) to pulsating dc
voltage in the range of 20,000 to 100,000 V as needed. The supply consists of a step-up
transformer, high-voltage rectifiers, and sometimes filters capacitors. The unit may supply either
half-wave or full-wave rectified dc voltage. There are auxiliary components and controls to allow
the voltage to be adjusted to the highest level possible without excessive sparking and to protect
the supply and electrodes in the event a heavy arc or short-circuit occur.

The voltage applied to the electrodes causes the air between the electrodes to break down
electrically, an action known as a "corona". The electrodes usually are given a negative polarity
because a negative corona supports a higher voltage than a positive corona before sparking
occurs. The ions generated in the corona follow electric field lines from the wires to the
collecting plates. Therefore, each wire establishes a charging zone through which the particles
must pass.

Particles passing through the charging zone intercept some of the ions, which become attached.
Small aerosol particles (<1 μm diameter) can absorb tens of ions before their total charge

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becomes large enough to repel further ions, and large particles (>10 μm diameter) can absorb
tens of thousands. The electrical forces are therefore much stronger on the large particles.

As the particles pass each successive wire, they are driven closer and closer to the collecting
walls. The turbulence in the gas, however, tends to keep them uniformly mixed with the gas. The
collection process is therefore a competition between the electrical and dispersive forces.
Eventually, the particles approach close enough to the walls so that the turbulence drops to low
levels and the particles are collected. If the collected particles could be dislodged into the hopper
without losses, the ESP would be extremely efficient. The rapping that dislodges the
accumulated layer also projects some of the particles (typically 12 percent for coal fly ash) back
into the gas stream. These restrained particles are then processed again by later sections, but the
particles re-entrained in the last section of the ESP have no chance to be recaptured and so
escape the unit.

Practical considerations of passing the high voltage into the space between the lanes and
allowing for some clearance above the hoppers to support and align electrodes leave room for
part of the gas to flow around the charging zones. This is called "sneakage" and amounts to 5 to
10 percent of the total flow. Anti-sneakage baffles usually are placed to force the sneakage flow
to mix with the main gas stream for collection in later sections. But, again, the sneakage flow
around the last section has no opportunity to be collected.

These losses play a significant role in the overall performance of an ESP. Another major factor is
the resistivity of the collected material. Because the particles form a continuous layer on the ESP
plates, the entire ion current must pass through the layer to reach the ground-plates.

This current creates an electric field in the layer, and it can become large enough to cause local
electrical breakdown. When this occurs, new ions of the wrong polarity are injected into the
wire-plate gap where they reduce the charge on the particles and may cause sparking. This
breakdown condition is called "back corona".

Back corona is prevalent when the resistivity of the layer is high, usually above 2 x 1011 ohm
cm.

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For lower resistivity‘s, the operation of the ESP is not impaired by back coronas, but resistivity‘s
much higher than 2 x 1011 ohm-cm considerably reduce the collection ability of the unit because
the severe back corona causes difficulties in charging the particles. At resistivity below 108 ohm-
cm, the particles are held on the plates so loosely that rapping and non-rapping re-entrainment
become much more severe. Care must be taken in measuring or estimating resistivity because it
is strongly affected by variables such as temperature, moisture, gas composition, particle
composition, and surface characteristics.

2.2. Flat Plate Precipitators

A significant number of smaller precipitators (100,000 to 200,000 acfm) use flat plates instead of
wires for the high-voltage electrodes. The flat plates (United McGill Corporation patents)
increase the average electric field that can be used to collect the particles, and they provide an
increased surface area for the collection of particles. Corona cannot be generated on flat plates by
themselves, so corona-generating electrodes are placed ahead of and sometimes behind the flat
plate collecting zones. These electrodes may be sharp-pointed needles attached to the edges of
the plates or independent corona wires. Unlike place-wire or tubular ESPs, this design operates
equally well with either negative or positive polarity. The manufacturer has chosen to use
positive polarity to reduce ozone generation.

A flat plate ESP operates with little or no corona current flowing through the collected dust,
except directly under the corona needles or wires. This has two consequences. The first is that
the unit is somewhat less susceptible to back corona than conventional units are because no back
corona is generated in the collected dust, and particles charged with both polarities of ions have
large collection surfaces available. The second consequence is that the lack of current in the
collected layer causes an electrical force that tends to remove the layer from the collecting
surface; this can lead to high rapping losses.

Flat plate ESPs seem to have wide application for high-resistivity particles with small (1 to 2
μm) mass median diameters (MMDs). These applications especially emphasize the strengths of
the design because the electrical dislodging forces are weaker for small particles than for large
ones. Fly ash has been successfully collected with this type of ESP, but low-flow velocity
appears to be critical for avoiding high rapping losses.

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2.3. Tubular Precipitators

The original ESPs were tubular like the smokestacks they were placed on, with the high-voltage
electrode running along the axis of the tube. Tubular precipitators have typical applications in
sulfuric add plants, coke oven by-product gas cleaning (tar removal), and, recently, iron and steel
sinter plants. Such tubular units are still used for some applications, with many tubes operating in
parallel to handle increased gas flows. The tubes may be formed as a circular, square, or
hexagonal honeycomb with gas flowing upwards or downwards. The length of the tubes can be
selected to fit conditions. A tubular ESP can be tightly sealed to prevent leaks of material,
especially valuable or hazardous material.

A tubular ESP is essentially a one-stage unit and is unique in having all the gas passes through
the electrode region. The high-voltage electrode operates at one voltage for the entire length of
the tube, and the current varies along the length as the particles are removed from the system.

No sneakage paths are around the collecting region, but corona non-uniformities may allow some
particles to avoid charging for a considerable fraction of the tube length.

Tubular ESPs comprise only a small portion of the ESP population and are most commonly
applied where the particulate is either wet or sticky. These ESPs, usually cleaned with water,
have re-entrainment losses of a lower magnitude than do the dry particulate precipitators.

2.4. Wet Precipitators

Any of the precipitator configurations discussed above may be operated with wet walls instead of
dry. The water flow may be applied intermittently or continuously to wash the collected particles
into a sump for disposal. The advantage of the wet wall precipitator is that it has no problems
with rapping re-entrainment or with back coronas. The disadvantage is the increased complexity
of the wash and the fact that the collected slurry must be handled more carefully than a dry
product, adding to the expense of disposal.

2.5. Two-Stage Precipitators

The previously described precipitators are all parallel in nature, i.e., the discharge and collecting
electrodes are side by side. The two-stage precipitator invented by Penney is a series device with

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the discharge electrode, or ionizer, preceding the collector electrodes. For indoor applications,
the unit is operated with positive polarity to limit ozone generation.

Advantages of this configuration include more time for particle charging, less propensity for
back corona, and economical construction for small sizes. This type of precipitator is generally
used for gas flow volumes of 50,000 acfm and less and is applied to sub-micrometer sources
emitting oil mists, smokes, fumes, or other sticky particulates because there is little electrical
force to hold the collected particulates on the plates. Modules consisting of a mechanical pre-
filter, ionizer, collecting-plate cell, after-filter, and power pack may be placed in parallel or
series-parallel arrangements. Preconditioning of gases is normally part of the system. Cleaning
may be by water wash of modules removed from the system up to automatic, in-place detergent
spraying of the collector followed by air-blow drying.

Two-stage precipitators are considered to be separate and distinct types of devices compared to
large, high-gas-volume, single-stage ESPs. The smaller devices are usually sold as pre-
engineered, package systems.

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3. Construction and Working of Electrostatic Precipitators

Information on construction and working of electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) is given below.

3.1. Construction of ESPs

Figure 3: Construction of Electrostatic Precipitator

Above figure shows construction of a typical dry electrostatic precipitator.

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3.2. Working of electrostatic precipitators

An ESP works because of electrostatic attraction (like charges repel; unlike charges attract).

An ESP uses a high voltage electrostatic field to separate dust, fume or mist from a gas stream.
The precipitator consists of vertical parallel plates (collecting plates/electrodes) forming gas
passages 12 to 16 in. (30.5 to 40.6 cm) apart. Discharge electrodes are electrically isolated from
the plates and suspended in rows between the gas passages.

Every particle either has or can be given a charge - positive or negative. A high voltage system
provides power to the discharge electrode to generate an electrical field. The particulate,
entrained in the gas, is charged while passing through the electrical field. The particulate is then
attracted to the grounded collector plate, and forms a dust layer on the plate.

Periodic rapping separates the accumulated dust layer from both the collector plates and
discharge electrodes (in case of wet ESP by spraying it with a liquid). The dust layer released by
the rapping collects in hoppers and is removed by material / ash handling system. At many
places in this article, ash is used instead of particulate matter since major application of an ESP is
for ash collection.

In short, charging, collecting and removing is the basic idea of an ESP. Detail information on
working of an ESP is as under.

Particle charging

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Figure 4: Typical dry ESP with thin wire as discharge electrode

Above figure shows typical dry ESP having thin wires as discharge electrodes, which are evenly
spaced between large plates called collection electrodes, which are grounded. An electrode is
something that can conduct or transmit electricity. A negative, high-voltage, pulsating, direct
current is applied to the discharge electrode creating a negative electric field. (Electrical coronas
can be established at the corona electrode with either negative or positive polarity. However,
generally negative corona is generated/used in industrial ESPs because negative corona systems
operate at higher voltages before spark-over than positive corona under flue gas conditions in
most industrial applications.) The electric field in an ESP can be mentally divided into three
regions as shown in the following figure.

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Figure 5: electric field of ESP

The field is strongest near the discharge electrode, weaker in the areas between the discharge and
collection electrodes called the inter-electrode region, and weakest near the collection electrode.
The particle charging process begins in the region around the discharge electrode.

Free Electron Generation

Several things happen very rapidly (in a matter of a millisecond) in the small area around the
discharge electrode. The applied voltage is increased until it produces a corona discharge
(electrical breakdown of the gas so that it gets transformed from insulating to conducting state),
which can be seen as a luminous blue glow around the discharge electrode.

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Figure 6: Corona generation

The free electrons created by the corona rapidly moves away from the negative electric field
because it repulses them. They move faster and faster away from the discharge electrode. This
acceleration causes them to literally crash into gas molecules, bumping off electrons from the
molecules. As a result of losing an electron (which is negative), the gas molecules become
positively charged, that is, they become positive ions as shown in above figure. Thus gas
molecules are ionized, and electrons are liberated. This activity occurs very close to the
discharge electrode.

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Figure 7: multiplication of gas molecules

As shown in above figure, this process continues, creating more and more free electrons and
more positive ions. The name for all this electron generation activity is avalanche multiplication.

The positive ions move toward the negative discharge electrode (unlike charges attract). As the
positive ions (positive gas molecules) are hundreds of times bigger than the tiny electrons, they
move slowly, but they do pick up speed and many of them collide right into the metal discharge
electrode or the gas space around the wire causing additional electrons to be knocked off. This is
called secondary emission.

Ionization of Gas Molecules

As the electrons leave the strong electrical field area around the discharge electrode, they start
slowing down. In the inter-electrode area, they are still repulsed by the discharge electrode but to
a lesser extent. They collide with the gas molecules in the inter electrode region also, but instead
of violently colliding with them, the electrons bump up to gas molecules and are captured by
them as shown in the following figure. This imparts a negative charge to the gas molecules,
creating negative gas ions.

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Figure 8: Formation of negative gas ions in inter electrode region

Because the ions are negative, they move in the direction opposite the strong negative field along
the path of invisible electric field lines toward the collection electrode.

These negative gas ions play a key role in capturing the dust particles as explained in the
following section.

Charging of Particles

The particles are traveling along in the gas stream. As they encounter (get in the way of) the
negatively charged gas ions moving along the path of invisible electric field lines toward the
collection electrode, the gas ions stick to the particles, imparting a negative charge to them. At
first the charge is fairly insignificant as most particles are huge compared to a gas molecule. But
many gas ions can fit on a particle, and they do. Small particles (less than 1 μm diameter) can
absorb ―tens‖ of ions. Large particles (greater than 10 μm) can absorb "tens of thousands" of
ions. Eventually, there are so many ions stuck to the particles, the particles emit their own
negative electrical field. When this happens, the negative field around the particle repulses the
negative gas ions and no additional ions are acquired. This is called the saturation charge.

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Figure 9: Particle charging

Now the negatively charged particles are feeling the inescapable pull of electrostatic attraction.
Bigger particles have a higher saturation charge (more molecules fit) and consequently they are
pulled more strongly to the collection plate. In other words, they move faster than smaller
particles. Regardless of size, the particles encounter the grounded collection plate and stick to it
because of adhesive and cohesive forces as shown in above figure.

As more and more particles accumulate, they create a dust layer. This dust layer builds until it is
somehow removed.

Particle Charging Mechanisms

Particles are charged by negative gas ions by one of the two mechanisms: field charging or
diffusion charging. In field charging (the mechanism described above), particles capture

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negatively charged gas ions as the ions move toward the grounded collection plate. Diffusion
charging, as its name implies, depends on the random motion of the gas ions to charge particles.

Figure 10: Particle charging mechanism

As shown in above figure, in field charging, particles cause a local dislocation of the electric
field as they enter the field. The negative gas ions traveling along the electric field lines collide
with the particles and impart a charge to them [as shown at (a)]. The ions continue to collide a
particle until the charge on that particle is sufficient to divert the electric lines away from it [as
shown at (b)]. This prevents new ions from colliding with the charged dust particle. When a
particle no longer receives an ion charge, it is said to be saturated. The saturated charged
particles then migrate towards the collection electrode and are collected.

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Diffusion charging occurs due to the random Brownian motion of the negative gas ions. The
movement of the gas ions in random motion is related to the temperature; the higher the
temperature the increased movement of gas ions. The negative gas ions collide with the particles
because of their random thermal motion and impart a charge on the particles. In case of very
small particles (sub micrometer), they do not cause local dislocation of the electric field (as in
the field charging). Thus, diffusion charging is the only mechanism by which very small particles
become charged. The charged particles then migrate to the collection electrode.

Each of these two charging mechanisms occurs to some extent depending on particle size. Field
charging mechanism dominates for particles with a diameter greater than 1.0 micrometer and
diffusion charging mechanism dominates for particles with a diameter less than 0.1 micrometer.
A combination of these two charging mechanisms occurs for particles ranging between 0.2 and
1.0 micrometer in diameter.

A third type of charging mechanism, which is responsible for very little particle charging is
electron charging. With this type of charging, fast moving free electrons that have not combined
with gas ions hit the particle and impart a charge.

Electric Field Strength

Because of the high electric field applied to the ESP, in the inter-electrode region, negative gas
ions migrate toward the grounded collection electrode. This forms a space charge, which is a
stable concentration of negative gas ions in the inter-electrode region. Increasing the applied
voltage to the discharge electrode will increase the field strength and ion formation until spark-
over occurs. Spark-over refers to internal sparking between the discharge and collection
electrodes. It is a sudden rush of localized electric current through the gas layer between the two
electrodes. Sparking causes an immediate short-term collapse of the electric field.

For optimum efficiency, the electric field strength should be as high as possible. More
specifically, ESPs should be operated at voltages high enough to cause some sparking, but not so
high that sparking and the collapse of the electric field occur too frequently.

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The optimum ESP voltage is achieved by an automatic voltage control (AVC). The automatic
voltage control varies the power to the transformer-rectifier (T-R) set in response to signals
received from the precipitator and from the transformer-rectifier itself.

The ideal AVC would produce the maximum collecting efficiency by holding the voltage on the
precipitator electrodes at a value just below their ever-changing spark-over voltage. Since there
is no way of determining the spark-over voltage at any given time without allowing a spark to
occur, the AVC commands increasing output from the T-R set until a spark occurs.

This spark signals the AVC to reset its command lower. The AVC again commands an
increasing output from this new starting point, and the cycle is repeated.

The average spark-over rate for optimum precipitator operation is between 50 and 100 sparks per
minute. At this spark rate, the gain in efficiency associated with increased voltage compensates
for decreased gas ionization due to reduction of the electric field.

Particle Collection

When a charged particle reaches the grounded collection electrode, the charge is slowly leaked to
the grounded collection plate. A portion of the charge is retained and contributes to the inter-
molecular adhesive and cohesive forces that hold the particles onto the plates. Adhesive forces
cause the particles to physically hold on to each other because of their dissimilar surfaces. Newly
arrived particles are held to the collected particles by cohesive forces; particles are attracted and
held to each other molecularly. The dust layer is allowed to build up on the plate to a desired
thickness and then the particle removal cycle is initiated.

Particle Removal

Dust that has accumulated to a certain thickness on the collection electrode is removed by a
process depending on the type of collection electrode.

Tube type of collection electrodes are usually cleaned by water sprays, while plates type of
collection electrodes can be cleaned either by water sprays or a process called rapping.

Rapping is a process whereby deposited, dry particles are dislodged from the collection plates by
sending mechanical impulses, or vibrations, to the plates. Precipitator plates are rapped

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periodically while maintaining the continuous flue gas cleaning process. In other words, the
plates are rapped while the ESP is on-line; the gas flow continues through the precipitator and
the applied voltage remains constant.

Plates are rapped when the accumulated dust layer is relatively thick (0.08 to 1.27 cm or 0.03 to
0.5 in.). This allows the dust layer to fall off the plates as large aggregate sheets or clumps that
fall by gravity into the hopper and eliminate dust re-entrainment.

As the clumps fall downward, they are swept toward the outlet of the precipitator by the
horizontally moving gas stream. If the clumps are too small, gravity settling is too slow to allow
the clumps to reach the hopper before the gas stream carries them out of the collector. For this
reason, gravity settling is an important step in particulate matter control in electrostatic
precipitators.

Dislodged dust falls from the plates into the hopper. Dust should be removed as soon as possible
to avoid (its) packing. Packed dust is very difficult to remove. Most hoppers are emptied by
some type of discharge device and then transported by a conveyor.

In a precipitator using liquid sprays to remove accumulated liquid or dust, the sludge collects in a
holding basin at the bottom of the vessel. The sludge is then sent to settling ponds or land filling
areas.

Spraying occurs while the ESP is on-line and is done intermittently to remove the collected
particles. Water is generally used as the spraying liquid although other liquids could be used if
absorption of gaseous pollutants is also being accomplished.

4. Advantages and Disadvantages of ESPs

ESPs in general, because they act only on the particulate to be removed, and only minimally
hinder flue gas flow, have very low pressure drops [typically less than 13 millimeters (mm), (0.5
in.) water column]. As a result, energy requirements and operating costs tend to be low. They are
capable of very high efficiencies, even for very small particles. They can be designed for a wide
range of gas temperatures, and can handle high temperatures, up to 700°C (1300°F). Dry
collection and disposal allows for easier handling. Operating costs are relatively low. ESPs are

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capable of operating under high pressure [to 1,030 kPa (150 psi)] or vacuum conditions.
Relatively large gas flow rates can be effectively handled. They have long useful life.

However, ESPs generally have high capital costs. Certain particulates are difficult to collect due
to extremely high or low resistivity characteristics. There can be an explosion hazard when
treating combustible gases and/or collecting combustible particulates. Relatively sophisticated
maintenance personnel are required, as well as special precautions to safeguard personnel from
the high voltage. Dry ESPs are not recommended for removing sticky or moist particles. Ozone
is produced by the negatively charged electrode during gas ionization.

5. ESP design
Manufacturers use mathematical equations to estimate collection efficiency or collection area.
They also consider a variety of design parameters that affect collection efficiency. In addition,
they may build a pilot-plant to determine the parameters necessary to build the full-scale ESP.
They may also use a mathematical model or computer program to test the design parameters.

The principal design variables are the dust concentration, measured in g/m3 (lb/ft3 or gr/ft3) and
the gas flow rate to the ESP, measured in m3/min (ft3/min or acfm). The gas volume and dust
concentration (loading) are set by the process exhaust gas flow rate. Once these variables are
known, the vendor can begin to design the precipitator for the specific application. A thorough
review of ESP design plans should consider the factors presented below.

5.1. Physical and chemical properties of the dust

Such as dust type, size of the dust particles, and average and maximum concentrations in the gas
stream are important ESP design considerations. The type of dust to be collected in the ESP
refers to the chemical characteristics of the dust such as explosiveness. For example, a dry ESP
should not be used to collect explosive dust. In this case, it might be a better idea to use a bag
house or scrubber. Particle size is important; small particles are more difficult to collect and
become re-entrained more easily than larger particles. Additional fields may be required to meet
regulatory limits. The dust loading can affect the operating performance. If the dust
concentration is too high, the automatic voltage controller may respond by totally suppressing
the current in the inlet fields. Suppressed current flow drives the voltage up, which can cause

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sparking. For this reason, it might be a good idea to install a cyclone or multi-cyclone to remove
larger particles and reduce the dust concentration from the flue gas before it enters the ESP. The
facility could install a larger ESP (with more plate area); however, this technique would be more
costly.

5.2. Resistivity
Resistivity is a function of the chemical composition of the dust, the flue gas temperature and
moisture concentration. For fly ash generated from coal-fired boilers, the resistivity depends on
the temperature and moisture content of the flue gas and on the sulfur content of the coal burned;
the lower the sulfur content, the higher the resistivity, and vice versa. If a boiler burns low-sulfur
coal, the ESP must be designed to deal with potential resistivity problems. High resistivity can be
reduced by spraying water, SO3 or some other conditioning agent into the flue gas before it
enters the ESP.

5.3. Gas flow rate and stream properties

Predicting the gas flow rate and gas stream properties is essential for proper ESP design. The
average and maximum gas flow rates through the ESP, the temperature, moisture content,
chemical properties such as dew point, corrosiveness, and combustibility of the gas should be
identified prior to final design. If the ESP is going to be installed on an existing source, a stack
test should be performed to determine the process gas stream properties. If the ESP is being
installed on a new source, data from a similar plant or operation may be used, but the ESP should
be designed conservatively (with a large SCA, a high aspect ratio, and high corona Power). Once
the actual gas stream properties are known, the designers can determine if the precipitator will
require extras such as shell insulation for hot-side ESPs, corrosion-proof coatings, and
installation of heaters in hoppers or ductwork leading into and out of the unit.

5.4. Discharge electrode

The type of discharge electrodes and electrode support are important. Small-diameter wires
should be firmly supported at the top and connected to a weight heavy enough (11.4-kg weights
for 9.1-m wires) to keep the wires from swaying. The bottom and top of each wire should be
covered with shrouds to help minimize sparking and metal erosion at these points. Newer ESPs
are generally using rigid-frame or rigid-electrode discharge electrodes.

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5.5. Collection electrode

Collection electrodes—type (either tube or plate), shape of plates, size, and mechanical
strength—are then chosen. Plates are usually less than 9 m (30 ft.) high for high-efficiency ESPs.
For ESPs using wires, the spacing between collection plate electrodes usually ranges from 15 to
30 cm (6 to 12 in.). For ESPs using rigid-frame or rigid electrodes, the spacing is typically 30 to
38 cm (12 to 15 inches). Equal spacing must be maintained between plates throughout the entire
precipitator. Stiffeners may be used to help prevent the plates from warping, particularly when
hot-side precipitators are used.

5.6. Electrical sectionalization

Proper electrical sectionalization is important to achieve high collection efficiency in the ESP.
Electrical sectionalization refers to the division of a precipitator into a number of different fields
and cells, each powered by its own T-R set. ESPs should have at least three to four fields to
attain high collection efficiency. In addition, the greater the number of fields the better the
chance that the ESP will achieve the designed collection efficiency. There should be
approximately one T-R set for every 930 to 2970 m2 (10,000 to 30,000 ft2) of collection-plate
area.

5.7. Specific collection area

The specific collection area (SCA) is the collection area, in m2 per 1000 m3/h (ft2 per 1000
ft3/min), of flue gas through the precipitator. The typical range for SCA is between 11 and 45
m2 per 1000 m3/h (200 and 800 ft2 per 1000 acfm). The SCA must be large enough to
efficiently collect particles (99.5% collection efficiency), but not so large that the cost of the ESP
is too high. If the dust has a high resistivity, vendors will generally design the ESP with a higher
SCA [usually greater than 22 m2 per 1000 m3/h (400 ft2 per 1000 acfm)] to help reduce
resistivity problems.

5.8. Aspect ratio

Aspect ratio is the ratio of effective length to height of the collector surface. The aspect ratio
should be high enough to allow the rapped particles to settle in the hopper before they are carried

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out of the ESP by the gas flow. The aspect ratio is usually greater than 1.0 for high-efficiency
ESPs. Aspect ratios of 1.3 to 1.5 are common, and they are occasionally as high 2.0.

5.9. Distribution of gas flow

Even distribution of gas flow across the entire precipitator unit is critical to ensure collection of
the particles. To assure even distribution, gas should enter the ESP through an expansion inlet
plenum containing perforated diffuser plates. In addition, the ducts leading into the ESP unit
should be straight.

5.10. Hopper and discharge device

The hopper and discharge device design including geometry, size, dust storage capacity, number,
and location are important so that dust is removed on a routine basis. A well-designed dust
hopper is sloped (usually 60°) to allow dust to flow freely to discharge devices. It includes access
ports and strike plates to help move dust that becomes stuck. Dust should be only temporarily
stored in the hopper and removed periodically by the discharge devices to prevent it from
backing up into the ESP where it can touch the plates, possibly causing a cell to short out. In
addition to the amount of fly ash present, there are a couple of special considerations to keep in
mind when ESPs are used on coal-fired boilers. First, the amount of fly ash in the flue gas can
vary depending on what type of coal is burned and the ash content of the coal. Coal having a
higher ash content will produce more fly ash than coal having lower ash values. Consequently,
the discharge device must be designed so that the operator can adjust the frequency of fly ash
removal. Second, hoppers need to be insulated to prevent ash from "freezing," or sticking, in the
hopper.

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Reference
 www.practicalmaintenance.net
 IET POWER AND ENERGY SERIES 41 by Ken Parker
 Electrostatic Precipitators by Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen

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